A-ae-/ ,TK^ 



,/>a2' />^/7^^ / 




It 



m^^,^ 



li 










'Mm^\ 



A'm] M 






\i^m^^N^ 



mp. 



•M:rj\ 



■ 'v Y 







l*-^^% 



a/^^^ 







K^LlLci 



^^^^..^^ 






r V 



#33^ /«k /^"fe'l 



j'i'i*«'SJW 



A DICTIONAEY 



OF 



RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE, 



FOR 



POPULAR AND PROFESSIONAL USE; 



COMPRISING FDLL INFORMATION ON 



BIBLICAL, THEOLOGICAL, AND ECCLESIASTICAL SUBJECTS. 



WITH SEVERAL HUNDRED MAPS AND ILLUSTRATIONS, 



^ EDITED BY THE 



J> 



V H^v. LYMAN ABBOTT, 

ASSISTED BY THE 

EEV. T. J. CONANT, D.D. 




NEW YORK: 

HARPER & BROTHERS, PUBLISHERS, 

FRANKLIN SQUARE. 

1875. 



3T^^^ 



,A3 



"<15- 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1874, by 

Harper & Brothers, 

In the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington. 



PREFACE. 



THE object of this Dictionary is to furnish information on all biblical and 
religious topics, in a clear, compact, and popular form. Designed pri- 
marily for unprofessional readers, the household, and the Sunday-school, the ed- 
itor indulges the hope that professional students of the Bible also may find it 
useful as a work of reference. Its general character will be understood from 
the following statement of some of its principal features : 

I. It is a Biblical Dictionary. During the past few years biblical schol- 
arship has thrown much new light on the interpretation of the Bible ; and 
geographical and archaeological researches in Bible lands and among ancient 
ruins have done much to elucidate its meaning. All such information re- 
specting ancient manners and customs and sacred rites, this volume endeav- 
ors to afford. As the work has been prepared with special reference to the 
wants of unprofessional readers, the use of Hebrew and Greek words has been 
avoided; critical discussions on the original text are, for the same reason, not 
given ; while the results of Christian scholarship are concisely presented. In 
cases where scholars differ upon points of interpretation, or matters of histo- 
ry or topography, the reader will find a summary of the several views enter- 
tained, or a brief statement of what is believed to be the best opinion. In 
brief, the Dictionary contains the results of scholarship, rather than the dis- 
cussions — often obscure and perplexing — of the scholars. 

II. It is a Theological Dictionary. In the theological articles the editor 
has endeavored to give a simple, honest, and impartial statement of the prin- 
cipal theological opinions of the present day, without obtruding upon them 
his own prepossessions. In this respect this work will be found to differ from 
most theological dictionaries. For example, in such articles as "Atonement" 
and "Baptism," the reader will find, not the arguments for the views which 
the editor believes to be in accordance with Scripture, but a simple statement 
of the principal theories entertained by different schools of theology. He 
has pursued the same course in treating of all — even the most fundamental — 
questions. Though his personal sympathies are all Protestant and Evangel- 
ical, yet, in treating of the opinions of the Rationalists and Romanists, he has 
endeavored to present a statement of their views which they will" themselves 
acknowledge to be impartial and accurate. . In short, his object in this de- 
partment of the work has been to convey accurate information with respect 
to all schools of theology, divested of theological or denominational bias. 
Most of the more important theological articles have been submitted to lead- 
ing men in the various denominations whose doctrines they respectively em- 
body. 

HI. It is a Dictionary of Ecclesiastical History. Those subjects in which 
ecclesiastical history bears an important relation to modei-n questions are fully 
treated: thus the reader will find under the article " Sabbath" a full though 



iv PREFACE. 

concise account of the Sabbath observances of all ages ; and those early sects, 
such as the Arians, the Socinians, etc., whose doctrines still exert an important 
influence on modern religious thought, are fully treated ; while, under the 
general title, " Sects," the reader will find a compact account of sects whose 
history and doctrines are of no interest or importance except to professional 
students of ecclesiastical history and philosophy. The work contains no dis- 
tinct biographical articles except of Scripture characters ; but biographical 
sketches of leading men are given incidentally ; as of Wesley, under " Meth- 
odists ;" Luther, under " Reformation j" Mohammed, under " Mohammedan- 
ism." 

IV. It is a Dictionary of Ecclesiastical Terms, In general, it has been 
the object of the editor simply to explain the meaning of such terms, and, 
when they refer to ecclesiastical vestments and furniture, to describe very 
briefly the uses of the object. But in those cases in which the term or the 
thing has an important relation to modern church questions, it is more fully 
considered. Thus, under the article "Altar," the reader will find a history of 
the altar from the patriarchal age to the present time, with its various forms, 
from the. Druidical cromlech to the modern Roman Catholic altar, illustrated 
by the pencil of the artist. 

It is proper to add that, while free use has been made of standard author- 
ities in the preparation of this Dictionary, it is not in any sense a compilation, 
nor has it been merely condensed from a larger work. Every important ar- 
ticle in the book has been prepared with special reference to the wants of un- 
professional readers ; and the editor trusts that his efi'orts to combine the ac- 
curacy of scholarship wdth a simple and popular style of presentation have 
not been unsuccessful. Neither pains nor expense has been spared to secure 
the exclusion of errors. In addition to careful revision by the editor, and un- 
usual care in proof-reading and the verification of Scripture references, the 
whole work has been read in proof by the Rev.T. J. Conant, D.D., concerning 
whom it is not too much to say that America has produced no biblical schol- 
ar more thorough, no literary workman more conscientious, and no theolo- 
gian more cautious and candid. 

The work is one in which the editor has been actively engaged for sev- 
eral years, and the preparation for it dates back to 1860. Whatever its er- 
rors and imperfections, they are not chargeable to haste in preparation. Firm- 
ly believing that the Bible is the word of God, and that its proper apprecia- 
tion is the foundation of religious life in the nineteenth century as in the six- 
teenth ; firmly believing that error is dangerless so long as truth is left free 
to combat it, and that Christianity needs no other defense than a fair state- 
ment of its doctrines and those of its opponents ; earnestly and hopefully look- 
ing forward to the time when the partition-walls of sectarianism shall be 
beaten down, and all disciples of Jesus Christ shall in spirit, though not in ec- 
clesiastical organization, constitute one holy catholic Church ; believing, too, 
that the fair statement of those lesser difierences w^hich divide the Church of 
Christ is one of the best means to obliterate them, since party spirit and big- 
otry are the children of ignorance, the editor sends this book forth, humbly 
hoping that, under God's blessing, it may do its part toward the elucidation 
of Scripture, the unity of the Church of Christ, and the development of a 
broad, generous, catholic, but earnest and aggressive Christianity. 

Ltman Abbott. 

Cornwall Landing, N. Y., 1873. 



ABBOTT'S 

POPULAR RELIGIOUS DICTIONARY. 



LIST OF TITLES. 

Other subjects, not mentioned in this list, are treated in the Dictionary, 
but under other titles ; thus Luther is treated under Keformation ; the various 
minor denominations under Sects, etc. 



KEY. 

, I, 6, fi, y, long ; a, v, i, o, li, y, short ; Care, fiir, last, foil, what; there, yeil, term ; pique, f ^rm ; done, for, do, 
wolf, food, foot ; furl, rude, piish ; f as s ; f h as sh ; «, eh, as k ; gr as iu get ; s as z ; a; as gz ; n as in linger, 
lirik. 

[The pronunciation here indicated is taken, by permission of the publishers, from " Webster's Dictionary."] 



A. 

AtVron (ar'on). 

Ab'a-na, or A-bii'na. 

Ab'a-rim. 

Ab'ba. 

Ab'bey. 

Ab'hot. 

Ab'don. 

A'bel. 

A-bey'anfe (bu'ans.) 

A-b!'a-thar. 

A-bi'hn. 

A-bi'jah. 

Ab'i-le'ne. 

A-b'm-'e-leeh. 

A-bish'a-i. 

Ab'jn-nVtiou. 

Ab'iier. 

A-bom'i-na'tion of Des'o- 

_ la'tiou. 

A-'bra-ham. 

A'bra-hani'T^tes. 

A''bra-ham's Bo'som. 

A-brax'as. 

Ab'sa-lora. 

Ab'so-lute. 

Ab-'so-liVtion. 

Ab'ys-sin'i-an Church. 

A€'a-dC-m'i€S. 

A€'€ad. 

Ac'eho. 

A-foFda-ma, 

A-€htVia (-ya). 

A'chan. 

A'ehish. 

Aeh^me-tha. 

Aeh'shaph. 

Ach'zib. 

Ae-'o-lyte. 

A'ere (a'ker). 

Ae-'ta Sanc-to'rum. 

Acts of the A-pHs'tles. 

Aets of Pilate. 

A'dah. 

Ad'am. 

Ad'a-mant. 

Ad'o-iiT'jah. 

A-don'i-zc'dek. 

A-d'ip'tion. 

Ad'o-ra'im. 

A-dram-m'e-lech. 

Ad'ra-myt'ti-um. 

A'dri-a. 

A'dri-el. 

A-driPlam. 

A-dul'ter-y. 

A-diirn'min. 



A-d'yent. 

Ad'vo-eate. 

Ad-vow^son. 

Ad'y-tum. 

Ae'noii (enon). 

Afri€-au M. E. Church. 

Ag'a-bus. 

A'gHg. 

A-gap^e-tse. 

Agnate. 

Age. 

Ag'nus De-T. 

Ag-'ri-eulfure. 

Ai>'ri-€ult^'u-e (Festival of). 

A>hrib. 

A-has'u-e''rus. 

A-ti:Vva. 

-Vhaz. 

A^ha-zPah. 

A-hi'jah. 

A-hT'kam. 

A-hiin'a-nz. 

A-him'e-leeh. 

A-hith'o-phel. 

Aieh'ma-lo'tarch. 

lij'a-luri. 

A'in. 

Air. 

A-krub^bim. 

AVa-bas'ter, 

Alb'. 

AFbi-gen'ses. 

Al-ea;-au'der(al-egz-an'der), 

Al''ea;-rin'dri-a. 

Al'gnm-trees. 

All-Saints' Day. 

Al-ll-'anpe. 

Al'Io-eu'tion. 

AFmoud. 

Alms. 

Alm.s - bowl. Alms - box, 

Alms-chGst. 
AVoes. 
Al'pha. 

Al-phse'ns, or Al-phe'us. 
Al Si rat, 
Al'tar. 

Am'a-lek-Ttes. 
Am'a-ua, or A-miVna. 
Am'a-sa, or A-ma'sa, 
Am'a-zT'ah. 
Am-bas''sa-dor. 
Am'ber. 

A'mSn', or X'mC'u'. 
Am'e-thj"st. 
Am'ml. 
Am-min'a-dub. 



Am'mon, Am^raon-Ites. 

Am'mon, or A'mon. 

Am-'non. 

A'mon. 

Arn'o-rite. 

A'mos. 

Am-phip'o-lis, 

Am'ii-let. 

A'nab. 

An'a-bap'tists. 

A'nah. 

A'nak, An'a-kim. 

Au'a-ni'as. 

A-nath'e-ina. 

An'a-thnth. 

An'diew (An'dru). 

An'gel. 

An'i-mal. 

An'i-mal Wor'ship. 

An 'ise. 

An'nii. 

An'uas. 

An-ni^hi-la'tion-ists. 

A-noiufing. 

Ant. 

An'te-di-liVvi-ans. 

An'thro-puFo-gy. 

An'thro-po-mor'phism. 

An'ti-fhrist. 

An'ti-do'ron. 

Au'ti-no'mi-ims. 

An'ti-oeh. 

Au-tip-'a-tris. 

An 'ti- pope. 

An-tcVni-a. 

Ape. 

A-poe'ry-pha. 

A-pol'lo. 

A-pol-lo'ni-a. 

A-pol'los. 

A-pol'ly-on. 

A-pol o-gy. 

A-pos'ta-sy. 

A-pos'tle. 

Ap'os-tol'i€-al. 

Ap'os-tol'if-al Stie-fes'siou, 

Ap'pi-T Fo'rum. 

Ap'ple. 

Ap'ple of Sod'om. 

Apse. 

Aq'ui-la. 

Ar'a-bah. 

A-ra'bi-a. 

A'ram. 

Ar'a-ma'ie. 

Ar'a-rat. 

A-rau'uah. 

Arch-biSh'op. 



Arch-dea'€on (de'kn). 

Ar'che-hVus. 

Ar'thi-tectTire. 

Ar^'-tiVrns. 

Ar'e-up'a-gus. 

Ar'e-tas. 

Avvr.b. 

A'ri-ans. 

Ar'is-tar'ehus. 

Ar'is-to-te'li-ans. 

Ark. 

Ark of the Cov'e-naut. 

Ark'ite. 

Ar'ma-rjed'don. 

Ar-me'ni-a. 

Ar-me'ni-an Church. 

Ar-min'ians. 

Arms, Ar'mor. 

Ar'my. 

Ar'nold-ists. 

Ar'uon, 

Ar'o-er. 

Ar'laa;-erx'es (Ar'tag-zerk'- 

zez). 
Ar-vad. 
A'sa. 
As'a-hel. 
A'saph. 

As-pen'sion-Day. 
As-get'i-fism. 
Ash. 
Ash'dod. 
Ash'er. 
Ash'i-ma. 
Ash'ke-lon. 
Ash'ke-naz. 
Ash'ta-roth. 
Ash-to-rrth. 
Ash-Wednes'day. 
A'sia (a'shi-a), 
As-per'siou. 

ASS. 

APS (Feast of). 
As'sam-ese' (Religion of). 
As-Siis'sins. 
As-sfimp'tion (stim'shnu) 

(Festival 'of). 
As-siu'anfe of Faith (ash- 

shur'niice). 
As-sVr'i-a, As-shur (ash'nr). 
As-trnl'o-gy. 
As-trrin'o-my. 
Ath'a-lT''ah. 
A'the-ism. 
Ath'eii-s'. 
A-toiie'ment. 
A-toue'ineut (Day of). 
At'ta-lFa. 



VI 



LIST OF TITLES. 



At-tri'tion. 
Au'gus-tin'i-an M6?iks. 

AU-gUS'tUS. 

Au-re-'o-lii, or Au''re-6le. 

Au'thor-ized Ver-'sion. 

Au''to-da-fe (au-to-da-ffi'). 

A^ve Ma-ri^a. 

Awl. 

Axe. 

A-ze'kali. 



B. 

Ba^al. 

Ba'al, Bel, or Belus. 

Ba'al'bek. 

Ba'al-i. 

Ba'al-pe'or. 

Ba''a-sha. 

Ba'bel (Tower of). 

Bab'ism. 

Bab'y-lon. 

Ba'ca. 

B.ldg'er. 

Bag. 

B;Vlaam. 

Balm, Bal'sam-tree. 

Bam-bi-iio. 

Bamp'tou Lec-tiires. 

Bau'uers. 

Ba?i'quet. 

B.'iuns. 

Bap'tism. 

Bap'tis-ter-y. 

Bap-tists. 

Ba'rab-bas. 

Bfi'rak. 

Bar'ley. 

Bani. 

Bar'ua-bas. 

Bar-thol'o-mew (St.). 

Ba'ruch. 

Ba'ruch (Book of). 

Ba'sban. 

Ba'sil'i-ans. 

Ba-sil'i-ca. 

Bas'ket. 

Bat. 

Bath-kor. 

Bath-she'ba. 

Bay-tree. 

BdeU'ium (d rynm). 

Beaus. 

Bear. 

Beard. 

Beast. 

Be-at'i-fi-ca'tion. 

Bed, Bed'stead. 

Bee. 

Be-el'ze-bub, 

Be'er-la-brd'-roi. 

Be'er-she'ba. 

Bee'tle. 

Be-ghards. 

Be-guines' (ba-gfeens'). 

Be'fie-moth. 

Bel 'lows (b5l'lus). 

Bells. 

Bel-shaz'zar. 

Be-na'iah (-ya). 

Beu'e-dict'iues. 

Beu'e-fige. 

Beu'e-fit of Cler'gy. 

Beu-ha'dad. 

Beni-Is'ra-el. 

Bec'ja-mm. 

Be're-a. 

Ber-nrge. 

Bcr'yl. 

Beth-iib'a-ra. 

Beth'a-ny. 

Beth'-el. 

Be-thes'da. 

Beth-ho'ron. 

Beth'-le'hem, and Bcth'le- 

hem. 
Beth'pha-pe (fa-je.) 
Beth-sa'i-da. 
Beth'shau. 
Beth'-she'mesh. 
Be-u'lah. 
Be'zek. 
Bl'ble. 
Bi'ble Chris'tians. 



BT'ble So-pl'e-ties. 

Bib'li-cists. 

Bil'dad. 

B/rth. 

B?rth'rlght. 

Bish'op. 

Bi-thyn'i-a, 

Bit'tern. 

Bl.as'phe-my. 

Bless'ing. 

Book. 

Bot'tle. 

Bow'ing at the Name of 

Je'sus. 
Box'-tree. 
Boy'-bish'op. 
Boyle Lee'tures. 
Boz'rah. 
Brahm. 
Brah'ma. 
Brah'mau-ism. 
Brah'maus, or Brah'mins. 
Brass. 

Bra'zen Sea (bra'zn). 
Bra'zen Ser'peut. 
Bread. 

Breast'plate,of High Priest. 
Breth'ren. 

Breth'ren of the Lord. 
Bre'vi-a-ry. 
Brick. 
Bri'dle. 
Brief. 

Brim'stone. 
Broth 'er. 

Biid'dhism (bood'izm). 
Biill (Papal). 
Bull, Bull'ock. 
Bu'ri-al. 

Burnt'-of'fer-ing. 
BCit'ter. 



Cab'a-la. 

Ca'bul. 

Cge'sar. 

Caes'a-re'a. 

C^s'a-re'a Phi-Iip'pi. 

Ca'ia-phas (-ya-fas). 

Cain. 

Ca'lah. 

Cara-mus. 

Ca'leb. 

Cal'eu-dar. 

Calf. 

Ca'liph. 

Call, Call'ing. 

Chl'ueh. 

Ca-loy'ers. 

Cal'va-ry. 

Cal'viu-ists. 

Cam'el. 

Cam'i-sards. 

Cam'phire. 

Ca'uii. 

Ca'uaan (Kafnan, or Ki 

_na-an). 
Ca'uaari,Ca'naan-Ites(-naii, 

or -na-au). 
Can'da-ge. 
Cau'dle. 
Can'dle-mas. 
Can'dle-stick. 
Cau'ou. 

Cau'on of Smp'ture. 
Ca-nuu'ic-al Hours. 
Can'on-i-za'tiou. 
Ca-per'ua-um. 
Ciiph'tor. 

Cap'pa-do'ci-a (-do-shi-ii). 
Cap'tain. 



Cap 'live. 

Cap-tiv'i-ty. 

Cap-u-phius' 

sheen'). 
Ciir'a-i-tes. 
Car'bo-na'rl. 
Car'bn?i--€le. 
Car'<he-mish. 
Car'di-nal. 
Car'inel. 
Ciir'mel-Ttes. 
Ciir'ni-val. 



(kap'yu- 



Car'riage. 

Cart. 

Ciir-thu'sians. 

Cas'lu-him. 

Cas'sia. 

Caste. 

Cas'tor andPol'lux. 

Cas'u-ist-ry. 

Cat'a-€6mbs. 

Cat'e-€hism, 

Cat'e-€hu'mens. 

Cat'e-ua. 

Cath'a-ri. 

Ca-the'dral. 

Cath'o-li€. 

Cath'o-lie Ap'os-tol'ie 

Church. 
Cat'tle. 
Cave. 
Ce'dar. 
Ceil'ing. 
Ce-lib'a-gy. 
Ccu'€hre-a. 
Ceu'o -bites. 
Ceus'er. 
Cent'u-ries of Mag'de-burg 

or Miig'deh-boorg. 
Chain. 

Chal-ped'o-nv (kal->. 
Chal-de'ii (kal-de'u). 
Chal-de'ans, or Chal'-dees. 
Chal'ife. 
Cham'ber-lain. 
Cham'bers of im'age-ry. 
Cha-me'le-on (ka-). 
Cham'ois (Sha-moiO. 
Chan'gel. 
Chan'gel-lor. 
Chant. 
Chap'el. 
Chap'lain. 
Chap'ter. 
Charge. 
Char'i-ot. 
Char'i-ty. 
Chas'i-dim. 
Chu'bar. 

Ched'or-la'o-mer. 
Cheese. 
Chem'a-rira. 

Cher't-th-ites, Pe'leth-ites. 
Che'rith. 

Cher'ub, Cher'u-bim. 
Chest. 

Chest'nut-tree. 
Chil'dren. 
Chim'ham. 
ChT'os (ki-). 
Chit'tim, or Kit'tim. 
Cho-ra'zin. 
Chrism. 

Chris'om, or Chris'ome. 
Christ. 

Chris'tiau (krist'yan). 
Chris-tiau'i-ty (krist-yan'i- 

ty). 
Chris'tians. 
Christ'mas (kris'mas). 
Chris-tol'o-gy. 
Chron'i-cles (Books of). 
Chro-nol'o-gy. 
Chrj-'s'o-lTte. 
Chrvs'o-pra'sus, 
Church. 

Church and State. 
Church Ed'i-fices. 
Church ofG.'d. 
Church Rates. 
Church-ward'en.s. 
Chiirch'ing of Wom'en. 
Chu'za. 
Ci-li'ci-a (si-). 
Cin'na-mon. 
Cjr'eiiit. 
Cn''€um-?is'ion. 
Cis-ter'gians. 
Cis'teru, 
Cit'ies. 

Cit'ies of Refuge. 
Cit'ies of the Plain. 
Cit'i-zen-ship. 
Clar'eu-don. 
Class-nieet'nigs. 
Clau'da. 



Clau'di-us. 

Clem'ent. 

Cler'gy. 

Clerk. 

Clois'ter. 

Cloud. 

Clu'ui-a€ Monks. 

Cni'dus (ni'dus). 

Coal. 

Cock. 

Col'le^ts. 

Cni'lese. 

Col'o-ny. 

Col'ors. 

Co-los'se. 

Co-los'si-ans.Epistle to (ko- 

losh'i-anz). 
Com'merge. 
Gom-mi-ua'tion. 
Com-mfin'ion. 
Com-mun'iou of Saints. 
Coji'cord (Form of). 
Con-cord'ange. 
C6u-€6r'dat. 
Con'€U-bine. 
Con'duit. 
Co'ney, or C6n'y. 
Cun'fer-enge. 
Con-fes'sion. 
Con'lir-ma'tiou. 
Con-fii'cian-ism. 
Cim'gre-^a'tion. 
Co?!'gre-gri'tion-al-ists. 
Con'scienge. 
Cou'se-€ra'tion. 
Con-sis'to-ry. 
Con-s6'gi-a'tion. 
Con'sub-stau'ti-a'tion. 
Con-tri'tiou. 
Con'vent. 
Con-vent'i-de. 
Con-ven'tion (Gen'er-al). 
Cou'vo-fa'tiou. 
Cook'iug. 
Co'os, or Cos. 
CHp'per. 
Copts. 
Cor'al. 
Cor'ban. 
Cord. 

Co'ri-an'der. 
Cor'inth. 

Co-rinth'i-ans (Epistle to), 
Cor'mo-rant. 
Corn. 

Cor-ne'li-ils. 
Cor'uer-stone. 
Cor'o-na'tion. 
Cor'po-ral. 
Cor'pus Chris'ti. 
Cov'e-uant. 

Cov'e-nant, Cov'e-naut-ers. 
Cow'-wor'ship. 
Crane. 
Cre-a'tion. 
Cre-a'tiou-ism. 
Cre'denge. 
Creed. 
Cres'gent. 
Crete. 
Cro'sier. 
Cross. 
Crown. 
Cru'gi-fis. 
Cru'gi-fix'ion. 
Crii-sade. 
Crys'tal. 
Ciick'oo. 
Cu'tnim-ber. 
Cul-dees. 
Cum'min. 
Cu-ne'i-form. 
Ciip'-bear'er. 
Cu'rate. 
Cure. 
Cilsh, 

Cuth, Ca'thah, or Cuth'ah. 
Ciit'tiugs in the Flesh. 
Cyn'ics. 
Cy'press. 
Cy'prus. 
Cy-re'ne. 
Cy-re'ni-us. 
Cy'rus. 



LIST OF TITLES. 



Vll 



D. 

Da'gon. 

DiiPraa-nu'tha. 

Dal-uia'ti-ii (-ma'shi-a). 

Da-mas'€us. 

Dau. 

Dan'giiig. 

Dan^i-el, or Dan'iel (-yel). 

Diiu'i-el (Book of). 

Dan'i-el (Apocryphal Addi- 
tions to). 

Da-ri'us. 

Da'ta-ry. 

Dan^h'ter. 

DiVvid. 

Day. 

Baa'eon. 

Dea'eon-ess. 

Dean. 

Death. 

De'bir. 

Deb'o-rah. 

De-€ap'o-lis. 

De-ere'tals. 

De'dan. 

Ded'i-€a-tion (Feast of). 

De-fend'er of the Faith. 

De-ha'vites. 

De-ism. 

De'mas. 

De-me'tri-us. 

De'mon. 

De-mo'ni-a€. 

Dep'o-si-tion. 

De-prav'i-ty. 

DepTi-ty. 

Der'be. 

Der'vish. 

Des'ert. 

Deu'ter-6n'o-my. 

BeYHh 

Dl'al. 

Dl'a-mond. 

Dl-a-'ua, or Di-an'a. 

Di-bon. 

Dies I'rsQ. 

Di'et. 

Dim'is-so-ry Let-ters. 

Di'uah. 

Di'o-pese. 

Di'o-nys'i-us (di'o-nizh'i- 
us). 

Dip'tyehs. 

Di-re€t'o-ry. 

Dis'gi-pliue. 

Dis'ci-pliue (Book of). 

Dis'gi-pliue (First and Sec- 
ond Books of). 

Dis-mis'sion. 

Dis'pen-stVtions. 

Dis-per'sion. 

Dis-sent'ers. 

Div'i-na'tion. 

Di-vorge'. 

Doe'tor. 

Do'eg. 

Dog. 

Dog'ma. 

Do-mIu'i€-al Let'ter. 

Do-nain'i-caus. 

Dou'a-tists. 

Door'keep'er. 

Dor. 

Do'than. 

Dove. 

Dox-ol'o-gy. 

Dragoon. 

Dreams. 

Dress. 

Dru'ids. 

Dru'ses, or Druse. 

Drii-sil'la. 

Dii'mah. 

Diiug. 

Du'ra. 

Dust. 

E. 

Ea^gle. 

Ea«t. 

East ("Worshiping toward 

_ the). 

Kast'er. 

East'ern Ch6rch. 



E'bal and Ger'i-zim. 

Eb'on-y. 

E€-pe Ho'mo. 

E€-€le-si-as'tes. 

E€-€le'si-as'ti€-al H!s'to-ry. 

E€-€le'si-as-ti-€US. 

Ee-ele-si-oro-gy. 

E'elipse of the Sun. 

E€'u-men'i€-al Couu'pil. 

E'den. 

Ed'i-fi-€a'tiou. 

E'dom. 

E'dom-ites. 

Ed're-i. 

Eg'lou. 

K'gypt. 

Ek'ron. 

E'lah. 

E'lah (the Valley of). 

E'lam. 

E'lath. 

El'dad. 

Eld'ers. 

E'le-a'leh. 

E'le-a'zar. 

E'li. 

E-lI'ab. 

E'li-e'zer. 

E-li'jah. 

E'lim. 

El'i-phaz, or E'li-phaz. 

E-lxs'a-bBth. 

E-H'sha. 

El'ka-nah. 

El'kosh. 

El-la-sar. 

El'y-mas. 

E-lys'i-um (e-lizh'i-um). 

Era-balm-'iug. 

Em'ber-days. 

Em-broid'er-y. 

Em'e-rald. 

Em'e-rods. 

E'mim. 

Em'-ma-us. 

En-€amp'ment. 

Eu-py€-lie-al. 

EuMor, or fiu'dor. 

En-gau'uim. 

En'gre'di. 

Eu'gine. 

E'uofh (Book of). 

ftu'-ro'^/el. 

Ep'a-phras. 

E-paph'ro-di'tus. 

E-phe-si-ans, The Epistle 

to the (-fe'zhi'aus). 
Eph'e-siis. 
Eph'od. 
E'phra-ira. 
E'phra-im (Wood, or For'- 

est of). 
Ep'i-€u''-re-aus, or fip'i-cu 

re'aus. 
E-piph'a-ny. 
E-pis'«o-pa-py. 
E-pis'€0-pa-li-ans. 
E-pis'tles (e-pls'ls). 
E'reeh. 

E'sar-had'don. 
E'sau. 

Es'+ha-tol'o-gy. 
Es-dra-e'lon. 
Es'dras, or Es'dras (Books 

of). 
Esh-'eol (Valley of), 
icsh'te-mo'a. 
Es'seues. 
Es'ther (es'ter). 
Es'ther (Book of). 
Eth'ba-al. 
E'thi-o/pi-a. 
Eth-noVo-gy. 
Eu-nu€h. 
Eii-phra'tes. 
Eu-ro-€ly-d6u. 
Eu'ty-chus. 

E'van-gel'i^J-al, E-van'gel 
_ ist. 
Eve. 

Ev'er-last'ing. 
Eves, or Vig'ils. 
E'vil-me-ro'da^'h. 
Ex-€om-mu'ui-ca'tion. 



Ex'e-€u'tion-er. 

EX''e-ge''sis. 

Ex-hort-ers. 

Ex'o-dus (The) of the is'- 

ra-el-ltes. 
Ex'o-dus (The Book of). 
Ex'or-pism, ex or-fist. 
Ex-per'i-meut'alRe-lig'ion. 
Ex-treme^ Uue'tion. 
Eye. 

E-ze'ki-el (Book of). 
E'zi-ou-Ga'ber, or Ge'ber. 
Ez'ra. 

F. 

Fa€''ul-ties. 

Fair Ha'vens (The). 

Fairs. 

Pidth. 

Fa'kirs. 

Fal-low-Deer. 

False Christs. 

Fam'i-ly. 

Fam'ine. 

Fa-nat'i€. 

Fast. 

Fat. 

Farther. 

Fe-lix. 

Fel-]6w^-ship. 

Fenge. 

Fer'ret. 

Fes'ti-vals, or Feasts. 

Fes'tus. 

Fet'i-ghism. 

Fjfth-Mon-ar€h-y Men. 

Fig, Fig '-tree' 

Fil'io-que. 

Fir. 

Fire. 

Fire'pan. 

Fn-st'-Fruits. 

Fish, Fisii'ing. 

Fitch'es. 

Flag. 

Plag'el-lants. 

Flax. 

Flea. 

Flood. 

Fly, Flies. 

Font. 

Food. 

Foot, Feet. 

Foot'mau. 

For'est. 

For-9rIve''ness. 

Fountain. 

Fox. 

Fran-pis'€ans. 

Fra«,k-in'pense. 

Frat-ri-cel'li. 

Free Con'gre-ga'tions. 

Free-Love. 

Free Ke-lig'ioiis As-s6'ci-a'- 

tiou. 
FrI'ar. 

Friends of God. 
Friends (Society of). 
Fr<1g. 
Full'er. 

Fu'ner-al Rites. 
Fur'nage. 
Fur'ni-tilre. 
FutTire Pun'ish-ment. 
Frit'ure State. 



G. 

Ga'al. 

Gab'ba-tha. 

Ga'bri-el. 

Gad. 

6rad'a-ra. 

Ga-la'ti-ans (-Ifi-shi-ans). 

Ga-Fi'ti-ans (Epistle to 

the). 
Grd'ba-num. 
G^al'i-lee. 
G^all. 
(?al'li-o. 
Ga-ma'li-el. 
Games. 
G&r^dm. 
Gar-lie. 



Gate, Gate'way. 

Gath. 

Gaih'-he'pher. 

Ga'zii. 

Ge'ba. 

Ge'bal. 

Ged-a-li'ah. 

Ge-ha'zi. 

6ems. 

Gen'e-rd''o-gy. 

Gen'e-fil'o-gy of Je'sus 
Christ. 

6en'er-al (Roman Catho- 
lic). 

Gen''er-a'tion. 

Gen'er-a'tion (Etei'nal). 

Gen''e-sis. 

Gen-nes'a-ret (Sea of). 

6en-tile. 

Ge'rar. 

Ger'i-zira. 

Ger'mau U-nit'ed E'van- 
gel'i€-al Chlirch. 

Ger'shon-ites. 

Ge'shur. 

Geth-sem'a-ne, 

Ge'zer. 

Gi'ants. 

Gib'be-thon. 

Gib'e-ah. 

Gib'e-on. 

Gid'e-on. 

Gifts of Tongues. 

Gil-bo'a, or Gil'bo-a. 

Gil'e-ad. 

Gil'gal. 

GM-d'le. 

Gu-'ga-shites. 

Glass. 

Glebe. 

Gloss, Gloss'a-rv. 

Gnat. 

Gnos'ties. 

Goad. 

Goat. 

God. 

God'li-ness. 

Go'lan. 

Gold. 

Goldmen Niim'ber. 

G6-li'ath. 

Go-mor'rah. 

Good-Fri'day. 

Go'shen. 

Gos'pel. 

Gos'pel-er. 

Gov'ern-or. 

Go'zau. 

Grage. 

Gi ail (Holy). 

Grass. 

Great Sea. 

Greege. 

Greek Church. 

Gre-go'ri-an Chant. 

Grove. 

Guelphs, and Ghib'el-liues. 

Guild. 



Hab'ak-kuk, or Ha-bak'- 

kuk. 
Ha'dad. 
Had'ad-e'zer. 
Ha'des. 
Hadj'i. 
Ha'gar. 
Hag-'ga-T. 
Hair. 
Hrd'lel. 
Hjil'le-lu'jah. 
Ham. 
Ha-'man. 
Ha'math. 
Ha'mor. 
Hiimp'ton Court Con'fer- 

enge. 
Hand'i-€raft. 
Hand'ker-chief. 
Hang'ings. 
Ha'ran. 
Hare. 
Har'lot, 
Har'mo-ny. 



vm 



LIST OF TITLES. 



Ha-ro-'sheth. 

Har'row. 

Hart. 

Har-'vest. 

Hav'i-lah. 

Hawk. 

Haz'a-el. 

Ha'zel. 

Ha'zer. 

Ha-ze'roth. 

Head'-dress. 

Hearth. 

Hea'then. 

Heav'en. 

He'brew (-bru). 

He'brews (Epistle to). 

He'brou. 

Hel'bon. 

Hell. 

Hem of Gar'ment. 

Herd, Herds'man. 

Her'e-sy. 

Her'mas. 

Her'mon. 

Her'od. 

He-ro'di-ans. 

Her'on. 

Hesh'bon. 

Hex'a-pla. 

Hez'e-ki'ah. 

Hl'e-rap'o-lis. 

HFe-rarch'j'. 

Hl'e-ro-glyph'ies. 

High-places. 

HTgh-priest. 

Hil-ki'ah. 

H/ram. 

Hit-tites. 

Hi'vites. 

Ho'bab. 

Ho'lv, Hd'li-ness. 

Ho'ly Ghost. 

Hom'i-ly. 

Ho'moi-ou'si-an, 

Hook, Hooks. 

Hop-kins'i-an-ism. 

H6r (Mount). 

Ho'rite. 

Hor'mah. 

Hor'net. 

Horns. 

Horse. 

HorseMeech. 

Ho-san'na. 

Ho-se^a. 

Ho-she-'a. 

Hos'pife. 

Hos'pi-taLs. 

Hoar (our). 

House. 

Ha'gue-nots. 

Hul'dah. 

Hfil'se-an Leet-ures. 

Hii-mau'i-ta''ri-aDS. 

Hiiut'iug. 

Hu'shrd. 

Husks. 

Huz'^zab. 

Hy-e'na. 

Hymn, Hym'nol'o-gy. 

Hf-pos'ta-sis. 

Hys'sop. 



i-cd'ni-iim. 

i-€on'o-€lasts. 

id'do. 

i-de'al-i.sm. 

i-dol'a-try. 

I. H. S. 

I'jon. 

il-lr/mi-niVtI. 

il-Ki'mi-niVtiou. 

il-lyr'i-€vim. 

im'a.ce-wor'ship. 

i-miim', i'miin, ori-maum' 

Im-mri€'ri-late Con-pep'- 

tion. .,_ 

Im-man'u-el, or Em-miin- 

u-el. 
irn'raoi'-taVi-ty. 
im-mut'a-bil'i-ty. 
im'pu-ta'tion. 
tn-far-na'tion. 



in-pense. 

in-€um'bent. 

in'dex. 

iu'dia (ind'ya, or in''di-a), 

in'dians (N. A., Religion 

of). 
In-dri€''tion. 
In-dul-'gen-pes. 
In-faFlf-biFi-ty. 
in'fi-deFi-ty. 
in-her'it-aupe. 
iuu. 

iu'qui-si'tion. 
in-spi-ra'tion. 
in-stal-la-tion. 
in-sti-tu'tiou. 
in-ter-g?s-sion. 
in'ter-di€t'. 
iu-ter-me'di-ate State. 
In-ton'ing. 
In-vest'ure. 
in'vo-ea'tion of Saints. 
I'ron (_i-urn). 
ir'ri-ga-'tiou. 
i'saae (I^zak), 
l'sa''iah. 
ish'-bo'sheth. 
ish'ma-el. 
ish'ma-el'ites. 
is'ra-el. 
is'sa-€har. 
it'a-ly. 
ith-'a-mar. 
it'ta-I. 
it'u-re'a. 
i'vo-ry. 



Ja-a'zer, or Ja'zer. 

Jab'bok. 

Ja'besh. 

Ja'bin. 

Ja'ginth. 

Ja'cob. 

Jae^o-bites. 

Ja'€ob's Well. 

Ja'el. 

Ja'haz. 

Ja'ir. 

Ja'i-rus (Gr. 'latpos:), Esth 

xi., 2. 
James. 

James (General Epistle of), 
Jan-'nes and Jam'bres. 
Jau'seii-ists. 
Ja'pheth. 
Ja'sher. 
Ja-sho'be-am. 
Jas'per. 
Ja'van. 
Jeb'u-sTtes. 
Jed'u-thun. 
Je-ho'a-haz. 
Je-hoi'a-€hin. 
Je-hoi-'a-da. 
Je-hoi'a-kim. 
Je-hHn'a-dab. 
Je-ho'ram. 
Je-hosh'a-phat. 
Je-hHsh'a-phat (Valley of). 
Je-ho'vah. 
Je'hu. 
Jeph'thah. 
Jer'e-mT'ah. 
Jer'i-€h6. 
Jer'o-bo'am. 
Je-ru'sa-lem. 
Jesh'i-mon. 
J"s'se. 
Jes'u-its. 
Je'.sus Christ. 
Je'thro. 
Jew (jd, or ju). 
Jew (Wan'der-ing). 
Jez'e-bel. 
J"z're-el. 
JtVab. 
Ju'ash. 
Job. 

Jo'el (Book of). 
Jo-hiVnau. 
John. 

John (Epistle of) (jun). 
John (Gospel of). 



Jok'tan. 

Jon 'a- dab. 

Jo'nah. 

Jon'a-than. 

Jop'pa. 

Jor'dan. 

Jo'seph. 

Jo-se'phus. 

Josh'u-a. 

J6sh'u-a (Book of). 

Jo'sl-ah. 

Jfit. 

Jo'thara. 

Jour'ney (jur'ny). 

Ju'bal. 

Ju'bi-lee (Year of). 

Jfi'dah. 

Ju'das. 

Jade (Epistle of). 

jLi-de'a. 

Judg'es. 

Judg'es (Book of). 

Jiidg'nieut (Day of). 

Juds'ment-hall. 

Jii'dith (Book of). 

Jiig'<7er-naut^ 

JiVni-per." 

JiVpi-ter. 

Jus'ti-fl-€a''tion, 

K. 

Ka'desh. 

Kad'mon-ites. ' 

Ke'dar. 

Ke^desh. 

Kei'jah. 

Ken'Ites. 

Ke-tu'rah. 

Key (ke). 

King. 

King'dom. 

Kings (Book of). 

Kir. 

Kirch'en-tag. 

Ku-'-har'a-seth. 

Kir-'j ath-j e 'a-rim. 

Ki'shou. 

Kiss. 

Kite. 

i Knife (nif). 

iKuight'hood. 

iKo'hath-ites. 

Ko'rah. 

Kr/ran (Al). 



La'ban. 

Lab'a-rum. 

La'chish. 

La'i-ty. 

La'ma-:sm. 

La'mech. 

Lam'en-ta'tions. 

Lamp. 

La-od'i-ge'a. 

Laps'ed Chris'tiaus. 

Lap'wing. 

La'res, Ma'nes, and Pe-ua' 

tes. 
La-se''a. 
La'sha. 

Lat'l-tudM-uiVri-aus. 
La'ver. 
LaAV. 
Ljiw'yer. 

Lily'ing on of Hands. 
Laz'a-rus. 
Lead. 
Le'ah. 
Leath'er. 
Loav'en (vn). 
Lcb'a-non. 
Lee'turn. 

Left'fir'ers (lekt'yur-). 
Leek. 
Lees. 
Leg'ate. 

Le'gends, or Leg'ends 
Le'hl. 
Lent. 
Len'til. 
Lvjop'ard. 



Lep'er, Lep'ro-sy. 

Lcs'sons. 

Le'^vi. 

Le-vi'a-than. 

Le'vites. 

Le-vit'i-€us. 

Lib'er-al Chris'tians. 

L'-b'er-tine. 

Lib'nah. 

Lige. 

Li'gure, or Lig'ure. 

Lil'y. 

Lin 'en. 

Li'on. 

Lit'a-ny. 

Lifter. 

Lit'ur-gy. 

Liv'er. 

Liz'ard. 

Loan. 

Lo''€ust 

Lol'lards. 

Look'ing-glass. 

Lord's Prayer. 

Lord's Sup'per. 

Lot. 

Lot, or Lots. 

Love'-feast. 

Lu'gi-fer. 

Luke. 

Luke (Gospel of). 

Lu'ther-ans. 

Ly€''a-6'ni-a. 

Ly'ci-a (lish'i-a). 

Lyd'da. 

Lyd'i-a. 

Ly'si-as (lish'i-as). 

Lys'tra. 

M. 

Ma'a-^-ah. 

Ma€'€a-bees. 

Mag''e-do'ui-a, 

Ma€h-pe'lah. 

Ma-don 'n a. 

Mag 'da-la. 

Ma'gi. 

Mag'i-e, Ma-gi-cian (ma- 
jish'an). 

Mag'is-trates. 

Mag-nif'i-€at. 

Ma'gog. 

Ma'ha-na'im. 

Mak-ke'dah. 

Mara-€hi. 

Mal'lows. 

Mam'mon. 

Mam^re. 

Man. 

Ma-nas'seh. 

Ma'nas'ses (Prayer of). 

Man'drake. 

Manager. 

Ma'ni-^he'ans, 

Man'na. 

Man'u-seripts. 

Ma'rah. 

Mar'ble. 

Ma-re'sha. 

Ma'ri-61'a-try. 

Mark. 

Mark (Gospel of). 

Miir'o-nites. 

Mar-'riage (mar'rij). 

Mar'tha. 

Martyr. 

Ma'ry (The Virgin). 

MiVry Mag'da-le'ne. 

Mass. 

Ma-te'ri-al-ism. 

Mat'thew (math'thu). 

Mat'thew (Gospel of). 

Mat'thi'as (math-thi'as). 

Mat'tock. 

jMeals, 

Means of Grape. 

MeasTnes (mozh'ynrz). 

Meat-offer-ing. 

Med'e-bii. 

Me'di-a. 

Me'di-a'tor. 

Med'i-pTne. 

Me-f/id'do. 

Mel'ihite Church. 



LIST OF TITLES. 



IX 



Mel-chiz'e-dgk. 

Mel'i-ta. 

MSl'oD. 

Mem^phis. 

Mun'a-hem. 

Men'di-cant Oi-'ders, 

Me'ni. 

Jleu'uon-Ttes. 

Me-phib'o-sheth. 

Me'rHb. 

MSr'a-rltes. 

Mer-cu'ri-us. 

Mer''fy. 

Mer'i-bah, 

Me-ro'dach-bara-dan. 

Me'rom. 

Mc'shii. 

Me'sheeh. 

Mes'o-po-ta'mi-a. 

Mes-si'ah. 

Me-'theg-arri'mah. 

Meth'od-ist. 

Me-thu'se-lah. 

M:t'ro-pol'i-tan. 

Mi'€ah. 

MT'thael. 

MT'€hal. 

Mkh-'mash. 

Mid'i-au. 

Mig'dol. 

MT-le'tus. 

Milk. 

Mill. 

Mil'le-na'ri-ans. 

MiKler-ites. 

MiKlet. 

Mine, Min'ing. 

Min'is-ter. 

Mi?it. 

M r'a-€le Plays. 

Mir'a-€les. 

Mii"'i-am. 

Mis'e-re'ie. 

Mis'sa. 

Mis'sal. 

Mis'sions (misti'aus). 

Mi'tre. 

Mit'y-le'ue. 

M z'ra-iin. 

MtVab. 

Mo'ab-ite Stone. 

Mo-hiim'med-an-ism. 

Mole. 

Mo'lech. 

M6n'a-€hism. 

Mo-nar€h'i-ans. 

Mon'as-ter'y, 

Mo'ner-gism. 

Mou'ey. 

Mun 'ey-ch an 'gers. 

Mo-noph'y-site. 

Mr.n'o-the'ism. 

Mnn'ta-nists. 

Mouth. 

Moon. 

Mor'al Sf i'enge. 

Mo-ra'vi-ans. 

Moi'de-^ai. 

Mo'reh (Hill of). 

Mo'reh (Plain of). 

Mo-ri'ah. 

Mor'moDS. 

Mor'tar. 

Mo'ses. 

Mos-leras. 

Mosque (mosk). 

Moth. 

Moum'ing. 

Moase. 

Ma-ez'zin. 

Mifflers. 

M'lrber-ry. 

Mule. 

Mur'der. 

Mill- rain. 

Mri'si€. 

Ma'si€-al in^stru-ments. 

M'is'tard. 

Myrrh (mer). 

Myr'tle (mer'tl). 

Mys'i-a (mizh'i-a). 

Mys-ter-ies. 

Mys'ti€S. 



N. 
Na'a-man. 
Na'hal. 
NaTjoth. 
Na'dab. 
Na'hash. 
Na'hum. 
Na'in (nain). 
Na'iolh (^yoth). 
Nautes (E'di€t of) (uants) 
NHph'ta-li. 
Naph'tu-him. 
Nar'thex. 
Nfi'than. 
Na-thau'a-el. 
Naz'a-renes. 
Naz'a-reth. 
Naz'a-rite. 
Ne-ap'o-lis. 

Ne-ba'ioth, Ne-ba'joth. 
Ne'bo. 

Neb'u-ehad-nez-zar. 
Ne-€rol'o-gy. 
Ne'he-ml'ah. 
Ne'he-mi'ah (Book of). 
Ne'o-phytes. 
Ner'gal. 

Ner'gal-sha-re'zer. 
Ne 'ro. 

Nes-to'ri-ans. 
Neth'i-uim. 
Net'tle (nct'tl). 
New Year (Feast of) (nu). 
Nib'haz. 
Ni€'o-de'mus. 
Nie'o-la'i-taus. 
Ni-€6p'o-lis. 
Night (uit). 
Nile. 
Nim'rod. 
Nin'e-veh. 
N's'roth. 
Ni'tre, 
No'ah. 
Nob. _ 

Non-ju'ror6',or Nou'jii-rors. 
N6n-rt;s'i-deufe. 
North. 
Nov'i-pe.s. 
Num'bers. 
Niiu, Niiu-'ner-y. 
Nune Dim-it'tis. 
Nun'gi-o (-shi-o). 
Nut. 



oak (ok). 

oath (oth). 

o'ba-di'ah. 

o'bed-e'dom. 

o'bit, or ob'it. 

Ob-la'tions. 

oe'tave. 

of'fer-ing.s. 

offi-ges. 

OS- 

on. 

ive. 
ol'ivcs, Mount of ol'i-vet. 
om-uip'o-tenge. 
")m'ni-pres'enpe. 
om-nis-cienfe (om-nish'- 

ens). 
om'ri. 
in. 

o-nes'i-mus. 
on'ions (iin'yunz). 
6n'y-€ha. 
o'nyx. 
o'phel. 
o'phir. 

o'pus, o'pe-ra'tum. 
6r'a-de. 
or'a-to-ry. 
or'ders. 
or'di-nal. 
Jr'di-ua'tion. 
o'reb. 

o-rig'i-nal Sin. 
o-ri'6n. 
<5r-muzd. 
or'na-ments. 
or'tho-dox. 
os'prey. 



os'si'frage. 
^s'trich. 
6th'ui-el. 
Owl. 



Pa-pif'i-€a'tiou, or Pap'i-fi- 

€a'tion. 
Pii'gaus, 
Pa-go'da. 
Paint, Paint'ing. 
Pal'afe. 
Pal'es-tine. 
Pall. 
Piilm, Palm-tree (pam,pam'- 

tre). 
Palm'ers (pam'er). 
Palra-Sun'day (pam'sun- 

dy). 
F&Vsy. 

Pam-phyl'i-a. 
Pan' t he-ism. 
Pfi'phos. 
Par'a-bles. 
Par'a-dise. 
Pa'ran. 
Pa'ri-ah. 
Par'ish. 

Ptir'sees, or Par-sees'. 
Piir'son. 
Piir'thi-a. 
Piir'tridge. 

Pass'6-ver (Feast of). 
Pas'tor. 
Path'ros. 
Pafmos. 
Pa'tri-iirch. 
Pii'tron, Pat'ron-age. 
Paul. 

Pau-li'ci-ans. 
Pax. 

Pax V6-bis'<'um. 
Peage-offer-ing, 
Poa'^ock. 
Pearl (perl). 
Pe'kah. 
Pek'a-hl'ah. 
Pe'leg, 
Pel'i-€an. 
Peu-auge. 
Pe-nT'el. 
Pen'i-ten'tial, Priests (peu'- 

i-teu'shal, prests). 
Pen'i'tou-tial Pisalras 

(siimz). 
Pen'i-teuts. 
Pen'ta-teu€h (-tuk). 
Pen'te-€ost. 
Pen'te-eost'als. 
Per-am'bu'la'tion. 
Pe-re'a. 

Per-fe€'tion-ists. 
Per-ga-raos. 
Per'iz-zites. 

Per'se-ver'ange (of Saints). 
Per^si-a (per'shi-s\). 
Pe'ter. 

Pester (Epistles of). 
Pe'ler-penpe. 

Pha'raoh (fa'ro, or fa'ra-o). 
Phar'i-sees. 
Phe-nl-fe. 
Phil'a-d Kphi-a (classical 

pron. Phll'a-del-phi'a). 
Phi'-le'mou. 
Phl'-le'mon (Epistle to). 
Phil'ip. 
Phi-lip^pT. 

PhL-lii)'pi-ans (Epistle to). 
Phi-lis'tines. 
Phin'e'has. 
Phryg'i-ii. 
Phy-laf-ter-y. 
Pi'bc'seth, or Pib'e-seth. 
Pi'late (Pon'ti-us) (pon'shi- 

us). 
Pi'late's Stair'case. 
Pil'grima-ges. 
P;i-Tars (Con'se-eril'ted). 
Pine. 

Pin-na-de. 
PiS'gah. 
Pi-sid'i-a. 
PI'son. 



Pit. 

Pitch. 

Pi'thom. 

Plague (The) (plag). 

Plagues of E'gypt. 

Plants. 

Ple'ia-des (-ya-deez). 

Plow. 

PhVrarist. 

Po'et-ry, 

Pome-grau'ate (pum-gran'- 

et). 
Pon-ti'fex. 
Pou-tif'i€-al. 
P'"n'tus. 
Pool. 

Pope, Pa'pa-gy. 
Pop'lar. 
Porch, 
Por'ter. 
P('s'i-tiv-ism. 
Pos'tils. 
P't'i-phar. 
Pot'ter, Pot'ter-y. 
Prse-to'ri-um. 
Praise Meeting. 
Prayer (prar). 
Prayer-book. 
Prayer-mill. 
Preach'ing. 
Pre-pen'tor. 
Pre-des'ti-na'tion. 
Pre'ex-ist-enge (-egz-ist'- 

eus). 
Prefa-ges. 
Prl'ate. 

Pres'by-te'ri-ans. 
Pres'eu-tii'tion. 
Priest (prest). 
Pri'mate. 
Pris'ou (prls'n). 
Pro-pes'sious. 
Proe'tor. 
Prop'a-gau'da. 
Proph'ets. 

Proph'ets (School of). 
Pros'e-lyte. 
Prot'est-ants. 
Prov'erbs. 
Prov'i-denge. 
Prov'iuge. 
Psalms. 

Psal'ter (sawl'ter). 
Pub'li-€aus. 
Pr/dens. 
Pul. 

Pfiu-'ish-ment. 
Pur''ga-to-ry. 
Pri'ri-fi-€a'tion. 
Pu'rim. 
Pu'ri-tans. 
Pii'sey-Ttes. 
Pu-te'o-li. 
Py'garg. 
Pyr-a-mid. 
Py th'a - go're - aus, or Py- 

thag'o-'re'aus. 



Q. 

Quail (kwtd). 

Qua-ter'ni-on. 

Queen. 

Quick'sands. 

Quiv'er. 

R. 

Rab'bah. 

Rab'sha-kGh. 

Ra'chel. 

Rad'i-cals. 

Ra'hab. 

Rain'bow. 

Ra-me'ses. 

Ra'moth-gril'e-ad. 

RiVtion-al-ism. 

Ra'ven. 

Read'er. 

Re-bek'ah. 

Re-ehab-ites. 

Re-cord'er. 

RC-e'tor. 

Re-eu'saut. 



LIST OF TITLES. 



Ke-demp^tiou (-demp'- 

shun). 
Eed Sea. 
Eeed. 
Re-fiu'er. 
Eefor-mu'tion. 
Ee-formed Cliurch. 
Ee-geu''er-a'Tion. 
Eeg'is-ter (Pfir'ish). 
Ee'gi-um Do'num. 
Eo'ho-bo'am. 
IlAns (rimz). 
E Vies. 
Ee-lig'ion. 
Eel'Iyan-ists. 
Eem'phan. 
Ee-pent'ange. 
Eeph'a-iin. 

Eeph'a-Tin (Valley of). 
Eoph''i-dim. 
Ee.s'nr-ree'tiou. 
Ees'ur-re€''tion of Je'sus 

Christ. 
Eeu-'ben. 
Ejv'e-la'tion. 
Eev'e-la'tion (Book of). 
Eev'er-end. 
Ee-vTv'als. 
Ee'ziu. 
Ee'zon. 

Ehe^gl-iini (re'-). 
Ehodes (rodz). 
Eib'lah. 
ETght'eous - ness (ri'clius- 

nes). 
Eirn'mon. 
Elte, Rit-Ti-al-ism. 
Eiv'er. 
Eiz'pah. 
E'-'b'ber-y. 
Eod. 
Eoe. 

Eo-ga'tion-days. 
Eo'man CSth'o-lieChurcli. 
Eo'raaus (Epistle to). 
Eome (City of). 
Eome (Empire of). 
Eooin. 
Eo'sa-ry. 
Eose. 
Eu'bries. 
Eu'by. 
Eue. 

Eils'so-Greek ChAreli. 
Euth. 
Ef e (ri). 



Sab'a-oth (Lord of). 

Sab'bath. 

Slb'bath-Sebools. 

Sab-bat'i€-al Year. 

Sa-be'aus. 

Sa-bel'li-ans. 

S'ck'-eir.th. 

Sae'ra-meuts. 

Sa€-ri-flce (-fiz). 

Sad-du-gees. 

Saffron. 

Sara-mis. 

Sa'la'thi-el. 

Sal'€ah. 

Sii'lem. 

Sa'lim. 

Salma, Sal'mon. 

Sa-lo-me. 

Salt. 

Salt Sea. 

Salt (Valley of). 

SalTi-ta'tiou. 

Sa-mu'ri-a (classical pron. 

Sam'a-n'a). 
Sa-mar'i-tau P^^u'ta-teach. 
Sa-mur'i-tans. 
Sa'inos. 

Sam'o-thriVci-a (-thnVslii-a) 
Sam 'son. 
S:im'u-el. 

Sam'u-el (Books of). 
San-bal'lat. 
Srmt'ti-fi-ea'tion. 
Sau'dal. 

San'de-miVm-ans. 
San'he-drim. 



Sap'phire (saf Ir, or saf ur) 

Sa-'rah. 

Sar'dis. 

Sar'di-ns, 

Sar'do-uyx. 

Sjr'gon. _ 

Sa'i;yr6' (sa'tur). 

Saul. 

Scape'-goat. 

Seho-las'ti€. 

Schools. 

Sghwenk'foId'Srs. 

Sc6r'pi-on. 

S€our-giug. 

Scribes. 

Spyth'i-au (sith'-). 

Seal. 

Sea'son. 

Se'ba. 

Se-ged'ers. 

Se'cret Dis'gi-pliue. 

Sect. 

Se'ir. 

Se'la. 

Se-leiVgi'a (classical pron. 

Sel'eu-f.ra) (-shi-a). 
Seii-uach'e-rib, or SSn'na- 

■ehe'rib. 
Seph-ar-va'im. 
Sep'tu-a-gint. 
Ser'a-phim (fim). 
Se-rii'pis. 

Ser'mon on the Mount. 
Ser-'peut. 

Ser'pent-charm'ers. 
Sex'ton. 
Shak'ers. 
Sha'lem. 
Shal'lum. 
Shal'ma-ne'ser. 
Sham^gar. 
Sheb'na. 
She'chem. 
Sheep. 
Sheep'fold. 
Sheik. 
She-kl'nah. 
Shem. 

Shep'herd (shepherd). 
Shew'bread (sho'bred). 
Shl'loh. 
Shim'e-i. 
Ship. 
ShFshak. 

Shit'tah-ti-ee, Shit'tim. 
Shi'5ve'-Taes'day. 
Shn'nem. 
Shur. 
Shu'shan. 
Sib-mah. 
Sid'dim. 
Si'don. 
SI'hon. 
SI'las. 
Silk. 

Sl-lo'am, or Sil'o-am. 
Sil'ver. 
Sim'e-on. 
Si'mon. 
Sim'on-y. 
Sin. 

Sin (Wilderness of). 
Si'nai. 
Sl'nim. 
Siu'Ite. 

Sin'-offer-ing. 
Sin'to-ism. 
Sis'e-rii. 
Si'va. 
Slav'er-y. 

Smyr'na (smir'na). 
Snful. 
So. 
Soap. 

So'gial-i.sm. 
So-gin'i-ans. 
So-coh. 
Sod'om, 
Sod'om-Ites. 
SoKo-mon. 

Sol'o-mon's Scrv'ants. 
Sol'o-mon'.sSong. 
Song.s of De-gree.s'. 
Sous of God (sins). 



Sos'the-nes. 

South. 

Sow, Sow'er, Sow'ing. 

Spar'rovv. 

Spl'ges. 

SpI'der. 

SpTke'nard. 

Spii-'it. 

Spir'it'u-al-Tsm. 

Sponge (spunj). 

Spou'sors. 

Stae'te. 

Stiir in the East. 

Steel. 

Ste'phen (Ste'vn). 

Sto'ics. 

Stool. 

Stork. 

Stran'ger. 

Sty'lltes. 

Sub-dea-€on (-de'kn). 

Suc'coth. 

Suc'coth-be'noth. 

Suffra-r/aus. 

Suffrage. 

Sun '-W6r 'ship. 

Su'per-er-'o-g'a'tion. 

Su'per-nat'u-ral. 

Su-'pra-lap-sa-'ri-ans. 

Swal'low. 

Swan. 

Sw6'den'b6r'gi-ans. 

Swiue. 

Syp'a-mlue-tree. 

Sy€_^a-more-tree. 

Sy-e'ne. 

Sym'bol-ism. 

Syn'a-gogue (sin'a-gog). 

Syr'i-a. 

Sy'ro-Phce-ni'ci-an. 

T. 

Ta'a-nach. 

Tab-'er-na-cle. 

Tab'er-ua-€les (Feast of). 

Tab'i-tha. 

Ta'bor. 

Tad'mor. 

Tah'pan'hes. 

Tal'-leth. 

Tal'mud. 

Tam'muz. 

Ta'ua-Ites. 

Ta'6-ism. 

Tares. 

Tar'shish. 

Tar'sus. 

Tar^a-riis. 

Tax'es. 

Te De'um. 

Te-ko'a. 

Te'ma. 

Te'man. 

Tem'per-ange. 

Tem'per-auge S6-fI'e-ties. 

Tem'plars. 

TSm'ple. 

Temp-ta'tion of our Lord. 

Ten Com-maud''meuts. 

Tent. 

TG'rah. 

Ter'a-phim. 

Te'triirch. 

Tha?iks'f7iv-ing-day. 

The'a-tr'e. 

Thebes. 

The'od'i-gy. 

The-61'()-gy. 

The-oph'i-liis. 

Thes'sa-lo'ni-ans (Epistle 

to). 
Thes'sa-lon'i-ca. 
Theu'das. 
Thom'as (tom'as). 
Thorn. 
Thiigs. 
Thy-'a-tl-ra. 
Thyine-wood. 
Ti-a-ru. 
Tl-be'ri-as. 
Ti-be'ri-iis. 
TTg'lath'pi-le'ser. 
Tim'o-thy. 



Tim'o-thy (Epistles to). 

Tin. 

T2r'ha-kali. 

Tzr'sha-tha. 

Tw-'zah. 

Tithes. 

Tit'tle (tit'tl). 

Ti'tus, 

Tl'tus (Epistle to). 

Tob. 

To-bl'ah. 

To'bit (The Book of). 

Tongues (Confusion of) 

(-fu'zhun). 
Ton 'sure. 
To'paz. 

Tor'toise (tor'tis). 
Town'-clerk. 
Tra-di'tiou (-dish'un). 
Tranpe. 
Tran'sub-stnn'ti-ri''tion 

(-strm'slii-a'slinu). 
Tree of Life— of Knuwledge 

of Good and E'vzl. 
TrI'al. 
Trib'ute. 
Triu'i-ta'ri-aus. 
Tro'as. 

Tro-gj~i'li-um. 
Troph'i-miis. 
Tsa'bi-ans. 
Tu'bal. 
Ta'bal-eain. 
Tu'bin-gen School. 
Tych'i-cus. 
Types. 
Tj-^re. 

U. 

u'la-i. 

un-clean'uess. 

u'ni-corn. 

u'ni-form'i-ty. 

u'ni-ta'ri-ans. 

u'ui-vers'al-ists. 

ur. 

u-rl'ah. 

tJ-rl^jah. 

u'rim and Thum'mim. 

u-ten'sils. 

u'zal. 

tiz'zah. 

uz-zFah. 



Vale, Vnl'ley. 

Vash'ti. 

Veil. 

Ver'ger. 

Ver'sions. 

Vest'ments (Ec'cle'si-as'tie- 

al). 
Ves'try. 
Vl-at'i-ciim. 
VIc'ar. 
Vl-ca'ri-oiis. 
Vll'la-ges. 
Vine. 
Viu'e-gar. 
Vish-nu. 
Vis'it-a'tion. 
Vow. 
Vul'gate. 

W. 

Wa'fers. 

Wal-den'ses. 

War. 

Wash'ing (wosh'ing), 

Watch'es of Night. 

Wfiy. 

WGa'sel. 

Week. 

Weights (watz). 

W^'ll. 

Whale (hwal). 

Wheat (hweet). 

Wil'der-ness of the Wau'- 

der-ing. 
Will (Freedom of). 
WiFlows. 
Wiu'ddw. 
Winds. 
Wine. 



LIST OF TITLES. 



Wis'dom of SoPo-mou. 

Witch'€raft. 

Witch of Eu'dor. 

Wolf (wulf ). 

Wool. 

Word of God (wurd). 

Worm (warm). 

Worm'wood. 

Wor'ship (wur'ship). 

Vv^nt'iug. 

Y. 
Year. ^ 



Yoke. 

Yoitn^ M'n's Chris'tian As- 
so-pi-a'tion. 

Z. 

Za€'€he-us. 

Za^h'a-rl'ah. 

Zath'a-rl-as. 

Za'doe. 

Zal-muu'na. 

Zaph'nath-pa'a-ue'ah. 

Zai-'e-phath. 



Ziir'than. 

Zeal'ots. 

Zeb'u-lun. 

Z5€h''a-ri'ah. 

Zed-'e-kl'ah. 

Z:-m'a-ntes. 

Zepli'a-m'ah. 

Ze'rah. 

Z6r'e-da. 

Ze-rub'ba-bel. 

Zr'u-T/ah. 

Zik'las:. 



Zim^rT. 

Ziu (Wilderness of). 

Zl'on (Mount of). 

Ziph. 

Zip-po'rah. 

Zo'au. 

Zo'ar. 

Zo'ba, Zo'ba-li. 

Zo'phim (Field of). 

Zo'rah. 

Zo'ro-as'tri-an Ee-lig'iou. 

Zu'zims. 



LIST OF ARTICLES IN APPENDIX. 



PAGE 

The CTeat Prophecies and Allusions to Christ in 
the Old Testament, etc., from Hales's "Analysis 
of Sacred Chronology "' 993 

The Names, Titles, and Characters of the Son of 
God, Jesus Christ our Lord, in their Variety, as 
found in the Scriptures 994 

Passages in the Old Testament quoted or alluded 
to in the New Testament 997 

Index showing the probable Occasion on which 
each of the Old Testament Prophecies was 
uttered, with its date, and its Chronological 
Place in the Old Testament Scripture 1000 

Laws of Moses, with Tabular Statement taken 
from Smith's " Dictionary of the Bible " 1004 

An Itinerary of the Children of Israel from Egypt 
to Canaan 1006 

Chronological Order of the Books of the Old and 
New Testaments, with the Places in which the 
New Testament Books were written IOCS 



PAGE 

Chronological Index to the Bible to the Death 
of Solomon 1008 

A Comparative Chronological Table of the Kings 
and Prophets of Judah and Israel 1010 

A summary View of the principal Events of the 
Period, from the Close of the Sacred Canon of 
the Old Testament uutil the Times of the New 
Testament 1011 

Table of the Harmony of the Four Gospels 1115 

A Table containing the Golden Number, the 
Epact, the Dominical Letter, the Calendar Let- 
ter of the First 2Jos,9iUe Day of Easter, the Date 
of the First pofisibln Day oif Easter, and Easter- 
day, for each of One Htm dred Years, from ISOO 
to 1899 inclusive. To Avhich are appended 
Eules and Explanations 1018 

Tables of Weights, Measures, and Coins men- 
tioned in Scripture .* 1020 

Index of Bible Names and Subjects 1021 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE 

Ancient Eoman Standards 6 

Abraxas Gems 9 

Absalom's Tomb 10 

Granting Absolution 11 

Agnus Dei 22 

Oriental hoeing. — From the Egyptian Monu- 
ments 23 

Ancient Egyptians hoeing and sowing the Land 

and felling Trees .' 23 

Alabaster Vessels.— From the British Museum. . 29 

The Alb 29 

Alms-box 33 

Druidical Cromlech 34 

Druidical Altars 34 

Forms of ancient Heathen Altars 34 

Altar of Burnt-offering 35 

Altar of Incense 35 

Eoman Catholic Altar 36 

Image of Ammon 39 

Amulets, ancient and modern 41 

Charms 41 

Antioch on the Orontes 49 

Valley of Arabah 56 

Bedouin Arabs 58 

Mount Ararat, from the Plain of Erivan 59 

Ancient Egyptian Villa 60 

Black Obelisk, from Nimroud 61 

Parthenon restored 62 

Fa?ade of the Cathedral of York 63 

The Areopagus 64 

Ark of the Covenant 67 

Primitive Striking Weapons 69 

Oriental Cutting or Piercing Weapons TO 

Bowmen and Spearmen TO 

Oriental Projectiles 70 

Implements of Archery 70 

Treading the Bow 71 

Assyrian Bow, Arrow, and Quiver 71 

Coat of Mail 71 

Armor for the Head , 71 

Assyrian Helmets 72 

Eoman Soldier 72 

Assyrian Palace 83 

Athens restored 86 

Egyptian Awls 91 

Ancient Egyptian Axes, etc 92 

Ancient Medals with the Head of Baal 92 

Euins at Baalbek 93 

Ancient Egyptian Money-bags 98 

Ancient Banners 100 

Ancient Triclinium, or Dinner-bed 101 

Vaulted Granaries 105 

Ancient Egyptian Bread-baskets of Gold 108 

Various Forms of Egyptian Baskets 108 

Ancient Egyptian Lattice Bed.«tead 110 

Oriental Sleeping Apartment 110 

Well at Beersheba Ill 

Ancient Egyptian Bellows 112 

Bethany 117 

View of Bethlehem 119 

Ancient Books 128, 129 

Ancient Italian Skin-bottles 129 

Modern Oriental Water-skins 129 

Ancient Egyptian Bottles 129 



PAGE 

Brazen Sea 135 

Women of Nazareth heating the Oven with dry 

Grass 136 

High-priest's Breastplate 137 

Babylonian Brick 140 

Colossal Gotama 142 

Buddhist Cave-temple 142 

Buddhist Idols 143 

Mummy-cases 145 

Ancient Babylonian Coffin 145 

Ancient Egyptian Bier 146 

Tombs of the Judges 143 

Painted Vault 149 

Bronze Figure of Apis 153 

Camel prepared for Baggage 157 

Inside of a Camel's Foot 157 

The Golden Candlestick 160 

Euins of Capernaum 163 

View of Mount Carmel from the Sea 166 

Ethiopian Princess in a Car 167 

Egyptian Carts 167 

Chapel in the Catacombs 171 

Cedar of Lebanon 174 

Egyptian Censers 177 

Ancient Egyptian Chariot of War 182 

Ancient Assyrian Chariot for the Chase 182 

Passage in Wall of Haram Area 200 

Traditional Likeness of Confucius 216 

Worshiping the Ancestral Tablet in its Niche . . 218 

Corinth restored 226 

Credence-table 233 

Crosiers 236 

Ancient Crowns 237 

Cuneiform Characters 242 

Ancient Cup-bearer, with Fan 243 

Tomb of Cyrus 245 

Eepresentation of a Fish-god 245 

Fish-god on Gems in British Museum 245 

Damascus from the West 246 

Wall of Damascus 247 

Dancing-girls 249 

Antique Figure of a Man in a Den of Lions 251 

Indian Sun-dial 267 

Image of the Egyptian Diana 268 

Ephesian Coin with Diana's Temple 268 

Egyptians of the Lower Orders 282 

An Egyptian Woman 282 

A Woman of the Southern Province of Upper 

Egypt ; 282 

Syrian Gentlemen in Full Dress 283 

Ecce Homo 288 

The Pyramids 296 

Egyptian Shaduf 297 

Men's Dresses 298 

A Woman's Dress '. 298 

Head-dress of a Lady, from a Mummy-case 298 

Game of Draughts 299 

A complete Egyptian Temple 299 

Throwing up and catching Balls 300 

Conjurers, or Thimble-rig 300 

The name of Egypt in Hieroglyphics 301 

Boat with colored and embroidered Sails 301 

Theban Glass-makers 302 

Vases 302 



XIV 



LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS. 



PAGE 

Binding a Mummy 311 

Painting and polishing a Mummy-case 311 

Mummy of Peu-ameu, priest ol" Amun-Ea 311 

Ornaments on tlie Robe of King 312 

Roman Balista 314 

Roman Catapult 314 

Battering-ram, with movable Tower 314 

Ephesus'from the Theatre 316 

The Sacerdotal Ephod 31T 

Tomb of Mordecai and Esther 329 

Modern Egyptian Lady, with painted Eyes 337 

Reputed Tomb of Ezra 33S 

Sheep-fold 346 

The Gecko 346 

Fishing Scene 351 

An Egyptian Gentleman fishing 351 

Flax 352 

Coins of Apamea Cibotus, with supposed Repre- 
sentations of the Ark 354 

Part of a Tablet containing the Chaldean Ac- 
count of the Deluge 355 

Font, Swaton, Lincolnshire, 1310 356 

Fountain at Beirut 358 

Conveying Mummies on a Sledge 365 

Interior of ancient Koom ' 366 

The Sea of Galilee 372 

Ancient Boxers 374 

Ancient Wrestlers • 374 

Ancient Foot-race 375 

Ancient Egyptian Garden 376 

A Lodge 376 

Gate of City 377 

Common Oriental Door , 377 

Portal of ancient Assyrian Palace 378 

The Gethsemane of Tradition 387 

Ancient Girdles 394 

The linen Girdle of the Priests 394 

Glass Bottles and Jugs 394 

Egyptian Manner of wearing the Hair 410 

Assyrian Manner of wearing the Hair 410 

Goldsmiths 412 

Tools of an Egyptian Carpenter 413 

Masons squaring a Stone 413 

Spinning 414 

Hare of Mount Sinai 415 

Gathering the Wheat 416 

The Noreg 417 

Heads of modern Asiatics ornamented with 

Horns 418 

Various Forms of the modern Turban 418 

Hebron 422 

A deformed Ox-herd 424 

Herdsmen and Poulterers treating sick Animals 

and Geese 424 

High Place 431 

High-priest offering Incense 432 

View of Mount Hor, with Aaron's Tomb 435 

Groom leading Horses 437 

An Arab House 440 

Entrance to a House in Cairo 440 

Modern Syrian House. Court, with Apartment 

beyond .■ 441 

Interior of a House (Harem) in Damascus 441 

House with an 'AUiyeh 441 

Terrace with Roof 442 

Latticed Windows of a House in Cairo 442 

Admiral Coligny 444 

Catherine de Medicis 445 

A Huntsman carrying home the Game,, with his 

coupled Dogs 447 

Catching the Gazelle with the Noose 448 

A Chasseur shooting at Wild Oxen, accompanied 

by his Dog 44S 

Fruit and Branches of the Carob-tree 449 

Eastern Inn 403 

Persian Water-wheel 469 

General View of ancient Jerusalem restored — 495 



PAGE 

Modern Jerusalem 496 

Wilson's Arch 497 

The Tomb of Jonah 525 

Arbor covered with a Gourd 525 

Jaffa from the North 527 

Source of the Jordan : 528 

Lock and Key 542 

Red Kite 546 

Flint Knives 546 

The Labarum 548 

Lamps belonging to the early Christian Era 551 

Lebanon 555 

Lectern in Ramsay Church, Huntingdonshire 556 

Lentils 557 

Syrian Locust 567 

Metal Mirrors 568 

Jew's Mallow 579 

Mandrake 584 

Manuscripts 586 

Maronite Sheik and his Wife 589 

Marriage Procession of a Bride in Lebanon 591 

Ancient Egj^ptian Hoes 597 

Eastern Hand-mill 617 

Characters in ancient Christmas-plays 619 

The Crucifixion, as represented in the Oberam- 

i mergau Passion-play 620 

The Moabite Stone 642 

Public Notaries -weighing Money 648 

Brigham Young 655 

, The Tabernacle 656 

Salt Lake City 657 

Mormon Baptism 658 

: Mortar and Pestle 660 

Mosque of Omar 664 

Lyres found at Thebes, Egypt 668 

Egyptian Viol 669 

Egyptian Reed Pipes 669 

' Egyptian Cymbals 669 

Tambourine and Castanets 670 

Rude Model of a Listrum . . 670 

Ancient Egyptian Military Band 670 

Wild Mustard 671 

The Vale of Nazareth 677 

Neapolis 678 

Nile during inundation 684 

Site of Nineveh 686 

Winged human-headed Lion 687 

Figure of Asshur 688 

Syrian Oak 690 

Terebinth 691 

Oil-press 694 

Mount of Olives 695 

i Ecclesiastical Ornaments and Vestments 702 

Jewish Ornaments 703 

Southern Palestine, from the Mount of Olives ... 710 
Northern Palestine— Mount Hermon in the Dis- 
tance Til 

Palm-tree : • T13 

The Colossus of Golgos 745 

' Phylactery 749 

j Plowing 753 

Pomegranates ^54 

' Ground-plan of Solomon's Pools 755 

The Pool ofHezekiah 756 

Potter and Wheel 759 

A Praying Machine 761 

Carryii)2r the Holy Sacrament 814 

Arch of Titus §20 

I Dead Sea ; S3S 

I Samos S41 

I Sandals ^^^ 

I Glass Vase bearing the Name of Sargon, from 

j Nimroud ^^^ 

Scorpion ^^^ 

Impressions of Seals in Clay S54 

i Remains of grand Entrance to the Palace of Sen- 

I nacherib §61 



LIST OF ILLUSTEATIONS. 



PAGE 

Serpent-charmers 86G 

Interior of Shaker Meeting-house 868 

Shaker Costume 8G8 

Shaker Dancing 869 

Israelites bringing Tribute to Shalmaneser 870 

Shechem 871 

Table of Shew-bread.— From the Arch of Titus.. 873 

Keed Raft 875 

Egyptian War Galley ; the Sail pulled up during 

the Action 875 

Mound of Susa 877 

Sidon 878 

Pool of Siloam 880 

The Plain of Er Rahah - 885 

Sparrow 900 

Stork 905 

South-east View of the Tabernacle as restored. . . 915 

Tabor 917 

Tares 920 

Tarsus 921 

Herod's Temple at Jerusalem 926 

Teraphim 931 

Ruins of the Theatre at Ephesus 932 



PAGE 

Thessalonica from the Sea 934 

Thorn of Palestine 935 

Tiberias and Lake, looking to the north-east 936 

Figure of Tiglath-pileser 1 937 

Tyre 947 

Modern Oriental Dishes 955 

Ancient Egyptian Drinking-vessels . 956 

The Valleys of the Vaudois 961 

Pra del Tor 963 

Washing Utensils 964 

Washing of Hands 965 

The Ras Sufsafeh, from the Plain 969 

Wady Feiran 969 

The Wilderness of Kadesh 970 

Egyptian Hieroglyphics 978 

Seal of Shallum, jj.o.1000 978 

The Archaic Alphabet 979 

Writing Materials 980 

Library, Young Men's Christian Association 

Building, New York 982 

Gymnasium, Young Men's Christian Association 

Building, New York 982 



MAPS AND PLANS. 



Mount Carmel and the Bay of Acre 13 

Ancient Alexandria 31 

Ancient Antioch 48 

Map of the Tribe of Asher 77 

Map of Assyria 81 

Map of Ancient Athens , 85 

Chart of Babylon and Environs 96 

Map of the Tribe of Benjamin 116 

Map of Canaan, with the Aboriginal Nations 158 

Ground-plan of the Catacombs 170 

General Map of the Chaldean and Associated 

Enopires 178 

Plan of Durham Cathedral 197 

Corinth and its Ports 226 

Map of the Tribe of Dan 248 

Egypt under the Romans 295 

Diagram of the Camp of the Israelites during 

the Exode 313 

Map of the Tribe of Ephraira 318 

Sea of Gennesaret 385 

Map of the Scene of Joshua's great Battle at 

Gibeon 389 

Map of the Land of Goshen and its Vicinity 399 

Map of Ancient Greece 404 

Maps of political Changes in Palestine (four). 426, 427 

Plan of an Eastern House 440 



Map of the Tribe of Issachar 473 

Plan of Jerusalem 494 

Four Maps illustrating the principal Events in 
the last Days of the Life of Jesus Christ. . . . 506, 507 

Map of the Valley of Jezreel 516 

Map of Judah 534 

Traditionary Site of Abraham's Cemetery 579 

Map of the half-tribe of Manasseh— west 583 

Chart of Part of the Coast of Malta 604 

Missionary Map of Turkey 631 

Missionary Map of India 633 

Missionary Map of China and Japan 635 

Missionary Map of South Africa 638 

The Great Salt Lake Region 659 

Map of the Tribe of Naphtali 675 

Physical Map of Palestine 707 

Map of Palestine in the Time of Christ 708 

A Chart of St. Paul's Voyage to Rome 728 

South Coast of Crete 729 

Chan of Part of the Coast of Malta 730 

Plan of ancient City of Rome 819 

Map of the Dead Sea 837 

Plan of Solomon's Palace 895 

Plan of the Court of the Tabernacle 914 

Plan of Herod's Temple 927 

Map of the Exodus and Wanderings 968 



A DICTIONARY 



OF 



RELIGIOUS KNOWLEDGE. 



AAEON 

Aaron (the signification is uncertain; 
mountaineer, enlightener, fluent, are all sug- 
gested), the son of Anu'am and Jochebed, 
and the elder brother of Moses and Miriam/ 
was born, perhaps, before Pharaoh's cruel 
decree for the slaying of the Hebrew off- 
spring. He was a Levite, and as first-born 
would naturally be priest in his household 
before appointed high -priest of the nation 
by God. He married Elisheba, of the tribe 
of Judah, daughter of Ammiuadab, and sister 
of Nahshon, captain of the Hebrew host;^ 
and by her had four sons, Nadab, Abihu, Ele- 
azar, and Ithamar. The two former were 
slain for their profanation of the sacred serv- 
ice.^ The high-ijriesthood descended to the 
two latter, being part of the time in the fam- 
ily of the one, part of the time in that of the 
other.* Aaron seems to have been charac- 
teristically an eloquent speaker, and prob- 
ably a man of the emotional type of piety ; 
certainly, despite his numerous faults, or 
rather his one great fault, a man of real god- 
liness.^ That fault was a wayward, impet- 
uous disposition, easily influenced for good 
or ill ; one that in its best estate stayed itself 
upon and was sustained by the stronger and 
more resolute character of his younger broth- 
er. The whole story of his life is one con- 
tinually illustrative of the dangers which 
beset a man of good impulses but weak will. 
We first meet him, at the age of eighty-three, 
going out into the wilderness to meet his 
brother Moses, and join with him in the per- 
ilous undertaking for the deliverance of Is- 
rael.^ The dangers of that deliverance he 
shared with Moses, and in their repeated 
interviews with Pharaoh, supported by his 
brother's presence, showed no sign of fear or 
irresolution. But when, a little later, Moses 
left the people in his charge at the foot of 
Mount Sinai, he yielded without a protest to 
their clamor for an idol, erected a golden 
calf, though still as the representative of Je- 
hovah ; on Moses's re-appearance, with crim- 



1 Exod. vi., 20; 1 Chron. vi., 2, 3.-2 Exod. vi., 23. 
The name is the same as Elizabeth.— 3 See Abihu. — 
* See Ituamae.— 5 Psa. cvi., 16. — ^ Exod. iv., 14. 



ABANA 

inal weakness, Aaron cast the blame upon 
the peox)le, whom he should have led, and 
did but follow.^ His repentance ai^pears to 
have been genuine, however, and his sin did 
not prevent his installation into the office 
of high-priest with apx)ropriate and divine- 
ly appointed ceremonies.^ He learned some- 
thing by experience, and submitted without 
a murmur to the condign punishment of his 
sons, Nadab and Abihu.^ When Miriam (q.v.), 
jealous of the influence of Moses's Ethiopian 
wife, revolted against his authority, Aaron 
yielded to her influence, and joined in her 
revolt. But that she was the ringleader is 
evident, both from the tone of the narrative 
and from the condign punishment visited 
upon her.* On even such occasions as the 
rebellion of Korah, Dathan, and Abiram, a 
revolt more against the ecclesiastical author- 
ity of Aaron than the political authority of 
Moses, Aaron, in checking the ]3lague by the 
censer, acted under the direction of his broth- 
er, while, by the blossoming of his rod, his 
priestly office received a new and miraculous 
ratification from God.^ Leaning, as he did 
throughout his life, on Moses, it is not won- 
derful that he shared his sin at the Desert of 
Zin and its punishment.^ His death follow- 
ed speedily at Mount Hor, still known as 
the '^ Mount of Aaron." His robes and office 
were transferred to Eleazar, who alone was 
present with Moses at his death and burial.^ 
The Aaronites, his descendants, constituted 
an important family in the subsequent his- 
tory of Israel.® See Moses ; Priest. 

Abana (perennial) and Pharpar (sivift), 
the " rivers of Damascus." The Baracla and 
the Aivaj are now the chief streams of Da- 
mascus, the former representing the Abana, 
and the latter the Pharpar, of the text. The 
Barada rises in the Antilibanus, at about 
twenty-three miles from the city, after flow- 
ing through which, it runs across the plain. 



1 Exod. xxxii.— 2 Lev. viii. The directicm for his in- 
stallation is to be found in Exod. xxix.— ^ Lev. x., 1-3. 
— * Numb, xii.— 5 Numb, xvi., xvii. — ^ Numb, xx., 1-13. 
—7 Numb. XX., 22-29; xxxiii.,38. See Hor.— « 1 Chron. 
xii., 27; xxvii.,17. 



ABAEIM 



ABEL 



till it loses itself in tlie lake or marsh Bahret 
el-Kihliyeh. The Aivaj, or Pharpar, rises on 
the south-east slopes of the Hermon, and 
flows into the most southerly of the three 
lakes or swamps of Damascus. [2 Kings v., 
12.] 

Abarim (beyond, i. e.,heyond the Jordan), 
a mountain or range of highlands on the east 
of the Jordan, in the land of Moab, facing 
Jericho, and forming the eastern wall of 
the Jordan valley at that part. Its most 
elevated spot was " the Mount Nebo " from 
which Moses viewed the Promised Land be- 
fore his death. These mountains are men- 
tioned in Numb, xxvii., 12; xxxiii., 47, 48; 
and Dent, xxxii,, 49. 

Abba, a Hebrew word signifying father. 
Our word papa appears to have been derived 
from it. It was probably in common use as 
a term of endearment in the Aramaean dia- 
lect of Palestine during the New Testament 
age, and as such was employed both by 
Christ and Paul to express the tender and 
affectionate relation between the children 
of God and their Heavenly Father, but al- 
ways in connection with the Greek word 
signifying father. The combination, Abba 
Father, is well rendered by Luther "dear 
Father." [Mark xiv., 36 ; Rom. viii., 15 ; Gal. 
iv.,6.] 

Abbey, a society of persons of either sex, 
secluded from the world, and devoted to re- 
ligion and celibacy, and under the govern- 
ment of an abbot or an abbess. It derives 
its name from its chief officer. A similar 
institution, governed by a prior or prioress, 
second in rank to the abbot or abbess, is 
called a priory. It differs from cloister, 
which is a generic term for any institution 
for religious seclusion, from monastery, which 
is for monks, and from nunnery, which is 
for females, or nuns, alone. The abolition 
of the abbeys under Henry VIII. led to a di- 
version of the property, while the name was 
retained. Whence we have Westminster 
Abbey, because the church was formerly 
connected with a monastery ; and Newstead 
Abbey, the residence of Lord Byron, because 
it was originally employed for monastic pur- 
poses. See MoNACHiSM ; Monastery ; Cox- 
vent. 

Abbot (father), the superior of an abbey 
of monks. This title has not been strictly 
confined to them, however, but has also been 
employed by heads of religious orders — by 
monks, and even by priests or laymen, who 
enjoy the revenues of the abbey, but govern 
it by a vicar. The French form of the same 
title, abbe, was assumed at one time by so 
many unordained theological students as to 
form a consideralile and influential class. 
Abbess is the feminine form of the same 
word, and is given to the lady superior of an 
abbey of nuns. Generally she is chosen from 
the nunnery, must 1)e over forty years of 
age, and for eight years a nun. 



Abdon (servant), son of Hillel, of the tribe 
of Ephraim, and tenth judge of Israel. He 
succeeded Elon, and judged Israel eight 
years. Nothing is recorded of him but that 
he had forty sons and thirty nephews, who 
rode on young asses — a mark of their conse- 
quence. He is thought to be the same per- 
son as Bedan, mentioned in 1 Sam. xii., 11. 
[Judges xii., 13-15.] 

Abel, the name of several places in Pales- 
tine ; probably signifies a meadow. 

1. Abel-beth-ma-achah, a town of some 
importance, in the extreme north of Pales- 
tine, which fell an early prey to the invad- 
ing kings of Syria and Assyria. In 2 Chron. 
xvi., 4, the name is changed to Abel-maim, 
"Abel on the waters." It is also called sim- 
ply Abel in 2 Sam. xx., 14, 18. [2 Sam. xx., 
19; 1 Kings xv., 20; 2 Kings xv., 29.] 

2. Abel - MiZRAiM, i. e., the mourning of 
Egypt ; the name given by the Canaanites to 
the floor of Atad, at which Joseph, his broth- 
ers, and the Egyptians made their mourning 
for Jacob. It was east of the Jordan. [Gen. 

i.,n.] 

3. Abel-shittim ("the meadow of the 
acacias"), in the "jjlains" of Moab; on the 
low level of the Jordan valley. Here — their 
last resting-place before crossing the Jordan 
— Israel "pitched from Bethjesimoth unto 
A. Shittim." The place is most frequently 
mentioned by its shorter name of Shittim. 
[Numb, xxxiii., 49.] 

4. Abel-meholah ("meadow of the 
dance"), in the north part of the Jordan 
valley, to which the routed Bedouin host fled 
from Gideon. Here Elisha was found at his 
plough by Elijah returning up the valley 
from Horeb. [Judges vii., 22 ; 1 Kings iv., 
12; xix., 16-19.] 

5. " The great stone of 'Abel,' in the 
field of Joshua the Bethshemite." [1 Sam. 
vi., 18.] 

Abel (breath, vapor, transitoriness), so call- 
ed probably from the shortness of his life, 
was the son of Adam. The account of his 
life is all contained in the fourth chapter 
of Genesis, and is important only on account 
of its bearing wpon the subject of sacrifices 
(q. v.). The question why his offering should 
have been accejited and that of Cain reject- 
ed, has been much discussed, and many hy- 
potheses proposed : as, 1, that he offered the 
firstlings of his flock, while Cain, a cheaper 
offering in the fruits of the ground ; 2, that 
his was a jiroper propitiatory sacrifice, in- 
volving the shedding of blood, and indica- 
ting his repentance for sin, while Cain's was 
only a gift, and indicated no sense of sin ; 
3, that Abel, by offering the flesh of those 
beasts whose skin covered his bodily naked- 
ness, indicated his sense of the need of the 
gift of the garments of righteousness from 
God; 4, that God had commanded a sacri- 
fice of blood for sin, and that Cain, follow- 
ing his own reason, substituted another, and, 



ABEYANCE 



ABIJAH 



as lie conceived, a more rational sacrifice. 
But tliere is no Scripture ground for suppos- 
ing any other reason tlian tliat one, being of- 
fered in real faitli, was a true act of worship, 
while the other was perfunctory and formal. 
The only Scriptural references to Abel, ex- 
cept those in Gen. iv., are Matt, xxiii., 35; 
Luke xi., 51 ; Heb. xi., 4 ; xii., 24. 

Abeyance (expectancy). In the Church of 
England, if the incumbent die and the church 
becomes void, the living is said to be in abey- 
ance until the next incumbent be presented, 
admitted, and inducted. 

Abiathar, high -priest and fourth in de- 
scent from Eli, who was of the line of Itha- 
mar, the younger son of Aaron. Abiathar 
was the only one of all the sons of Ahimelech 
the high-priest who escaped the slaughter in- 
flicted upon his father's house by Saul, in re- 
venge for his having inquired of the Lord for 
David, and given him the show-bread to eat ; 
though from Mark ii., 26, it would appear 
that the show-bread was given not by Ahim- 
elech, but by Abiathar, who seems to have 
ministered with his father. The death of 
Ahimelech made Abiathar the high -priest. 
He fled to David, and was thus enabled to 
inquire of the Lord for him. He adhered to 
David in his wanderings while pursued by 
Saul; was with him while he reigned in 
Hebron, the city of the house of Aaron ; car- 
ried the ark before him when David brought 
it up to Jerusalem ; continued faithful to 
him in Absalom''s rebellion; and "was af- 
flicted in all wherein David was afflicted." 
For some reason not explained in the Scrip- 
tures, David, notwithstanding his affection 
for Abiathar, divided the office of the priest- 
hood between him and Zadok, the represent- 
ative of the rival family of Eleazar.^ When 
Adonijah set himself up for David's successor 
on the throne in opposition to Solomon, Abi- 
athar sided with him, while Zadok was on 
Solomon's side. For this Abiathar was de- 
prived of the high-priesthood, and banished 
to his native village, Anathoth (q. v.), in the 
tribe of Benjamin. His life was spared only 
in consideration of his faithful services to 
David. The statement of 1 Kings iv., 4, that 
Zadok and Abiathar were the priests, may 
indicate simply that the office was legally 
vested in the latter, though he was not per- 
mitted to exercise the duties of his office un- 
der Solomon. Nothing more is heard of him 
after his deposition, which fulfilled the proph- 
ecies of 1 Sam. ii., 27-36, iii., 11-14, that the 
priesthood should be taken from the family 
of Eli. See Zadok. [1 Sams xxii. ; xxiii., 9; 
XXX., 7; 2 Sam. XV., 24-36 ; xvii., 15-17; xix., 
11 ; 1 Chron. xv., 11 ; 1 Kings ii., 26.] 

Abihu {worsMper or son of God), the second 
of the sons of Aaron, who, with his broth- 
ers Nadab, Eleazar, and Ithamar, was conse- 
crated for the priesthood. When, at the first 

* 2 Sam. viii., 17. See Ahimelech, 



establishment of the ceremonial worship, the 
victims offered on the great brazen altar 
were consumed by fire from heaven, it was 
directed that this fire should always be kept 
up, and that the daily incense should be 
burned in censers filled with it from the great 
altar. But one day Nadab and Abihu pre- 
sumed to neglect this regulation, and offered 
incense in censers filled with strange or com- 
mon fire. For this they were instantly struck 
dead by lightning, and were taken away and 
buried in their clothes without the camp.^ 
As immediately after the record of this trans- 
action, and in apparent reference to it, comes 
a prohibition of wine or strong drink to the 
priests whose turn it might be to enter the 
tabernacle, it is not unfairly surmised that 
Nadab and Abihu were intoxicated when they 
committed this serious fault in their minis- 
trations. [Exod. vi., 23 ; xxviii., 1 ; Lev. x., 
1-11 ; Numb, iii., 1-4.] 

Abijah {worsliiper of Jehovah) appears in 
five different forms in the Bible, as Abijah, 
Abijam, Abia, Abiab, and Abi.^ It is the 
name of several different personages, of 
whom the two most important are the fol- 
lowing : 

1. Son and successor of Rehoboam, and 
second king of Judah, B.C. 958. He made a 
vigorous but unsuccessful attempt to bring 
back to their allegiance the ten tribes who 
had rebelled under Rehoboam (q.v.). His 
address on the eve of battle to the Israelites 
indicates that he was attached to the relig- 
ious forms of his great-grandfather David, 
though he did not possess his spiritual faith.^ 
In his first battle a million and a half of 
men were engaged, according to our English 
version, though, according to some texts, it 
should read a hundred and fifty thousand. 
He was successful, but did not follow up his 
successes, relapsed into idolatrous practices, 
and died after a short reign of three years. 
A brief account of his life is given in 1 Kings 
XV., in which place he is called Abijam, and 
a fuller one in 2 Chron. xiii., the writer of 
which refers for further details to the books 
of a prophet by the name of Iddo, whose 
writings are lost. 

2. A descendant of Eleazar, the son of 
Aaron, who gave his name to the eighth 
of the twenty -four courses into which the 
priests were divided by David.* Only four 
of the courses returned from the captivity, of 
which that of Abijah was not one.^ But the 
four were divided into the origiaal twenty- 
four, with the original names ; and hence it 
happens that Zacharias, the father of John 



1 See Aaron.— 2 Abijam is the usual form in Kings : 
1 Kings xiv., 31 ; xv., 1, 7, 8, thouijh in one case Abi is 
used ; compare 2 Kings xviii., 2, with 2 Chron. xxix., 1 ; 
Abijah in Chronicles : 2 Chron. xiii. Abia is a Greek 
form of the same word: Matt, i.,7; Luke i., 5; but see 
1 Chron. iii., 10. Abiah is an incorrect mode of Auprli- 
cizinj? Abijah : 1 Sam. viii., 2 ; 1 Chron. ii., 24 ; vi., 28 ; 
vii., 8.-3 Compare 2 Chron. xiii., 9-11, with 1 Kings 
XV., 3.-4 ] Chron. xxiv., 10; 2 Chron. viii., 14; Neh. 
xii., 4, 17 5 Ezra ii., 3G-39 ; Neh. vii., 39^2. 



ABILENE 



ABJURATION 



the Baptist, is described as belonging to the 
course of Abia, i. e., Abijali.' 

Abilene, a tetrarcby of which the capi- 
tal was Abila, a city situated on the eastern 
slope of Antilibanus, in a district fertilized 
by the River Barada. Its name probably 
arose from the green luxuriance of its situa- 
tion.^ The name thus derived is quite suf- 
ficient to account for the traditions of the 
death of Abel, which are associated with the 
spot, and which are localized by the tomb 
called NeU HaUl, on a height above the ru- 
ins of the city. The city of Abila was 18 
miles from Damascus, and stood in a remark- 
able gorge called Suk Wady Barada, where 
the river breaks down through the mount- 
ain toward the plain of Damascus. The pre- 
cise limits of the district are unknown. The 
only Scriptural reference is Luke iii., 1. 

Abimelech (father of tJie king or i^oyal fa- 
ther). 1. It is probable that this title " royal 
father " was employed as a common saluta- 
tion of respect toward the Philistine kings, 
and thus became a designation of royalty in 
Philistia; as Pharaoh was in Egypt. This 
explains the repeated use of the name or title 
in reference to Philistine kings.^ Oriental 
kings still exercise the right of taking any 
unmarried woman for their harem ;^ nor is it 
uncommon to murder the husband that his 
wife may be seized by the tyrant. It was in 
accordance with this custom that Abimelech 
took Sarah from Abraham, and afterward 
his successor, perhaps his son, took Rebekah 
from Isaac. [Gen. xx. ; xxi., 22-32; xxvi.] 

2. The word is also twice used as a prop- 
er name ; once in 1 Chron. xviii., 16 (where 
some Hebrew manuscripts and the most 
ancient versions read Ahimelech),^ for the 
priest Abimelech (q. v.), and once in Judg. 
ix. The latter Abimelech was the illegiti- 
mate son of Gideon (b.c. 1200). He murder- 
ed all his brethren excepting Jotham, seven- 
ty in number, and took the throne which 
the Israelites had offered to Gideon, and he 
had refused." Jotham escaping, prophesied, 
in the famous parable of the trees, the fate 
which would overtake the citizens of She- 
chem for consenting to this massacre. " Let 
fire," said he, "come out from Abimelech and 
devour the men of Shechem." After submit- 
ting three years to the powerful but unprin- 
cipled despotism of Abimelech, the men of 
Shechem rebelled against him. The rebell- 
ion was put down with a strong and merci- 
less hand ; and in the course of the campaign 
Abimelech, surrounding with his men the 
temple of the god Berith, into which the de- 
feated Shechemites had fled, piled branches 
from the forest around it, set fire to them, 
and consumed both the temple and those 
who had sought refuge in it. In attempt- 



1 Luke i., 5.-2 See Abel.— 3 Gen. xx., 2; xxvi., 1; 
title of Psa. xxxiv. See Aonisn.— * See Women ; Ha- 
rem — 6 Compare 2 Sam. viii., 17, aud title to Psa. Iii. 
--6 Jadg. viii., 22, 23. 



ing, on a second campaign, the same method 
of warfare, he was felled to the ground by 
a piece of a millstone flung from the wall by 
a woman. He was mortally wounded, and 
called on his armor-bearer to kill him, in the 
vain hope thus to escape the peculiar dis- 
grace which attached to the warrior who 
was slain by a woman's hand.^ The story 
of his life and death, narrated in the ninth 
chapter of Judges, is important, both because 
it affords a striking illustration of the an- 
cient methods of war, and because it nar- 
rates the first effort to establish a monarchy 
among the Hebrews. 

Abishai (father of gifts), one of the sons 
of Zeruiah, David's sister, and a younger 
brother of Joab. Along with his brothers, 
Abishai attached himself early to the cause 
of David, shared with him in his protracted 
perils and struggles, and became ultimately 
one of the leading men around his throne. 
He appears to have been more distinguished 
for his courage and military prowess than 
for the graces of a divine life. On one oc- 
casion, when he accompanied David to the 
camp of Saul, and found the latter asleep 
on the ground, he sought permission to em- 
brace the opportunity of at once putting 
an end to the persecutor's life.'^ On another 
occasion he would fain have rushed upon 
Shimei, when coming forth to curse David 
in the day of his calamity, aud inflict on him 
summary vengeance, but was again met by 
the stern resistance of David.^ We find him 
also associated with Joab in the crafty and 
cruel policy to which Abner fell a victim, 
after he had been reconciled to the king.* 
These are the darker si^ots in the history of 
Abishai ; but the faith, and devotedness, and 
chivalrous ardor which he displayed in the 
cause of his leader must not be forgotten. 
None cast their lot with David more hearti- 
ly than Abishai, or risked more on his ac- 
count. On one occasion, to rescue David's 
life, he placed his own in imminent peril, 
and slew the Philistine giant Ishbi-benob, by 
whom his uncle was like to have been over- 
come. He was also one of the three who 
broke through the Philistine host, to obtain 
for David a draught of water from the well 
of Bethlehem. He is specially named in con- 
nection with the victories that were gained 
over the Edomites and the Ammonites,^ as a 
large share of the honor belonged to him. 
In regard also to personal bravery and indi- 
vidual exj)loits, he is ranked in the second 
class of David's heroes, and is celebrated as 
having withstood 300 men, and slain them 
with his spear." No account has been pre- 
served of his latter days, or of his death. 
See Abner. 

Abjuration, a formal and solemn recan- 
tation or denial of some doctrine, religious 



1 2 Sam. xi., 21.— 2 1 Sam. xxvi., 5-9.-8 2 Sam. xvi,^ 
9._4 2 Sam. iii., 30.— 6 1 Chrou. xviii., 12 ; 2 Sam. x., 10. 
—6 2 Sam. xxiii., 18. 



ABNER 



ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION 



or political, either previously entertained by 
the party abjuring, or charged upon him. In 
both the Eomau Catholic Church and the 
Church of England, such a formal abjura- 
tion of heresy is sometimes required of the 
real or suspected heretic. In the former 
Church, the refusal to abjure is punished by 
the Inquisition. In the latter, abjuration is 
required before the heretic is received again 
into the communion of the Church. 

Abner (enlightening), son of Ner, Saul's un- 
cle,^ and commander-in-chief of his army. 
He was a man of unquestionable military 
ability, and of prominence in the military 
annals of his age, but of an unscrupulous 
ambition, and capable of treacheries unwor- 
thy of a true hero. He first appears in his- 
tory at the battle in the valley of Elah, 
where, after David's encounter with Goliath, 
he introduced the shepherd-boy to the king. 
With Saul, he pursued David in the Wilder- 
ness of Ziph ; and when the latter, with Ab- 
ishai, crept down to the sleeping-camp and 
carried oif the spear and cruse of water from 
Saul's bolster, it was to Abner he called out 
from the distant hills, in bitter sarcasm, "Art 
not thou a valiant man 1 * * * Wherefore, 
then, hast thou not kept my Lord the king ?" 
After the death of Saul, it was he who pre- 
vented the union of the tribes under David 
by proclaiming Ishbosheth king of Israel, 
and sustaining the falling house of Israel 
during his imbecile reign. Defeated in the 
battle of Gibeon, and hard pursued by Joab's 
fleet-footed brother Asahel (q. v.), he killed 
him reluctantly in self-defense, rallied his 
troops at the hill of Ammah^ as the sun went 
down, and proposed to the wearied followers 
of Joab a truce, which they were only too glad 
to accex)t. In the desultory war that follow- 
ed between the house of David and the house 
of Saul, the unscrupulous Abner was the 
real, the imbecile Ishbosheth only the nom- 
inal king. At length the haughty general, 
"making himself strong for the house of 
Saul," and not improbably having designs 
upon the succession, married Eizpah, Saul's 
concubine. Ishbosheth mildly remonstrated. 
Abner replied with insulting language which 
the king dared not resent ; then, pretending 
an indignation which he could hardly have 
felt, he abandoned the house he could no 
longer sustain, to sell his services to Da- 
vid. He sheltered his treachery under the 
plea that the Lord had appointed David to 
reign over all Israel — a fact which he con- 
veniently forgot till it served his ambition 
to remember it. He went up to Hebron, 
closed the compact with David in the Ori- 
ental fashion with a feast, and started for 
his home to consummate his treachery by 
winning over the subjects of Ishbosheth to 



1 There is some uncertainty about his relationship, 
but this is the better opinion. Compare 1 Sam. ix., 1 ; 
xiv., 51, with 1 Chrou. viii., 33; ix., 39.-2 Mentioned 
only in 2 Sam. ii., 24 



his new master. Tradition says he was to 
have as his pay the command of the united 
armies of Judah and Israel. Just at this 
juncture David's nephew, Joab, returned 
from a pillaging expedition, laden with spoil. 
The proposition of Abner was reported to 
hiwi. He dreaded the ascendency of so pow- 
erful a rival. He hated the man who had 
slain his brother Asahel. Oriental public 
sentiment regards it as the duty of the next 
of kin to avenge the death of the slain. Con- 
science, therefore, did not deter him from re- 
venge. He endeavored to break up the com- 
pact by denouncing the treacherous Abner 
as a spy, but without success. He then re- 
sorted to treachery, sent messengers after 
Abner, called him back, took him aside, as 
if for a private conference, and assassinated 
him in the gate of the capital ho had just 
quitted. Abishai seems to have co-operated 
in some way in the murder,^ though how 
is not clear. This murder was a direct in- 
sult to David. The Oriental sheikh guards 
with his own life the person of the guest 
who has eaten at his table. David was fill- 
ed with indignation at the crime, but dared 
not punish it. He compelled the assassins 
to participate in the funeral ceremonies, fol- 
lowed the bier himself as a mourner, and ut- 
tered a simple elegy over the grave of the 
dead, but left the avenging of the double 
wrong to his son Solomon, who did not fail 
to execute the commission intrusted to him. 
Abner's death was the signal for the assas- 
sination of Ishbosheth (q. v.), and a general 
movement throughout Israel for that union 
of the two kingdoms which Abner had pro- 
posed but did not live to consummate. He 
left one son, Jaasiel, who is described, at a 
later period, as chief of the Benjamites. [1 
Sam. xvii., 55, 57 ; xxvi., 7, 13-16 ; 2 Sam. ii. ; 
iii.] 

Abomination of Desolation. This phrase 
is used by Christ in prophesying the approach- 
ing destruction of Jerusalem, and is evident- 
ly borrowed by him from the prophecies of 
Daniel.'^ Of the fulfillment of these prophe- 
cies there are two interpretations. The ear- 
lier commentators, following the Jewish in- 
terpreters, have considered them fulfilled by 
the profanation to which the Temple was at 
various times subjected by heathen conquer- 
ors. It was thus profaned prior to Christ's 
time by Antiochus Epiphanes (170 B.C.), who 
dedicated the Temple to Jupiter, and sacri- 
ficed unclean things to him on the altar of 
burnt -offerings ; it was again similarly pro- 
faned by the legions of Titus, who, after the 
capture of the city (a.d. 70), brought their 
standards to the Temple, set them up in the 
holy place, and offered sacrifice to them, for 
the Roman ensigns were really symbols of 
the heathen deities ; and finally it was treat- 
ed with even greater impiety by the action 



1 2 Sam. iii., 30,-2 Compare Matt, xxiv., 15, and 
Mark xiii., 14, with Dan. ix., 27: xi., 31; xii., 11. 



ABOMINATION OF DESOLATION 



ABRAHAM 



of Hadrian, who, after the destruction of 
the city, set up a figure of a boar over the 
Bethlehem gate of the city, erected a tem- 
ple to Jupiter on the site of the Jewish 
Temple, and caused an image of himself to 
be set up in what answered to the most 
holy place. To this interpretation it is ob- 
jected, first, that neither of these acts con- 




Aucient Eoman Standards. 

stituted a sign of the destruction of the 
city, since one occurred before the prophecy, 
and the other after the city was destroyed ; 
second, that the abomination of desolation 
indicates an abomination committed by the 
Jews themselves, which should cause the 
desolation to fall upon them. The second 
interpretation, therefore, explains the xDhrase 
by the iniquities practiced by the Zealots, 
who, in the reign of terror which preceded 
the destruction of Jerusalem, gained abso- 
lute control of the city. Their outrages cer- 
tainly were such as to constitute an abomi- 
nation of desolation. They took possession 
of the Temple, converted it into a strong- 



hold and " shop of tyranny," disannulled the 
priestly succession, cast lots for the high- 
priesthood, gave the office to a rustic " not 
only unworthy of the high-priesthood, but 
that did not Avell know what the high-priest- 
hood was," ridiculed the oracles of the proph- 
ets, murdered remorselessly whoever resist- 
ed or endeavored to escape from their rule, 
were easily bribed to permit such as could 
pay for the poor privilege to flee fi^om the 
city, yet, refusing even the rights of burial 
to all others that sought safety from the 
carnival of blood in flight, left their dead 
bodies to putrify under the hot sun of the 
Orient. This view is confirmed by Jose- 
phus, who says that it was an ancient say- 
ing, current at the time, that "the city should 
then be taken and burned by right of war, 
when a sedition should invade the Jews, and 
their own hand should pollute the Temple 
of God." 

Abraham {fatlier of a multitude). Among 
all names in sacred or secular history, saving 
only that of the Son of God himself, there is 
perhaps none more important in its varied 
relations than that of Abraham. It has en- 
tered alike into the Jewish and Mussulman 
traditions, and is scarcely less important in 
pagan history than in that of the Christian 
Church. Well is he called the father of a 
multitude, for not only does the Jewish na- 
tion, and so the Christian Church, trace its 
history back to him who was the founder of 
a race to bear witness to the one true God, 
but also connected with his house are no 
less than six important Oriental nationali- 
ties, besides the Israehtes — the Moabites, 
Ammonites, Edomites, Ishmaelites, Medan- 
ites, and Midianites. The curtailed genea- 
logical table below shows his relation to 
some of the other more important Biblical 
characters. 

Nor is it his place in history alone which 
gives to him his importance. As the Friend 
of God and Father of the Faithful, his life 
and character afford at once the most strik- 
ing and the most extraordinary exemplifi- 
cation of that life of faith which the Gos- 
pel makes the common jDrivilege of all — the 
most striking, by reason of the singular and 



FROM SHEM NINE GENERATIONS TO 
Terah. 



HaraB. 

I 



Lot 



Moab. 



Milcah. X Nahor. 
I I 



Benammi. 



Moabites. Ammonites, 



Bethuel. 

I 
Rebekah. 



Esau. 
Edomites. 



Sarah. 



Isaac. 
I 



Jacob. 

I 
Israelites. 



Abraham. 
X 



Hagar. 



Ishmael. 



Keturah. 



Medan. 



Ishmaelites. Medanites. 



Midian. 



Midianites. 



ABEAHAM 



ABEAHAM 



even romantic incidents of his life — tlie most 
extraordinary, since 4000 years of develop- 
ment have x3roduced no character before 
whose brighter glory the faith of Abraham 
grows dim. 

We first meet with Abram (high father), 
for this was his original name, in Ur of the 
Chaldees (q. v.), the precise location of which 
is still a matter of dispute, but which lay 
somewhere in the region north-east of the 
confluence of the Tigris and the Euphrates. 
He was certainly surrounded by an idola- 
trous people. His own father, Terah, was 
an idolater.^ With Terah, his father, Sarai, 
his wife, and Lot, his nephew, he takes part 
in one of those great migratory movements 
from the East to the West which has now 
so nearly completed the circuit of the globe. 
At Haran the family divides ; Terah dies, 
and Abram, with his wife and nephew, led by 
the command of God, continue their move- 
ment westward. He is now seventy -five 
years of age. With his entrance upon the 
land of Canaan, his eventful life begins. We 
shall not attempt to follow the story of that 
life in all its detail, but only to mark the 
more striking and significant events in it. 

Into Canaan Abram brought that worship 
of the true God which was to go out thence 
into all lands. How he himself was taught 
the knowledge of the true God, the sacred 
narrative does not tell us. Almost his first 
act, however, was to build an altar there, to 
be the seed of the universal Church. A wan- 
derer, living in tents throughout all his life, 
he had in the land promised to him and his 
seed only two possessions — an altar and a 
burial-place. A famine like that which af- 
terward drove Jacob and his sons into Egypt, 
drove their progenitor there, for Egypt was 
the granary of the world. There is no evi- 
dence that he went by divine direction ; if 
not, this fact may explain how it came to 
pass that he fell a prey to unmanly fears. 
The beauty of his wife, who was also his 
half-sister,^ attracted the King of Egypt. 
With the cunning which disx)layed itself 
conspicuously in some of his descendants, he 
sought to save his life by concealing the fact 
that Sarai was his wife, and gained position 
and wealth at the court by a dissimulation 
which endangered and might have sacri- 
ficed his wife's honor but for the interposi- 
tion of God.^ Eeturning from Egypt load- 
ed with increased wealth, " flocks and herds 
and tep.ts," the conjoined family of Abram 
and Lot found that " the land was not able 
to bear them that they might dwell to- 
gether," and they separated. Abram, with 



1 Josh, xxiv., 2.-2 Geu, xx., 12. Or possibly half- 
niece. Some scholars thiuk that the phrase daugh- 
ter here stands for granddaughter, and that Sarah is 
identical with the Iscah mentioned in Gen. xi., 29. 
—3 "The candor of the historian is shown by his ex- 
hibiting in such strong relief the dissimulation of 
Abram and the straightforward integrity of Pharaoh" 
(E. Harold Browne, D.D., "Speaker's Commentary" 
on Geu. xii., 11). 



a generosity which proves that his religion 
of faith was also one of good works, gave the 
choice of the land to Lot, who, with worldly 
wisdom as short-sighted as it was selfish, 
chose the well- watered plain of the Jordan, 
attracted by its fertility, and indifferent to 
the vices of its inhabitants. The first evi- 
dence of his folly was his being captured, 
with other inhabitants of the plain of Sodom 
and Gomorrah, by Chedorlaomer (q. v. ). The 
impetuosity and vigor of Abram's pursuit 
attest him at once a warm friend and a not 
insignificant warrior; while his conference 
with Melchizedec (q. v.), on his return in tri- 
umph, introduces us to one of the most inter- 
esting of the minor characters of the Bible. 
Coming back to a childless tent and a barren 
wife, it is not strange that his faith faltered. 
He believed that only in his adopted son 
Eliezer (q. v.) would his seed be blessed. 
When God declared to him that not Eliezer 
should be his heir, but his own son, he asked 
a sign; yet even then no other sign was 
given than the solemn ratification of the 
divine promise. In the Orient, when a cov- 
enant was to be made, it was customary for 
the contracting parties to procure an animal 
for sacrifice, divide it, place the halves oppo- 
site each other, and then pass between them. 
Thus Abram, at God's command, divided 
three animals chosen for sacrifice, and x)laced 
the pieces, in covenant fashion, over against 
each other ; " and it came to pass that when 
the sun went down, and it was dark, behold 
a smoking furnace, and a burning lamp that 
passed between those pieces." Still the fulfill- 
ment of the promise delayed. At length Sa- 
rai's impatience prevailed, and at her request 
her Egyptian bondwoman became Abram's 
wife, and in her son Ishmael (q. v.) Abram 
believed he had at last the- long -promised 
heir. Again God appeared to the patriarch, 
yet more explicitly announcing that his heir 
should be the child of his wife Sarai, and in 
attestation of that promise changed his name 
to Abraham {father of a multitude), and Sa- 
rai's into Sarah {princess) ; while at the same 
time he established, as a perpetual witness 
of the covenant, that rite ' of circumcision 
which possibly before, certainly afterward, 
was common to many people of the East. 
It was not long after this that three mys- 
terious strangers appeared and foretold the 
terrible visitation about to overtake Sodom 
and Gomorrah^ — a prophecy fulfilled despite 
the patriarch's intercession, since ten right- 
eous men were not to be found within the 
walls of the doomed cities. And now event 
follows event with startling rapidity. Isaac 
is born, the child of Abraham's old age ; at 
Sarah's instance, Hagar and Ishmael are driv- 
en from the tent to seek a home in the wil- 
derness ; a divine command requires him to 
sacrifice his only son Isaac ; and, strong in 
the faith that God can even raise him from 



See Cities of the Pl.ain. 



ABRAHAM 



ABEAHAMITES 



the dead/ lie prepares to offer the sacrifice, 
the consummation of which is prevented by 
divine interference. After this epoch the 
incidents in the life of Abraham are less 
important, yet still characteristic of the age 
and state of society. The death of Sarah 
and the marriage of Isaac leaves Abraham 
alone in his old age. He marries again, 
and by his wife Keturah has six sons — Zim- 
ran, Jokshan, Medan, Midian, Ishbok, and 
Shuah. Some of them became the founders 
of important tribes ; but Abraham never for- 
got the promise of God to Isaac ; and while 
he bestows upon the other children liberal 
gifts, sends them away from Isaac, who re- 
mains in possession of the paternal estate. 
The death of Abraham, which followed not 
long after, reconciles the ancient feud be- 
tween Sarah and Hagar, and Scripture nar- 
rative contains few touches more pathetic 
than the simple statement that his sons Isaac 
and Ishmael buried him in the cave of Mac- 
pelah, in the field which he had himself pur- 
chased for the tomb of his wife Sarah. He 
was 175 years old at his death. 

To the Bible student the life of Abraham 
has a many-sided interest. It is full of 
touches, graphic and pictorial, of Oriental 
life and customs. The caravan, the tent, 
.the chief resting at noon beneath its shad- 
ow ; his wife in her own tent, ready to make 
the cakes and prepare the usual meal of 
milk and butter ; the servant, ready to kill 
the calf for the unesj^ected guest ; the sys- 
tem of service — a slave system, indeed, yet 
one in which the steward of the household 
is as son and heir, and is characterized by a 
fidelity which our mere mercantile methods 
rarely, or never, secure — all these afford a 
photographic picture of patriarchal life, the 
remains of which still linger in Oriental cus- 
toms to attest the truthfulness of the de- 
scription.^ Yet far deeper than this is the 
interest which attaches to the life of Abra- 
ham as it is read by the devout student. It 
is not only that the covenant with Abraham, 
reaching down through the ages, is merged 
but not lost in that with Christ ; it is not 
only that the attempted sacrifice of Isaac 
points to the perfected sacrifice of God's own 
son ; it is not only that the narrative is full 
of hints and suggestions of the later reve- 
lations of the New Testament, such as, " God 
will j)rovide himself a lamb for a burnt-offer- 
ing ;"^ it is not only that the story of Abra- 
ham is an eloquent testimony to the value 
of family religion ; far more than this : of all 
the lives of faith which Paul has grouped in 
a record for our inspiration, that of Abra- 
ham is the grandest.'* The more we note 
the conformity of his outward life to that of 
the Bedouins of to-day, the more we recog- 
nize the force of that religious faith which 



1 Heb. xi., 10.— 2 Gen. xii., 5; xii., 10-13 ; xiii., 1 ; 
XV., 1 ; xvi., 1-3; xviii., 1, G-^S ; xx., 11, 12; xxiv., 1-3, 
67.-3 Geu. xxiv., 8.-4 Ileb. xi., 8-19. 



has made Abraham, indeed, the Father of 
the Faithful. '' The hands are the hands of 
the Bedouin Esau ; but the voice is that of 
Abraham, Isaac, and Jacob — the voice which 
stiU makes itself heard across deserts and 



continents and 



heard wherever there 



IS a conscience to listen, or an imagination 
to be pleased, or a sense of reverence left 
among mankind." 

Of this faith, the most remarkable illus- 
tration is the patriarch's ready compliance 
with the divine command to sacrifice his 
only son Isaac. That the account of this act 
of faith has been received with skepticism by 
many readers is not surprising, since prob- 
ably very few have read it who have not 
experienced the difficulty of the passage. It 
should, however, be remembered that it is 
treated in the Bible as a trial of faith, that 
God foresaw the end from the beginning, 
that he knew not only that Abraham would 
yield a ready obedience to the command, but 
would also be saved from fulfilling the sac- 
rifice, and that the example of faith thus af- 
forded would accomplish in future ages an 
incalculable amount of good, immeasurably 
more than enough to outweigh the immedi- 
ate anguish of the trial in the father's heart. 
On this subject it has been well said by Dean 
Stanley: "There are doubtless many diffi- 
culties which may be raised on the offering 
of Isaac ', but there are few, if any, which 
will not vanish away before the simple pa- 
thos and lofty spirit of the narrative itself, 
provided that we take it, as in fairness it 
must be taken, as a whole — its close not 
parted from its commencement, nor its com- 
mencement from its close; the subordinate 
parts of the transaction not raised above its 
essential primary intention. And there is 
no difficulty which will not be amply com- 
pensated by reflecting on the near approach, 
and yet the complete repulse, of the dan- 
ger which might have threatened the early 
Church. Nothing is so remarkable a proof 
of a divine and watchful interposition, as 
the deliverance from the infirmity, the ex- 
aggeration, the excess — whatever it is — to 
which the noblest minds and the noblest 
forms of religion are subject. We have a 
proverb which tells us that ' man's extrem- 
ity is God's opportunity.' St. Jerome tells 
us that the corresponding proverb among 
the Jews was, ' In the mount of the Lord it 
shall be seen ;' or, ' In the mountain the Lord 
will provide;' that is, 'As he had p.ity on 
Abraham, so he will have pity on us.' " 

Abrahamites, a Christian sect which arose 
in the end of the eighth and beginning of 
the ninth centuries, taking their name from 
Abraham or Ibrahim, their founder. At An- 
tioch, of which he was a native, he revived 
the opinions of the Paulicians (q. v.), and 
succeeded in gaining over to his sect a great 
number of the Syrians. This sect, however, 
was violently opi)osed by the Patriarch Syr- 



ABEAHA^I'S BOSOM 



ABSALOM 



iacuS; who seems to have soon extirpated 
them. The name Abrahamites was also giv- 
en to a sect of monks in the ninth century, 
who were exterminated by the Emperor The- 
odorus for their idolatry. 

The Abb^ Gregoire, in his '^ Histoire des 
Sectes Eeligieuses," mentions a modern sect 
of this name as having been discovered in 
Bohemia in 1782. They seem to have pro- 
fessed the religion of Abraham before his 
circumcision, to have believed in God, the 
immortality of the soul, and a future state 
of rewards and punishments; but they re- 
jected baptism, the doctrine of the Trinity, 
the divine legation of Moses, and recognized 
no Scripture but the Decalogue and the 
Lord's Prayer. M. Gregoire admits them to 
have been a simple and virtuous people. 
Though somewhat numerous, they were so 
scattered that they escaped public notice for 
a considerable period ; but, when discover- 
ed, aroused so bitter a persecution that they 
were forced to claim the protection of Em- 
peror Joseph II. This he refused, but re- 
quired them to join the Lutheran, Reform- 
ed, or Greek Church, or to leave the country, 
to which they could not return except by em- 
bracing the Roman Catholic religion. They 
were, in consequence, banished to Hungary. 

Abraham's Bosom. This phrase, used in 
Luke xvi., 22, as a description of heaven, 
takes its significance from the practice cus- 
tomary in the Orient, at the time of Christ, 
of reclining on couches at meals in such a 
way that each guest rested upon the bosom 
of his left-hand neighbor.^ This position 
with respect to the master of the house was 
one of especial honor, and only occupied by 
dear friends. To lie in Abraham's bosom, 
thus became a metaphor expressive of the 
highest spiritual condition and felicity, and, 
as such, was employed by Christ in contrast- 
ing the condition of Lazarus in the other 
world with that of the rich man who had 
his good things in his lifetime. See Meai.s ; 
Paradise. 

Abraxas. A number of ancient gems, 
bearing, in addition to other Egyptian de- 




Abraxas Gems, 
signs, the title of Abraxas, have been dis- 
covered in various parts of Egypt. Their 
origin is uncertain. By some scholars they 



^ See Banquet. 



are believed to be heathen in their nature ; 
by others, to have been formed by the Egj^- 
tian Gnostic Basilides.^ The latter opinion 
has been more generally entertained, and has 
given them the name of Basilidian gems. 
They appear, whatever their origin, to have 
been used as amulets to guard against poi- 
son, witchcraft, and similar ills. Their vir- 
tue lay in the word Abraxas. This is com- 
posed of seven Greek letters, which, accord- 
ing to Greek numeration, represent the num- 
ber 365 — the number of heavens and of an- 
gelic orders, according to the teaching of 
Basilides. The word itself thus stood prob- 
ably, though its meaning is not clear, for the 
Supreme Lord of the heavens ; though some 
have regarded it as standing only for chief 
of the angelic host, others have found in it 
a mystical reference to Jesus Christ, and yet 
others to the sun — the ruler of the 365 days 
which make up the year. Whether Basili- 
des invented the term, or borrowed it from 
the heathen, is uncertain. 

Absalom {father of peace), the son of Da- 
vid by Maachah f also called in 1 Kings xv., 
2, 10, Abishalom.^ He inherited the beauty 
which seems to have been a characteristic 
of the family of Jesse, and was in this re- 
spect the very flower and pride of the na- 
tion. The magnificence of his hair was some- 
thing wonderful. Year by year its weight 
was counted.* He had a sheep -farm near 
Ephraim, and apparently another' property 
in the king's dale;^ Stanley says near the 
Jordan valley. The outrage committed on 
his sister Tamar by his half-brother Amnon" 
it devolved on him to avenge ; for in polyg- 
amous countries the honor of a sister is even 
more intrusted to the brother than to the 
father. Amnon was slain by Absalom's re- 
tainers, and Absalom himself was compelled 
to retire in exile to his father-in-law's court 
at Geshur (q. v.). Thence he was brought 
back and seemingly reconciled to David 
through the influence of Joab. But his five 
years of separation from the paternal home 
had produced an estrangement not easily 
healed. That strength and violence of will 
which made him terrible among his brethren 
was now to vent itself against his father. He 
courted i^opularity by constantly appearing 
at the royal seat of judgment in the gate- 
way of Jerusalem. He affected royal state 
by the unusual display of chariots and war- 
horses, and runners to precede him. For four 
years^ he thus undermined his father's au- 
thority ; then, under pretext of a pilgrimage 
to Hebron, he there set up his claims to the 
throne, and became suddenly the head of a 
formidable revolt. Ahithophel, David's most 
confidential friend and trustiest adviser, and 
the grandfather of Bathsheba, David's fa- 



1 See Gnosticism.— 2 2 Sam. iii., 3 ; 1 Chrou. iii., 2. 
—3 Compare 2 Chron, xi., 20.— 4 2 Sam, xiv., 25, 2«.— 
5 2 Sam. xiii., 23; xviii., 18.— ^ See Amnon.—'' In 2 
Sam. XV., 7, the date of "forty" years should probably 
be " four." 



ABSALOM 



10 



ABSALOM 



vorite wife, joined him/ So did Abiathar, 
the chief- priest, and constant companion 
of the king from the days when he had 
fled, an outlaw in the forest of Hareth, from 
the persecutions of Saul. Broken in cour- 
age by these desertions, crushed by parental 
grief, weighed down by remorse,^ David, on 
the morning of the day he received the news 
of the rebellion, fled, without attempting 
resistance, from the city of Jerusalem. Of 
that flight after -history records a most pa- 
thetic description. He fled on foot. He 
would not suffer the ark or the priests to 
share his misfortunes. The proffered serv- 
ices of Ittai of Gath could not arouse him 
from his despondency, nor could the insults 
of Shimei awaken his indignation. One pre- 
cautionary step alone was taken. Hushai, a 
master of political strategy, was sent back 
to join the insurgents, and defeat, if possible, 
the treacherous counsel of Ahithophel. It 
was not till the exiles had reached the Jor- 
dan valley, not till the sun had set behind 
the western hills, and David in an agony of 
prayer had poured out his soul before God, 
that peace came back to his distraught soul, 
and he fell at length into a quiet and rest- 
ful sleep.® Meanwhile Absalom had arrived 
from Hebron, and, by the advice of Ahitho- 
phel, took the desperate step — the decisive 
assumption, according to Oriental usage, of 
royal rights — of seizing what remained of 
the royal harem in the most public and of- 
fensive manner — a remarkable fulfillment of 
Nathan's prophecy,* and a punishment sin- 
gularly just for David's sin with Bathsheba. 
The next advice was equally bold. The 
aged counselor himself offered that very 
night to pursue and cut off the king before 
he had crossed the Jordan. That single 
death would close the civil war. But Hu- 
shai, fresh from the top of Olivet, with his 
false professions of rebellion, drew a picture 
of the extreme difficulty of following Ahith- 
ophel's counsel, and sketched the scheme of 
a general campaign. Absalom gave way to 
the false counselor, and Hushai immediate- 
ly sent off his emissaries to David. Bare- 
ly escaping the pursuing runners of Absa- 
lom, who got upon their track, Jonathan 
and Ahimaaz (q. v.) brought the intelligence 
to David, and before daybreak he and those 
who were with him were across the Jordan ; 
there they saved themselves from imme- 
diate danger in the fortress of Mahanaim. 
Three months passed by of preparation by 
Absalom to consummate his rebellion by the 
death of his father the king, and the destruc- 
tion of his army. Of what nature was this 
handsome, long-haired youth, we may judge 
from the fact that such bloody counsel as 
that of Hushai could be grateful to him : 



1 Psa. xli., 9 ; Iv., 12-14, 21. See Aiiithopuel.— 2 Psa. 
xlL, 9; Iv., 12-14, 21.— 3 Psalms xliii., xlii., Iv., iv., and 
iii. were composed at this time, aud, read in this or- 
der, afford a wonderful revelation of David's experi- 
ence.— * 2 Sam. xii., 11. 



" Of him, and of all the men that are with 
him, there shall not be left so much as one." 
Amasa, his cousin, was put in command of 
the rebel army, and the pursuit of the flee- 
ing king was commenced. But David, mean- 
while, had taken heart. Allies had come to 
his succor from unexpected quarters.^ His 
army was well organized in three divisions, 
under the command of Joab, Abishai, and the 
faithful Ittai. Reluctantly the king remain- 
ed behind in the fortress. Of the battle 
which ensued in the forest of Ephraim (q. v.) 
history has preserved only the record of the 
close. David's veterans of the Ammonite 
wars were familiar with the interlacing 
thickets characteristic of the wild trans- 
Jordanic region. The troops of Absalom 
lost their way. Absalom, riding at full 
speed on his royal mule, suddenly met a de- 
tachment of David's army, and, darting aside 
through the wood, was caught by the head — 
perhaps entangled by his long hair^ — be- 
tween the thick boughs of an overhanging 
tree — "The Great Terebinth" — swei)t from 
the animal, and there remained suspended. 
None of the ordinary soldiers ventured to 
attack the helpless prince. Joab alone took 
upon himself the responsibility of breaking 
David's orders. He and his ten attendants 
formed a circle round the gigantic tree, in- 
closing its precious victim, and first by his 
three pikes, then by their swords, accomplish- 
ed the bloody work. Hard by was a well- 
known ditch, or pit, of vast dimensions. Into 
this the corpse was thrown, and covered by 
a huge mound of stones. Alike among Jews, 
Mohammedans, and Christians, the name of 
Absalom is forever covered with infamy. 




Absalom's Tomb. 



Mussulman legends represent hell as yawn- 
ing, at the moment of his death, beneath the 
feet of the unhappy prince ; and the modern 
Jews, as they pass the monument in the val- 



1 See SiioRi, Maohir, Baezillai.— 2 So says Jose- 
phus, Ant. vii., 10, § 2. 



ABSOLUTE 



ley of Kidron, to which they have given his 
name, have buried its sides deep in the stones 
which they throw against it in execration. 
This monument, just outside the walls of 
Jerusalem, is reported by tradition to be 
that erected by Absalom himself in memory 
of the three sons whom he had lost ;^ but the 
Ionic pillars which surround its base show 
that it belongs to a much later period. Ab- 
salom left one daughter, named after his sis- 
ter, Tamar.* [2 Sam. xiii.-xix.] 

Absolute stands opposed to relative, and 
means that the thing is considered in itself, 
and without reference to other things. In 
the language of modern metaphysics, the 
Absolute is the unconditioned, unalterable, 
original — that which is the ultimate ground 



11 ABSOLUTION 

thought itself always apprehended as the 
condition of the subject, never as the con- 
dition of the object." Again, one class of 
thinkers maintain that the Absolute is a real 
being, to be identified with God, while an- 
other school assert that it is only an idea — " a 
logical abstraction formed by the mind op- 
erating upon its own conceptions, and elim- 
inating from them all conception of space, 
time, bounds, conditions, or relativity." 

Absolution, originally a term of Eoman 
law, signifying acquittal, is now used in an 
ecclesiastical sense. In the primitive Chris- 
tian Church, members that had given scan- 
dal by gross and open sins were excluded 
from the Lord's Supper, or from the con- 
gregation altogether, and could be re-admit- 




Grauting Absolution. 



of the phenomena of the visible world. It 
is very nearly synonymous with Deity, ex- 
cept that in metaphysical discussions it is 
purely impersonal. The word is the centre 
of a great deal of important and fundament- 
al, but mystical, discussion. One class of 
philosophers contend that we have no knowl- 
edge of the Absolute ; that we know things 
and beings only in their relations ; that the 
relative alone is the subject of thought. An- 
other class maintain that though we only 
apprehend the Absolute in its relations, yet 
we have a real conception of the Absolute ; 
that though " to think is, in a certain sense 
to condition, yet the condition is in the 



1 Comp. 2 Sam. xiv., 2T, with xviii,, 18.— ^ 2 Sam. 
xiv., 27. 



ted only if they repented and underwent 
the penance laid upon them by the Church. 
When they had done so, the presbyter, along 
with the elders, pronounced the absolution 
in presence of the congregation, meaning 
that the congregation forgave the offense 
on their part, and received the sinner again 
into their number. Down to the third cen- 
tury, the concurrence of the congregation 
continued to be necessary to absolution. 
But by the fourth century it had become a 
right of bishops to absolve, and the public 
confession had gradually turned into a pri- 
vate confession before the priest, who now 
imposed the penance of himself, modified or 
remitted it, and then absolved, excepting in 
the case of gross crimes, which were called 



ABSOLUTION 



12 



ACADEMICS 



reserved cases, and in ATliicli tlie priest left 
the pardon to be granted by a bishop, arch- 
bishop), or the Pope himself. Absolution had 
not, as yet, been extended to any but open 
and gross sins ; but when the dominion of 
the hierarchy over men's minds had reached 
its height, and the Fourth Lateran Council 
(1215) had made auricular confession at least 
once a year obligatory, confession and its 
attendant absolutions were extended to all 
sins whatever ; and the absolution was made 
to convey, not merely as before, forgiveness 
on the part of the Church, but forgiveness 
in the sight of God. The formula, " God or 
Christ absolve tliee,^^ which was used tiU the 
twelfth century, was changed into "J absolve 
thee;" thus ascribing to the priest the power 
to forgive sins in the sight of God. This is i 
still the received theory of absolution in the 
Roman Catholic Church, sanctioned by the 
Council of Trent, and grounded on John xx., 
21, 23. In the Greek Church, on the contra- 
ry, the ancient form is still employed. The 
ceremony of granting absolution as it is 
practiced in Eome during Holy AVeek is a 
very singular one, at least -to the Protest- 
ant observer. The crowds are too great to 
allow individual conference with each one. 
The cardinal who grants the absolution 
takes his seat in the confessional box ; the 
crowd approaches ; valets preserve order ; 
five or six penitents kneel at once ; and the 
cardinal then reaching out a long pole, touch- 
es their heads in quick succession about as 
rapidly as one can count. This serves as a 
complete i)ardon for all past transgressions. 

In the reaction of the reformation against 
the priesthood, the doctrine of absolution 
was generally abandoned. At least it was 
not recognized by Luther, and it has no 
place in the liturgy of Cahin, though Cal- 
vin liimself is reported to have regretted its 
omission. In the Episcopal Church, the doc- 
trine and practice of absolution was pre- 
served, and still finds a place in the Prayer- 
book. The language employed, however, is 
somewhat ambiguous, and there is some dif- 
ference of opinion as to its proper interpre- 
tation. But all authorities unite in regard- 
ing it in a light very different from that of 
the Roman Church. In a general way the 
Episcopal doctrine of absolution may be thus 
stated: Some power of absolving or remit- 
ting sins was bestowed upon the apostles, 
and for this assertion the following passages 
of Scripture are cited: Matt, xvi., 19; xviii., 
18 ; John xx., 21-23 ; Acts ii., 38 ; 2 Cor. ii., 
10 ; Gal. vi., 1 ; James v., 14, 15. This pow- 
er remains Avith their successors in the min- 
istry, and is bestowed ui)on the priest at the 
time of his ordination. It is not, however, 
a discretionary power of forgiving sins, for 
it is not claimed that the i)riest has any dis- 
cernment of the spirit and hearts of men as 
the apostles had, but is only a power of pro- 
nouncing authoritatively in the name of God 



the divine pardon and forgiveness to all true 
penitents and sincere believers. "It must 
be regarded," says a recent Episcopal author- 
ity, "as an authoritative act of the Church 
sown broadcast, to become an indiAi.dualized 
pardon of sin wherever there is good soil in 
which it can take root." 

Abyssinian Church. The country of Ab- 
yssinia forms the principal part of those ter- 
ritories which the ancients comprised under 
the name of Ethiopia. A tradition among 
the people themselves attributes their con- 
version to Christianity to the instructions 
of the treasurer of Candace, queen of Ethi- 
oiDia.^ The best historical authority, how- 
ever, attributes the origin of the Abyssinian 
Church to the middle of the fourth century, 
at which time it appears to have been or- 
ganized by Frumentius, who was ordaiued 
bishop of Auxuma, the chief city of the Ab- 
yssinians, by Athanasius. In doctrine the 
Church is Monophysite (q. v.), or Eutychian ; 
that is, they maintain that there is only one 
nature in the person of Christ, his humanity 
being absorbed in his divinity. But even 
on this point they are by no means agreed 
among themselves, the theological contro- 
versies concerning the person of Christ be- 
ing exceedingly bitter on such questions, 
for example, as whether Christ praises the 
Father in heaven, or reigns equal with him. 
In other respects they resemble the Romish 
Church in both faith and worship. They 
practice the invocation of saints, prayer for 
the dead, and the veneration of relics. They 
maintain monastic institutions, and their 
churches are richly ornamented with pic- 
tures ; but they deny transubstantiation, re- 
ject the use of images, and practice a form 
of circumcision on both sexes. The priests 
may be married men, but may not marry af- 
ter receiving orders. They are very illiter- 
ate, and there is no preaching. The supreme 
government lies with a patriarch, called Abu- 
na (i. e., Our Father). He is appointed to 
his office by the Patriarch of Alexandria; 
and for the purpose of securing greater 
learning than could be found in an Abyssin- 
ian, he is required to be a foreigner. He re- 
sides at Gonder, where he has a handsome 
j)alace. Several unsuccessful attempts have 
been made by the Romish Church to compel 
the submission of the Abyssinian Church to 
the Roman pontiff. 

Academics, a name given to such philos- 
ophers as adopted the doctrines of Plato. 
They were so called from the name of the 
place in which that philosopher was accus- 
tomed to meet and converse with his pupils. 
This was a garden, or grove, in the suburbs 
of Athens, said to have once belonged to the 
hero Academus. In the fifth century B.C. it 
was beautified by Cimon, the son of Milti- 
ades, and given to the city as a pleasure- 
ground. It is to the present day known 



1 Acts viii., 27. 



ACCAD 



13 



ACCHO 



as the Akademia. The variations of doctrine 
among the successors of Plato gave rise to 
three successive schools, known respectively 
as the Old, the Middle, and the New Acad- 
emy ; the first teaching the doctrines of Pla- 
to in their purity ; the second, in a modified 
form ; the third, pursuing prohaWity as the 
only attainable wisdom. Socrates is said to 
have professed that all he knew was that 
he knew nothing; Arcesilaus, the founder 
of the Middle Academy, to have denied that 
he knew even that. The Academics and 
Epicureans (q. v.) were prominent sects in 
philosophy at the time of Christ's birth. 
Accad, one of the five cities that were 



built by Mmrod in the land of Shinar, or 
Babylonia/ It is sujjposed that a remarka- 
ble pile of ancient buildings, known by the 
name of Aker-koof, and situated in Sittacene, 
about nine miles west from the Tigris, may 
be the remains of the ancient city ; but 
nothing certain can be ascertained on the 
subject, especially as so little is known of 
the original place itself. 

Accho (sun -heated), now called Acre, or 
more usually, by Europeans, St. Jean d'Acre, 
the most important sea -port town on the 
Syrian coast, about thirty miles south of 
Tyre. It was situated on a slightly project- 
1 Geii. X., 10. 




The Bay of Acre. 



ACELDAMA 



14 



ACHAN 



ing headland, at tlie northern extremity of 
that siDacious bay which is formed by the 
bold promontory of Carmel on the opposite 
side. In the division of Canaan among the 
tribes, Accho fell to the lot of Asher, but was 
never wrested from its original inhabitants ;^ 
and hence it is reckoned by the classical 
writers among the cities of Phoenicia. No 
further mention is made of it in the O. T. 
history, but it rose to importance after the 
dismemberment of the Macedonian empire. 
Along with the rest of Phoenicia, it fell to 
the lot of Egypt, and was named Ptolemais, 
after one of the Ptolemies — probably Soter. 
It was afterward taken by Antiochus the 
Great, and attached to his kingdom. The 
only notice of it in the N. T. is in connection 
with St. Paul's passage from Tyre to Csesa- 
rea, where it is called by its Egyptian name, 
for which, however, with the decay of Greek 
and Koman sway, the ancient name has been 
substituted. In modern history it possesses 
a position of greater importance. The key 
to Palestine, it has suffered successive sieges 
— by Baldwin, by Saladin, by Richard, by 
Khalil, by Napoleon, by Ibrahim Pacha, and 
by Sir Charles Napier. Its only importance 
at the present time is as a military post; 
its mimicipal regulations are according to 
the laws of war, and its partially -restored 
fortifications, between two and three miles 
in length, are skillfully planned and very 
substantial. Its population in 1819 was com- 
puted at 10,000, of whom 3000 were Turks, 
the rest Christians of various denominations. 
Aceldama {the field of blood). There are 
in the N. T. two differing accounts of the 
death of Judas ; one by Matthew, the other 
by Luke.^ According to Matthew, Judas re- 
turned the money paid him for the betrayal 
to the Sanhedrim ; they received it, and X3ur- 
chased with it a potter's field, as a burial- 
ground for strangers, because it was not law- 
ful to put the price of blood into the treas- 
ury. Wherefore he says " that field was call- 
ed the field of blood unto this day." He adds 
that this fulfilled a prophecy of Jeremiah : 
"And they took the thirty pieces of silver, 
the price of him that was valued, whom they 
the children of Israel did value, and gave 
them for the potter's field as the Lord ap- 
pointed me." Luke says Judas purchased a 
field with the reward of iniquity, " and fall- 
ing headlong, he burst asunder in the midst, 
and all his bowels gushed out;" and that 
the notoriety which attached to it from this 
circumstance caused it to be called Acel- 
dama, i. e., the field of Hood. These two ac- 
counts present two difficulties : 1. There is 
no such prophecy in Jeremiah as is indicated 
by Matthew; 2. The accounts themselves 
seem to conflict. 1. The solution of the first 
difficulty is aiforded by the fact that a sim- 
ilar prophecy is found in Zech. xi., 12, 13. 



1 Jndg. i., 31.— 2 Matt, xxvii., 5-10; Acts i., 18, 19. 
See JcDis IsoARioT. 



Either, as Alford has supposed, the sacred 
writer, quoting from recollection only, made 
a mistake in his reference, or the name was 
subsequently changed by a transcriber's er- 
ror ; and Mr. Barnes has shown that the 
change of a single letter in the Greek would 
suffice to account for the alteration in names. 
2. The other difficulty is more considerable. 
The most probable explanation is, that Mat- 
thew has given the fuller account, and that 
in Acts Judas is said to have purchased the 
field because it was purchased with his mon- 
ey. It is not uncommon in the sacred, as in 
other narratives, to represent one as doing 
what he is only the cause or occasion of an- 
other's doing.^ According to this explana- 
tion, the facts would be as follows : Judas 
returned the money to the priests. They 
purchased with it a field of some well-known 
potter, at a small price, probably because it 
had been rendered useless for tillage by ex- 
cavation for clay. Hither, by a coincidence 
which must be regarded as of divine ordain- 
ing, Judas, drawn by remorse, retreated to 
commit suicide, and his bloody and violent, 
but mysterious death, coupled with the fact 
that the price of treachery had purchased 
the field, gave to it its name of Aceldama. 
The site is unknown. The ecclesiastics, 
however, have fixed upon a site for it — a 
point just outside the walls of Jerusalem, on 
the south of Mount Zion, formerly used as a 
burying-place by the Armenian Jews of Je- 
rusalem. That the " field of blood" should 
ever have been regarded as a sacred spot is 
one of the curiosities of Church history. 
Such, however, is the fact. It was believed 
in the Middle Ages that the soil of this place 
had the power of A^ery rapidly consuming 
bodies buried in it ; and in consequence either 
of this, or of the sanctity of the spot, great 
quantities of the earth were taken away; 
among others, by the Pisan Crusaders in 
1218, for their Campo Santo at Pisa, and by 
the Empress Helena for that at Rome. 

Achaia signifies, in the N. T., a Roman 
province, which included the whole of the 
Peloponnesus, and the greater part of Hel- 
las proper, with the adjacent islands. This 
province, with that of Macedonia, compre- 
hended the whole of Greece ; hence Achaia 
and Macedonia are frequently mentioned to- 
gether in the N. T. to indicate all Greece.'^ 
In the time of the Emperor Claudius it was 
governed by a proconsul, translated in our 
English version " deputy," of Achaia.' 

Achan (trouhler), an Israelite of the tribe 
of Judah, who, when Jericho and all that it 
contained were accursed and devoted to de- 
struction, secreted a portion of the sj)oil in 
his tent. For this sin Jehovah punished 
Israel by their defeat in the attack upon Ai. 
When Achan confessed his guilt, and the 



1 Matt, xxvii., 59, 60; John xix., 1; Acts ii., 23.— 
2 Acts xix., 21 ; Rom. xv., 2(5; 2 Cor, ix., 2; 1 Thess. 

i., 7, S.— 3 Acts xviii., 12. 



ACHISH 



15 



ACOLYTE 



booty was discovered, lie was stoned to death, 
with his whole family, by the people, iu a 
valley situated between Ai and Jericho, and 
their remains, together with his property, 
were burned. From this event the valley, 
which is situated in the northern boundary 
of Judah, received the name of Achor^ (i-e., 
trouble). It retained its significance to a late 
day.'^ The severity of the j)unishment does 
not accord with our modern ideas, nor with 
the exigencies of modern society, and its in- 
clusion of the family with the guilty head is 
not consonant with our ideas of justice. It 
is to be remembered, however, that Achan's 
act was one of military insubordination, and 
plunderers are, to the present day, punished 
by the rules of war both summarily and se- 
verely ; that it is not at all improbable that 
his household were accessories, and certain- 
ly could hardly have been ignorant of his 
crime ; that severer punishments were need- 
ed in that age and among that peoi)le than 
at the present era, and that the punishment 
seems to have accomplished its end in put- 
ting a stop to private robbery and plunder 
in the future campaigns of Israel under 
Joshua, as well as in warning the people 
against disobedience of God's commands.^ 
Achan is also spelled Achar in 1 Chron. ii., 7. 
[Josh, vii.] 

Achish {angry), called also, in the title to 
Psa. xxxiv., Abimelech (q. v.), the name of a 
king of Gath (q.v.), or possibly a general 
title of royalty, like Abimelech or Pharaoh. 
David twice sought refuge in the court of 
Achish from the persecutions of Saul. On 
the first occasion, being recognized as the 
Hebrew warrior by some of the officers of 
the Philistine court, he was, it is said, " sore 
afraid of Achish, king of Gath, and he 
changed his beha\dor before them, and feign- 
ed himself mad in their hands." Mad per- 
sons were regarded with a sort of super- 
natural horror, as i^ossessed by evil spirits, 
and David was suffered to escape. To de- 
fend David from the charge of prevarication, 
it has also been insisted that the trying ex- 
periences through which he had passed, the 
news of the wholesale murder of the priest 
Abimelech's family, and the fear of the Phil- 
istines, combined to derange his mind tem- 
j)orarily. But the history as recorded in 
1 Sam. xxi., 10-15, and the xxxivth Psalm, 
composed on this occasion, are both incon- 
sistent with this hypothesis. On his second 
flight to Achish, David received a present of 
the walled city of Ziklag, and remained in 
the territory of the Philistines for a year and 
four months. He secured the confidence of 
Achish, but could not avoid the suspicion of 
his officers, and their protests j^revented him 
from going up to the battle of Gilboa. The 
Achish mentioned in 1 Kings ii., 39, 40, was 

1 Josh, vii., 26 ; xv., 7.-2 Isa. ]xv., 10 ; Hop. ii., 15.— 
^ An illustration of the moral efiect produced by the 
punishment is afforded by Josh, xxii., 20. 



probably a descendant of the other. [1 Sam. 
xxi., 10-15; xxvii. ; xxix.] 

Achmetha, the ancient and Scriptural 
name of Ecbatana, the metropolis of Media. 
It occurs in the Scriptures only in Ezra vi., 
2, where it is said that the decree of Darius 
was found at Acmetha, which is rendered in 
the margin, and by many commentators, in a 
coffer. In the Apocrypha and in Josephus, 
Ecbatana is the word used. Two cities of 
the name of Ecbatana seem to have existed 
in ancient times: one the capital of Northern 
Media ; the other the metropolis of the more 
important province known as Media Magna. 
The site of the former appears to be marked 
by the very curious ruins at TaMt-i- Suleiman 
(lat. 36^ 28', long. 47° 9') ; while that of the 
latter is occupied by Hamadan, which is one 
of the most important cities of modern Per- 
sia. There is generally some difficulty in 
determining, when Ecbatana is mentioned, 
whether the northern or the southern me- 
tropolis is intended. Few writers are aware 
of the existence of the two cities, and they 
lie sufficiently near to one another for geo- 
graphical notices, in most cases, to suit ei- 
ther site. The northern city was the " sev- 
en-walled town " declared by Herodotus to 
have been the caiDital of Cyrus ; and hence 
it was, most probably, there that the roll 
was found which proved to Darius that Cyrus 
had really made a decree allowing the Jews 
to rebuild their temple. The peculiar fea- 
ture of the site of TaMit-i- Suleiman is a con- 
ical hill rising to the height of about 150 feet 
above the plain, and covered both on its top 
and sides with massive ruins of the most an- 
tique and primitive character. 

Achshaph {fascination), a royal city of 
the Canaanites, in the northern part of Pal- 
estine, and on the eastern borders of the 
tribe of Asher. Its site is uncertain, but it 
is most probably to be identified with the 
ruined village of Kesaf, a little south of the 
Litany, and nearly midway between the Med- 
iterranean and the Upper Jordan. [Josh, xi., 
1; xii.,20; xix.,25.]. 

Achzib {falsehood). 1. A town in the plain 
of Judah, probably the same with the Chezib 
mentioned in Genesis xxxviii., 5, where She- 
lah was born, and the Chozeba of 1 Chron. 
iv., 22 ; where his descendants were finally 
located. [ Josh, xv., 44 ; Mic. i., 14.] 

2. A town belonging to Asher from which 
the Canaanites were not expelled. It is now 
es-Zib, on the sea-shore, about ten miles 
north of Acre. [ Judg. i., 31. ] 

Acolyte {follower), a name occurring first 
about the third century, and applied to func- 
tionaries who assisted the bislioj) and priests 
in the performance of religious rites, light- 
ing the candles, presenting the wine and wa- 
ter at the communion, etc. They were con- 
sidered as in holy orders, allowed to wear 
the surplice, and ranked next to sub-deacons. 
From the fact that one of their duties was 



ACRE 16 

to light the candles on the altar, they were 
sometimes called accensorii. Their services 
have, since the seventh century, been per- 
formed by laymen and boys, who are im- 
properly called acolytes ; but in the Romish 
Church aspirants to the priesthood are still 
at one stage consecrated as acolytes, receiv- 
ing candles and cups, as the symbols of the 
office. 

Acre. The word occurs twice in the Scrip- 
tures as a measure of land: once in 1 Sam. 
xiv., 14; once in Isa. v., 10. The word so 
translated properly signifies a yoke, by which 
two oxen were bound together ; but it came 
to be used metaphorically of the quantity 
of ground which they could plough in a day. 

Acta Sanctorum {Acts of the Saints), a ti- 
tle given to collections of the lives of the 
saints of the ancient Church. The most 
celebrated of these collections is that com- 
menced by Heribert Rosweyd, and contin- 
ued by Boland in the seventh century. It 
has now been 200 years in progress, and has 
reached the fifty-sixth folio volume. Fifty 
more folio volumes are expected to complete 
the work, which is under the direction of the 
Jesuits. There are other similar collections, 
more ancient, of the lives of the martyrs, 
known as Acta Martymm, the first of which, 
now lost, was written in the third century. 

Acts of the Apostles, the fifth book of 
the New Testament, and the last of its his- 
torical books. The title was given, not by 
the author, but by a transcriber. That the 
author of this book is the same as that of 
the third Gospel, is evident from several 
considerations, from the address to Theoph- 
ilus, and the reference to a previous treatise 
similarly addressed ;' from the strong resem- 
blance in the style of the two books ; from 
parallelisms particularly noticeable in the 
description of the shipwreck in Acts and the 
storm on the Sea of Galilee in the Gospel ; 
from intimations slight, and yet noticeable, 
of the author's knowledge of disease and his 
use of medical terms ;^ and from the fact 
that Luke, who describes himself as the 
traveling-companion of Paul even to Rome 
itself, is several times referred to by Paul as 
being with him in Rome.^ That the author 
of both is Luke is the universal testimony 

of antiquity.* The sources of the author's 

information appear to have been personal 
knowledge, inquiry of contemporaries, and 
documents preserved in the primitive church- 
es. That he was with Paul, and knew per- 
sonally the more important events narrated, 
is evident from the form of his narration. 
That the story of the shipwreck was written 
by an eye-witness is, for example, unmistak- 
able.^ Other events, as, for example, the de- 



1 Compare Acts i., 1, with Luke i., 3.-2 Compare 
Luke iv., 38; viii., 43, 44, with Acts iii., 7; xii., 23; 
xiii., 11; xxviii., 8.— =* Comp. Acts xxviii., with Col. 
iv., 14; 2 Tim. iv., 11 ; Philem. 24.—'* For further ac- 
count of author, see Luke. — ^ Acts xxvii. See also 
Acts xvi., 11-16; XX., 5, 13. 



ACTS OF THE APOSTLES 

liverance of Peter — in the account of which 
the very name of the servant who opened 
the door is given' — are written with a detail 
which indicates very plainly that the infor- 
mation was obtained from those who were 
present. The length and seeming accuracy 
of Stephen's address '^ is such as has given 
rise to the hypothesis that it was preserved 
among the documents of the Church at Je- 
rusalem, from which source it was taken by 
Luke. The story of Paul's conversion is ev- 
idently derived from Paul himself In re- 
porting the speeches of the apostle, Luke 
seems to have given only the substance in a 
condensed form ; but the traces of Paul's pe- 
culiar style are unmistakable in them, espe- 
cially in those which are rejjorted at any 

length. The history was written for the 

universal Christian Church, Jew and Gen- 
tile. The opening address to Theophilus (of 
whom nothing else is known) is only a form 
of dedication, if, indeed, the name is not alle- 
gorical, standing for all those who love God. 
The word " lover of God ^^ gives some warrant 
to this hypothesis. /The object of the histo- 
ry appears to have been to give an account 
of the fulfillment of the promise of the Fa- 
ther by the descent of the Holy Spirit, and 
the results of that outpouring by the disper- 
sion of the Gospel among Jews and Gentiles. 
As the Apostle Paul was the chief instru- 
ment in this aggressive work of Christian- 
ity, the book is in reality a life of the Apos- 
tle Paul. But it has been well said that it 
might rather be called the Acts of the Holy 
Ghost than the Acts of the Apostles. The 
work of the apostle is described only as it 
relates to the extension of the Gosjiel among 
the Gentiles. ^Vliat the four Gospels are to 
the earthly life of Christ, that of the Acts 

is to the ministration of the Spmt. The 

time and i)lace of writing are uncertain. It 
seems most probable that it was written in 
Rome, about two years after Paul's arrival 
there, as related in chapter xxviii., 16. The 
chronology of the book is involved in much 
obscurity, and has given rise to a great deal 
of discussion among scholars. It can never 
be settled with any degree of certainty ; but 
the following chronological table, taken from 
McClintock and Strong's '' Cyclopaedia," may 
help the reader in tracing the course of its 
history : 



DATB 




LEADING EVENTS. 


CHAPTER. 


May, A.D 


.29. 


Election of Matthias 


i., 15-26, 




29. 


Descen t of the Holy Spirit 


ii.,1-41. 


June, 


29. 


Cure of the cripple, etc 


iii., iv. 


July, 


29. 


Judgment of Ananias and Sapphira. 


V. 


Sept., 


29. 


Appointment of Deacons 

Martj'rdom of Stephen 


vi. 


Dec, 


29. 


vii. 


April, 
May, 


30. 


Conversion of the Eunuch 


viii. 


30. 


Conversion of Paul 


ix.,1-21. 


31. 


Prosperity of the Church 


ix.,31. 


Summer, 


32. 


Peter's preaching tour 

Conversion of Cornelius 


ix., 32-43. 


Sept., 


32. 


X.; xi.,1-18. 


Spring, 


33. 


Paul's escape from Damascus to Je 








rusalem 


ix., 22-30. 




34. 


Founding of the Church at Antioch. 


xi., 19-26. 


Spring, 


44. 


Martyrdom of James and imprison 








ment of Peter 


xii. 




44. 


Paul's eleemosynary visit to Jerusa 








lem 


xi., 27-30. 


44 


,45. 


Paul's first missionary tour 


xiii., xiv. 



Acts xii., 13.— 2 Acts vii. 



Spring, 



ACTS OF PILATE 



BATE. LEADING EVENTS. CHAPTER. 

47. Paul's "second" visit to Jerusalem, xv., 1-35. _ 



17 



ADAM 



47-51. Paul's second missionary tour. 



49. 

50. 

51-55 



1st Epistle to the Thessalonians.] 
'2d Epistle to the Thessalonians.] 
"aul's third missionary tour 



51. [Epistle to the Galatians.l 

54. [1st Epistle to the Corinthians.] 

54. [2d Epistle to the Corinthians.] 



54. [1st Epistle to Timothy. 

55. [Epistle to the Romans.^ 
55-58. Paul's first visit and imprisonment 

at Rome. 



S 



ixi.,18-xxviii.,31. 

Acts of Pilate. It was customary in the 
Roman Empire for local governors to send 
to the emperor an account of remarkable 
transactions occurring in their respective 
provinces. These were entitled the Acts of 
their governments. Such an account, sent 
by Pilate to tlie Emperor Tiberius concern- 
ing Jesus Christ, his miracles, death, and 
resurrection, is referred to by some ancient 
writers. Nothing is known, however, of this 
document except through such incidental 
references in later ecclesiastical writers. 

Adah (ornament), one of the wives of La- 
mech, and also one of the wives of Esau. 
The latter seems to have been originally 
called Judith,^ but, in accordance with a 
practice quite common in the East, Avith a 
change of state assumed a change of name. 
[Gen. iv., 19; xxxvi.,4.] 

Adani (red earth, or earthy red). The mean- 
ing is not altogether clear; some scholars 
derive it fi'om the material of Avhich his body 
is said to have been composed, others from 
the ruddy glow which characterizes a body 
in the state of health, while still others find 
a derivation in an entirely different Hebrew 
word indicating resemblance, from his like- 
ness to God.^ The story of his creation, 
temx^tation, and fall, as contained in the first 
three chapters of Genesis, is familiar, and 
need not be repeated here. After his sin he 
was expelled from the garden. He had sub- 
sequently sons and daughters born to him — 
how many we are not told ; three of his sons 
only being mentioned — Cain, Abel, and Seth. 

It is very certain that this Scripture nar- 
rative, as it would be read by the plain, un- 
lettered reader, would not be difficult of in- 
terpretation. He would judge unhesitating- 
ly that it was intended to afibrd a narration 
of the origin of the human race ; that in the 
opinion of the writer the whole race sprang 
from a single -paii ; that the first man was 
created at a comparatively recent period, 
within certainly from four to six or seven 
thousand years before Christ ; that he was 
made pui'e, innocent, holy ; that from his 
first estate he fell by transgression, and that 
the sin in which the whole human race is 
now involved was in consequence, or at least 
partly in consequence, of this transgression. 
But scientific theories throw some doubt 
upon this interpretation. 11 is asserted that 
the human race did not spring from one 
pair, but from several ; that it did not orig- 
iuate at a comparatively recent, but at a 



' Gen. xxvi., 34.-2 gee the different derivations in 
McCliutock and Strong's "Cyclopaedia," art. Adam. 

2 



very remote period ; and that it has not 
fallen from a perfect state into its present 
condition, but risen to its present condition 
from one of abject ignorance and barbarism. 
These opinions, maintained by certain sci- 
entific and philosophic schools, have given 
rise to some peculiar interpretations of the 
Scriptural history, arising in the main from 
an endeavor, honest even when mistaken, to 
reconcile the Bible and the theories of sci- 
ence, by conforming the account of the first 
to the hypotheses of the second. 

The first of these interpretations is the al- 
legorical. Of these, perhaps the most impor- 
tant and the most natural is that of Swe- 
denborg, who taught that Adam was a type 
of the primeval state of the human race, in 
which man lived in direct communion with 
God ; that gradually, and by a series of sins, 
occupying perhaps many generations, tj^^i- 
fied by the allegorical account of Adam's 
fall, the human race became estranged from 
God by conceiving that the source of knowl- 
edge and of life was or might be in theni- 
selves. Substantially the same system of in- 
terpretation is adopted by a very different 
school. To those inclined to rationalism, the 
story is a poem in prose, a typical account of 
temptation and sin, whose historical accura- 
cy is very doubtful, and not at all important. 
"We are all in the garden," says James Free- 
man Clark ; " we are at first placed in Para- 
dise, and each has in himself all the four dra- 
matis jyersonw — Adam, Eve, the Serjient, and 
the Voice of God. Adam is the will, the pow- 
er of choice, the masculine element in man ; 
Eve is the affection, the desire, the feminine 
element in man ; the Voice of God is the 
higher reason in the soul, through which in- 
finite truth commands, i. e., the higher law ; 
and the Serpent the lower reason in the soul, 
the cunning element, the sophistical under- 
standing, which can put evil for good, and 
good for evil. The garden is our early in- 
nocence, where there is no struggle, no re- 
morse, no anxiety ; where goodness is not 
labor, but impulse." Other men have reach- 
ed a similar result by a different process. 
The Biblical account was written several cen- 
turies after the Creation, between two and 
three thousand years, at the least computa- 
tion. Moses, the probable author, they say, 
does not x^rofess to have received any espe- 
cial revelation from God on the subject of the 
origin of the race. That there was a first 
man, that he was originally made in the im- 
age of God, that the human race lost that im- 
age by disobedience, and ever loses it by dis- 
obedience to his law, all this is divine truth 
which the writer was inspired by God to 
teach. But they maintain that the details 
were not imjjortant, nor was he, according to 
their conception, inspired to teach on any of 
the scientific questions connected with the 
creation of man and the origin of the races. 
They insist that, while the Scripture appears 



ADAM 



18 



ADAMANT 



to indicate that Adam was tlie first man, it 
may be that the narrative was intended only 
to give us the origin of society, and of man 
as one of the human family ; they assert that 
the Scripture narrative is not even inconsist- 
ent with the theory that, as an animal, man 
was developed from lower animals, since 
there must have been a time when the body 
thus developed was first endowed with a hu- 
man soul ; they declare that while the nar- 
rative also seems to indicate that the whole 
race sprang from this one pair, it does not ex- 
pressly say so ; and it may be that the writer 
is only giving the origin, as he subsequently 
only gives the history, of the Hebrew race, 
and that there is even something in the Scrip- 
ture itself to favor such a view, inasmuch as 
the narrative of Cain implies the existence 
of other persons upon the earth than the de- 
scendants of Adam.^ Without attempting 
to contribute any thing to these formidable 
discussions, but only to advise our readers 
of their existence, we think it sufficient to 
say that science has discovered nothing in- 
consistent with the great religious teachings 
of the creation and fall of man as embodied 
in the first three chapters of Genesis. Even 
if it were possible that further investiga- 
tion should ever demonstrate, as it certainly 
has not done, the previous existence of be- 
ings possessed of the anatomy of the human 
frame, there would be nothing in the discov- 
ery which need shake the Christian's faith 
in the Word of God as a divine revelation 
of religious truth.^ 

Accepting, however, the narrative as a 
simple and trustworthy history, to be inter- 
preted according to its natural meaning, 
some other questions of interpretation re- 
main to be briefly noted. Man was. made, 
it is said, " in the image of God." What is 
meant by this declaration ? That some mys- 
tical writers have deduced from this the con- 
clusion that God possesses a human body, 
and have even attributed sex to the Divine 
Being, will not, perhaps, surprise any one 
who is at all familiar with the vagaries of 
the human intellect. Others, regarding it 
as descriptive of the spiritual nature, have 
deduced the conclusion that the human soul 
is in all its parts an exact counterpart of 
the Divine. More generally, however, this 
phrase is understood to mean merely that 
man was made with a spiritual nature, which 
separated him by an impassable gulf from 
the animal creation on the one hand, and 
linked him to the Divine Creator on the 
other. It certainly does not imply perfec- 
tion of knowledge or of nature. Adam may 
have been, for all that the Bible tells us, a 
savage in knowledge, though innocent and 
pure in heart. But the grand truth that 
the human soul is of kin to God, reiterated 
again and again in the Bible, and constitu- 
ting indeed the fundamental doctrine which 
1 Gen. iv., 14, 15, 17.— ^ See Inspikation. 



underlies the Gospel teaching, both concern- 
ing sin and redemption, is one which finds 
no place in any other religion, except as it 
is borrowed from that of the Hebrews. To 
the Greeks, the gods were made in the like- 
ness of man. To the Hebrew, man was made 
in the likeness of God. This one contrast 
epitomizes the difference between the Chris- 
tian and the heathen religions. This con- 
ception of humanity is inwrought in our 
very language. To be merciful, pitiful, lov- 
ing, kind ; in a word, to be godlike in our 
treatment of our fellow -men, is to be hu- 
mane, L e., human, according to the highest 
conception of what humanity should and 

may be. Of the serpent and his part in 

the temptation, we speak elsewhere ;^ con- 
cerning the tree of which Adam was forbid- 
den to eat, there is nothing to be said. There 
is nothing from which we can form any con- 
cei)tion of the character, either of that tree 
or of the tree of life subsequently mention- 
ed ; certainly nothing analogous to them has 
any existence now. The language used de- 
scrixDtive of them is that of allegory ; and it 
is probable that this language first gave rise 
to the idea that the whole account might 
be construed as an allegory founded on fact. 
Neither is it possible to identify now the re- 
gion where the momentous trial took place ; 
but even those who interpret the story alle- 
gorically agree that the beginnings of hu- 
man society were in a garden, and the tra- 
dition of other nations, in this as in so many 
other respects, confirm the teachings of the 
Hebrew Scripture. It is worthy of note, 
however, that Adam and Eve were driven 
not from Eden, but from the garden merely,^ 
and that the cui'se pronounced on him Avas 
not labor — for before the fall he was set "to 
dress and to keep " the garden — but the fact 
that the earth should thereafter bring forth 
thorns and thistles, and all his labor be 
wrought in sorrow, and in spite of obsta- 
cles.^ For discussion of antiquity of race, 
see Chronology ; and for-that, and question 
of origin of race, Majn^. See also Creation ; 
Eden; Eve ; Serpent. [Gen. i., ii., iii.] 

Adamant, the translation of the Hebrew 
word slidmir in Ezek. iii., 9, and Zech. vii., 
12. In Jer. xvii., 1, it is translated "dia- 
mond."* In these three passages the word 
is the representative of some stone of ex- 
cessive hardness, and is used metaphorically. 
Since the Hebrews appear to have been un- 
acquainted with the true diamond, it is very 
probable, from the expression in Ezek. iii., 
9, of "adamant harder than flint, ^^ that by 
ahdmir is intended emery, a variety of corun- 
dum, a mineral inferior only to the diamond 
in hardness. Emery is extensively used for 
polishing and cutting gems and other hard 
substances. See Diamond. 



1 See Serpent.— 2 Qen. ii., 8; iii., 23. See Eden.— 
3 Gen. ii., 15 ; iii., IS, 19.—* The word elsewhere trans- 
lated diamond is a different one. 



ADONIJAH 



19 



ADORAIM 



Adonijah (Jeliovah is my Lord), the fourtli 
son of David by Haggith ("tlie dancer"), 
born at Hebron while bis father was king 
of Judab ;^ like Absalom, remarkable for bis 
personal beauty — like Absalom, dear to the 
beart of bis father, wbo, from bis childbood, 
never put any restraint upon him.^ After 
the death of bis three brotbers, Ammon, 
Chileab, and Absalom, he determined to seize 
the throne whicb bis father bad promised 
to bis younger son Solomon. What hidden 
springs were at work — bow far (as seems 
implied) the new concubine of the aged 
king, Abisbag the Shunamite, was in Adoni- 
jab's favor — wbetber, as bas been conjec- 
tured, she was the beautiful Shunamite of 
tbe Canticles — whetber Adonijab bad al- 
ready professed for her that affection wbicb 
be openly avowed after his father's deatb — 
are among tbe secrets of tbe harem of Jeru- 
salem, of wbicb only a few bints transpire 
to awaken, witbout satisfying, our curiosity. 
He took precisely tbe same course that bad 
been adopted by Absalom. He assumed tbe 
royal state, and tbe same number of runners 
to clear tbe streets, and tbe same unwonted 
addition of horses to his chariots. He won 
over the two -chief among the older advisers 
of the king, Joab and Abiatbar (q. v. ). Their 
names and influence secured many follow- 
ers. Tbe conspirators, a formidable band, 
met to seal their conspiracy by a feast at tbe 
spring of En-rogel, where afterward were the 
royal gardens, and wbere they would have 
at once a natural altar for tbe sacrificial 
feast, and water for the necessary ablutions. 
In this general disaffection there remained 
faithful to the cause of Solomon '' tbe mighty 
men ;" " the body-guard ;" two high person- 
ages obscurely indicated as Sbimei and Rei ; 
probably David's two brothers, Shimeab and 
Eaddai ;^ Zadok, tbe younger cbief- priest 
and seer, and Nathan, the chief representa- 
tive of tbe prophetic order. David's wife, 
Bathsbeba, succeeded in arousing tbe lan- 
guid energies of tbe aged and infirm king, 
wbo directed tbat Solomon sbould be at once 
anointed as tbe king. Tbe youth, mounted 
on tbe royal mule, and accompanied by Na- 
tban'and by Benaiab, tbe priestly bead of tbe 
royal guard, went down from tbe iialace to 
Gibon. Here Zadok and Natban anointed 
bim ; the trumpet proclaimed, according to 
tbe ancient custom,* tbe completion of tbe 
inauguration ; be was welcomed by a shout 
from the multitude, " Long live King Solo- 
mon," was brought into tbe palace and seat- 
ed on the tbrone, and bere received tbe obei- 
sance of tbe people, and even tbe greetings 
of David himself, wbo was brought in upon 
bis bed for tbe purpose. The same trump- 
et note which roused the enthusiasm of tbe 
citizens of .Jerusalem startled tbe conspira- 

' 2 Sam. iii., 4.-2 1 Kiugs i., C— 3 See David's gene- 
alogy in note, under art. David.— « 2 Kings ix., 13 ; 
xi., 14. 



tors at Adonijab's feast. The festivities were 
broken off. Adonijab fled to tbe altar for 
refuge, and was promptly pardoned by Solo- 
mon, on condition that be sbould "show 
himself a worthy man," with tbe threat tbat 
" if wickedness were found in bim, be sbould 
die." His subsequent proposal, after bis fa- 
ther's deatb, to have Abisbag for his wife, 
whether prompted by affection or, as Solo- 
mon interpreted it, by ambition, brought bim, 
shortly after, to bis deatb. [1 Kings i., ii.] 

Adoni-zedec {Lo7'd of BigMeousness), tbe 
King of Jerusalem at tbe time the Israelites 
invaded tbe land of Canaan. Tbe name — 
note tbe meaning — was no doubt the official 
name of tbe Jebusite kings at Jerusalem. 
He and tbe surrounding tribes belonged to 
tbe race of tbe Amorites, wbo appear to 
have occupied nearly all that part of Ca- 
naan wbicb afterward fell to tbe tribe of Ju- 
dab, and of tbe fullness of whose iniquity at 
tbe time of the conquest special mention is 
made. He combined witb tbe neighboring 
princes, Hobam, king of Hebron, Piram, king 
of Jarmnth, Japbia, king of Lacbisb, and De- 
bir, king of Eglon, to destroy tbe Gibeonites 
for having made peace with Joshua, and, at 
the head of the confederate kings, laid siege 
to Gibeon. Joshua marched to the relief of 
his new allies, utterly routed the combined 
forces of the Amorites, and put Adoni-zedec 
and the other princes to death, after having 
taken them from the cave in which they had 
found a temporary asylum. It was on this 
memorable occasion that Joshua called upon 
the sun to stand still, that he might have 
time to complete his victory. See Joshua 
(Book of). [Josh, x., 1-27.] 

Adoption. Scarcely any examples of 
adoption are to be found in the Old Testa- 
ment. The reckoning of the sons of the 
concubine as those of the actual wife,^ and 
the operation of tbe levirate law,'^ are not 
instances in point. But Abraham ap];)ears 
to have adopted Eliezer as a son, and Moses 
was adopted by Pharaoh's daughter;^ and 
though, in the line of Hebrew home history, 
no parallel to these occurs, yet we have an 
instance, when the Jews were removed into 
captivity, in the case of Mordecai and Es- 
ther.* Adoption was common under the Ro- 
man law ; according to which, by a formal 
act, a relationship was established exactly 
like that between a father and his own son. 
This custom, which is still frequent in tbe 
East, has furnished St. PauP with a beauti- 
ful illustration of tbe Great Father's kind- 
ness to the estranged children of men, in 
adopting them into the household of faith, 
wbere their relation is not that of servants 
to a master, but that of children to a parent. 

Adoraim (two mounds), a town in the 
south-west of Judab, fortified by Rebobo- 



1 Gen. xvi., 2; xxx., 3.-2 Geu. xxxviii., 8; Deut. 
XXV., 5, 6.-3 Gen. xv., 2; Exod. ii., 10.— * Esther ii., 
T, 20.— 3 Rom. viii., 15, 23 ; ix., 4 ; Gal. iv., 5 ; Eph. i., 5. 



ADKAMMELECH 



20 



ADULTERY 



am. It is identified by Dr. Robiuson -witli 
Dura, a large village without ruins, five 
miles west by south from Hebron, on the 
eastern slope of a cultivated hill, with olive- 
groves and fields of grain all around. [2 
Chron. xi., 9.] 

A-dxairnnelech. (ilie splendid Mng^. 1. One 
of the gods whose worship, together with 
that of Anammelech {image of the Icing), was 
introduced into Samaria by the Sepharvites, 
colonists from Assyria. The worshij)ers of 
these idols caused their children to pass 
through the fire in honor of them. From 
the etymology, Adrammelech has been refer- 
red to the sun, and Anammelech to the moon, 
as the companion of the sun. From the sac- 
rifice of children by fire, some have inferred 
that by Adrammelech is meant Saturn ; oth- 
ers identify him with MoToch. The Yezi- 
dees, or devil-worshipers-, probably descend- 
ants of the Assyrians, retain a striking ves- 
tige of this species of idolatry in their sa- 
cred symbol called MeleJc Taus, or King Pea- 
cock, a name by which they personify Satan, 
the chief object of their reverence. [2 Kings 
xvii., 31.] 

2. Son of the Assyrian king Sennacherib, 
who, together with his brother Sharezer, 
murdered their father in the temple of Nis- 
roch at Nineveh, after the failure of the As- 
syrian attack on Jerusalem (b.c. 680), and 
fled into Armenia. [2 Kings xix., 37 ; 2 
Chron. xxxii,, 21 ; Isa. xxxvri., 38.] 

Adramyttium, a city of Asia, by some 
commentators erroneously confounded with 
Adrametum, in Africa. It was situated on 
the coast of Mysia (q. v.), at the head of an 
extensive bay, facing the island of Lesbos. 
It was a place of some importance, and, un- 
der the Romans, the court town of the dis- 
trict. It has no Biblical interest, except as 
illustrating St. Paul's voyage from Csesarea 
in a ship belonging to this place. Ships of 
Adramyttium must have been frequent on 
this coast, for it was a place of considerable 
traffic. The modern Adramyti is a poor vil- 
lage, but it is still a place of some trade and 
ship-building. [Acts xxvii., 2.] 

Adria. This term occurs but once in the 
Scripture.^ As there used, it includes not 
only the Venetian Gulf, but all that part of 
the Mediterranean between Crete and Sicily. 
Ptolemy bounds Italy on the south, Sicilj^ 
on the east, Greece on the south and west, 
and Crete on the west by Adria, or the Adri- 
atic Sea. It is now confined to the gulf ly- 
ing between Italy on the one side, and the 
coasts of Dalmatia and Albania on the other. 
Its bounds are only imx)ortant as fixing the 
site of Paul's shipwreck. 

Adriel (flocJc of God), son of Barzillai, to 
whom Saul gave his daughter Merab, al- 
though he had previously j)romised her to 
David.^ His five sous were among the sev- 
en descendants of Saul whom David surren- 
1 Acts xxvii., 27.-3 1 Sam. xviii., 19. 



dered to the Gibeonites in satisfaction for 
the endeavors of Saul to extirpate the lat- 
ter. [1 Sam. xviii., 19 ; 2 Sam. xxi., 8, 9.^] 

Adullam. 1. A city of Judah, in the low- 
land of the Shefelah, the seat of a Canaan- 
I ite king, and evidently a place of great an- 
tiquity. Fortified by Rehoboam, it was one 
of the towns occupied by the Jews after 
their return from Babylon, and still a city 
1 in the times of the Maccabees. Its exact site 
is not known, but it appears to have been 
not far from the Philistine city of Gath. 
The limestone cliffs of the whole of that 
locality are pierced with extensive excava- 
tions, some one of which may possibly have 
been the " Cave of Adullam," the refuge of 
David. [Gen. xxxviii., 1, 12, 20 ; Josh, xv., 
35; xii., 15; 2 Chron. xi., 7 ; Neh.xi., 30.] 

2. But it is more ^irobable that the Cave 
of Adullam was in the mountainous region 
east of Judah toward the Dead Sea, where 
such caves abound, and where one has been 
found bearing the name of Dhullam. Da- 
vid's usual haunts were in this quarter.^ The 
land of Moab, where his father took refuge, 
was contiguous. The cave itself is a perfect 
labyrinth of passages, which have never been 
fully explored, and is ax)i5roached only by a 
foot-jiath along the side of the clifl". David 
and his followers, inside this cave, would 
have been able to defy the whole strength 
of Israel. This cave is in the immediate vi- 
cinity of Tekoah, six miles south of Bethle- 
hem. [1 Sam. xxii., 1 ; 2 Sam. xxiii., 13.] 

Adultery. According to the Jewish law, 
an illicit intercourse between a married wom- 
an and a man not her husband. If the wom- 
an were not married, it was considered forni- 
cation, and this whether the man were mar- 
ried or not. The reason of this distinction 
is that, in the latter case, there could not be 
an introduction of spurious children into the 
family. The punishment of this crime in 
the earliest ages seems to have been burn- 
ing, but by the Mosaic law it was stoning, 
and that whether the woman was actually 
married or only betrothed,^ provided she was 
free. If she was a slave, she was to be whip- 
ped, and possibly the man also, and he was 
to offer a trespass-offering.* In the Mosaic 
code there was a very remarkable enactment, 
called the " law of jealousies." It was, in ef- 
fect, an appeal to the Lord by means of an 
offering, and the drinking of "the bitter 
water" to decide her guilt or innocence. If 
she was innocent, the " water of jealousy " 
did not harm her ; if she were guilty, it pro- 
duced fearful consequences.^ This was the 
only case of trial by ordeal sanctioned by 
the Jewish law, and it is supposed to have 
been a modification of an ancient custom 
which could not be entirely abrogated. At 
the time of Christ, the law inflicting the pen- 



1 For explanation of the statement in 2 Sam. xxi., S, 
9, see Meraij.— 3 1 Chron. xi.. 15.— » Lev. xx., 10 ; Dent, 
xxii., 22-27.—* Lev. xix., 20-22.— « Num. v., 11-31. 



ADUMMIM 



21 



AGABUS 



alty of death upon the guilty party had be- 
come obsolete. Indeed there is no authen- 
tic case in later Jewish history of an exe- 
cution occurring under it. Unchastity had 
become a universal vice, and the flagrant 
wickedness of Herod Antipas^ is only an 
illustration of the morals of the society of 
his age. The attempt of the Pharisees, there- 
fore, recorded in John viii., 2-11, was to com- 
pel Jesus either to revive an old and almost 
forgotten statute, or to assume the respon- 
sibility of repealing it ; and his reply must 
be taken to indicate the licentiousness of 
the age, nowhere so flagrant as among the 
priests, who were Epicureans in philosophy 
and voluptuaries in practice. Adultery, in 
the symbolical language of the O. T., means 
apostasy from the worship of the true God,'^ 
and derives peculiar significance from the 
fact that the connection between God and 
his people is symbolized by marriage.^ It is 
in this symbolical sense that Christ speaks 
of the Jews of his day as an adulterous gen- 
eration.* 

Adununim, an ascending road between 
Gilgal and Jerusalem, and one of the land- 
marks of the boundary of Benjamin.^ It is 
described as on the " south side of the river," 
which is the position still occupied, by the 
road leading up from Jericho and the Jordan 
valley to Jerusalem, on the south face of the 
gorge of the Wady Kelt. The pass is still in- 
fested b};- robbers, as it was in the days of 
our Lord, of whose parable of the Good Sa- 
maritan this is the scene. 

Advent. The name is applied to the sea- 
son (four weeks in the Roman, Lutheran, and 
English churches, six weeks in the Greek 
Church) preceding Christmas. The origin 
of this festival as a church ordinance is not 
clear. Tradition attributes it to St. Peter. 
The earliest historical trace of it is found 
about the middle of the fifth century, when 
Maximus Taurmensis wrote a homily upon it. 
It is observed in the English and Protestant 
Episcopal churches by special church serv- 
ices, and in the Eoman Church by fasting, 
and abstinence from public amusements and 
festivities. As it immediately precedes the 
time celebrated as the Nativity of our Lord, 
it is appropriately considered a time of pen- 
itence in preparation for that event. Ad- 
vent Sunday is the nearest Simday to St. 
Andrew's Day, November 30th. In the Epis- 
copal and Eoman Catholic Churches that 
Sunday has long been considered as the be- 
ginning of the ecclesiastical year. 

Advocate, This term is used ecclesias- 
tically to designate several officers in the 
Eomish Church. The advocatus causarum, 
who appeared in the secuhir courts as the 
representative of the bishop, in cases involv- 



1 See Hekod. — 2 Jer. iii., 6-9; Ezek. xvL, 22, 32; 
xxiii., 37; also Rev. ii., 22.-3 jgr. ii., 2; iii., 14; xiii., 
27; xxxi., 32; Hosea viii., 8, 9.-4 Matt, xii., 29; xvi., 
4 ; Mark viii., 38 ^ Josh, xv., 7 ; xviii., 17. 



ing the temporalities of his Church ; the ad- 
vocatus soli, or advocate of the territory, who 
administered justice in secular affairs in the 
name of the bishops and abbots ; the advo- 
catus diaholi, a person appointed at Eome to 
contest the claims of any candidate for can- 
onization; the advocatus Dei, appointed to 
sustain those claims ; and the POjpe's advocates, 
appointed to defend the interests of the Holy 
Father in all courts. The same term is ap- 
plied by Christ to the Holy Spirit, translat- 
ed in our version Comforter, and to Christ 
himself by the Apostle John.^ See Holy 
Ghost; Trial. 

Advowson, the right of presenting to the 
bishop in the Church of England a candi- 
date for a vacant church in his diocese. 
I The person possessing the right is called a 
patron. The advowson sometimes pertains 
I to a manor or land, and is bought and sold 
with it, and sometimes it is held as a per- 
sonal right. Legal questions frequently 
arise in connection with advowsons, as 
where there are different claimants, or 
where a patron dies, or the advowson is sold 
during the vacancy of the church. 

Adytum (inaccessible), the most retired 
and secret j^lace of the heathen temples, 
into which none but the priests were per- 
mitted to enter, answering to the Holy of 
Holies of the Jews. In the ancient Chris- 
tian churches the altar -i)lace received the 
same name. See Chajstcel. 

iEnon, the x:)lace where John bax)tized 
near to Salim. Its location is involved in 
uncertainty. No less than four different 
sites are assigned by prominent geographers. 
The most probable position is that assigned 
by Eobinson, who places it near the north- 
eastern border of Judea, in the vicinity of 
Samaria. [John iii., 23.] 

African Methodist Episcopal Church, 
a body of Christians, composed entirely of 
colored persons, in the United States and 
Canada. It was organized in 1816 by a 
number of colored Methodists who believed 
they could be freer and more useful in a 
separate communion. The civil war, and 
the consequent emancipation of the blacks, 
greatly enlarged the territory of this Church, 
which before had conferences in only two of 
the Slave States. In doctrines and govern- 
ment it substantially agrees Avith the M. E. 
Church. Its highest literary institution is 
Wilberforce University, near Xenia, Ohio ; it 
publishes two religious papers, and has 7 
bishops, 1000 preachers, 5000 local preachers, 
and about 375,000 members. 

Agabus (the meaning is uncertain ), a Chris- 
tian prophet in the apostolic age, mentioned 
twice — in Acts xi., 28, and xxi., 10. In the 
former case he predicted that a famine would 
take place in the reign of Claudius "through- 
out all the world" — a common expression 
among the Jews for Palestine, as it was 



1 John ii., 1. 



AOAG 



22 



AGEICULTURE 



among the Greek and Eoman writers for the 
Greek and Eoman worlds respectively. Jo- 
sephus, Dio Cassius, and Tacitus all testify 
to the fulfillment of this prophecy in several 
famines during the reign of Claudius Csesar, 
extending not only throughout Judea, but 
also throughout Greece and Eome. Queen 
Helena, of Adiahene, sent subsidies to the 
Jews on the occasion of one of these, which 
Josephus designates as "the great famine." 
Many of the inhabitants were swept away 
by it. On the second occasion upon which 
Agabus appears, he prophesies that Paul will 
be bound and delivered to the Gentiles — a 
prophecy subsequently fulfilled by the apos- 
tle's arrest at Jerusalem.^ 

Agag (flame), possibly the title of the 
kings of Amalek, like Pharaoh of Egypt, 
and Achish (q. v.) among the Philistines. 
One king of this name is mentioned in Num. 
xxiv., 7, and another in 1 Sam. xv., 8, 9, 20, 
32. The latter was the king of the Ama- 
lekites, whom Saul spared, together with the 
best of the spoil, although it was the well- 
known will of Jehovah that the Amalekites 
should be extirpated.'^ For this act of dis- 
obedience Samuel was commissioned to de- 
clare to Saul his rejection, and he himself 
sent for Agag, and cut him in pieces. See 
Saul; Samuel; Haman. 

Agapetae (beloved), a title given in the 
early ages of the Church to virgins who 
dwelt with monks, and others professing 
celibacy, in a state of so-called spiritual love. 
This intercourse, however, soon occasioned 
great scandal in the Church, and at length 
became the cause of such evils that it was 
synodically condemned by the Lateran Coun- 
cil, 1139. 

Agate, one of the precious stones in the 
high-priest's breastplate.^ It is a variety 
of quartz, occurring in the form of pebbles, 
semi-transparent and uncrystallized, com- 
posed of parallel or concentric layers differ- 
ently tinted. Agate is also the rendering 
of another Hebrew term.^ A transparent or 
sparkling stone seems meant by the word 
which is so translated; possibly it may be 
the ruby. 

Age. In the patriarchal times, and under 
the Mosaic dispensation, a long life was con- 
sidered a peculiar blessing to the individual, 
and as betokening prosperity in the state. 
Great respect was therefore paid to the aged 
in private life. In the redemption-payment 
for a vow, indeed, the old man was rated at 
a less sum than the young man; but this 
was natural, and, besides, was connected 
with the lighter burdens imposed on elder 
persons ; the Levites, for example, being ex- 
cused from the more laborious work of their 
office after the age of fifty. In regard to 
public affairs, the counsel of the aged was 



specially to be regarded. A similar respect 
was paid to the aged among the Egyptians 
and the Greeks, and receives illustrations 
from the Oriental customs of the present 
day. Among the Arabs it is very seldom 
that a youth can be permitted to eat with 
men. See Patriarchs. [Exod. xx., 12; 
Lev. xix., 32 ; xxvii., 2-7 ; Numb, viii., 25 ; 1 
Kings xii., 6-8 ; Job v., 26 ; xxxii., 6, 7.] 

Agnus Dei (Laml) of God). An amulet 
worn by the Eomanists as a safeguard from 
evil. It is a small cake of wax stamped 
with a lamb bearing the banner of the cross. 
The wax is selected from such as has been 
blessed ; it is mixed with balsam and holy 
oil, and stamped ; after which it is baptized 
in holy water. Eomanists attach a high 
value to the possession of an Agnus, and ac- 
cordingly these medals are a source of no 
small gain to those from whom they are pur- 
chased. The ceremony of distribution is 




1 Acts xxii., 25.-2 Exod. xvii., 14 ; Dent, xxv., lT-19. 
—3 Exod. xxviii., 19 ; xxxix., 12.—'* Isa. liv., 12 ; Ezek. 
xxvii,, 16. 



Agnus Dei. 

performed with much pomp, and is accom- 
panied by a special benediction and a num- 
ber of indulgences. The baptism and ben- 
ediction of the Agnus Dei is regarded as a 
very solemn and important ceremony of the 
Eomish Church. It is performed by the 
Pope himself in the first year of his pontifi- 
cate, and repeated every seventh year there- 
after. Though their efficacy has not been 
declared by Eomish councils, belief in their 
virtue has been strongly and universally es- 
tablished in the Church of Eome since the 
seventh or eighth century. 

Agriculture. The cultivation of the ground 
was the first employment of man, and many 
Biblical references indicate that it was main- 
tained up to the days of Moses.^ The regula- 
tions of the Mosaic law pointed the Israel- 
itish people to agriculture as the true source 
of national wealth, and gave such direction 
to their industries as rendered them peculiar- 
ly an agricultural people. In their later his- 
tory, two at least of their kings were taken 
from the farm, and two of their prophets 
were also husbandmen.^ The indications are 
also numerous that among the ancient He- 
brews agriculture reached considerable per- 
fection. From these references, interpreted 



1 Gen. ii., 15; iv., 2; v., 29: viii., 21, 22; xiii., 10; 
xxvi., 12; xxxvii., 7.— ^ 1 Sam. xi.. 4, 5; xvi., 11, 12; 1 
Kings xix., 19 ; Amos i., 1. 



AGRICULTURE 



23 AGRICULTURE (FESTIVAL OF) 



and confirmed as they are by the discovery 
of various representations on the sculptured 




Oriental hoeing. From the Egyptian Monuments. 

monuments and painted tombs of Egypt and 
Assyria, we gather the following facts : 

The first process was, of course, plough- 
ing/ which was rude and superficial. After 
the ground was ploughed, and the clods bro- 
ken and leveled, the various seeds were dif- 
ferently sown, according to their nature : 
the " fitches " and the " cummin" were scat- 
tered ; while the '^ wheat," and the " barley," 
and the '^spelt," were planted in rows. In 
threshing, too, proper rules were observed : 
the fitches and the cummin were beaten out 
with a staff or rod; but the heavy thresh- 
ing-instrument, or cart, was used upon the 




Ancient Egyptians hoeing and sowing the Land and 
felling Trees. 

wheat, care being taken that it was not in- 
jured by the wheels or the hoofs of the 
horses. There was the same orderly pro- 
ceeding in the cultivation of the vine.^ Ev- 
ery seventh year the fields of Israel were to 
lie fallow. Besides the religious meaning 
of the regulation, no doubt the practice was, 
in more than one way, advantageous to the 
land. During this Sabbatical year every 
part of the country was free : the poor might 
collect, anywhere they chose, the spontane- 
ous product of the ground ; in the spirit of 
which enactment was the license given to 
a man who passed through his neighbor's 
vineyard, or his neighbor's corn-field, to eat 
his fill, but not to carry grapes away; to 
pluck the ears, but not to apply a sickle to 
the corn.^ It is not expressly said that it 
was customary to burn the stubble, but we 
may infer the practice from the regulation 
in case of fire spreading from one field to 
another.^ That manures were known, we 
can not doubt, from the incidental refer- 
ences to the bodies of the wicked as dung 
upon the face of the field."^ The irrigation 
of their fields, where needful, the Israelites 
must have learned from the Egyptians. 



1 See PLOTTGn.— 2 Isa. xxviii., 24-2S ; v., 1, 2.-3 Exod. 
xxiii., 10, 11; Dent, xxiii., 24, 25.—* Exod. xxii., 6,— 
s 2 Kings ix., 37 ; Jer. viii., 2 ; comp. Isa. xxv., 10. 



The chief kinds of grain cultivated by the 
Hebrews were wheat and barley. Some- 
times it would seem that beans, and lentils, 
and millet, and spelt, were used for bread ; 
lentils, however, were more generally the 
material for pottage.^ Fitches and cummin 
were, as we have before seen, cultivated, and 
cucumbers, or gourds ; and, from the mention 
of the garden of cucumbers and the lodge in 
it, we may suppose that they were extensive- 
ly grown. Of the melons, and leeks, and on- 
ions, and garlic, which the Israelites remem- 
bered with regret they had eaten in Egypt, 
we have no further mention.^ They might, 
however, have been grown in the " gardens 
of herbs," in which wealthy persons delight- 
ed, and which required careful watering.^ 
Rye and oats are not spoken of in Scripture ; 
and to the present day the former is hardly 
at all known in Syria. Flax was cultivated 
for the garments of fiiue linen, of which we 
frequently read. It is mentioned in Josh, ii., 
6 ; and it was one of the materials — most 
likely of home production — which the not- 
able housewife spun into clothing for her 
household.* Whether cotton was in use may 
admit of doubt. 

For an account of the various agricultu- 
ral operations and implements, see Plow; 
Sowing ; Irrigation ; Harvest. For an 
account of the agricultural seasons, see Sea- 
sons. 

Agriculture (Festival of), a solemnity 
which, since about 180 B.C., has been regu- 
larly observed in China about the middle of 
October. In every town throughout the 
empire one of the chief magistrates, accom- 
panied by a procession bearing flowers and ag- 
ricultural emblems, marches through streets 
adorned with triumx3hal arches, out of the 
eastern gate of the city, as if to meet the 
new season. There they find a gigantic fig- 
ure of a cow, made of burned clay, upon which 
sits a beautiful living boy only partially and 
carelessly dressed, continually lashing the 
cow. This is emblematic of the constant 
aiiplication which is necessary for all rural 
labors ; the haste and diligence which is re- 
quired prevents time for dressing before go- 
ing to work. At the emperor's palace the 
monstrous cow is stripped of her ornaments, 
and, her belly having been opened, several 
small cows of the same materials as the 
large one are taken out and distributed by 
the emperor among the ministers of state, to 
remind them of the care and diligence re- 
quired in all agricultural matters, that the 
land may yield abundant produce, and the 
wants of the people may be supi)lied. The 
emperor is said also on this day to afford an 
encouragement to the practice of industry 
in agricultiu-al operations by setting before 
them a royal example in his own person. 



1 Ezek. iv., 9; 2 Sam. xvii., 28; Gen. xxv., 29-34.— 
2 Isa. i., 8 ; Numb, xi., 5.—' Dent, xi., 10 ; 1 Kings xxi., 
2.— 4Prov. xxxi.,13. . ,.,- 



AHAB 



24 



AHASUERUS 



Ahab (father's hrother), son of Omii, and 
seventh king of Israel. He reigned twenty- 
two years/ B.C. 918-896. He was, on the 
whole, the weakest of all the Israelitish 
monarchs ; and the lesson we learn from his 
life is the depth of wickedness into which a 
weak man may fall, though he be not de- 
void of good feelings and amiable impulses, 
when he abandons himself to the control of 
one stronger in purpose, but more unscru- 
pulous. Between the history of Ahab and 
Jezebel and thQ story of Macbeth and Lady 
Macbeth there is a striking parallel. There 
had long been a beneficial commercial con- 
nection between the Hebrews and the Phoe- 
nicians, and familiarity had rendered the 
idolatries of the latter less obnoxious to the 
former. Still, though under Jeroboam the 
worship of golden calves had been intro- 
duced in Dan and Bethel,^ they were intend- 
ed as symbols of Jehovah. Ahab carried 
the connection of his kingdom with the 
Phcenicians beyond that of his predecessors 
by his marriage to Jezebel (q. v.), the daugh- 
ter of the King of Tyre. Under her influence 
he undertook to establish the worship of 
Baal as the national religion, and construct- 
ed for that purpose a temple to the sun-god 
at Samaria. " He did more," says the sacred 
narrative, " to provoke the Lord God of Is- 
rael to anger than all the kings of Israel that 
were before him."^ His wife undertook to ex- 
terminate the priests of Jehovah. He dared 
not remonstrate. And though, desx)ite the 
general decadence of religion, there were 
many left who did not yield to the influence 
of the court, yet the prophets of Jehovah 
were saved in the general persecution only 
by fleeing to the caves and fastnesses of the 
wilderness.* The three-years' drought which 
God sent upon the land, and the slaying of 
the prophets of Baal by the brook Kishon,^ 
gave some promise of a reformation. The 
king would have jdelded; but the queen 
lire vented, and drove the prophet Elijah to 
seek refuge in flight. That Ahab was not 
wholly given over to unscrupulous despot- 
ism is clear from the story of Naboth (q. v.), 
for he would have bought his unhappy sub- 
ject's vineyard if the victim would have 
sold it. The scheme of murdering the owner 
was his wife's ; and his own deep and ap- 
parently genuine sorrow, when rebuked for 
liis iniquity by Elijah, shows him not to 
have been without some sense of remorse, 
though not enough to lead him to repent- 
ance and a better life. In his first two 
campaigns with the Syrian king, Benhadad 
(q.v.), he was successful; but in the third, 
which he undertook with Jehoshaphat, the 
king of Judah, despite the warnings of the 
prophet Micaiah, he was struck between the 
joints of his armor by a stray arrow, and 



I 1 Kings xvi., 29.-2 i Kings xii., 2.5-33.-3 1 Kings 
xvi., 29-33. — * 1 Kings xviii., 3, 4. See Obadiau.— 
* See Elijah. 



mortally wounded. He felt his death-wound ; 
but in that last hour a nobler spirit appear- 
ed in him than had ever manifested itself 
in life. He would not suffer his wound to 
be disclosed, lest the army should be dis- 
couraged. He remained erect in his war- 
chariot till, as the sun went down, the Syr- 
ian army retired to the fortress of Ramoth- 
gilead. Then the warrior-king, whose death 
Benhadad accounted more imjiortant than 
the defeat of the army which he led,^ sank 
down in the chariot, which was already red 
with his unstaunched blood, while the her- 
ald of the Hebrew army proclaimed : " Ev- 
ery man to his own city, and every man to 
his own country,"^ as Micaiah^ had prophe- 
sied he should. The body of the king was 
brought to Samaria and buried there ; and 
while one washed the chariot in the pool of 
Samaria, near where Naboth had been stoned 
to death, the dogs licked up the royal blood — 
a literal fulfillment of the prophecy of Eli- 
jah. Ahab left three children by Jezebel — 
a daughter, Athaliah, and two sons, Ahaziah 
and Joram, or Jehoram, all of whom suffered 
violent deaths. He also left, by other wives, 
seventy other sons, who were put to death 
by the orders of Jehu (q. v.). 

Ahasuerus (prob. lion -king), the name or 
title of several Persian monarchs, of whom 
three are mentioned in the Bible — one in 
Dan. ix., 1, generally believed to be Asty- 
ages ; a second in Ezra iv., 6, whom schol- 
ars have been unable to identify with either 
of the Persian kings, though he is now gen- 
erally believed to be the same as Camby- 
ses ;* and the third, and most important, the 
Ahasuerus of the Book of Esther, who is 
undoubtedly the Xerxes of profane history. 
Xerxes appears to be a Greek form of the 
word Ahasuerus ; and the characters of the 
two kings, as described respectively in sacred 
and profane history, correspond. "Ahasue- 
rus is a capricious despot, who repudiates his 
wife because she will not expose herself to the 
public gaze in a drunken festival ; raises a 
favorite vizier to the highest honors one 
day, and hangs him the next; commands 
the massacre of a whole people, and then 
allows them, in self-defense, to commit a 
terrible carnage among his other subjects. 
All this weak and headstrong violence agrees 
exactly with the character of that Xerxes 
who commanded the sea to be scourged be- 
cause it broke down his bridge over the 
Hellespont ; beheaded the engineers because 
their work was swept away by a storm ; 
wantonly, and before the eyes of the father, 
put to death the sons of his oldest friend, 
Pythias, who had contributed most splen- 



1 1 Kings xxii., 34.-2 i Kings xxii., 36. The Sep- 
tuagint adds, " for the king is dead."— ^ The same 
name, but not the same person as Micah. Nothing 
more is known of him than the account in 1 Kings 
xxii., 1-35; 2 Chron. xviii. — * So Smith, Kitto, and 
M'Clintock and Strong. For a full argument, the 
reader is referred to Kitto. 



AHASUERUS 



25 



AHASUERUS 



didly to bis armament ; sliamefully misused 
the body of tbe brave Leouidas ; and, after 
bis defeat, like anotber SardanapabTS, gave 
bimself up to sucb voluptuousness as to is- 
sue an edict offering a reward to tbe in- 
A'entor of a new pleasure."^ Tliis Xerxes, or 
Abasuerus, in tbe beginning of bis reigu 
(B.C. 480), organized an expedition for tbe 
purpose of subjugating Greece. At tbe fii'st 
serious disaster be fled back to Persia, leav- 
ing Mardonius to extricate tbe remainder of 
bis army as best be could. Arriving at bonie, 
be siuTendered bis government to bis min- 
isters, and bimself to di'unken orgies, wbicb 
lasted continuously for days and even weeks, 
and to self-indulgence in a lust wbicb made 
successively bis brothers wife and bis son's 
Tvife the victims of bis amours, and bis 
brother and bis nephews tbe victims of bis 
bate. In the third year of bis reign, accord- 
ing to profane bistorj^, Xerxes called a great 
assembly, at which he deliberated, and took 
measiu:es for tbe subjugation of Greece. In 
tbe third year of bis reign, according to 
Scriptiu'e,'^ Ahasuerus summoned a divan of 
all tbe great officers of bis kingdom at Shu- 
shan, whom be entertained and banqueted 
for a period of six months. It is i^ossible 
that these assemblages are the same, though 
we are inclined to put tbe story of Esther 
at the time of Xerxes's return from Greece 
a year later. At this feast, whenever it was 
held, the sovereign commanded tbe pres- 
ence of bis queeu, Yasbti, In Persia, the 
virtuous wife rarely, if ever, unveiled her 
face to the view of any but lier husband's 
most confidential friends. To demand that 
she should do so before this drunken court 
Avas an insult, and Vashti, with becoming 
dignity, refused to attend. Tbe weak mon- 
arch was not merely imitated during bis 
state of intoxication ; but after be bad re- 
turned to bis sober reason, instead of hon- 
oring her higher sense of decency, retain- 
ed Ms anger at the disobedience of bis 
queen, degraded Vashti from her royal sta- 
tion, and sent out an edict, ludicrous enough 
to modern ears, which enacted the implicit 
submission of all tbe females in the mon- 
archy to the will of their husbands. After 
this, a general levy of beautiful damsels was 
made, to supply the seraglio of the king, out 
of whom be was to select his queen. Jo- 
sepbus tells us that this was a contrivance 
of liis courtiers, anxious to erase tbe image 
of Vashti from, the capricious monarch's 
miud. Hadassah, or Esther, the cousin -ger- 
man of Mordecai, a distinguished Jew, who 
bad brought her up from her childhood, bad 
the fortune to please tbe king : she was put 
in possession of the royal apartments, her 
birth still remaining a secret. Among the ri- 
A'al candidates for tbe roval favor Avere Mor- 



' Milmau's Hist, of the Jews, bk. ix. The narrative 
part of this article is also taken, with raodificatioDS, 
from Milman.— 2 Esther i., 3. 



decai and Haman. Mordecai bad the good 
fortune to detect a conspiracy against tbe life 
of the king, who was throughout bis tyran- 
nical reign threatened with assassination, and 
perished by the band of an assassin at the 
last ; but Haman soon outstripped all com- 
petitors in the race of advancement. Per- 
haps the great destruction in tbe families of 
the Persian nobility, particularly of the seven 
great hereditary counselors of the kingdom 
during the Grecian war, may account, if any 
cause is Avanting besides the caprice of a des- 
pot, for tbe elcA^ation of a stranger to the 
rank of first vizier. Mordecai alone, bis riA'al 
(for this supposition renders the whole histo- 
ry more probable), refused to pay the accus- 
tomed honors to the new faA'orite. Haman, 
most likely secretly informed of bis connec- 
tion with the queen, and fearing, therefore, 
to attack Mordecai openly, determined to 
take bis revenge on the Avbole JcAvish peo- 
ple. He rei3resented them to the king as a 
dangerous and turbulent race, and prom- 
ised to obtain immense wealth, 10,000 talents 
of silver — equal, according to Prideaux, to 
£2,000,000 sterling, that is, OA^er $10,000,000— 
no doubt from tbe confiscation of their prop- 
erty to the royal treasurj^, which Avas ex- 
hausted by the king's pleasures, and by the 
Grecian war. On these representations, he 
obtained an edict for the general massacre 
of the Hebrew people througbottt all tbe 
proAances of the empire, of which Judea Avas 
one. The Jews were in the deepest dismay; 
those in Susa looked to Mordecai as their 
only hope, and he to Esther. Tbe influence 
of the queen might prevail, if she could once 
obtain an opportunity of softening the heart 
of Aliasuerus. But it was death, cA^en for 
the queen, to intrude ui)on the royal i)res- 
ence unsummoned, unless the king should 
extend bis golden sceptre in sign of pardon. 
Esther trembled to undertake the cause of 
her kindred; but, as of Jewish blood, she 
herself Avas iuA^^olved in tbe general condem- 
nation. Having sought the favor of God by 
a fast of three da,js, she appeared, radiant in 
her beauty, before the royal presence. The 
golden scei)tre was extended toward her ; 
not merely her life, but whateA^er gift she 
should demand, was conceded by the capti- 
vated monarch. The cautious Esther mere- 
ly iuA^ited the king, and Haman bis min- 
ister, to a banquet. Haman fell into the 
snare ; and, delighted with this supposed 
mark of faA^or from the queen, supposed all 
impediments to the gratification of bis ven- 
geance entirely removed, and gUA^e orders 
that a lofty gallows should be erected for 
the execution of Mordecai. The king, in 
tbe mean time, during a sleejfless night, bad 
commanded the chronicles of the kingdom 
to be read before him. The book happened 
to o-pen at tbe relation of the A^aluablo but 
unrequited service of Mordecai, in saving 
the king's life from a conspiracy within bis 



AHAVA 



26 



AHAZ 



own palace. The next morning Aliasuerns 
demanded from the obsequious minister, " in 
what manner he might most exalt the man 
whom he delighted to honor ?" The vizier, 
appropriating to himself this signal mark of 
favor, advised that this highly-distinguished 
individual should be arrayed in royal robes, 
set on the king's horse, with the royal crown 
on his head, and thus led by one of the 
greatest men through the whole city, and 
proclaimed to the people as the man whom 
the king delighted to honor. To his aston- 
ishment and dismay, Haman is himself com- 
manded to conduct in this triumphant ar- 
ray his hated rival, Mordecai. In terror he 
consults his wife and the wise men as to his 
future course ; he is interrupted by a sum- 
mons to the banquet of Esther. Here, as 
usual, the king, enraptured with his enter- 
tainment, offers his queen whatever boon she 
may desire, even to the half of his kingdom. 
Her request is the deliverance of her people 
from the fatal sentence. The detection and 
the condemnation of the minister was the 
inevitable consequence. Haman, endeavor- 
ing to entreat mercy, throws himself upon 
her couch. The jealous monarch, either sup- 
posing, or iDretending to suppose, that he is 
making an attempt on the person of the 
queen, commands his instant execution ; and 
Haman, by this summary sentence, is hang- 
ed on the gallows which had been raised for 
Mordecai, while the Jew is raised to the va- 
cant vizieralty. Still, however, the dread- 
ful edict was abroad : messengers were dis- 
patched on all sides throughout the realm, 
which extended from India to Ethiopia, on 
horseback, on mules, on camels, and on drom- 
edaries, permitting the Jews to stand on the 
defensive. In Susa they slew 800 of their 
adversaries; 75,000 in the provinces. The 
act of vengeance was completed by the exe- 
cution of Haman's ten sons, who, at the pe- 
tition of Esther, suffered the fate of their 
father. So great was the confusion and the 
terror caused by the degree of royal favor 
which Mordecai enjoyed, that the whole na- 
tion became objects of respect, and many 
of other extraction embraced their religion. 
The memory of this extraordinary event has 
been ever since celebrated by the Jews in the 
feast of PuRiM. Of the subsequent history 
of Ahasuerus Scripture makes no mention. 

Ahava, a river or a place, it is not clear 
which, where Ezra collected the second ex- 
pedition which returned with him from Bab- 
ylon to Jerusalem. By some scholars it is 
identified with the Euphrates ; by others it 
is regarded as a branch of the Eujihrates; 
and by yet others as a town, probably the 
modern Hit, on the Euphrates, due east of 
Damascus. [Ezra viii., 15, 31.] 

Ahaz {possessor),^ son of Jotham, and 
twelfth king of Judah, reigned sixteen years 
— B.C. 742-726. He was, according to our 



Spelled iu Matt, i., 9, Achaz. 



version of 2 Kings xvi., 2, twenty years of 
age at the commencement of his reign, but 
more probably, according to other versions, 
twenty-five years old. He seems to have had 
a mania for foreign religious practices. Not 
only did he employ all the existing sanctua- 
ries, but he introduced new ones in every di- 
rection. Altars were planted on the comers 
of the streets, and in the Temple-courts, on 
which incense was burned to the heaven- 
ly bodies. At the Temple-entrance chariots 
were kept, dedicated to the sun, with their 
sacred white horses, as in Persia and Assyria, 
ready to be harnessed on great occasions. A 
new altar was erected, after the pattern of 
one which the king had seen in Damascus. 
The time-honored ornaments of the Temple 
were removed. The entire Temple-service 
fell into utter neglect.^ At the same time 
the worship of Moloch, the savage godof Am- 
non, was openly established, a brazen statue 
of the god was erected, and before it Ahaz 
even offered in sacrifice one or more of his 
own sons.^ His reign was accordingly char- 
acterized by a series of desolating wars — a 
divine punishment for his sins. At the com- 
mencement of his reign, Pekah, king of Is- 
rael, and Eezin, king of Damascus, laid siege 
to Jerusalem. Isaiah proj)hesied the over- 
throw of the allies, and the deliverance of 
Judah f but notwithstanding the divine suc- 
cor vouchsafed according to this prophecy, 
Ahaz increased his idolatrous practices. One 
condign judgment after another fell upon 
his kingdom. Elath was captured, Judah 
was devastated, and two hundred thou- 
sand inhabitants were carried away captive. 
Ahaz, looking not to God, but to man for 
safety, made an alliance with Tigiath-pileser 
(q. v.), king of Assyria, who freed him from 
his most formidable enemies, but at a cost- 
ly price ; for Judah became tributary to As- 
syria, and Ahaz, after sending all the treas- 
ures of the Temple and of his own ]3alace to 
the Assyrian king, appeared before him in 
person as his vassal. Learning nothing by 
misfortune, he plunged only deeper and deep- 
er into idolatry, and dying at length, at the 
early age of forty-one, was refused a burial 
with his royal ancestors.* The only real 
service he rendered the kingdom was his in- 
troduction of the sun-dial, probably from As- 
syria.^ His reign, by its iniquities, extorted 
from the contemporaneous x)rophets some of 
the most sviblime enunciations of true spirit- 
ual religion in contrast with the religion of 
forms and ceremonies, as well as one of the 
most clear and marvelous proiihecies of the 
future Messiah, of whose coming the tempo- 
ral deliverance afforded to the besieged city 
of Jerusalem was but a type. The fii-st, sev- 
enth, eighth, ninth, seventeenth, and eight- 



1 2 Kings xxiii., 5, 7, It, 12; xvi., 17, IS; 2 Chron. 
xxviii., 24 ; xxix., 3, 7, 16.— 2 2 Kings xvi., 3. Com- 
pare Ueiit. xii., 31 : also 2 Kings xvii,, 17; xxiii., 10 ; 
Isa. XXX., 33. See Moi.ocii. — ^ Isa. vii. — ^ 2 Chron. 
xxviii., 27.— s Isa. xxxviii., 8. See Dial. 



AHAZIAH 

eenth chapters of Isaiah, the fifth and sixth 
chapters of Hosea, and the hook of the proph- 
ecy of Obadiah, are attributed to his reign. 
The last four chapters of Micah belong prob- 
ably to the following reign, but illustrate the 
corruptions introduced in that of Ahaz. [2 
Kings xvi. ; 2 Chron. xxviii.] 

Ahaziah {whom Jeliovali sustains). 1. Son 
of Ahab and Jezebel, and eighth king of Is- 
rael, reigned B.C. 896. He continued the idol- 
atrous worship of his father, and his short 
reign was characterized by the failure of his 
only considerable commercial enterprise, and 
by the rebellion of the Moabites. He feU. 
through a lattice, that is, probably, from the 
window of his chamber, and died in conse- 
quence, in accordance with the prophecy of 
Elijah. His sending to inquire the issue 
of his sickness to the god of Ekron, and 
his attempted violence against Elijah, are 
both characteristic of the family to which 
he belonged. See Elijah; Jehoshaphat. 
[1 Kings xxii., 51; 2 Kings, i. 18; 2 Chron. 
XX., 35-37.] 

2. Sixth king of Judah, youngest son of 
Jehoram, and by his mother, Athaliah (q. v.), 
grandson of Ahab, and therefore nephew of 
the preceding Ahaziah. He is also called 
Azariah and Jehoakaz.^ He maintained the 
idolatrous religion and evil practice of the 
house of Ahab, and was controlled in his 
brief reign, which lasted but one year, B.C. 
845, by the unscrupulous counsel of his moth- 
er.^ He allied himself with his uncle, Jeho- 
ram, king of Israel, brother and successor of 
the preceding Ahaziah, against Hazael, the 
new king of Syria. The two kings were, 
however, defeated at Ramaoth, where Jeho- 
ram was severely wounded. The revolu- 
tion carried out in Israel by Jehu under the 
guidance of Elisha, broke out while Ahaziah 
was visiting his uncle at Jezreel. As Jehu 
approached the town, Jehoram and Ahazi- 
ah went out to meet him, and the former 
was shot through the heart by Jehu. The 
accounts of Ahaziah's death vary. He ap- 
pears to have at first escaped from Jehu, 
who left his servants to follow him, while 
he himself drove on to Jezreel to make sure 
of Jezebel. Ahaziah fled up the ascent of 
Gur,^ near the city of Ibleam, and concealed 
himself for a time in Samaria, where he was, 
a day or two later, detected, and mortally 
wounded. A second time he made his es- 
cape, only to die at Megiddo. He was buried 
in Jerusalem. This appears to be the best 
reconciliation of the seemingly contradicto- 
ry accounts in 2 Kings ix., 27, and 2 Chron. 
xxii., 9. [2 Kings viii., 25-29 ; ix., 16-29 ; 2 
Chron. xxii.] 

Ahijah or Ahiah (hrotlier of the Lord), a 



1 2 Chron. xxii., 6 ; xxi., 17.— ^ His age is uncertain -, 
but forty-two, in 2 Chron. xxii., 2, is probably a copy- 
ist's error for twenty-two. See 2 Kings viii., 26.— 
3 Stanley calls it a "well-known caravanserai." It 
was more probably a hill-side, or perhaps a pass. It 
is only mentioned in 2 Kings ix., 27. See Ibleam. 



27 AHIMAAZ 

prophet of Shiloh in the days of Solomon 
and Jeroboam. He delivered two remarka- 
ble prophecies — one addressed to Jeroboam, 
announcing his destined elevation to the 
throne, and the rending of the ten tribes 
from Solomon; the other was delivered, in 
the prophet's extreme old age, to Jeroboam's 
wife, in which he foretold the death of the 
king's son, the future destruction of Jero- 
boam's house, and the captivity of Israel. 
These prophecies give a high idea of the 
faithfulness and boldness of Ahijah, and of 
the eminent rank which he attained as a 
prophet. He also appears to have written 
some annals of Solomon's reign. [1 Kings 
xi., 29-40 ; xiv., 1-17 ; 2 Chron. ix. 29 ; x., 15.] 

Ahikam {brother of the enemy), the son of 
Shaphan the scribe, and father of Gedaliah 
(q. v.). He was an ofi&cer at the court of 
Josiah and Jehoiakim, was one of the dele- 
gates sent by Hilkiah, in the reign of Josiah, 
to consult Huldah (q.v.), and subsequently 
protected Jeremiah the prophet.^ [2 Kings 
xxii., 12, 14; xxv., 22; 2 Chron. xxxiv., 20; 
Jer. xxvi., 24 ; xxxix., 14; xl., 5.] 

Ahimaaz [brother of anger-), son of Zadok, 
the high-priest in David's reign. When Da- 
vid fled from Jerusalem during Absalom's 
rebellion, he was accompanied by Zadok and 
Abiathar, and their sons, Ahimaaz and Jon- 
athan. It was arranged that they should 
return to the city with Hushai (q. v.), the 
Archite, who should act as spy, and forward 
through Ahimaaz and Jonathan whatever in- 
telligence he could obtain. A message soon 
came to them that Absalom meditated an 
immediate attack, and that David must cross 
the Jordan without delay. They started on 
their errand, but being suspected and pur- 
sued, they were concealed by a woman in 
a well until the search for them was over, 
when they hastened to David and gave 
him the important information. This sig- 
nal service rendered to David by Ahimaaz at 
the hazard of his life, must have tended to 
ingratiate him with the king, who gave an 
honorable testimony to his character when 
he pronounced him a " good man."^ He was 
a professed runner or footman, a very swift 
one, and was employed on several occasions 
in that capacity. That craftiness which fit- 
ted him for his secret service at the time of 
Absalom's rebellion, was exhibited in a less 
honorable way in later life. After the death 
of Absalom, Joab employed Cushi to be the 
bearer of the tidings to David. So urgent 
was Ahimaaz to be allowed to run also, that 
at length he gained Joab's consent to follow 
Cushi. He managed to outrun Cushi, and, 
arriving first, reported to the king the good 
news of the victory, but suppressed the fact 
of Absalom's death, leaving this task to 
Cushi. Thus he had the merit of bringing 
only good tidings, without the alloy of the 
disaster of the death of the king's son. 



See Jeeemiau.— 2 2 Sam. xviii., 27. 



AHIMELECH 



28 



AICHMALOTARCH 



There is no evidence that Ahimaaz was ever 
a high - priest ; it is supposed that he died 
before attaining that office. The Ahimaaz 
spoken of in 1 Ivings iv., 15, A^ho was Solo- 
mon's captain, was a different person. See 
David. [2 Sam. xv., 24-37; xvii., 15-22; 
xviii., 19-33.] 

Ahimelech {hrotlier oftJie Iciny), high-priest 
in the reign of Saul. In the reign of David 
there were two high-i)riests, Zadok and Abi- 
athar, who represented the rival families of 
Eleazar and Ithamar (q. v.). Their geneal- 
ogy is involved in almost inextricable con- 
fusion. We are told that Zadok was the son 
of Ahitub, that Ahimelech was the son of 
Ahitub ; that Abiathar was the son of Ahim- 
elech, that Abiathar was the father of Ahim- 
elech ; that Ahimelech was the high-priest in 
the days of Saul; that Abijah was the high- 
priest in the days of Saul ; that David iied to 
Nob alone, and received the show-bread and 
the sword of Goliath from Ahimelech, that he 
had companions with him, and received the 
sword and the show - bread from Abiathar. 
The reader curious to investigate these ap- 
parent contradictions, may do so by refer- 
ring to and comparing 1 Sam. xiv., 3, 18 ; xxi., 
1 ; xxii., 9, 11, 20 ; xxiii., 6 ; 2 Sam. viii., 17 ; 
1 Chron. vi., 7, 8,' 52; xviii., 16. While the 
whole subject is involved in great uncer- 
tainty, the probable explanation is as fol- 
lows : There were two persons of the name 
of Ahitub — one belonging to the family of 
Ithamar, the other to the family of Elea- 
zar. The son of one was Zadok,^ of the other 
was Ahimelech. The latter x^erson was also 
called sometimes Ahimelech, sometimes Ahi- 
ah.^ His son Abiathar ministered with him. 
He was of the family of Ithamar, and a 
great-grandson of Eli. He first appears in 
sacred history under the name of Ahiah, at 
the beginning of Saul's reign, at which time 
he brought up the ark of God, at Saul's di- 
rection, at the battle of Michmash.^ God 
gave no answer to Saul's request for guid- 
ance — perhaps to indicate his displeasure 
with the king for his rash oath ; and from 
that time forth, perhaps for that reason, the 
headstrong king inquired at the ark no 
more.^ The same reasons which gradually 
estranged Saul from God led to his becom- 
ing estranged from the priesthood ; Samuel's 
sharp rebuke at Gilgal, and his subsequent 
anointing of David, which could hardly have 
failed to come to Saul's ears, added to the 
king's anger against all the servants of God ; 
and when Doeg, the Edomite, reported the 
fact that the show-bread and the sword of 
Goliath had been given to David (perhaps not 
by Ahimelech directly, but by his son Abi- 
athar, who ministered with him^), despite 



1 Possibly Zadok was a grandson. Comp. 1 Chron. 
vi., 7, with Neh. xi., 11. But the addition of the name 
Meraioth in the latter passage is probably a transcrib- 
er's error. — 2 1 Chron. xviii., IG ; 1 Sam. xiv., 3. — 3 1 
Sam. xiv., 3, IS.— * 1 Chron. xiii., 3.-6 So it would ap- 
pear from Mark ii., 26. 



Ahimelech's defense, who seems to have act- 
ed in entire ignorance of the rupture be- 
tween Saul and David, Ahimelech and his 
whole household, eighty -five priests, besides 
Avomen and children, were ruthlessly mas- 
sacred by the king's command. Abiathar 
alone escaped. See Abiathar; Zadok; 
HiGH-PKiEST. [1 Sam. xiv., 3; xxi., 1-9; 
xxii., 9-23.] 

Ahithophel (brother of foolishness) was not 
only one of David's council, but his intimate 
personal friend.^ His son Eliam was one of 
David's body-guard, and the father of his 
favorite wife. Bathsheba.'^ The wrong in- 
flicted upon her may have disaffected him. 
He joined Absalom's rebellion, at all events 
— a defection which occasioned David more 
alarm than any other incident in the rebell- 
ion. To his treachery he added the scan- 
dalous advice to Absalom to publicly dis- 
honor his father by appropriating his harem. 
His subsequent counsel in favor of an imme- 
diate pursuit of David Avas rejected for the 
treacherous counsel of Hushai ; whereupon 
he gave up the cause as lost, left the court, 
went home, and hanged himself. This is 
the only case of suicide mentioned in the O. 
T. (except in war), as that of Judas is the 
only one mentioned in the N. T. ; and this 
fact, as well as their common treachery, 
and the application by Christ to his own 
betrayal of David's expressions respecting 
Ahithophel,^ have caused the latter to be 
regarded as a type of Judas, and the Ivth 
Psalm, to the utterance of which he seems 
to have given occasion, as an unconscious 
Messianic prophecy. It seems incredible 
that such a name as his should have been 
given to one during his life who possessed 
the reputation attributed to him in 2 Sam. 
xvi. It is therefore supposed, with reason, 
to have been given to him after his death, 
in derision of his infamous conrse and its 
disastrous personal result. If this be so, it 
is a striking instance of answer to prayer 
that he should be called the brother of fool- 
ish]]ess, whose counsel David prayed might 
be turned to foolishness. See Daa^d; Ab- 
salom ; Hushai. [2 Sam. xv., 12, 31 ; xvi., 
15-23; xvii., 1-14, 23.] 

Ai (heap of ruins), a city east of Bethel, 
and beside I3ethaven. It was the second 
city taken by Israel after the passage of the 
Jordan. It is notable as being the scene of 
the disaster which led to the discovery and 
punishment of Achan's sin. It was subse- 
quently captured by an ambush, and utterly 
destroyed. The site is a matter of great un- 
certainty. It is called Aija in Neh. xi., 31, 
and Aiath in Isaiah x., 28. [Josh, vii., 2-5 ; 
viii., 9; ix., 3; x., 1, 2; xii., 9.] 

Aichmalotarch (the prince of the captivi- 
ty), the title of a governor asserted by some 
writers (though the fact is uncertain) to 



1 1 Chron. xxvii., 33, 34; Psa. Iv,, 12-14.— 2 Comp. 
2 Sam. xi., 3, with xxiii., 34.— ^ John xiii., 18. 



AIJALON 



29 



ALB 



have beeu elected to rule that portion of the 
Jews who settled in Babylon and its neigh- 
borhood after the dispersion of the Jewish 
nation, consequent upon the destruction of 
Jerusalem. 

Aijalon (a place of deer or gazelles), also 
spelled Ajalon, a city of the Kohathites, 
originally allotted to the tribe of Dan, which 
tribe, however, was unable to dispossess the 
Amorites of the place. Aijalon Avas one of 
the towns fortified by Eehoboam, and we 
last hear of it as being in the hands of the 
Philistines. Being on the very frontier of 
the two kingdoms, we can understand how 
it should be spoken of sometimes as in 
Ephraim, and sometimes as in Judali and 
Benjamin.^ It is represented by the modern 
Yalo, a little to the north of the Jaffa road, 
about fourteen miles out of Jerusalem. 
[ Josh, xix., 42 ; xxi., 24; Judg. i., 35; 1 Sam. 
xiv., 31 ; 2 Chron. xxviii., 18.] 

Ain (a spring) occurs most frequently in 
the Bible in combination, in which cases it 
is usually spelled En ; as, Engedi {fountain 
of the hid). But the older form is still pre- 
served in the modern Arabic names. Thus 
Engedi is Ain Jiddy. It occurs by itself in 
the Bible — once as the name of a place on 
the eastern border of Palestine,^ probably 
the modern Ain-el-Azy, the main source of 
the Orontes ; also as the name of a Levitical 
city in Simeon f probably the same as the 
En-rimmon, re-inhabited by the men of Ju- 
dali after their return from the captivity.* 
Perhaps it should read Ain-Rimmou, instead 
of Ain and Eimmon. 

Air. Some expressions in which this word 
occurs seem to require notice. The phrase 
"to beat the air" alludes to a boxer Avho, 
instead of striking his antagonist, hits vain- 
ly into the air. " Speaking into the air " is 
speaking uselessly, the words making no im- 
pression. The Pythagoreans believed the air 
to be peopled with spirits, under the govern- 
ment of a chief who there held his seat of 
empire. The Jews entertained the same 
opinion. To this notion Paul probably al- 
ludes in describing Satan as the Prince of 
the power of the air. [1 Cor. ix., 26 ; xiv., 9 ; 
Eph. ii., 2.] 

Akrabbim {scorpion cliffs), a range of hills 
to the south of the Dead Sea. The whole 
region is infested with scorpions, whence the 
name. It is also called Maalehacrabbim. 
[Numb, xxxiv., 4 ; Josh, xv.,3; Judg.i., 36.] 

Alabaster. By the English word alabas- 
ter is to be understood both that kind which 
is also known by the name of gypsum, and 
the Oriental alabaster, which is a fibrous car- 
bonate of lime, and much valued on account 
of its translucency and its variety of color- 
ed streakings. Both these kinds, but espe- 
cially the latter, have been long used for va- 



rious ornamental purposes, such as the fabri- 
cation of vases, boxes, etc. ; and the ancients 
considered alabaster the best material in 




1 Comp. 1 Chron, vi., 66, 69, with 2 Chron. xi., 10.- 
2 Numb, xxxiv., 11.— 3 Josh, xv., 32 ; xix., 7 ; xxi., IG ; 
1 Chron. iv., 32.—* Neh. xi., 29. 



Alabaster Vessels from the British Museum. The in- 
scription on the middle vessel denotes the quantity 
it holds. 

which to preserve their ointments. Vases 
of white alabaster have been found among 
the ruins of Nineveh, which were used for 
liolding ointments or cosmetics. The word 
alabaster occurs in the N. T. only in the 
account of the woman who brought an ala- 
baster box of spikenard,^ and poured it on 
the Saviour's head as he sat at meat in the 
house of Simon. This was i^robably a vase 
rather than a box. The Oriental alabasters 
often had a long, narrow neck ; and it not 
only accords with the Greek to suppose that 
the woman broke this in two, but makes the 
act far more expressive. She would reserve 
nothing for herself, but devote the whole to 
her Lord. This seems a better construction 
of the passage than to suppose that she 
merely broke the seals of the box — a suppo- 
sition entertained by some commentators. 

Alb {wliite), a vestment worn by the Rom- 
ish priest, corresponding to the surplice of 




The Alb. 



the Episcopal clergy. A white robe has been 
universally considered an important part of 
the sacerdotal dress, and is probably bor- 



Matt. xxvi., T; Mark xiv., 3. 



ALBIGENSES 



30 



ALEXANDRIA 



rowed from the linen epliod of the ancient 
Jewish priests. In the early Church, it was 
worn for eight days by the newly-baptized, 
who were consequently called AWati; and 
the Sunday after Easter, on which latter day 
the catechumen usually received baptism, 
was called Dominica in Alhis — the Lord's day 
in White, or Whitsunday. 

Albigenses, a name applied to several re- 
ligious sects that abounded in the south of 
France about the beginning of the thirteenth 
century. They were certainly not the same 
in their origin with the Waldenses (q. v.), 
with whom they have been sometimes con- 
founded. It is difficult to ascertain with 
any accuracy their creed, since our informa- 
tion is derived almost entirely from their 
bitter foes. It is certain, however, that 
they were very earnest opponents of the 
Papal power, and denounced in no meas- 
ured terms the Eoman Church. They are 
supposed, however, to be doctrinally identic- 
al with the Cathari (q.v.). They acquired 
their name, probably, from the name of the 
diocese Albi, in which they were dominant. 
This district, in Languedoc, was the first 
point against which the crusade of Pope In- 
nocent III. (1209) was directed. The imme- 
diate pretense of the crusade was the mur- 
der of the Papal legate and inquisitor, Peter 
of Castelnair, who had been commissioned to 
extirx)ate heresy in the dominions of Count 
Eaymond of Toulouse; but its real object 
was to deprive the count of his lands, as he 
had become an object of hatred, from his 
toleration of the heretics. It was in vain 
that he had submitted to the most humilia- 
ting penance and flagellation from the hands 
of the legate, Milo, and had purchased the 
Papal absolution by great sacrifices. The 
legates, Arnold, Abbott of Citeaux, and Milo, 
who directed the expedition, took by storm 
Beziers, the capital of Raymond's nephew 
Roger, and massacred 20,000 — some say 40,000 
— of the inhabitants. Catholics as well as 
heretics. "Kill them all," said Arnold ; " God 
will know his own !" Simon, count of Mont- 
fort, who conducted the war under the leg- 
ates, proceeded in the same relentless way 
with other places in the territories of Ray- 
mond and his alUes. Of these, Roger of Be- 
ziers died in prison, and Peter I. of Aragon 
fell in battle. The conquered lands were giv- 
en, as a reward, to Simon of Montfort, who 
never came into quiet possession of the gift. 
At the siege of Toulouse (1218) he was kill- 
ed by a stone, and Counts Raymond VI. and 
VII. disputed the possession of their terri- 
tories with his son. But the Papal indul- 
gences drew fresh crusaders from every prov- 
ince of France, to continue the war. Ray- 
mond VII. continued to struggle bravely 
against the legates and Louis VIII. of France, 
to whom Montfort had ceded his pretensions, 
and who fell in the war of 1226. After hun- 
dreds of thousands had perished on both 



sides, a peace was concluded, in 1229, at 
which Raymond purchased relief from the 
ban of the Church by immense sums of mon- 
ey, gave up Narbonne and several lordships 
to Louis IX., and had to make his son-in- 
law, the brother of Louis, heir of his other 
possessions. These provinces, hitherto in- 
dependent, were thus, for the first time, join- 
ed to the kingdom of France ; and the Pope 
sanctioned the acquisition, in order to bind 
Louis more firmly to the Papal chair, and in- 
duce him more readily to admit the Inqui- 
sition. The heretics were handed over to 
the proselytizing zeal of the order of Domin- 
icans, and the bloody tribunals of the Inqui- 
sition ; and both used their utmost power to 
bring the recusant Albigenses to the stake, 
and also, by inflicting severe punishment on 
the penitent converts, to inspire dread of in- 
curring the Church's displeasure. From the 
middle of the thirteenth century, the name 
of the Albigenses gradually disappears. The 
remnants of them took refuge in the East, 
and settled in Bosnia. 

Alexander, a coppersmith or brazier, who, 
with Hymeneus and others, broached certain 
heresies touching the resurrection, for which 
they were excommunicated by the Apostle 
Paul. The false opinions they adopted are 
not particularly described, but the proba- 
bility is, from what we learn of Hymeneus, 
who is represented as denying the resurrec- 
tion, and saying that it was past already, 
that both of them were tinged with that 
Gnostic spirit which would impair the reali- 
ties of Gospel truth. They probably held 
that the resurrection of the dead was simply 
the elevation of the soul, by the knowledge 
of the truth, into a higher sphere ; and this 
doctrine was perhaps coupled with another, 
viz., that all thus raised might follow purely 
their own inclinations. One Philetus is de- 
scribed as falling into the same error. See 
Gnostics. [1 Tim. i., 20 ; 2 Tim. ii., 17, 18 ; 
iv.,14.] 

Alexandria, a celebrated city and sea-port 
of Egypt, on the Mediterranean, twelve miles 
from the mouth of the River Nile, named in 
honor of Alexander the Great, who founded 
it B.C. 332. He selected it for the Greek col- 
ony which he proposed to found, from the 
great natural advantages which it possessed, 
and from the admirable harbor formed by 
the deep water between Rhacotis and the 
isle of Pharos. It was built upon a strip of 
land between the sea and Lake Marcotis, 
and connected with the isle of Pharos by a \ 
long mole nearly a mile in length. Two 
main streets, 240 feet wide, crossing each 
other at right angles in the middle of the 
city, left a free passage for the sea-breezes. 
The public works, the royal docks, the ex- 
change, the temple of Neptune, the tomb of 
Alexander, etc., occupied nearly one-third of 
the whole extent of the city. There were 
also a theatre, an amphitheatre, a gymna- 



ALEXANDRIA 



31 



ALEXANDRIA 



ANCIENT 

AIEXANDEIA 

Stalix 




slum, a stadium, a hall of justice, public 
groves or gardens, and, towering above all, 
the temi)le of Serapis. The most important 
of all the public buildings were, however, 
those belonging to the College of Philosophy.. 
They were built near the royal palace, and 
contained a hall, used as a lecture-room and 
dining-room, with a covered walk on the out- 
side, and a free library, which soon became 
the largest and most famous in the world. It 
contained, under Cleoi)atra, 700,000 volumes. 
Schools of j)hilosophy clustered around this 
library, and rendered Alexandria so illu.stri- 
ous that men eminent in every department 
of learning resorted thither for instruction. 

Alexandria is mentioned in the Scriptures 
only incidentally, and only in the book of 
Acts.^ It has, however, played an important 
part in the religious history of the world. A 
large number of Jews were j)lanted there by 
Alexander the Great. They possessed equal 
rights with the Greek j)opulation, had a part 
of the city allotted to them, were governed 
by their own code of laws and by their 
own governor, and possessed many fine syn- 
agogues. At the time of Christ they num- 
bered one -third of the entire popalation. 
Imbibing much of the philosophy of the 
Greeks, yet not relinquishing their own re- 
ligious faith, the Alexandrian Jews became 
a distinct and peculiar sect, and were famous 
alike for their literary culture, and for their 
corruption of the simx)le faith of their fathers. 
It was here that the celebrated Se]3tuagint 
(q. V.) translation of the Hebrew Scriptures 
was made, in direct violation of the precepts 



Acts vi., 9 ; xviii., 24 ; xxvii., G. 



of the stricter rabbis of Palestine, who alike 
forbade their students to study Greek them- 
selves, or by translation to afford the Greeks 
the means of studying the Hebrew Scrip- 
tures. The mingling of Oriental, Jewish, 
and Greek minds, which was peculiar to 
Alexandria, produced a new, but curious 
rather than useful, school of thought. It 
was scrupulous in its adherence to rules, but 
uninspired by genius. It ai^plied to the in- 
terpretation of Scripture the metaphysics of 
Plato, corrupted by the mystical fancies of the 
Orientals. Endeavoring to evade the irre- 
pressible conflict between the simple truths 
of the Bible and the erudite and often in- 
comprehensible teachings of heathenism, it 
constructed a conglomerate philosox)hy, the 
ruins of which are barely preserved in an- 
cient history as a curiosity of literature. 
The Alexandrian Jews were looked down 
upon by their brethren of Palestine with con- 
tempt, not altogether undeserved, for their 
corruptions of Judaism ; nor was the Gospel 
of Christ any less corrupted when, later, the 
Christians of Alexandria repeated the exper- 
iment of the Jews, and their city became 
the cradle of that curious combination of 
Christian truth and heathen superstition 
known as Gnosticism (q. v.). 

After the rise and development of Chris- 
tianity as a political power in the Roman 
Empire, Alexandria became the scene of bit- 
ter and bloody contests between the Chris- 
tians and the heathen. At length, under 
the reign of Theodosius, a.d. 389, the tem- 
ple of Serapis was sacked by the Chris- 
tians, under the leadership of their arch- 



ALGUM 



32 



ALMOND 



bishop, Theophilus ; and after the god and 
his altar had been destroyed, and the frauds 
by which his priests had imposed u^^on the 
people had been exposed, the temple was 
converted into a Christian church. This 
put an end to heathenism, and for a time 
Alexandria became to Egypt ^vhat Eome 
was to Western, and Constantinople to East- 
ern Europe — the religious capital. Its libra- 
ry, although seriously injured by the Chris- 
tian mob, continued to make it an important 
centre of philosophic thought ; but its mys- 
tical and allegorical interpretations rather 
befogged than illuminated the truth. At 
length, A.D. 638, the city was captured by 
the Arabs under Amron. John Philoponus, 
a famous Alexandrian philosopher, but the 
last of his school, implored in vain that the 
library might be spared. The answer of 
the Omar, as reported, exhibits a degree of 
fanaticism so great, that it is not strange it 
has excited the skepticism of Gibbon. " If 
these writings of the Greeks," said he, " agree 
Avith the book of God, they are useless, and 
need not be preserved ; if they disagree, they 
are pernicious, and ought to be destroyed." 
Destroyed they were ; and tradition reports 
that so vast was the collection, that though 
distributed among the 4000 baths of the 
city, it supplied them with fuel for nearly 
six months. The destruction of the Alexan- 
drian Library is probably the greatest ijiece 
of vandalism the world has ever witnessed, 
and with it the religious and philosophical 
importance of the city came to an end. The 
modern Alexandria is fast rising, however, 
into a place of commercial importance. 

Algum or Almug Trees. It is evident 
that these are two forms of the same word, 
as they occur in passages referring to the 
same events,^ and differ only in the transpo- 
sition of letters. Various conjectures have 
been formed, in the attempt to identify this 
tree, but no certain conclusion has been 
reached in regard to it. The arguments, 
however, are more in favor of the red san- 
dal-wood than of any other tree. This wood 
is very heavy, hard, and tine-grained, and of 
a beautiful garnet color. 

All-Saints' Day. A festival observed by 
the Romish and Episcopal churches. Pope 
Boniface, in the seventh century, obtained 
by gift from the Grecian emperor, Phocas, 
the Pantheon at Rome, consecrated it to the 
honor of the Virgin Mary and all the mar- 
tyrs, and appointed a feast of the apostles 
to be held, which was subsequently changed 
from spring to fall, and from a feast of apos- 
tles to one commemorating All Saints. The 
day was popularly called All-Hallow's Day, 
whence comes the title All-Hallow E'en, ap- 
plied to the evening before, Avhich the Scotch 
and Irish are accustomed to spend in sports 
and festivities, some of which are said to be 
relics of Druidism. 



1 Kings X., 11, 12 ; 2 Chron. ix., 10, 11, 



Alliance, a confederacy formed by treaty 
between two nations for tiieir amicable in- 
tercourse and mutual advantage. Such com- 
pacts are designated in Scripture by various 
terms, e. g., league, covenant, treaty. Anteri- 
or to the Mosaic law, such alliances with for- 
eigners w^ere not forbidden to the Hebrews. 
Abraham was in alliance with some of the 
Canaanitish princes ; and his treaty of alli- 
ance with the Philistine king, Abimelech, 
afterward renewed by their sons,^ is a mod- 
el of its kind. It leaves all details to the 
honest interpretation of the contracting par- 
ties. Even after the law, such alliances with 
distant nations as could not be supposed to 
have any dangerous effect upon the religion 
or morals of the people, were not deemed 
to be prohibited. The ground on which 
Joshua and the elders were condemned for 
treating with the Gibeonites — i. e., that they 
were near neighbors — would imply this.^ On 
their first establishment in Palestine, lest in- 
tercourse with foreign nations should draw 
them into the worship of idols, alliance with 
such nations was strongly interdicted.^ But 
with the extension of their power under the 
kings, the Jevrs were brought more and more 
into contact with surrounding nations, and 
alliances became common in order to devel- 
op their commerce.'' After the division of 
the kingdom, it was the j)olicy of Israel 
and Judah to strengthen themselves, the one 
against the other, by such foreign alliances." 
The political and religious effect of this in- 
tercourse with the heathen was to bring the 
Hebrews into a state of vassalage to the 
great empires of Egypt or Assyria, and to 
weaken that sentiment of seijaration which 
it was of the utmost importance for them to 
maintain. The disastrous consequences of 
even the seemingly least objectionable al- 
liances, often declared against by the proj)h- 
ets, may be seen in the long train of evils 
to both kingdoms which ensued from the 
marriage of Ahab with Jezebel. For the 
rites by which an alliance was ratified, see 
Coven a:nt. 

Allocution (address), in the language of 
the Vatican, denotes the address delivered 
by the Pope at the College of Cardinals, or 
at any great Church gathering, on any eccle- 
siastical or political circumstance. It may 
be considered as corresponding in some meas- 
ure to the official explanations Avhich con- 
stitutional ministers give when questions 
are asked in Parliament, or to the i)olitical 
messages of the French chief executive. 

Almond, a tree or shrub, Avhich is a na- 
tive of Asia and North Africa. It is culti- 
vated in Europe on account of its beauti- 
ful flowers ; for there the fruit scarcely ever 
comes to maturity. In Palestine it blossoms 



1 Gen. xiv., 13; xxl., 22-33; xsvi., 26-30.— 2 Josh, ix., 
3-27.-3 Exod. xxiii., 32; Dent, vii., 2. — * See Solo- 
mon's treaties, 1 Kings v., 2-12; ix., 27; x., 28, 29.— 
5 1 Kings XV., 10-21 ; 2 Kings xvi., 7-9. 



ALMS 



33 



ALPIL^US 



as early as January, and sometimes matures 
its fruit in March. Hence it is called in 
Hebrew "the waker," from its being the 
tree that awakes earliest in spring from the 
winter's sleep. This gives the peculiar sig- 
nificance to the vision of Jeremiah.* The 
flowers are pink, arranged generally in pairs. 
The fruit is a two-lobed kernel, inclosed in 
a shell. The " Jordan almond " is the recog- 
nized market name for the best samples of 
this fruit. The shape of the nut is remark- 
ably graceful, and it was the pattern selected 
for the bowls of the golden candlestick.^ 

Alms. Alms-gi^dng was rightly held in 
high honor among the Jews. The Mosaic 
law made special provision for the protec- 
tion of the poor and the outcast, by requir- 
ing that portions should be left for them to 
glean from the produce of the field, the vine- 
yard, and the olive, and that every third 
year each proprietor should bestow the tithe 
of his produce upon the Levite, the stranger, 
the fatherless, and the widow.^ The impor- 
tance of ahns-giving as a virtue is frequent- 
ly recognized,* and the practice was still kept 
up among the Jews after the spirit of love, 
which alone gave value to the act, had de- 
parted.^ In the Apostolic Church, along with 
commands explicit against the ecclesiastical 
beggary of false religions,® are earnest exhor- 
tations to remember the poor, and abundant 
evidence that this was done, not merely oc- 
casionally and fitfully, but upon a somewhat 
carefully organized system. '^ The practice 
of systematically contributing every Sab- 
bath has been continued to the present time 
in the Romish Church. Chrysostom declares 
that it was an early practice to provide box- 
es for the receipt of alms, and he compares 
this with the later custom of providing holy 
water, giving the preference to the former. 
On Passion- week these alms were bestowed 
with peculiar liberality. Among the Mo- 
hammedans, very great importance is at- 
tached to alms-giving ; and it is the most im- 
portant of all the modes of acquiring merit 
in Buddhism. At the same time, beggary as 
well as alms-giving is encouraged, the fakirs 
and dervishes of Mohammedan, and the beg- 
ging friars of popish countries, being restrict- 
ed to a life of poverty, and being compelled 
to rely for their support on the charity of 
the faithful. 

Alms-bowl, Alms-box, Alms-chest, the 
receptacle provided by different churches 
for the reception of alms. In the Buddhist 
Church this is a bowl, in which the priest 
receives food contributed by the faithful. It 
is regarded with a superstitious reverence, 
and the method of its use is prescribed by 



^ Jer. i., 11, 12.— 2 Exod. xxv., 31-37 ; xxxvii., 19, 20. 
—3 Lev. xix., 9, 10 ; xxiii., 22 ; Deut. xiv., 28 ; xv., 11 ; 
xxiv., 19 ; xxvi., 2-13 ; Ruth ii., 2.—* Job xxix., 13; 
Psa. xli., 1 ; cxii., 9 ; Prov. xiv., 31 ; Isa. Iviii., 3-7. — 
5 Matt, vi., 1-4. — 6 2 Thess. iii., 10.— ^ Luke xiv,, 13; 
Acts xi., 80 ; XX., 35 ; Rom. xv., 25, 27; 1 Cor. xvi., 1-4 ; 
Gal.iL,10; 1 Tim. v., 10. 

3 



minute regulations. In the Brazilian (R. C.) 
Church a box is used, which is slung over 
the shoulder of the pious beggar. In the 




Alms-box. 

Church of England a chest is provided by 
the canon law at the door of each church, to 
receive offerings for the poor — a custom bor- 
rowed from the Primitive Church, being old- 
er than the days of Chrysostom. 

Aloes, the name of a costly and fragrant 
wood, which should not be confounded with 
the bitter and nauseous aloes famed only as 
a medicine, nor with those stiff specimens 
which, under the name of "American aloes," 
are cultivated on well-trimmed lawns. The 
Eastern aloes is an immense tree, growing 
on the mountainous regions south and east 
of Silket. The wood is burned by the Chi- 
nese in their temples. It was also a favor- 
ite perfume of the Emperor Napoleon I., and 
was frequently burned in his palace. The 
word aloes occurs in several passages in the 
O. T., but only once in the N. T. These ref- 
erences indicate that it was also used by the 
Hebrews as a perfume. [Numb, xxiv., 6; 
Psa. xiv., 8 ; Cant, iv., 14 ; John xix., 39.] 

Alpha, the first letter of the Greek alpha- 
bet. These letters were used as numerals. 
Alpha, therefore, denotes one — the first. And 
as Omega is the last Greek letter, our Lord 
calls himself Alpha and Omega — the First 
and the Last : implying his divine eternity. 
[Rev. i., 8, 11 ; xxi., 6 ; xxii., 13 ; compare Isa. 
xliv., 6.] 

Alphaeus. Alphseus is described in Matt. 
X., 3, as the father of James the Less, one of 
the apostles. According to the same evan- 
gelist, Mary was the mother of James and 
Joses, while, according to John, shfe was the 
wife of Cleophas.* This, together with the 
fact that the two words are only different 
Greek forms of the same Hebrew word, have 
led to the supposition that Cleophas and Al- 
phaeus are the same person. A Cleophas is 
also mentioned as one of the two disciples 
who went to Emmaus, and were joined by 



Matt, xxvii., 56 ; John xix., 25. 



AL-SIEAT 



34 



ALTAR 



Jesus on the way, after tlie resurrection/ 
Whether he is also to be identified with Al- 
phaius is uncertain. See James ; Mary ; 
Brethren of the Lord. 

Al-Sirat. The sharp bridge which the 
Mohammedans believe to be laid over the 
middle of hell, and which must be crossed 
by all at the close of the solemn judgment, 
whether destined for paradise or the place 
of torment. This bridge is described as be- 
ing " as long as the earth, no broader than 
the thread of a spider's web, and of a height 
proportioned to its length." The just shall 
pass it like lightning, but the wicked shall 
fall and precipitate themselves into hell-fire. 

Altar IHigh^. In all ages and in almost 
all religions, worship has been connected 
with altars, upon which the sacrifices have 
been placed and usually burned. Ruins of 
such altars are still found among the Druid- 




Druiclical Cromlech. 

ical remains in Great Britain It is by many 
supjjosed that it was for this purpose that 
the rude structures known as cromlechs were 
employed, though others regard them as se- 
j)ulchral monuments. Egyptian inscriptions 
also contain specimens of the ancient altars 
of the East, and, in Persia, stone altars of 
great antiquity are still found. The first al- 
tars were probably made of turf, or of stones 
rudely piled, and were of various forms. 




Druidical Altars. 

Among the Romans, those dedicated to the 
heavenly gods were raised to a great height ; 
those for the infernal deities were holes dug 
in the ground ; while those of the terrestrial 
gods were nearly even with its surface. The 
great temples of Rome generally contained 
three altars. Their character is indicated 
in some of the ancient coins. The altar at 
Athens, inscribed to the Unknown God,^ has 
occasioned no little discussion. The design 
of the inscription is not understood, but oth- 
er authors than Paul speak of the unknown 
god at Athens. 

Cain and Abel appear to have worshiped 



Luke xxiv., 18.— 2 Acts xvii., 22, 23. 




Forms of ancient Heathen Altars. 1, 2, 3. Greek; 
4. Egyptian, 5. Babylonian; 6. Roman; 7, 8. Persian. 

at some primitive form of altar, but the first 
altar distinctly mentioned is that of Noah.^ 
From this time the history of the altar is 
that of Jewish worship.'^ The law forbade 
the employment of any tooP in the construc- 
tion of a stone altar, probably to prevent the 
addition of any sculptured ornaments. 

The altars of the tabernacle were two — the 
altar of hurnt-offering and the altar of incense. 
The former was a frame-work of shittim (aca- 
cia) boards, overlaid with brass (copper or 
bronze), five cubits in length and breadth, 
and three cubits high. As it was thus hol- 
low, it has been supposed that, in accord- 
ance with the command above noticed, it 
was filled within with earth when the camp 
was stationary. There appears to have been 
a ledge or projection on which the priests 
stood while officiating : below this there was 
a brass grating or net-work, which was let 
down into the altar, possibly to support the 
fire. Four rings were attached to this net- 
work, through which staves, likewise of 
wood overlaid with metal, might be passed 
when the altar was removed. There were 
also horns to the altar, which occasionally 
were sprinkled with blood: to these horns 
the victims were tied ; and a person fleeing 
hither for safety laid hold of them.* As steps 
were forbidden,'^ it has been thought that a» 
slope of earth was made from the ground to 
the ledge. But it is not certain that the 
ledge was high enough from the ground to 
require it. Various utensils belonged to this 
altar, as pans to receive the ashes, shovels to 
clear any thing away, basins to receive the 
blood, flesh -hooks to remove the parts of 
the victims, and fire-pans, perhaps censers. 
This altar was placed at " the door of the 
tabernacle of the tent of the congregation." 
The fire on it was never to go out." A larger 



1 Gen. viii., 20. —2 Gen. xii., 7; xiii., 4; xxii,, 9; 
xxvi.,25; xxxiii., 20; xxxv., 1, 3; Exod. xvii., 15.— 
3 Exod. XX., 24, 25.-4 Exod. xxvii., 1-S; xxix., 12; 1 
KiiifTS i., 50, 51 ; ii., 28; Psa. cxviii., 27.-5 Exod. XX., 
20.-6 Exod. xl., 29 ; Lev. vi., 9, 13. 



ALTAR 35 

ri'irir"Tn"TiTT m~ ^ 



ALTAE 




Altar of Burnt-offering. 



altar of burnt -offering was constructed by 
Solomon for the Temple ; it was twenty cu- 
bits in length, and breadth, and ten cubits 
high, and was entirely of brass/ No detail- 
ed description is given of it ; and it is uncer- 
tain whether the ascent to it was by steps 
or by a gradual sloj)e. This was repaired 
by Asa, removed by Ahaz to make room for 
a new altar of Syrian fashion, cleansed by 
Hezekiah, and repaired again by Manasseh.^ 
"We hear nothing further of it. For the sec- 
ond Temx^le, the altar was erected before the 
Temple itself was begun, ^ Josephus says, on 
the spot where Solomon's had stood. This 
was profaned by Antiochus Epiphanes ; and 
a new one was built by Judas Maccabseus, 
both being of stone. The altar made by 
Herod was fifteen cubits high, and equal in 
both length and breadth, each being fifty 
cubits. The figure it was built in was a 
square ; it had corners like horns ; and the 
passage up to it was by a gentle acclivity 
from the south. It was formed without any 
iron tool ; nor did iron so much as touch it 
at any time. From the south-west horn a 
pipe conducted the blood of the victims by 
a subterranean passage to the Kedron. Un- 
der the altar a cavity, with a marble cover- 
ing, received the drink-offerings. On the 
north side were several iron rings for secur- 
ing the victims; and there was a red line 
round the middle to show where the blood 
was to be sprinkled, above or below it. 

The altar of incense was made of shittim- 
wood overlaid with gold ; whence it is call- 
ed also " the golden altar." It was a cubit 
in length and breadth, and two cubits high. 
It had horns, occasionally sprinkled as those 
of the brazen altar. It had a "top" or 



1 2 Chron. iv., 1.— » 2 Kings xri., 10-16; 2 Chron. 
XV., 8; xxix., 18; xxxiii., 16.— 3 Compare Ezra ill., 
2, 3, wth verses 9, 10. 



"roof," and a border of gold, and golden 
rings, with wooden staves overlaid with gold, 
to carry it. It was to stand in the holy 
place " before the veil that is by the ark of 
the testimony." On this incense was to be 
burned every day; and once a year an atone- 
ment was to be made upon it.^ This is the 
altar referred to in Isa. vi., 6 ; Rev. viii., 3, 5. 




Altar of Incense. 

In Solomon's Temple it was of cedar overlaid 
with gold.^ We have no notice of it at the 
building of the second Temple ; but later we 
are told in the Apocrypha that Antiochus 
Epiphanes took it away, and that Judas 
Maccabaeus restored it or made another. 

There is no evidence that in the Apostolic 
Church an altar was known ; for the refer- 
ence in Heb. xiii., 10, is not to a piece of 
ecclesiastical furniture, but to the cross of 
Christ. Bingham assures us that the term 
altar and table were indifferently used in 



1 Numb, iv., 11 ; Exorl. xxx., 1-10; xl., 5.-2 1 Kings 
vi., 20 ; 1 Chron. xxviii., IS. 



ALTAR 

the primitive CMircli for the article on 
which the Eucharist was placed. This altar 
or table was, at all events, very simple in 
its structure, had no images upon or about 
it, not even the cross, apparently, until the 
fourth century. There was but one altar or 
table in each church, sometimes only one in 



36 



ALTAR 



each city. They were at first constructed 
of wood, but in the sixth century it was de- 
creed that they should be built of stone, the 
object being to represent Christ, the founda- 
tion-stone of the Church. As, however, the 
doctrine of transubstantiation came to be 
more generally accepted, and the mass to 




Romau Catholic Altar. 



AMALEKITES 



37 



AMAZIAH 



be regarded as an actual sacrifice, not as 
a memorial service, the communion - table 
came to be regarded more and more as a 
true altar. At the xjresent time, in the Rom- 
ish Church, every altar has three steps going 
up to it, covered with a carpet. It is decked 
with natural and artificial flowers, accord- 
ing to the season of the year, and no cost is 
spared in adorning it with gold, silver, and 
jewels. The tabernacle of the holy sacra- 
ment is placed on the holy altar, on each 
side of which are tapers of white wax, ex- 
cept at all oflfices for the dead, and during 
the last three days of Passion-week, at which 
time they are yellow. A crucifix is placed 
on the altar. There is a copy, written in a 
legible hand, of the Te igitur, Sb prayer ad- 
dressed only to the first Person of the Trin- 
ity. The altar is furnished with a little bell, 
which is rung thrice when the priest kneels 
down, thrice when he elevates the host, and 
thrice when he sets it down. There is also 
a portable altar or consecrated stone, with a 
small cavity in the middle of the front side, 
in which are put the relics of saints, and it 
is sealed up by the bishoj). Should the seal 
be broken, the altar loses its consecration. 
The furniture of the altar consists of a chal- 
ice and paten, or holy plate, for the bread 
and wine, both of gold or silver ; a pyx, or 
box, for holding the wafer, at least of silver- 
gilt ; a veil in form of a pavilion, of rich 
white stuff, to cover the pyx ; a thurible of 
silver or pewter for the incense ; a holy- wa- 
ter pot, of silver, pewter, or tin ; also cor- 
porals, palls, purificatories, etc. About the 
time of Charlemagne it became common to 
have several altars in one church — a custom 
which has since spread. The side altars 
were usually erected on pillars, side walls, 
or in chapels, while the main or high altar 
stands always in the choir. The Greek 
churches have generally only one altar. In 
the Reformation the idea of an altar was 
done away with, as well as that of an actual 
sacrifice. It lingers, indeed, in the writings 
of certain Episcopalians, but is not to be 
found in the Episcopal rubric, from which 
it was finally excluded, though not till after 
a long and bitter controversy. In popular 
language the term is used to describe the 
communion-table, and also, in composition, 
other articles of church furniture, as, for ex- 
ample, the altar-cloth, a covering frequently 
provided for the table ; the altar-piece, a pic- 
ture placed over it ; and the altar-rails, in- 
troduced by Archbishop Laud, to guard the 
table from the public. 

Amalekites. This tribe is first mention- 
ed in connection with the expedition of 
Chedor-laomer.^ We find them occupying 
the country between Palestine, Idumea, and 
Mount Sinai, on the elevated plateau^ now 
called er-Bakhmah ; their seats having at a 
very early period been probably further east- 
1 Gen. xiv., 7.-2 Numb, xiv., 25, 40-45. 



ward. Amalek,^ the grandson of Esau, was 
perhaps the progenitor of a clan, which was 
intermingled with an older race. The Ama- 
lekites were a nomadic people, their towns 
only collections of tents ; they were rich in 
flocks and herds, which they seem to have 
acquired by their bold predatory habits. 
They attacked the Israelites in Rephidim, 
but were beaten off with signal slaughter.^ 
They subsequently, in conjunction with the 
Canaanites, defeated Israel, when, in the re- 
actionary movement after the ill report of 
the spies, the tribes tried, against the divine 
command, to enter Palestine at once. The 
destruction of this nation, threatened for 
their attacks upon the Israelites^ was pre- 
dicted by Balaam.^ They joined in some of 
the expeditious into Palestine in the times 
of the judges, bringing, it would seem, their 
cattle and families, as if to settle there.'* 
They were almost exterminated by Saul, 
and afterward only small troops of them or 
individuals are mentioned.^ Agag was the 
general title of their chief. Haman and his 
house, by some supposed to be the last of 
the race mentioned in Scripture, perished, 
like the rest of the nation, in conflict with 
his hereditary foes the Jews.® 

Amana, the name of a hill or mountain, 
mentioned only in the Song of Solomon iv., 
8. It was probably the southern part of the 
Antilibanus,' which is sometimes called Ama- 
non by the Rabbins, and in which the River 
Abana (also called Amana) has its source. 

Amasa {a hurden), son of Ithra, or Jether, 
and Abigail, and nephew of David. He first 
joined David when the latter was a fugitive 
from Saul, at Ziklag, and was made one of 
the captains of the forest-band. He after- 
ward joined Absalom's rebellion ; was made 
I commander-in-chief; was totally routed by 
Joab ; was, despite his rebellion, pardoned 
and made successor to Joab by David, who 
sent him in pursuit of the remnants of Ab- 
salom's army. In conducting this pursuit, he 
was assassinated by Joab (q. v.), [2 Sam. 
xvii., 25; xix., 13; xx., 4-12; 1 Chron. ii., 
1 17 ; xii., 16-18 ; 1 Kings ii., 5, 32. The name 
j also occurs in 2 Chron. xxviii., 12.] 

Amaziah (strengthened of the Lord), son of 

Joash, and ninth king of Judah. He suc- 

' ceeded to the throne at the age of twenty- 

[ five, and reigned twenty-nine years, B.C. 839- 

809. His first act was the punishment of 

I the murderers of his father, and in this he 

I was commended for respecting the law of 

Moses by not including the children in the 

doom of the parents.* Amaziah attempted 

to re -impose the yoke of Judah upon the 

Edomites, and, for this purpose, hired an 

auxiliary force of 100,000 men from the King 

! of Israel for 100,000 talents of silver. This 

1 Gen. xxxvi., 12, 16; 1 Chron. i., 35, 36.-2 Esod. 

xvii., 8-16; Deut. xxv., 17-19. — 3 Numb, xiv., 40-45; 
' xxiv., 20.— 4 Judg. ili., 13 ; vi., 35; xii., 15.— ^ 1 Sam. 

XV. ; xxvii., 8 ; xxx., 1, 13 ; 2 Sam. i., 8.— ^ Estlier iii., 
j 1; vii., 10.—'' See Lecano^).— « 2 Chron. xxv., 4. 



AMBASSADOR 



38 



AMMON, AMMONITES 



is tli6 jBxst instance of a mercenary army 
employed by the Jewish people. A prophet 
commanded him to send back the auxilia- 
ries/ and Amaziah was rewarded for his obe- 
dience by his success against the Edomites. 
Elated by his victory, he had the assurance 
to challenge Joash (q. v.), king of Israel, to 
battle, but was completely defeated, and 
taken prisoner to his own city, Jerusalem, 
which was captured by Israel. Joash, sat- 
isfied with having thus humbled him, left 
him his throne. After surviving his dis- 
grace fifteen years, he finally fell, like his fa- 
ther, a victim to a conspiracy formed against 
his life. He was succeeded by his son Uz- 
ziah (q. v.). [2 Kings xiv., 1-20 j 2 Chron. 

XXV.] 

Ambassador. There are early examples 
of ambassadors — persons empowered to con- 
vey a message on the part of a nation or 
a sovereign. They were often men of high 
rank, and were dispatched sometimes with 
hostile purpose, sometimes with courteous 
congratulations or inquiries. Any injury 
done to them was considered a great af- 
front. St. Paul designates those who are in- 
trusted with the message of the Gospel as 
Christ's ambassadors. [Numb, xx., 14 ; xxi., 
21 ; xxii., 5, 15 ; Josh, ix., 4 ; 2 Sam, x., 1-7 ; 2 
Kings xviii., 17 ; xx., 12, 13 ; 2 Chron. xxxii., 
31.] 

Amber. It is usually supposed that the 
Hebrew word thus translated denotes not 
the fossil resin called amber, but some com- 
pound metal — as of gold and silver — of 
extraordinary brightness. [Ezek. i., 4, 27 ; 
viii., 2.] 

Amen {firnij faithful, verily), a word used 
in strong asseverations, fixing, as it were, 
the stamp of truth upon the assertion it ac- 
companied, and making it binding as an 
oath. Among the Eabbins, "Amen " involves 
the ideas of a judicial oath, and of truthful- 
ness. Thus, to illustrate the first, the peo- 
l)le were to say "Amen" as the Levites pro- 
nounced each of the curses upon Mount 
Ebal f and the woman upon trial of jealousy 
was to say "Amen" to the oath of cursing 
of the priest f signifying by this an assent 
to the conditions under which the curses 
would be inflicted. The second idea — of 
truthfulness — is illustrated by 1 Kings i., 
36; Jer. xxviii., 6, in which the assertions 
are made with the solemnity of an oath, and 
strengthened by the repetition of "Amen." 
"Amen" was the proper response of a per- 
son to whom an oath was administered;* 
and God, to whom they appeal as a witness 
to their sincerity, is called the God of Amen.^ 
The word is also used after ascriptions of 
praise.^ It is a tradition, that the "Amen" 
was not uttered by the people in the Tem- 



1 2 Chron. xxv., 7.— ^ Dent, xxvii., 15-26. — 3 Numb. 

v., 22 4 Neh. v., 13 ; viii., 6 ; 1 Chron. xvi., 36.-5 ig^. 

Ixv., 16. The original is translated, in our version, 
Truth.— 8 Psa. cvi., 48. 



pie; but in the synagogues and private 
houses it was customary for the persons 
present to say "Amen" to the prayers offer- 
ed by the minister or the master of the 
house. This custom remained in the ear- 
ly Christian Church;^ and not only public 
prayers, but also those offered in private, and 
doxologies, were concluded with "Amen."'^ 
Again, we find it at the beginning of a sen- 
tence, to signify the certainty of what was 
about to be said, as very frequently in our 
Lord's discourses, where it is usually render- 
ed " verily."^ The promises of the Gospel, 
too, are said to be " yea and amen," to indi- 
cate their stability. And once the word is 
used as a proper name, applied to Him from 
whose lijDS every syllable is assured truth ;* 
so that, though heaven and earth should 
pass, nothing that he has spoken can remain 
unaccomplished. 

Amethyst, the ninth jewel on the breast- 
plate of the Jewish high -priest.^ The Ori- 
ental amethyst is a gem of great hardness 
and lustre ; violet, and occasionally red ; the 
Occidental amethyst is a variety of quartz 
of much beauty, but not difficult to cut. 
This stone derived its Hebrew name from 
its supposed property of indacing dreams. 
Its Greek name, not to intoxicate, from which 
the English word comes, implied that it was 
a charm against drunkenness. The ame- 
thyst is mentioned as one of the founda- 
tions of the New Jerusalem.® 

Ammi [my people), a figurative name, ap- 
plied to the kingdom of Israel in token of 
God's reconciliation with them, in contrast 
with the equally significant name Loammi 
(7iot my people), indicating their rejection. 
In the same manner, Ruhamah {having ol- 
tained mercy) contrasts with Loruhamah. 
[Hos. i., 6, 8,9; ii., 1.] 

Amminadab (Undred of the prince), the 
son of Ram or Aram, who was great-grand- 
son of Judah. His daughter Elisheba was 
the wife of Aaron ; and his son Naashon, or 
Nahshon, prince of Judah in the wilderness. 
In the genealogy of Christ the name occurs 
as Aminadab. [Exod. vi., 23 ; Numb, i., 7 ; 
ii., 3 ; vii., 12, 17 ; x., 14 ; Rath iv., 19, 20 ; 1 
Chron. ii., 10; Matt, i., 4 ; Luke iii., 33.] 

Ammon, Ammonites, the descendants of 
one of the sons of Lot.'' Their original ter- 
ritory, after they became a people, lay to- 
ward the east of Palestine, beyond the River 
Jabbok. It appears, however, that they were 
not the original occupants of this region, but 
wrested it from a race of giants,® and settled 
npon it. They took a very active part in 
the efforts made by the tribes on the fur- 
ther side of Jordan to oppose the march of 
the Israelites in their progress to the land 
of Canaan. This hostile spirit, which they 



1 1 Cor. xiv., 16.— 2 Rom. ix., 5 ; xi., 36 ; xv., 33 ; xvi.. 
27; 2 Cor. xiii., U.— 3 Matt, xxv., 40 ; John iii., 3, 5, 
11.—* 2 Cor. i., 20; Rev. iii., 14.— ^ Exod. xxviii., 19; 
xxxix., 12.— 6 Rev. xxi., 20.— ' Gen. xix., 38.— « Deut. 
ii., 20. 



AMMON 



39 



AMORITE 



(evinced at the outset, continued through 
future generations, and broke out in many 
fierce encounters between the two nations. 
The Ammonites were governed by a king 
and by princes.^ It has been conjectured 
that Nahash^ was the official title of the 
king, as Pharaoh was of the Egyptian mon- 
archs. Throughout their history there is 
rarely any reference made to customs of 
civilization ; on the contrary, we find every- 
where traces of the fierce and cruel habits 
of marauders in their incursions.^ Moloch 
(q. V.) was their chief divinity ; and the fact 
that this deity was worshiped not in a house 
or high place, but merely in a booth or tent, 
is a confirmation of their nomadic life. Dur- 
ing the time of the Maccabees, various bat- 
tles were fought between the Ammonites 
and the Jews ; and during the changes that 
ensued first under the Grecian, then under 
the Roman supremacy, the Ammonites lost 
their independent position, and gradually 
became amalgamated with the general Arab 
population. 

Ammon or Amon (the meaning is uncer- 
tain) is the name of an Egyptian god, in 
whom the classical writers unanimously rec- 
ognize their own Zeus and Jupiter; hence 
the name Jupiter Ammon. His chief tem- 
ple and oracle in Egypt were at Thebes, a 
city peculiarly consecrated to him, and which 
is probably meant by the No* and No-Amon 
of the prophets. He had a celebrated temple 




Image of Amniou. 

in Africa, in a beautifully fertile spot in the 
Libyan Desert. The ram was sacred to Am- 
mon, and he is represented sometimes as a 
ram of a blue color, and sometimes as a man 
with the horns of a ram, or wearing a cap 
with two high plumes. Servius says they 
put these horns of a ram upon his statues, 
because the responses of his oracle were in- 
volved or twisted like a ram's horn. When 
the sun entered the first sign of the zodiac, 
Aries, the ram, that is at the vernal equinox, 
the Egyptians celebrated in the most extrav- 
agant manner a feast to Ammon. Jewish 



1 Jud?. xi., 12 ; 2 Sam. x., 3 2 i gam. xi., 1 ; 2 Sam, 

T., 2.-3 1 Sam. xi., 2 ; Amos i., IS.—* Nahum iii., 8. 



rabbis allege, and some Christian writers 
coincide in the opinion, that one reason for 
the institution of the Passover was to pre- 
vent the Jews from falling into the idola- 
trous practices of the Egyptians ; that at 
tlie full moon, when the Egyptians were in 
the height of their festivities, and were sac- 
rificing to the sign of the zodiac called the 
Ram, God enjoined them, in opposition to 
this, to kill a young ram for an offering. 
Hence Tacitus, the Roman historian, speaks 
of "the ram slain, as it were, in profanation 
of Ammon." The power Avorshiped under 
the form of Ammon was unquestionably the 
generative principle in nature ; either as em- 
bodied in the sun — he is called at Thebes 
Ammon Re, i. e., Ammon, the sun — or in the 
fertilizing overflow of the Nile at the au- 
tumnal equinox. His statues are accompa- 
nied by figures of trees and other vegetable 
products. As king of gods in the mytholo- 
gy of Egypt, we can easily understand why 
he should have been especially mentioned in 
Scripture when the gods of Egypt are sin- 
gled out for vengeance.' 

Amnon (faithful), eldest eon of David by 
Ahinoam the Jezreelitess, born in Hebron 
while his father's royalty was only acknowl- 
edged in Judah. He dishonored his half- 
sister Tamar, and was in consequence mur- 
dered by her brother. [1 Chron. iii., 1; 2 
Sam. iii., 2.] 

Amon, the name given by Manasseh to his 
son and successor, who was the fifteenth 
king of Judah, B.C. 643-641. Following his 
father's example, he devoted himself wholly 
to the service of false gods, and, after a short 
and inglorious reign of two years, was assas- 
sinated by his own servants. Zephaniah the 
prophet gives a fearful picture of the mor- 
al condition of Jerusalem during his reign. ^ 
He was buried in the same place with his 
father, in the garden of Uzza. Josiah, his 
son, succeeded him. [2 Kings xxi., 19-26 ; 2 
Chron. xxxiii., 21-25 ; Matt, i., 10.] 

Amorite, correctly Emorite (mountaineer), 
a people descended from Emor, the fourth 
son of Canaan,^ by much the largest and 
most powerful of the original tribes that in- 
habited the land of Canaan before the Israel- 
itish conquest. As dwelling on the elevated 
portions of the country, they are contrasted 
with the Canaanites, who were dwellers in 
the lowlands ; and the two thus formed the 
main broad divisions of the Holy Land.* In 
the very earliest times they are occupying 
the barren heights west of the Dead Sea, at 
the place which afterward bore the name 
of Engedi ; hills in whose fastnesses — " the 
rocks of the wild goats " — David afterward 
took refuge from the pursuit of Saul.^ From 
this point they stretched west to Hebron, 



1 Ezek. XXX., 14-16. —2 Zeph. i, — 3 Gen. x., 16; 1 
Chron. i., 14. — * Numb, xiii., 29; Deut. i., 7-20, 44, 
"mountain of the Amorites ;" and see Josh, v., 1; 
X., 6 ; xi., 3. — * Gen. xiv., 7; 1 Sam. xxiii., 29 ; xxiv., 2. 



AMORITE 



40 



AMOS 



where Abram was then dwelling under the 
" oak - grove "• of the three brothers, Aner, 
Eshcol, and Mamre/ At the time of the con- 
quest, they are represented as having five 
kings, whose respective seats were Jerusa- 
lem, Hebron, Jarmuth, Lachish, and Eglon f 
and they had also possessed themselves of 
considerable territory on the east side of 
the Jordan, having driven the Moabites, its 
former possessors, across the wide chasm of 
the Arnon, Avhich thenceforward formed the 
boundary between the two hostile peoples.^ 
Partly from being so numerous and power- 
ful a tribe, and partly from^ their occupying 
that portion of the land with which the Is- 
raelite came into earliest and closest con- 
tact, their name was sometimes taken so as 
to include all the Canaanitish tribes.^ Hence 
we sometimes find a city said to be occupied 
by Amorites which appears elsewhere assign- 
ed to another tribe, as Jerusalem, described 
as Amorite in Josh, x., 3, 5, and Jebusite in 
XV., 63. Their strength and valor, as well 
as numerical greatness, are particularly men- 
tioned by the prophet Amos.^ The Amo- 
rites seem early to have attained to a bad 
pre-eminence among the Canaanite proge- 
ny, for the corrujjt and dissolute manners 
which distinguished the race. In the time of 
Abraham, their iniquity was emphatically 
noticed, and those that inhabited the fer- 
tile plain where Sodom and Gomorrah stood 
were made a monument of divine punish- 
ment, for a warning to the rest. Those who 
dwelt on the east side of the Jordan, form- 
ing two kmgdoms under Sihon and Og, in- 
cluding all Gilead and Bashan, on Sihon's 
refusal to let the Israelites pass peaceably, 
were conquered by Moses, and assigned to 
the tribes of Reuben, Gad, and half Manas- 
seh.^ Those within the bounds of Canaan 
proper made a stout resistance to the arms 
of the Israelites, but without avail. Their 
five kings were destroyed by Joshua; and 
though the nation was by no means exter- 
minated, they henceforth existed only in 
fragments or detached portions, and were 
chiefly confined to the more mountainous 
parts of the country. Thus they existed in 
the period of the Judges.^ Occasional skir- 
mishes, it would seem, still took place be- 
tween them and their conquerors, for it is 
noted in Samuel's time, as a thing distinctive 
of the period, that there was peace with the 
Amorites.® Saul, in the age that followed, 
dealt so unjustly with the Gibeonites, who 
were of Amorite stock, that a divine judg- 
ment avenged them.* David wrested the 
stronghold of Zion from the Jebusites, an- 
other section of the old Amorite race.^" We 
fimd them even so late as the reign of Sol- 
omon, who subjected the remnant of them 



1 Gen. xiv., 13 ; comp. xiii., 18. —2 Josh, x., 5. — 
3 Numb, xxi., 13-26.— ^ Gen. xv., IG ; xlviii., 22 ; Dent. 
i.,20; Amos ii., 9, 10.— ^ Amos ii., 9.— « Dent, ii., 2G-30; 
iii., 8-10.—^ Juds. i., 34-36 ; iii., 5.-8 1 Sam. vii., 14.— 
» 2 Sam. xxi.— "> 2 Sam. v., 6-9. 



to bond-service.^ There is also a notice of 
them as existing after the captivity.^ 

Amos {burden) was a native of Tekoah, 
a small town in the tribe of Judah, about 
twelve miles distant from Jerusalem. The 
surrounding country being sandy and bar- 
ren, was destitute of cultivation, and fit only 
to be occupied by those addicted to pastoral 
life. Among these the prophet was original- 
ly found ; and though it was counted no dis- 
grace among the ancient Jews to follow this 
occupation, kings themselves being found in 
it,^ yet there is no reason to suppose that 
Amos belonged to a family of rank or influ- 
ence. No mention is made of his father, and 
it appears that he had been in poor circum- 
stances,* and was called at once to exchange 
the life of a shepherd for that -of a prophet. 
Though a native of the kingdom of Judah, 
he discharged the functions of his office in 
that of Israel by an express divine commis- 
sion to occupy it as the scene of his labors. 
The time at which he prophesied is stated 
in general terms^ to have been in the reigns 
of Ilzziah, king of Judah, and Jeroboam II., 
king of Israel, the former of whom reigned 
B.C. 810-758, and the latter B.C. 825-784 ;" but 
in which of these years he was called to the 
office, and how long he continued to exer- 
cise it, we are not told. That he was con- 
temporary with Hosea, appears not onlj^ from 
the dates assigned in both their books, but 
from the identical state of affairs in the king- 
dom of the ten tribes which they both so 
graphically describe. Idolatry, with its con- 
comitant evils, effeminacy, dissoluteness, and 
immoralities of every descrix)tion, reigned 
with uncontrolled sway among the Israel- 
ites in the reign of Jeroboam, the son of 
Joash. It is chiefly against these evils that 
the denunciations of Amos are dii'ected. 

The book of Amos may, for convenience, 
be divided into three parts. Chapters I. and 
II. include sentences pronounced against the 
Syrians, the Philistines, the Phoenicians, the 
Edomites, the Ammonites, the Moabites, the 
Jews, and the Israelites; chapters III.-VI., 
special discourses against the Israelites; 
chapters VII.-IX., visions, partly of a con- 
solatory and partly of a commendatory na- 
ture, in which reference is had both to the 
times that were to pass over the ten tribes 
previous to the coming of the Messiah, and 
to what was to take place under his reign. 
In point of style, Amos holds no mean place 
among the prophets. Though not character- 
ized by sublimity, he is distinguished for per- 
spicuity and regularity, embellishment and 
elegance, energy and fullness. His images 
are mostly original, and taken from the nat- 
ural scenery with which he was familiar ; his 
rhythm is smooth and flowing, and his paral- 
lelisms are in a hijjrh degree natural and com- 



1 1 Kings ix., 20, 21.— 2 Ezra ix., 1.— » 2 Kings iii., 4. 
Compare Jews; Commonwealth. —^ Amos vii., 14. — 
^ Amos i., 1. 



AMPHIPOLIS 



41 



ANABAPTISTS 



plete. In description, lie is for the most part 
special and local ; lie excels in the minute- 
ness of his groupings, while the general viv- 
idness of his manner imparts an intense in- 
terest to aU that he delivers. It appears that 
the scene of his ministry was Bethel/ Wheth- 
er he left that place in consequence of the in- 
terdict of Amaziah the priest, is not known. 
According to tradition, he afterward return- 
ed to his native place, where he died, and 
was buried with his fathers ; but no depend- 
ence can be placed on this tradition. 

Amphipolis, a city of Macedonia, through 
which Paul and Silas passed on their way 
from Philippi to Thessalonica. It was dis- 
tant 33 Roman miles from Philippi. It 
stood upon an eminence on the left or east- 
ern bank of the River Strymon, just below its 
egress from the Lake Cercinitis, and at the 
distance of about three miles from the sea. 
Its site is now occupied by a village called 
Neolihorio, in Turkish Jeni-Keni, or "New 
Town." [Acts xvii., 1.] 

Amulet. It appears to have been a gener- 
al custom in ancient times, by no means ob- 




1. Modern Oriental Amulet. 2, 3, 4, 5. Ancient 
Egyptian. 

Bolete at the present day, for persons to en- 
deavor to secure themselves against witch- 




Charms. 



craft, specially the Evil Eye, and against 
disease, by the use of amulets or talismans. 



Amos vii., 10-14. 



These were sometimes scrolls inscribed with 
sacred words ; sometimes they were stones, 
or shells, or pieces of metal, on which caba- 
listic figures were engraved. Among the 
ornaments of the Hebrew women amulets 
are to be reckoned ; and of this nature were 
probably the ear-rings mentioned in various 
places.^ The same custom was maintained 
among the Greeks, by whom these charms 
were called jihylacteries (q. v.), the term am- 
ulet being of Latin origin. They are worn 
to the present day by the Jews, and exten- 
sively in the Orient. From the heathen and 
Jews the custom passed into the jirimitive 
Christian Church, where it was long main- 
tained in spite of the decrees of ecclesiastic- 
al councils, and the indignant protests of the 
more intelligent clergy. See Abraxas. 

Anab (probably place of grapes), a town 
in the mountainous district of Judah, from 
which, as from Hebron, Debir, and other 
places, Joshua cut off the Anakim (q. v.). A 
small place of the same name, and in the 
same locality, has been discovered in mod- 
ern times about ten miles S.S.W. of Hebron. 
[Josh, xi., 21.] 

Anabaptists (rehaptizer), a name some- 
times applied to all those who reject infant 
baptism, and insist ujion rebaptizing those 
who have been sprinkled in infancy. But 
as the Baptists deny that sprinkling is bap- 
tism, so also they refuse the title of Ana- 
baptists. This word is usuallj^ applied to a 
sect in Germany arising about the time of 
the Reformation. Besides their views con- 
cerning baptism, they entertained peculiar 
ideas in respect to the character and organ- 
ization of the Church. They originated at 
Zwickau in 1520 ; maintained that they pos- 
sessed the gift of prophecy, and skill to in- 
terpret divine revelations ', declared that ig- 
norance was no bar to religious teaching; 
sought to restore a community of goods ; and 
thus with theological views combined those 
which were socialistic and political. One 
branch, the Abecedarians, maintained that 
all knowledge, even that of the alphabet, 
tended to hinder men from attending 
to the voice of the Spirit, and must be 
discouraged. They were bitterly per- 
secuted, and resorted to violence to re- 
sist their persecutors. Miinster became 
the centre of their operations. Bock- 
hold, their leader, sent out from this 
point violent proclamatiotis threaten- 
ing destruction to all who dissented 
from him. His death and the capture 
of the city did not put an end to the 
sect, though it seems to have checked 
their excesses. The Romish Church 
naturally enough attributed these ex- 
cesses to the Reformation, and the Re- 
formers, in turn, were exceedingly in- 
dignant with the Anabaptists for the op- 



1 Gen. XXXV., 4 ; Isa. iii., 20 ; Hos. ii., 13. See Oe- 

NAJIENTS. 



A]S[AH 



42 



ANATHEMA 



probrium brought upon the Reformed move- 
ment. As most of our information concern- 
ing them comes from their opponents, it is 
probable that their doctrinal views have 
been misstated, and their political violence 
somewhat exaggerated. 

Anah (an answer, answering), the son of 
Zibeon, grandson of Seir the Horite, and fa- 
ther of Aholibamah, Esau's wife.^ That but 
a single person is meant, son being in the 
one case used for descendant, appears thus : 
The Anah in Gen. xxxvi., 2, and 25, must be 
the same, for each is declared to be the fa- 
ther of Aholibamah, Esau's wife. But the 
same Anah must be identical with the Anah in 
verse 24, for the one as well as the other was 
the son of Zibeon. Further, it seems, from 
our translation, as if Anah was the daughter 
of Zibeon.^ But here daughter is used in 
a larger sense ; the text should rather read 
"Aholibamah, daughter of Anah, and grand- 
daughter of Zibeon." Anah was identical 
with Beeris, the man of the fountain — a name 
which he received from the fact that it was 
he who " found the warm springs in the wil- 
derness," for this is the true translation of 
Gen. xxxvi., 24. There is an apparent dis- 
crepancy in his being termed a Hittite,^ a 
Hivite,'* and a Horite.^ But Horite is simply 
an appellative, mountaineer, and designates 
persons not according to their race, bat ac- 
cording to their mode of life ; and of the two 
other designations, one is the more general, 
and the other the more specific, genealogical 
distinction. Hittite often stands" in a more 
general sense for an inhabitant of Canaan. 

Anak, Anakim. The word, anak, in the 
singular, signifies neck-chain; in the plural, 
anakim, it denotes long-necked persons. The 
name is applied to a race of giants who in- 
habited Hebron and the surrounding coun- 
try. They are variously called " sons of 
Anak,"'' " children of Anak,"^ and " sons of 
the Anakim;"^ in our version improperly 
Anakims, so that it is doubtful whether they 
descended from one of the name of Anak, or 
bore the name merely from being men of lofty 
stature. The report of their great height 
terrified the Israelites in the time of Moses, 
but afterward the Anakim were driven from 
their possessions by Joshua, and seem to 
have been nearly extinguished as a people. 
A few families existed in the country of the 
Philistines, from whom, doubtless, came the 
famous Goliath of Gath. These people are 
depicted on the Egyptian monuments as a 
tall, light-complexioned race. [Dent, ix., 2 ; 
Josh, xi., 21, 22; xiv., 12-15; xv., 13, 14; 
Judg. i., 20. 

Anani'as (the Greek form of Hananiah, 
whom Jehovah has graciously given). 



1 Gen. xxxvi., 2, 14, 18, 20, 24, 25, 29 ; 1 Chron. i., 38, 
40, 41.— 2 Gen. xxxvi., 2, 14.— 3 Gen. xxvi., 34.-4 Gen. 
xxxvi., 2,— s Gen. xxxvi., 20.— « Josh, i., 4 ; 1 Kings x., 
29; 2 Kings vii., 6; comp, also Gen. xxvii., 46, with 
xxviii., 1. — '^ Numb, xiii., 33.-8 Numb, xiii., 22.— 
» Deut. i., 28. 



1. One who professed himself a Christian, 
and who, in order to gain the credit of lib- 
erality, sold, in conjunction with his wife 
Sapphira, a piece of land, part of the price 
of which he brought to the apostles, pre- 
tending it was all he had received by the 
sale. Peter was enabled to detect the fraud, 
and, at his stern rebuke, Ananias was struck 
dead. The same fate, for the same sin, short- 
ly after befell Sapphira; and they remain 
striking examples of the mischievous results 
which will sometimes arise even now from 
the endeavor to carry profession beyond prin- 
ciple, from people aiming to appear better in 
the Church than they really are. [Acts v., 
1-11.] 

2. A Jewish disciple at Damascus, to whom 
Paul's conversion was announced in a vis- 
ion, and through the laying on of his hands 
the apostle's sight was restored. Nothing 
more is known of his history, except the 
tradition that he was subsequently bishop 
of Damascus. [Acts ix., 10-18 ; xxii., 12-16.] 

3. The son of Nebedseus, appointed high- 
priest by Herod, king of Chalcis, a.d. 48 — 
succeeding Joseph, son of Camithus. He 
was sent to Rome a.d. 52 by the Procu- 
rator Cumanus, on a charge of oppression, 
brought against him by the Samaritans, but 
was acquitted, and probably resumed his of- 
fice. He was, however, deposed shortly be- 
fore Felix quitted his government, and was 
ultimately assassinated at the beginning of 
the last Jewish war. St. Paul was arraign- 
ed before him. [Acts xxiii., 2-5 ; xxiv., 1.] 

Anathema, a Greek word, signifying set 
apart or devoted. Strictly speaking, there- 
fore, it signifies any thing set apart to God, 
and, as well as its derivative, anathemata, was 
used in the Middle Ages to designate gifts 
and ornaments bestowed upon the Church, 
and consecrated to the worship of God. 
More commonly, however, from being used 
to indicate a gift which could not be re- 
deemed, and in this sense applied to ani- 
mals, it came to indicate persons who were 
set apart to death, and so grew to be synony- 
mous with accursed.^ The word was used in 
devoting idolaters to destruction.'^ Thence it 
passed into the Jewish Church, where it was 
used in excommunication. Whether in the N. 
T. it indicates a judicial sentence, or is used 
only to indicate a moral and social condem- 
nation, is uncertain. The English word oc- 
curs but once,^ where the Syriac words, mar- 
anatha are added, meaning, " The Lord com- 
eth " — that is, " the Lord is at hand ;" the same 
idea is expressed in Phil, iv., 5: The Greek 
word, however, occurs frequently, and is gen- 
erally translated accursed.* From the Jewish, 
and possibly the early Christian, it passed 
into the Romish Church. It was the custom- 
ary form used in excommunicating heretics 



» Lev. xxvii., 28, 29; Numb, xviii., 14.— 2 Exod. xxii., 
20; Numb, xxi., 2, 3 ; Joeh, vi., 17.-3 1 Cor. xvi., 22.— 
4 Rom. ix., 3 ; 1 Cor. xii., 3 ; Gal. i., 8, 9. 



ANATHOTH 



43 



ANGEL 



and otlier offenders, and is employed to the 
present day as a sanction to the canons of the 
Church. " Which if any man deny, let him 
he anathema," is the customary formula with 
which the Ecumenical Council ratifies each 
decree. In the Middle Ages the effect of the 
anathema pronounced against any individ- 
ual was indeed terrible. He was shut out 
from intercourse with the brethren while he 
lived, and, if he died without the removal of 
the sentence, was denied the honor of Chris- 
tian burial. He could neither engage in the 
customary employments nor enjoy the usual 
comforts of life. See Discipline, Interdict. 

Anathoth occurs as a personal name in 
some of the genealogies,^ but it is chiefly 
known as a Levitical town of Benjamin, the 
place to which Abiathar was banished by 
Solomon, and the birthplace and residence 
of Jeremiah.^ It lay about three or four 
miles north of Jerusalem, and is supposed to 
be the same with Anata, discovered by Rob- 
inson, which stands on a broad ridge of hills 
at the distance of an hour and a quarter 
from Jerusalem. It is now a mere village 
of some fifteen or twenty houses, but shows 
remains of ancient walls and foundations, 
and the quarries still supply Jerusalem with 
building-stone. 

Andrevr (manly), one of the twelve apos- 
tles. He was a son of Jonas, a brother — 
whether younger or older is not known — of 
Peter, and one of the first to accept Christ, 
to whom he immediately brought his broth- 
er. He was by trade a fisherman, a resident 
of Bethsaida, and a townsman of Philip. 
With Philip and John he attended the preach- 
ing of John the Baptist at the ford of Beth- 
abara, and there met Jesus ; but returned to 
his nets at the Sea of Galilee, whence he was 
called, several months later, by Jesus to be- 
come a fisher of men. He was ordained with 
the other apostles; but the only incidents 
narrated of him are his suggestion of the five 
loaves and two small fishes, at the time of 
the feeding of the five thousand at the Sea 
of Galilee, his introduction of the Greeks to 
Jesus during the Passover week, and his 
question respecting the destruction of Je- 
rusalem. . Tradition reports him to have 
preached the Gospel in Scythia, Greece, and 
Asia Minor, and to have been at length cru- 
cified at Achaia for refusing to sacrifice to 
the heathen gods. The cross on which he 
is reputed to have suffered was in the form 
of an X, and is caUed, accordingly, St. An- 
drew's Cross. An apocryphal "Acts of An- 
drew " and a similar " Gospel of Andrew " are 
referred to by some ancient writers, but 
both are now lost. [Matt, iv., 18 ; x., 2 ; 
Mark i., 16 ; xiii., 3 ; Luke vi., 14 ; John i., 
35-44 ; vi., 8 ; xii., 22 ; Acts i., 13.] 

Angel. The word so translated, both in 
the 0. T. and N. T., properly signifies messen- 

1 1 Chron. vii., 8 ; Neh. x., 19.— » 1 Kings ii., 26 ; Jer. 
1., 1. 



ger, and is frequently so translated,^ and in 
this sense is applied both to a prophet and 
a priest;'^ and by many scholars its use in 
Rev. i., 20 ; ii., 1, etc., is supposed to indicate 
the bishop or presbyter of the church ad- 
dressed. In general, however, the term is 
applied to an order of created beings of great 
power, knowledge, and dignity, which are 
designated as both evil and good. Belief in 
such an order of beings is very wide-spread, 
if not almost universal. They hold a i)rom- 
inent place in the religion of the Moham- 
medans, as they did in that of the Greeks 
and the Romans, by the former of whom 
they were known as demons, by the latter as 
ge7iii and lares. The writings of the Jew- 
ish Rabbis, and of the theologians of the 
Middle Ages, as, indeed, of some more mod- 
ern scholars, are full of unprofitable discus- 
sions concerning the nature and functions 
of angels. At the same time, it is impossi- 
ble for any believer of the Bible to doubt 
that they exist, and that they fill an impor- 
tant sphere in the divine economy. From 
the numerous references scattered through- 
out the Word of God, we gather that there 
are both good and evil angels f that the for- 
mer are clothed with a *■'■ celestial body," in 
form analogous to that of man;* that their 
numbers are great, and that they possess great 
power ;^ that they are holy, doing God's will;^ 
that some of them have fallen from their 
first estate f that in some way difficult for 
us to understand, they share in the redemj)- 
tion of Christ.® Interested they certainly are 
in the progress of the Church. Much they 
have learned from it, and eagerly do they 
watch its development ; for they acquire 
knowledge by degrees. Of many things they 
are ignorant, and as their enlarging faculties 
apprehend more and more of the greatness 
and mercy of God, their blessedness is in- 
creased.^ They possess a growing intelli- 
gence; and it shall grow on forever. For 
they do not die, neither can disastrous change 
affect them ; though they stand with humble 
reverence before their Creator.^" Not only do 
they praise God, but they perform his work, 
occupied at his command with various com- 
missions of mercy and of judgment. And 
though there are long periods in Scripture 
history during which we do not read of an- 
gels being visible, still it does not follow 
that their operations were suspended. They 
guarded Elisha in Dothan ; and yet his serv- 
ant, till his eyes were supernaturally open- 
ed, saw them not. Neither must it be sup- 
posed, because angels have been employed, 
that natural or secondary causes were ex- 
cluded. A pestilence, of an ordinary type, 



1 1 Sam. xi. ; Job i., 14 ; Luke vii., 24 ; ix., 52.-2 Hag. 
i., 13 ; Mai. ii., 7.—'' Matt, xxv., 31 ; 1 Tim. v., 21 ; Jude 
6.—* Judg. xiii. , 6 ; Acts i., 10.— ^ Psa. Ixviii., 1 7 ; Matt. 
xxvi., 53 ; Luke ii., 13.— « Heb. i., 7, 14.— ^ 2 Pet. ii., 4; 
Jude 6.-8 EDh. i., 10 ; Phil, ii., 10 ; Col. i,, 20.-9 Matt, 
xxiv., 30 ; Liike xv., 7, 10 ; Eph. iiL, 10 ; 1 Pet. i., 12.— 
»o Isa. vi., 2; Luke xx., 36. 



ANIMAL 



44 



ANIMAL WORSHIP 



no doubt, ravaged David's kingdom ; yet an 
angel directed the avenging scourge.^ By 
the ministry of angels, punishment has been 
inflicted on the ungodly. But their more 
happy employment is to tend God's x)eoi)le.^ 
Thus they have delivered men from prison, 
have given wholesome directions, comforted 
those in danger, and conveyed them to their 
peaceful rest.^ But the most wonderful part 
of their function was when they waited on 
their Lord. They ministered to him after 
his temptation in the wilderness, strength- 
ened him under his conflict in the garden, 
rolled away the stone from his tomb at his 
resurrection, and attended at his ascension ; 
and they will wait on him when he comes 
again in judgment, and arrange the order of 
that great day.* There are not a few in- 
dications in Scripture to sustain the doc- 
trine held by the Jews in ancient times, and 
also by many of the Christian fathers, that a 
guardian angel has been assigned by God to 
each individual believer^ for his especial 
protection and spiritual comfort ; and some 
of the best scholars are of the ox)inion that 
the reference in Matt, xviii., 10, to the an- 
gels of children, and that in Rev. i., 20, to the 
angels of the churches, is to the guardian 
angels who keep watch over the children of 
God. 

The doctrine of angels, both good and bad, 
is an important part of the doctrine of Swe- 
denborg. According to him, angels possess 
bodies like men ; live together like men in 
the natural world; are withheld from evil 
and preserved in purity only by the redeem- 
ing power of Christ ; live with the Lord im- 
mediately before them, however they may 
change the dii'ection of their face ; consociate 
with^men in the world, and have all once 
been men. 

The invocation of angels is taught in the 
Romish Church, which quotes, in support of 
the doctrine, Zech. i., 12; Rev. v., 8. It is 
certain, however, that such worship was dis- 
allowed by the Primitive Church, one sect in 
the second century known as AngeUcs being 
condemned, and the practice itself anathe- 
matized by the Council of Laodicea. 

The Angel of Death was a name given to 
the angel supposed by Jewish Rabbis to be 
the agent in conveying mortals from the 
world at death. From them the Mohamme- 
dans probably borrowed their similar faith. 
The Angel of Peace was a name given by 
Chrysostom to the guardian angel for whose 
presence he exhorted his hearers to pray. 

Animal. The Hebrews distinguished an- 
imals into pure and impure, clean and un- 
clean,^ or those which might be eaten and 
offered, and those which were prohibited. 

1 2 Sam. xxiv., 15-17; 1 Chron. xxi., 15-30.— « Gen. 
xix. ; 2 Kings xix., 35; Psa. xci., 11, 12; Heb. i., 14.— 
3 Luke xvi., 22 ; Acts? v., 19; x., 3,7; xii.,7, 10; xxvii., 
23, 24.— 4 Matt, iv., 11; xiii., 39, 49; xxv., 31 ; xxvi., 
53; xxviii , 2-5; Lnke xxii.,43.— ^ Acts xii.,15; xxvii., 
23 ; Heb. i., 14.— « See Uncleannf.ss. 



Adder. 


Chamois. 


Ant. 


Cock. 


Ape. 


Cockatrice. 


Asp. 


Cony. 


Ass. 


Cormorant. 


Wild Ass. 


Crane. 


Badger. 


Cuckoo. 


Bat. 


Deer. 


Bear. 


Do?. 


Bee. 


Dove. 


Beetle. 


Dragon. 


Behemoth. 


Dromedary 


Bittern. 


Ea^le. 


Boar. 


Ferret. 


Bull. 


Fish. 


Bullock. 


Flea. 


Wild Bull. 


Fly. 


Camel. 


Fox. 


Canker-worm 


Frog. 


Caterpillar. 


Gnat. 


Chameleon. 


Goat. 



Locust. 


Raven. 


Louse. 


Roe. 


Mole. 


Scorpion. 


Moth. 


Serpent. 


Mouse. 


Sheep. 
Snaif. 


Mule. 


Night-hawk. 


Sparrow. 


Onycha. 


Spider. 


Osprev. 


Stork. 


Ossifrage. 


Swallow. 


Ostrich. 


Swan. 


Owl. 


Swine. 


Ox. 


Tortoise. 


Palmer-worm 


Unicom. 


Partridge. 


Viper. 


Peacock. 


Vulture. 


Pelican. 


Weasel. 


Porcupine. 


Whale. 


Pyparg. 


Wolf. 


Quail. 


Worm, 



The following is a list of most of the Bib- 
lical animals. For further information con- 
cerning them the reader is referred to their 
respective titles. 

Grasshopper. 

Greyhound. 

Hare. 

Hart. 

Hawk, 

Heifer. 

Hen. 

Heron. 

Hind. 

Hornet. 

Horse. 

Horseleech. 

Jackal. 

Kid. 

Kite. 

Lapwing. 

Leopard. 

Leviathan, 

Lion. 

Lizard. 

Animal Worship. This species of wor- 
ship seems to have prevailed at a very re- 
mote period, chiefly among the Egyptians.^ 
Almost every animal known among them 
was sacred to one god or another. Even the 
scarabaeus, or beetle, made a considerable fig- 
ure in their temples. " The cats," says He- 
rodotus, " when dead, are carried to sacred 
buildings, and, after being embalmed, are 
buried in the city Bubastis." The worship of 
the serpent appears to have been, at an ear- 
ly period, almost universal. Lands were set 
apart for the support of the sacred animals ; 
men and women were employed to feed and 
maintam them. If a person killed one of 
these animals intentionally, he was punished 
with death. The murder of a cat, a hawk, 
or an ibis, whether designedly or not, so in- 
furiated the people, that the offender was 
generally put to death on the spot, without 
waiting for a formal trial. This species of 
idolatry, however, was not limited to the 
land of the Nile. It seems to have passed at 
a very remote period from Egypt to India, 
and we find the Hindoos venerating the cow 
and the alligator to the present day. So 
strong is the feeling of sacredness which they 
attach to the latter of these two animals, 
that the Hindoo mother rejoices, in throw- 
ing her child into the Ganges, to think that 
it is certain to be devoured by one of these 
holy alligators, and thus obtain a sure pass- 
port to eternal happiness. In Japan the ape 
is worshiped, and in Africa animal worship 
still mingles with Fetichism (q. v.) in the re- 
ligion of the natives. The origin of animal 
worship is veiled in obscurity. It may be 
that it was originally connected with the 
doctrine of metempsychosis, the people be- 
lieving that, in the transmigration of souls, 
the bodies of animals were occupied by their 
gods. And the fact that animal worship 
commonly accompanies belief in this doc- 
trine gives color to this hj'pothesis. Or it 
may be that animals were first taken as sym- 
bols of divine qualities, which in hieroglyph- 
ic writing would have been not unnatural, 
and hence became in time objects of worship, 
1 See Egypt. 



ANISE 



45 



ANOINTING 



the people transferring their adoration from 
the thing symbolized to the symbol itself. 

Anise, known commonly among us as dill, 
which indeed is the right rendering of the 
word. It is an umbelliferous plant, produ- 
cing a bright brown iiower. Like the fruits 
of the Umbelliferse, its seeds have an aromat- 
ic flavor, and a slightly stimulating quality. 
Both plant and seeds were anciently used as 
a condiment. Our Lord seems to imply that 
it was doubtful whether the law of tithes ap- 
plied to every smallest garden-herb ; but the 
Pharisees, in their overrigidity in externals, 
stretched it to this, letting go the more dif- 
ficult and more important matters of the 
law. It is to be added that, technically, the 
Pharisees were right, since the law required 
tithes of " every seed of the land," and that 
Christ's condemnation, therefore, includes all 
those who substitute a technical obedience 
of the law for a spirit of righteousness and 
love. [Matt, xxiii., 23 ; Lev. xxvii., 30.] 

Anna, daughter of Phanuel, of the tribe 
of Asher. " She was of great age " (eighty- 
four years), " and had lived with a husband 
seven years from her virginity, and depart- 
ed not from the Temple, but served God, with 
fastings and prayers, night and day." The 
meaning of this statement is, that Anna had 
lived but seven years in the married state ; 
that having then lost her husband, she de- 
voted herself to a life of fasting and prayer, 
continually attending upon the ministrations 
of the sanctuary. Not that she actually 
had apartments in the temple-buildings — for 
there is no reason to supjpose that any fe- 
males had such — but that she statedly pre- 
sented herself there among the worshipers, 
and took part in the services which were 
proceeding. Even from the earhest times 
there seem to have been pious females ded- 
icating themselves thus to a sort of priest- 
like consecration and constant service ; for 
at Exod. xxxviii., 8, the laver of brass is said 
to have been made out of the mirrors of the 
women who assembled at the door of the 
tabernacle ; literally, " the serving - women 
who served." [Luke ii., 36-38.] 

Annas, a high-priest of the Jews, appoint- 
ed to the office a.d. 7, by Quirinus, then gov- 
ernor of Syria. In those degenerate days, the 
high-priesthood, that was originally held for 
life, was filled by appointees of the Eoman 
court, removed at the pleasure of the Roman 
governor. Though Annas, after having held 
the ofi&ce for fifteen years, was removed by 
Valerius Gratus, procurator of Judea, a.d. 
23, he yet continued to bear the title, and 
really controlled the office for nearly fifty 
years. He seems to have been one of that 
class of politicians who are willing that oth- 
ers should possess the honors and offices, pro- 
vided they may wield the powers of the 
state. Five of his sons, in succession, held 
the no-longer-sacred office. At the time of 
our Lord it was filled by a son-in-law, Jo- 



seph Caiaphas ; and the reason why Annas 
and Caiaphas are mentioned together as high- 
priests,^ is probably that Annas was the high- 
priest recognized by the Jews — by whom 
the authority of the high-priests appointed 
by Rome was denied — and Caiaphas was 
the pontiff recognized by the Government.^ 
Hence, in a matter relating to spiritual af- 
fairs,^ Annas is called high -priest by St. 
Luke, though Caiaphas was still the officer 
of the Roman Government. And yet both 
father and son were creatures of the Roman 
court ; both belonged to the Sadducean party; 
both were openly infidel concerning some of 
the fundamental truths of the Hebrew faith ; 
both were jirofessional politicians. The key- 
note to their character is afforded in the ut- 
terance of Caiaphas in John xi., 50. To An- 
nas, as the moving spirit of the priestly par- 
ty, Jesus, upon his apprehension, was first ta- 
ken.* Upon Annas, really, more than upon 
Pilate, more than upon Caiaphas, who was 
simply the executioner of his father's will, 
the responsibility for the crucifixion of Je- 
sus rests. 

Annihilationists, a name given to those 
who hold that the wicked will be destroyed. 
They have never been organized as a dis- 
tinct sect, but the view is entertained by a 
number of writers of different denomina- 
tions. There is a wide difference in the the- 
ories of the different advocates of this doc- 
trine. Some hold that the soul is destroyed 
by a divine act, and that this is the punish- 
ment which is implied by such passages as 
that which declares that the wicked shall be 
punished with everlasting destruction from 
the presence of the Lord, and such parables 
as those which compare the wicked to the 
tares which are utterly burned.^ Others 
maintain that the soul is not naturally im- 
mortal; that immortality was lost in the 
Fall, and brought again to light by Jesus 
Christ f and that only those who believe in 
him receive again the gift of immortality. 
Annihilationism has never found general ac- 
ceptance in any denomination, but includes 
among its advocates some writers of emi- 
nence. Archbishop Whately maintains that 
it is a probable doctrine, and Dr. Isaac Watts 
so far entertained it as to believe that the 
children of ungodly parents are annihilated 
if they die in infancy. 

Anointing. The practice of anointing 
with perfumed oils or ointments appears to 
have been very common among the ancients. 
The first Biblical instance is that of Jacob's 
anointing of his pillow at Bethel, and this 
practice of anointing inanimate objects was 
continued in later times.'' More commonly, 
however, it was used as a sign of consecra- 
tion of some individual to a sacred office, as 



1 Lnke iii., 2.-2 See, however, Caiaphas, for a dif- 
ferent explanation.— 3 Acts iv., 6.-4 John xviii., 13.— 
5 Matt, xiii., 40 ; 2 Thess. i., 9.-6 2 Tim. i., 10.—'' Exod. 
XXX., 2G-28 ; Lev. viii., 10, 11, 30. 



ANOINTING 



46 



ANTHEOPOMOEPHISM 



tliat of king or priest. The first mention of 
this usage occurs after the departure of the 
Israelites from Egypt. By command of God, 
both Aaron and his sons were directed to 
be anointed ; though whether this command 
included the entire priesthood, or only the 
high -priest, is uncertain. The latter was 
called '^The Anointed." He thus typified 
Jesus, the Great High -priest, whose titles, 
Messiah, in Hebrew, and Christ, in Greek, 
signify, " The Anointed One."^ The ancient 
Egyptian monuments contain representa- 
tions of similar anointing, from which cir- 
cumstance it has been supposed that the 
Jewish custom was derived from Egypt. 

Kings also were anointed, as a token of 
their inauguration into an office which was 
sacred as well as political. This custom of 
anointing the civil rulers, which dates from 
a period previous to the establishment of 
the monarchy, was continued till the time 
of the Babylonian captivity, and seems to 
have been practiced among the heathen na- 
tions as well as among the Jews.'^ There 
are two references in Scripture^ which have 
given rise to an impression that the prophets 
were also anointed, but there is no evidence 
that this was ordinarily the case. There 
is, indeed, no account of the anointing of a 
prophet. 

Anointing, however, was not confined to 
official personages. The custom prevailed, 
as an act of hospitality, among the Greeks, 
the Eomans, and the Hebrews, and was prob- 
ably borrowed by them all from the Egyp- 
tians. Both the hair and the face were thus 
anointed, a shining skin being regarded by 
Oriental taste as a form of beauty, and oil 
beiug regarded also as strengthening in its 
character. For this reason, probably, ath- 
letes were frequently anointed before enter- 
ing the race. The frequent references in 
Scripture to the social custom of anointing, 
show it to have been very common ;* so com- 
mon that its omission was regarded as a sign 
of mourning, and, in the case of a guest, as 
an indication of a lack of respect.^ It was 
also customary to anoint the sick with oil as 
a means of cure, and the dead in preparation 
for the grave.^ These facts concerning the 
ancient custom of anointing give signifi- 
cance to those passages of the N. T. which 
speak of anointing with the Holy Ghost — a 
phrase which not only indicates consecration 
to a divine office " as priests and kings," but 
is also to be regarded as an emblem of joy, 
of strength, and of healing.' 

In the Greek and Eoman churches, the 
custom of anointing is still continued. In 



1 Exod. xxix., 7; xxx., 22-30; xl., 13-15; Lev. iv., 3. 
— 2 Jndg. ix., 8,15; 1 Sam. x., 1; xvi., 13; 2 Sam. ii.,4; 
v., 3 ; xix., 10 ; 1 Kings xix., 15 ; Isa. xlv., 1.— 3 1 Kings 
xix., 16; Psa. cv., IS.—* Ruth iii., 3; Esther ii., 12; 
Eccles. ix., 8 ; Sol. Song i., 3 ; iv., 10 ; Isa. Ixi., 3 ; 
Dan. X., 3 ; Amos vi., 6 ; Micah vi., 15.— ^ 2 Sam. xiv., 
2; Luke vii., 46; comp. John xii., 3. — « Mark vi., 13; 
xiv., 8; Luke xxiii., 50; Jas. v., 14.—''' 2 Cor. i., 21; 
Heb. i., 9 ; 1 John ii., 20, 27 ; Rev. iii., IS. 



the ordination of priests, the ordaining bish- 
op anoints with holy oil or chrism the palm 
of both hands, the thumb, and the forefinger, 
of the person to be ordained, by which proc- 
ess the hands are supposed to receive power 
to bless. At baptism and confirmation, the 
candidate is anointed with " holy oil," and 
the custom of anointing the sick is also 
maintained. [See Extreme UxcTioisr.] 

Ant {creeping). This insect is refeiTed to 
in Prov. vi., 6-8 ; xxx., 25. These references 
have been supposed to imply that these in- 
sects hoard up grains of corn for their win- 
ter supply. The truth appears to be, how- 
ever, that they do not feed upon any kind of 
grain, but are, for the most part, carnivorous 
animals. Whether they lay up any stores of 
provisions, or are torpid during the winter 
months, seems to be an unsettled question. 
They are, however, exceedingly industrious, 
and show remarkable signs of intelligence. 
Certain species organize in communities, with 
well-defined social divisions — soldiers, work- 
men, and queens — ^the latter of whom are de- 
voted to the production and rearing of the 
young. One species, the Amazon ant, makes 
incursions into the nests of neighboring 
tribes, carries off their young, and reduces 
them to slavery. Another is accustomed to 
feed upon a sweet milky juice which oozes 
from the Aphides, and, it is even said, cap- 
tures and carries these little creatures into 
their nests, and keeps them there as stall-fed 
cattle. Their strength in proportion to their 
size is something marvelous, and their pa- 
tience aftbrds quite as instructive a lesson 
as their undoubted industry and their prob- 
lematical foresight. It should be added that 
the Arabians held the wisdom of the ant in 
such estimation that they used to place one 
of these insects in the hands of the newly- 
born infant, repeating the words, " May the 
child turn out clever and skillful." 

Antediluvians {hefore the Beluge), a name 
given to those who lived before the Deluge. 
All authentic information respecting this 
period is contained in forty -nine verses of 
Genesis,' more than half of which are occu- 
pied with a list of names and ages, though 
considerable light is thrown upon their char- 
acter by the history of the first men after 
the Deluge, and by incidental indications of 
their possessing some knowledge of astron- 
omy, zoology, botany, music, architecture, 
and agTiculture. [Gen. i., 29, 30 ; ii., 20 ; iv., 
2,17,21,22; vi.,14.] 

Anthropology {science of man), that part 
of scientific theology which treats of man, 
his nature and relations, as distinguished 
from theology proper, which treats of God, 
and Christology, which treats of Christ. 

Anthropomorphism {human form), a term 
used primarily to signify the representation 
of divinity under a human form ; whence the 
religion of the Greeks is called anthropomor- 



1 Gen. iv., IC-vi. 



ANTICHRIST 



47 



ANTINOMIANS 



pMtic ; and an ancient sect who taught that 
God had a human shape were called An- 
thropomorphites. They were also called Au- 
diana, from their leader, Audius. The term 
is also used to denote that figure of speech 
by which the actions and affections of man 
are attributed to God, Avho is thus by a fig- 
ure spoken of as having eyes and hands, as 
being angry and sorry, as resolving and re- 
penting. 

Aiiticlirist. The word anti may be trans- 
lated against or instead of; thus the word^w^i- 
christ may either mean a false Christ or an 
opponent of Christ. The latter, as the bet- 
ter interpretation, is the one we adopt. For 
a discussion of False Christs, see that title. 

The word Antichrist appears only in the 
Epistles of John.^ But the Bible contains a 
number of references to a person (or power) 
which is to come into the world; and which, 
exalting himself "above all that is called 
God," shall openly oppose himself to the Re- 
deemer's kingdom, working iniquity with a 
marvelous capacity of beguiling souls. Even 
in the apostolic times, his spuit, we are 
taught, was already at work manifesting it- 
self partiaUy and incompletely in those that 
taught false doctrine. This person or power 
appears under various titles, as the Man of 
Sin, and (according to some interpreters) the 
Little Horn, the fierce-countenanced king in 
Daniel, and the two beasts of the Apocalypse.^ 
These prophecies have given rise to a great 
deal of heated controversy, for detailed in- 
formation concerning which we must refer 
our readers to special treatises on the Anti- 
christ, and to the conunentaries. It is enough 
here to say that the opinions concerning these 
prophetic passages may be divided into four 
classes: 1. Some have considered that by 
them nothing more is meant than an anti- 
Christian and lawless principle working it- 
self out in various forms, but not embodied 
in any individual or any special organization. 
2. Some have considered that they refer to 
an individual already passed away. These 
concur in referring the coming of Christ, 
which is prophesied in connection with the 
coming of Antichrist, to the destruction of 
Jerusalem. Thus Caligula, Titus, Simon 
Magus, the rebellious Jews, the Pharisees, 
the Zealots, have all been regarded as the 
Antichrist. This opinion has found very 
little favor, and has very little in the Scrip- 
ture to countenance it. 3. The Reformers 
generally regarded the Papal power as the 
Antichrist ; and this opinion, adopted from 
them, is perhaps the most popular one in 
the Protestant Church. Many Roman Cath- 
ohc writers, on the contrary, regard the 
Reformation, and the spirit of free relig- 
ious inquiry which it produced, as the spirit 
of Antichrist. 4. Still other writers con- 



1 1 John ii., 18, 22 ; iv., 3 ; 2 John 7.-2 Dan. vii., 7- 
27; viii., 8-25; xi., 36-39; 2 Thess. ii.,1-12; ITim. iv., 
1-3; 2Tim. iiL, 1-5; Rev. xiii.; xvii. ; xix., 19-21. 



sider these prophecies to be yet unfulfilled 
except in a partial and typical manner. 
They look for the Antichrist as yet to come. 
" We look for him," says Dean Alford, " as the 
final and central embodiment of that resist- 
ance to God and God's law which has been 
for these many centuries fermenting under 
the crust of human society, and of which we 
have already witnessed so many partial and 
tentative irruptions. Whether he is to be 
expected personally, as one individual em- 
bodiment of evil, we would not dogmatically 
pronounce. Still we would not forget that 
both ancient interpretation and the world's 
history point this way. Almost all great 
movements for good or for ill have been gath- 
ered to a head by one central personal agen- 
cy. Nor is there any reason to suppose that 
this win be otherwise in the coming ages." 

Antidoron (a gift in exchange). In the 
Greek Church the middle part of the conse- 
crated bread, marked with the cross, where- 
in the consecration resides, haviug ibeen ta- 
ken away by the priest, the remainder is 
distributed to the people after the mass, 
and receives its name, antidoron, from being 
given instead of the holy communion to 
those not worthy to receive the latter. 

Antinomians (against the law), a name not 
assumed by any sect, but given by their op- 
ponents to those who hold that Christians 
under the Gospel dispensation are not under 
obligation to the law of God. Some traces 
of the existence of such an opinion in the 
apostolic times are to be found in the New 
Testament. See, for example, Rom. vi., 1. 
In the reaction of the Reformation against 
the legal system of the Romish Church, the 
Reformers employed language which has 
subjected them to the charge of Antinomian- 
ism. Thus Luther declared that " those who 
must be scared and driven by law are un- 
worthy the name of Christians," and Melanc- 
thon, that "it must be admitted that the Dec- 
alogue is abrogated." John Agricofa (1556) 
carried this doctrine still farther, saying, for 
example, "Art thou steeped in sin — an adul- 
terer or a thief ? If thou believest, thou art 
in salvation. All who follow Moses must go 
to the devil: to the gallows with Moses." 
And finally, in the seventeenth century, this 
doctrine received its consummation in such 
declarations of one Dr. Crisp as, " The law is 
cruel and tyrannical, requiring what is nat- 
urally impossible." "An elect person is not 
in a condenmed state while an unbeliever ; 
and should he happen to die before God calls 
him to believe, he would not be lost." These 
extreme views undoubtedly grew out of the 
desire to maintain that men are saved not 
by their works, but by grace, and they as 
undoubtedly led to laxity of moral life in 
some instances ; but a great deal of allow- 
ance is to be made in interpreting them for 
the natural exaggerations of controversial 
language. 



I 



ANTINOMIANS 



48 



ANTIOCH 



The same term has sometimes been ap- 
plied to those who agree with Luther that 
the laws of Moses, including the Decalogue, 
applied as laivs only to the Jews; that the 




guidance of Gospel principles, and are to be 
preserved from evil, not by laws and penal- 
ties, but wholly by the possession of a spirit 
of Christian love. But the name Antinomi- 
ans does not prop- 
erly belong to those 
who entertain these 
views. Certainly, 
there is very little 
in common between 
them and the fol- 
lowers of John 
Agricola and Dr. 
Crisp. Nor is there 
I any historical evi- 
dence that their 
views have led to 
looseness of mor- 
als in practical life, 
whatever may be 
thought, theoretic- 
ally, to be their 
tendency. 

Antioch. Two 
cities of this name 
are mentioned in 
the N. T.— Antioch 
in Syria, and An- 
tioch in Pisidia. 
Both are connected 
with the life and la- 
bors of the Apostle 
Paul. 

1. Antioch in Syr- 
ia was a city with a 
population of more 
than 500,000 souls, 
and the residence 
of the Imperial Leg- 
ate of Syria. It had 
temples, aqueducts, 
baths, basilicas — 
indeed, nothing was 
wanting of what 
constituted a grand 
Syrian city of that 
period. The streets, 
flanked by colon- 
nades, with their 
cross - roads deco- 
rated with statues, 
had there more of 
symmetry and reg- 
ularity than any- 
where else. A Cor- 
so, ornamented with 
four ranges of col- 
umns, forming two 
covered galleries 
with a wide ave- 
nue in the midst, 
crossed the city 
from one side to 



Bible is not a book of positive precepts bind- 
ing upon Christians ; and that under the N. 
T. the disciples of Christ are left to the 



the other, a distance of thirty -six stadia, 
or more than a league. But Antioch not 
only possessed immense edifices of public 



ANTIOCH 



49 



ANTIOCH 



utOity, she had that also which few of the 
Syrian cities possessed — the noblest speci- 
mens of Grecian art. The Grecian mythol- 
ogy was there adopted, as it were, in a sec- 
ond home. The city was full of the worship 
of Apollo and of the nymphs. Daphne, an 
enchanting j)lace two 
short hours distant 
from the city, remind- 
ed the conquerors of 
the pleasantest fic- 
tions. At the same 
time, Syrian levity, 
Babylonian charlatan- 
ism, and all the impos- 
tures of Asia, mingling 
at this limit of the two 
worlds, made Antioch 
the capital of lies, and 
tlie sink of every de- 
scription of infamy. 
The degradation of 
the i)eople there was 
terrible. It was an 
inconceivable medley 
of Merry - Andrews, 
quacks, buffoons, ma- 
gicians, miracle -mon- 
gers, sorcerers, priests, 
impostors ; a city of 
races, games, dances, 
processions, fetes, de- 
bauches, of unbridled 
luxury, of all the fol- 
lies of the East, of the 
most imhealthy super- 
stitions, and of the fa- 
naticism of the orgy. 

Among the different 
colonies which the lib- 
eral ordinances of the 
Seleucidse had attract- 
ed to the capital of 
Syria, that of the Jews 
was one of the most 
numerous : it dated 
from the time of Se- 
leucus Nicator, and 
was governed by the 
same laws as the 
Greeks. Although the 
Jews had a ruler of 
their own, their rela- 
tions with the pagans 
were very frequent. 
Here, as at Alexandria, 
these relations often 
led to quarrels and 
aggressions. On the 
other hand, they af- 
forded a field for an active religious propa- 
gandism. The polytheism of the age be- 
coming more and more insufficient to meet 
the wants of serious persons, the Grecian and 
Jewish philosophies attracted all those whom 
the vain pomps of paganism could not satis- 



fy. The number of proselytes was consid- 
erable. Among these proselytes the first 
Christian converts were found. Nicolas, one 
of the deacons of the Church at Jerusalem, 
was a Jewish proselyte of Antioch.^ Doubt- 
less, the composite character of the poimla- 




:,.,,,,:j,g;| ;,,,,. 



:. 1! 



V''\ 






m 



ll!ll!ll|Vl 



I'i 



SI ill 



II 


Ill 


1 


lii! 


111' 


I!! 1 



fJM 



tion of Antioch partly explains its history in 
the development of Christianity. The Hues 
which separated race from race were here 
partially obliterated ; the Jews themselves 
lost something of their religious and nation- 
1 Acts vi., 5. 



ANTIPATRIS 



50 



APOCRYPHA 



al bigotry. Here the Gospel was first preach- 
ed to the Gentiles.^ Here the disciples of Je- 
sus were first recognized as somethiug else 
than reformed Jews, and received, probably 
in derision, the name of Christians.^ From 
this Church Paul and Barnabas set forth on 
their first missionary tour to the heathen 
world ; and to this Church is due the honor 
of having been the founder, under God, of 
all missionary enterprises. Antioch is now 
a village of but a few thousand inhabitants, 
and the few Christians in it have no organ- 
ized Church.^ The only remnant of Chris- 
tianity is in the name of its eastern gate, 
which is called after the Apostle Paul. [Acts 
xi., 19-30; xiii,,l-3; xiv., 26-28; xv., 30-35; 
Gal. ii., 11-15.] 

2. Antioch in Pisidia, a town on the bor- 
ders of Phrygia, founded by Seleucus Nica- 
tor; but under Augustus Csesar, and at the 
time of Paul, a Roman colony. It was situ- 
ated on a hill, and is identified with the 
modern Yalobatch. [Acts xiii., 14-52 ; xiv., 
19-22 ; xviii., 22 ; 2 Tim. iii., 11.] 

Antipatris, a town in Palestine, built by 
Herod the Great on the site of Capharsaba, 
and named after his father, Antipater. It is 
in a well-watered plain between Jerusalem 
and Csesarea, forty -two Roman miles from 
the first, twenty-six from the latter place. 
It is now a village called Kefr Saba. [Acts 
xxiii., 31.] 

Antipope, a pontiff elected by the will of 
a sovereign, or the intrigues of a faction, in 
opposition to one canonically chosen. Ged- 
des gives a list of no less than twenty-four 
schisms occasioned by these antipopes, some 
of which lasted many years, and caused 
much bloodshed. At one time (a.d. 1046) 
there were no less than four rival claimants 
to the papal throne ; while at another (a.d. 
1378), a schism, lasting half a century, di- 
vided Europe into two nearly equal parties ; 
France, Spain, Savoy, and Scotland recog- 
nizing the one pope; England, Italy, Ger- 
many and Northern Europe, the other. These 
rival popes excommunicated each other. 

Antonia, a fortress, or tower, built by Her- 
od, and so named in honor of his friend An- 
tonius. It was built upon the same broad 
platform of solid rock with the Temple, at 
the north-west corner of which it stood, upon 
a precipice. It was at once the palace of 
the Roman governor and the barracks of 
his legions. Here five hundred soldiers 
found commodious quarters. Its capacious 
halls seemed like the streets of a little city, 
its suites of rooms like independent man- 
sions. Its polished stones so adjoined the 
Temple walls that the Gentile camp seemed 
a part of the Jewish sanctuary. Four tow- 
ers, at its four corners, gave it the appear- 



' Acts xi., 20, 21.— 2 Acts xi., 26.-3 sj^ce this article 
was in type Antioch has been visited (April, 1872) by 
an earthquake, the sixth since the days of Paul, which 
is reported to have destroyed half the town, and in 
which 1500 persons are said to have lost their lives. 



ance of a castle and the strength of a for- 
tress. One of these towers, lifting its head 
far above the Temple walls, looked down 
into its broad courts, and thus subjected all 
the tumultuous gatherings there to the over- 
sight of the hated heathen. On the corner 
where it joined to the two cloisters of the 
Temple, it had passages down to them both, 
rendering it easy, at a moment's notice, to 
quell any disturbance which might there 
arise. It was in the Tower of Antonia that 
the trial of Jesus before Pilate probably 
took place. [John xviii., 28.] 

Ape, an animal mentioned as imported 
by the fleets of Hiram and Solomon, and 
probably brought from some country which 
supplied also the gold, ivory, and peacocks. 
The most accessible sources of all these 
treasures were India, Ceylon, and the eastern 
coast of Africa. It is probable that Solomon 
collected various species of this curious ani- 
mal, to gratify his love for natural history, 
in which science he was a learned student. 
[1 Kings X., 22 ; 2 Clu^on. ix., 21.] 

Apocrypha (hidden), the name given to 
certain books, and parts of books, appended 
to the Scriptures; and some of which are 
regarded by some scholars as canonical por- 
tions of the Scriptures. 

1. Apocryphal O. T. This includes the 
following books : The third book of Esdras, 
the fourth book of Esdras (Esdras 1 and 2) ; 
the book of Tobias (Tobit); the book of Ju- 
dith; the rest of the book of Esther; the 
book of Wisdom ; Jesus, the Son of Sirach 
(Ecclesiasticus) ; Baruch, the Prophet ; the 
Song of the Three Children ; the Story of 
Susanna; Bel and the Dragon; the Prayer 
of Manasses ; the first book of Maccabees ; 
the second book of Maccabees. These books 
never formed a part of the Jewish canon ; 
and though treated with respect by the ear- 
ly Christian writers, do not seem to have 
been regarded by them as of Divine authori- 
ty. But it was not until tlje period of the Ref- 
ormation that the lines were clearly drawn 
between those who accept and those who 
reject the authority of the O. T. Apocrypha. 
The Council of Trent pronounced all but the 
two books of Esdi'as and the Prayer of Ma- 
nasses a part of the canonical Scrij)tures ; 
the Protestants uniformly reject them, and 
now rarely print them in the Bible. When 
printed, they are placed in a separate group, 
at the close of the O. T., entitled the Apoc- 
rypha. 

The following reasons are stated for re- 
jecting them : They have not had the sanc- 
tion of the Jewish and early Christian 
Church ; are not extant in Hebrew ; are 
wholly wanting in that prophetic spirit 
which pervades even the historical records 
of the O. T. ; not only do not claim inspira- 
j tion, but even bewail the want of it ; are 
characterized in many passages by an air 
I of romance and mythology alien to the sim- 



APOLLO 



51 



APOLOGY 



pie grandeur of the Bible ; contradict them- 
selves and some well-known facts in secular 
history ; teach doctrines not contained in the 
Bible, as, the efficacy of prayers for the dead, 
the intercession of saints, and the transmi- 
gration of souls ; and appear never to have 
been quoted as an authority by the Lord or 
his apostles. A brief account of the charac- 
ter of these books is given under their re- 
spective titles. 

2. The Apocryphal books of the N. T. are 
not sanctioned by any ecclesiastical author- 
ity, and are not printed with the Bible by 
either Romanist or Protestant. They em- 
brace certain spurious Gospels and Epistles. 
McClintock and Strong give a list of forty- 
one of these, and, under the titles of Gospels 
Spurious and Epistles Spurious, some detail- 
ed account of them. Their chief value lies 
in the contrast which they afford to the gen- 
uine works which we possess, and the inci- 
dental testimony which they thus render to 
the truthfulness of our own accounts ; for it 
is impossible for one to compare, for exam- 
ple, the records of the four evangelists with 
the mythological miracles which are recoujit- 
ed in the Apocryphal Gospels, and not be 
at once impressed with the evident simplic- 
ity, impartiality, and truthfulness of the for- 
mer. It almost seems as though the Apoc- 
ryphal Gospels had been preserved in order 
that, when it was said that the N. T. is a 
book of myths, we might be able to compare 
it with accounts undoubtedly mythical, and 
so, by perceiving the contrast, convince our- 
selves of the error of this latest hypothesis 
of skepticism. 

Apollo {the destroyer). So called because 
his shafts, the rays of Phoebus, or the sun, 
inflict diseases in Oriental climates. He is 
one of the great divinities of the East ; ac- 
cording to Horace, the son of Jupiter and 
the brother of Diana ; the god who punish- 
ed the wicked and insolent, and was regard- 
ed as the inventor of poetry, medicine, and 
eloquence. He was also known by the name 
of Python, and is supposed by many to be 
referred to in the account of the demoniac 
damsel cured by Paul.^ In the Greek she is 
said to be possessed with the spirit of Python. 
Apollo had a celebrated temple and oracle at 
Delphi, where the priestess, pretending to be 
inspired, became violently agitated, and, in 
this condition, gave responses to inquirers 
which were regarded as oracles of the god. 
It is probable that this demoniac damsel was 
supposed by the people to possess a similar 
inspiration from Apollo. 

ApoUonia (belonging to Apollo), a city 
of Macedonia, in the district of Mygdonia, 
about thirty Roman miles from Amphipolis. 
Paul and Silas took it on their way to Thessa- 
lonica, from which it was distant about thir- 
ty-seven Roman miles. It was a colony of the 
Corinthians and Corcyreans. [Acts xvii., 1.] 



Acts xvi., 16. 



ApoUos, a learned Jew of Alexandria, el- 
oquent, and well acquainted with the Scrip- 
tures. He seems to have learned, probably 
from some disciple of John the Baptist, that 
the time for the conaing of the Messiah had 
arrived, and possibly that Jesus of Nazareth 
was the Messiah; but the doctrines of the 
Cross, the Resurrection, and the outpouring 
of the Spirit, were unknown to him. He 
was, in a word, an earnest, devout, and re- 
formed Jew. Instructed by Priscilla and 
Aquila, he became a minister of the Gospel, 
followed Paul to Corinth, where many of 
the Corinthians, attracted probably by his 
philosophic learning and his eloquence, en- 
deavored to make him a rival of Paul, and 
organize a party, or sect, under his name. 
In this they failed. Paul's affection for him 
and confidence in him were never shaken; 
and his determination not to be made a par- 
ty leader was so resolute, that not even the 
entreaties of Paul could induce him to re- 
turn to Corinth again. Scripture tells , us 
nothing more of him. According to tradi- 
tion, he became bishop of Csesarea ; and some 
scholars consider him the author of the Epis- 
tle to the Hebrews (q. v.). [Acts xviii., 
24-28 ; xix., 1 ; 1 Cor. i., 12; iii., 4-6, 22; 
xvi., 12; Tit. iii., 13.] 

Apollyon (a destroyer), the Greek render- 
ing of the Hebrew "Abaddon," the angel of 
the bottomless pit. In our Bible the word 
abaddon is translated destruction ;^ and from 
its use in Psa. Ixxxviii., 11, the Rabbins have 
made Abaddon the nethermost of the two 
regions into which they divide the lower 
world. That in the Apocalypse^ Abaddon 
is the angel of the bottomless pit, and not 
the abyss itself, seems to be shown by the 
addition of Apollyon as an explanatory term ; 
but the term may be understood either as a 
personification of the idea of destruction, or 
as denoting the being suxiposed to preside 
over the regions of the dead — the angel of 
death. It accords better with the general 
character of the passage to suppose a per- 
sonification of the idea of destruction. Thus 
the symbol may find many realizations in 
the history of the Church. According to this 
interpretation, as there are many Antichrists, 
so there may be many Apollyons. 

Apology (defense), a discourse or argu- 
ment in defense of some person or doctrine 
that has been attacked or misrepresented. 
The term has hence been used to denote 
those books written in defense of Christian- 
ity against pagan writers and other oppo- 
nents ; and the science of defending Chris- 
tianity is called Apologetics. These early 
apologies were of two different forms, and 
written with two different objects. Oue class 
of them were expositions of Christian doc- 
trine, intended for tlie use of enlightened jia- 
gans generally ; the other class were more 



1 Job xxvi., 6 ; xxviii., 22 ; xxxi., 12 ; Pi-ov. xv., 11. — 
2 Kev. ix., 11. 



APOSTASY 



52 



APOSTLE 



official in their character, being meant to 
advocate the cause of the Christians before 
emperors, or before the proconsuls, or presi- 
dents of provinces. Not being able to ob- 
tain a hearing in person, the early Christians 
were under the necessity of producing their 
defense in writing. The Apologists come 
next in order after the Apostolic Fathers, 
and their writings, as far as they have been 
preserved, are peculiarly valuable, as show- 
ing the arguments adduced by the heathen 
against Christianity, and the manner in 
which these arguments were met by the 
early Christian Avriters. For a concise and 
valuable history of Apologetic literature, see 
McClintock and Strong's Cyclopaedia, article 
Apology. 

Apostasy {revolt), answering to a Greek 
word, which is translated in the N. T. by " for- 
saking," and " falling away,"^ and which oc- 
curs there only twice, is used, theological- 
ly, to signify any great religious defection. 
That the Church of Christ should suffer from 
a great apostasy is indicated both by Christ 
and by Paul.'^ Whether the prophecies refer 
to any one great defection or not, is an unset- 
tled question. During the persecutions of 
the early Church many Christians were led to 
apostatize, i. e., to return to the heathen faith 
which they had renounced ; and in a similar 
manner others went back to Judaism. It is 
to those who thus turn back from the Chris- 
tian faith, after having once embraced it, 
that the apostle refers in Heb. vi., 4-8. Dur- 
ing the Middle Ages any withdrawal from 
the Church at Eome was regarded as apos- 
tasy, and severely punished by the secular 
authority. In Protestant usage the term is 
ajjplied only to those who abandon the Chris- 
tian religion altogether ; though it is some- 
times, but we think inaccurately, employ- 
ed in describing those who leave the Prot- 
estant for the Romish communion. The 
Emperor Julian is known in history as Ju- 
lian the Apostate, from the fact that when 
he came to the throne of the Eoman Empire 
he renounced the Christian religion, and used 
every means in his power to re-establish pa- 
ganism in the empire- 
Apostle. This term is generally employed 
in the N. T. as the descriptive appellation of 
a comparatively small body of men, to whom 
Jesus intrusted the organization of his Church 
and the dissemination of his religion among 
mankind. For the battle which Jesus ini- 
tiated by his life and teaching could not be 
carried to its consummation during liis earth- 
ly career. It must be left an inheritance to 
others. All he could do during his brief 
stay upon the earth was to select a few ap- 
preciative disciples, imbue them with his 
spirit, instruct them in his principles, and 
leave them to carry on after his death, and 
under his inspiiation, that work, the most 



1 Acts xxi., 21 ; 2 Thess. ii., 3.-2 Matt, xxiv., 10-13 ; 
Thess. ii., 3-122. 



powerful instrument of which would be af- 
forded by his cross. From the more appre- 
ciative hearers who thronged him wherever 
he went, he selected twelve to be his disci- 
ples. It is impossible not to perceive in this 
number a recognition of the ancient theoc- 
racy with its twelve tribes, and an indica- 
tion to the Jewish nation of his purpose to 
establish a new theocracy, or establish in a 
new and spiritual form the old one.^ They 
were not merely such as chanced to attach 
themselves to Jesus — he carefully selected 
them.^ They were wholly from the peasant 
population of Palestine, and, with a single 
exception, were Galileans. That exception 
was Judas Iscariot. They w^ere simple-mind- 
ed men, of no considerable mental culture, of 
no rare qualities of genius, of no great men- 
tal grasp, of ho remarkable heroic qualities 
even. Did Christ choose them that he might 
show the world what he could make out of 
very common materials, and to demonstrate 
that his kingdom stood not in human great- 
ness, but in the power of God ? They were, 
at all events, admirably selected for such a 
purpose. Yet let us remember that they are 
presented in perpetual contrast with their 
Master; and there is no human greatness 
that would not be belittled by the compar- 
ison. Of the history and character of these 
disci]3les we know but very little. Anxious 
only to give the world a portraiture of their 
Master, they have preserved little or none 
of themselves. Their individual lives are 
treated of under their respective titles. Here 
we can speak of them only as a body. 

It is commonly said that the apostles were 
illiterate men. It is certain that they had 
little or no knowledge of the Eabbinical 
literature of the age. They were all lay- 
men ; there was neither a priest nor a scribe 
among them.^ Their minds were equally 
free from the conventionahsm of that life- 
less religion which characterized Pharisaism 
and the false culture of the effete civiliza- 
tion of Greece. Their illiterateness was then- 
best preparation to receive without preju- 
dice the principles of the spiritual religion 
which Jesus had come to found. Illiterate 
though they were, they were not altogether 
ignorant men, nor chosen from the lowest 
classes. They were men of what we should 
call a religious nature. Four of them Jesus 
found at the ford of Bethabara, listenmg 
with attentive ears to the words of John the 
Baptist ; a fifth had evidently looked with 
them for the coming of the hope of Israel.* 
They probably had aU of them enjoyed the 
benefit of that popular education which, even 
in those degenerate days, characterized Juda- 
ism. On the whole, it may be inferred that 
Jesus chose his apostles from that middle cla.ss 
of " plain people " to which, by his earthly 

1 See Matt, xix., 28 ; Luke xxii., 30.— ^ John xv., 16,— 
3 See Alford ou Acts iv., 13.—* John i., 36, 37, 42, 44, 45, 

49. 



APOSTLE 



53 



APOSTLE 



birth, Jesus himself belonged, and from which 
God's providence has generally chosen the 
world's great men. Neither mental nor 
moral genius, however, strongly character- 
ized them. Peter and John were the only 
remarkable men among them, and consti- 
tuted the natural leaders of the band. For 
the rest, the disciples were plain, common, 
matter - of- fact men, whose prosaic natures 
perpetually stumbled over Christ's enigmat- 
ical sayings. And when that happened of 
which he had so often forewarned them — his 
arrest — they all forsook him and fled. Ev- 
idently we are mistaken in clothing these 
twelve peasants in the glowing garments 
of romance, and attributing to them either 
remarkable power of mind or remarkable 
measure of faith. There is not one of them 
who might not well have repeated the con- 
fession of Paul, " By the grace of God I am 
what I am." They were only convinced of 
Christ's resurrection on the very plainest 
proofs furnished by himself. It was then that 
light seems first to have entered their minds. 
But it was not till the day of Pentecost that 
they became fully possessed of their divine 
mission. Thenceforth they were different 
men. No longer fearful and temporizing, 
they preached boldly in the name of Jesus. 
They took the lead as the acknowledged 
heads of the movement, specially devoted 
themselves to ministerial labor, exercised pe- 
culiar powers, and a certain measure of au- 
thority in the Church.^ 

The authority of the apostles, however, 
depended rather upon personal qualifica- 
tions than upon ecclesiastical appointment. 
It is true that Matthias was elected subse- 
quently to the death of Christ ; but Paul was 
never formally inducted into any apostolic- 
al office. Yet both were apostles. As their 
authority, so their qualifications were per- 



sonal. Those only were accounted apostles 
who had seen the Lord, and been eye and 
ear witnesses of the facts to which they tes- 
tified.^ They must have been immediately 
called and chosen to that ofiice by Christ 
himself. This was the case with every one 
of them, Matthias not excepted ; for as he 
had been a chosen disciple of Christ before, 
so the Lord, by determining the lot, chose 
him to the office of an apostle.^ They had 
not only to explain the true sense and spirit 
of the 6. T., but to give to the world the N. 
T. revelation, which was to be the standard 
of faith and practice in all succeeding gener- 
ations.* Accordingly, Christ promised, and 
actually bestowed on them, the Spirit to 
guide them into aU truth, and to show them 
things to come.^ And they possessed the 
power of working miracles, which were the 
credentials of their Divine mission.® 

Authentic history records nothing con- 
cerning the lives of the apostles beyond what 
Luke has afforded respecting Peter, John, 
and the two Jameses.'' Traditions, derived 
in part from early times, have come down to 
us concerning nearly all of them; but all 
that can be gathered with certainty respect- 
ing the subsequent history of the apostles 
is, that James (q. v.), after the martyrdom 
of James the Greater,® usually remained at 
Jerusalem as the acknowledged head of the 
fraternity, and president of the college of 
the apostles, while Peter traveled mostly a^s 
missionary among the Jews, and John exer- 
cised a practical supervision over the Asiatic 
Churches.® A list of the twelve apostles is 
given in four places in the N. T. by three of 
the evangelists, one of whom was himself 
an apostle ; and there are points of identi- 
ty and variation between these lists, which 
will make it useful to give them in tabular 
form: 



^ 


Matt. X., 2-4. Luke vi., 14-16. 


1 Mark iii., 16-19. 


1 Acts i., 13. 1 


Simon Peter. 


2 


Andrew. 


1 


James. 


3 


James. 


1 


John. 


4 


John. 


1 


Andrew. 


5 


Philip. 


6 


Bartholomew. 




Thomas. 


7 


Thomas. 


Matthew. 


Bartholomew. 


8 


Matthew. 1 


Thomas. 


1 Matthew. 


9 


James 


the son of Alpheus. 




,. 


Lebbeus, or Thaddeus. 1 Simon Zelotes. 


1 Thaddeus. 


1 Simon Zelotes. 


11 


Simon the Canaanite. Judas, the brother of James. Simon the Canaanite. 


Judas, the brother of James. 


12 1 Judas Iscariot. 




j Vacant. 



1 Acts ix., 27 ; XV., 2 ; 1 Cor. ix., 1 ; xii., 28 ; 2 Cor. 
xii,, lii; Gal. i., 17; ii., 8, 9.-2 Johii xv., 27; Acts i., 
21, 22 ; 1 Cor. ix., 1 ; xv., 8.-3 Luke vi., 13 ; Acts i., 24, 
2): Gal. i., 1.— * Lnke xxiv., 27; Acts xxvi., 22, 23; 
xxviii., 23 — ^ John xvi., 13; 1 These, ii., 18; 1 John 



iv., 6.-8 Mark xvi., 20; Acts ii., 43; 1 Cor. xii., 8-11 ; 
2 Cor. xii., 12.— ''^ Acts viii., 14 ; xii., 2, 17 ; xv., 13 ; xxi., 
18.— 8 Acts xii., 2.-9 Acts xii., 17; xv., 13; xxi., 18; 
Gal. ii., 8, 9; Rev. i.-iii. All three are named "pil- 
lars" of the Christian community, Gal. ii., 9. 



APOSTOLICAL 



54 



APOSTOLICAL 



Apostolical, a general term indicating 
any thing belonging to the apostles, or sup- 
posed to he traceable to them. The term 
has thus not only come to be applied to those 
matters which unquestionably are apostolic- 
al, but is also, as a term of credit, assumed 
for others which are matters of doubt and 
dispute. 

Apostolical Age is that period of Church 
history which extends from the Day of Pen- 
tecost to the death of the last surviving apos- 
tle, John, A.D. 33 to about a.d. 100. Apostol- 
ical Brethren is a name assumed by cer- 
tain sects of the Middle Ages. Apostol- 
ical Canons are a collection of ecclesias- 
tical rules made prior to the fifth century, 
but not really attributable to the apostles. 
The Apostolical Catholic Church is the 
name assumed by the body usually known 
as Irvingites. Their name is more properly 
Catholic Apostolical Church, under which 
title the subject is treated. Apostolical 
Chamber is the name given to the treasury 
of the pope, or the council to which is in- 
trusted the pope's demesnes. Apostolical 
Church is a term assumed by the Eomisli 
and EjDiscopal Churches, based upon the 
doctrine of Apostolical Succession (q. v.). 
Apostolical Church Directory is a work 
which originated at the beginning of the 
third century, and is extant in several Ethi- 
opic and Arabic manuscripts and one Greek. 
Apostolical Clerks is the name of two mo- 
nastic orders, one of which, sometimes call- 
ed Jesuates, was confirmed by papal decree 
in 1368, and abolished 300 years later ; the 
other of which, known as Theatines, was or- 
ganized in the sixteenth century. Apostol- 
ical Constitutions is a collection, in eight 
books, of rules and regulations concerning 
the duties of Christians, and of considerable 
use in pointing out the practices of the early 
Church ; probably written in the fourth cen- 
tury. By Apostolical Fathers are meant 
those Christian writers who were contempo- 
rary with any of the apostles, i. e., who lived 
and wrote before a.d. 120. There are five 
such of whose writings any remains are now 
extant — Barnabas, Hermas, Clement, Igna- 
tius, and Polycarp. These writings are im- 
portant for the illustrations they afford of 
the religious life of the period, and for the 
evidence their quotations from the New Tes- 
tament give to the authenticity of our New 
Testament Scriptures. Apostolical See is a 
title applied in ancient times to every Chris- 
tian bishop's province, but by Roman Catho- 
lic writers applied only to the see of the pope. 
See properly signifies the seat or throne of 
the pope or bishop, and hence is used to 
designate the whole extent of his jurisdiction. 

Apostolical Succession. The doctrine 
of Apostolical Succession means, says a re- 
cent Episcopal writer,\ " that, according to 

1 "Apostolical Succession in the Church of En- 
gland," by Arthur W. Haddam, B.D. 



the institutions of Christ, a ministry ordain- 
ed in due form by succession from the apos- 
tles, and so from our Lord himself, is an in- 
tegral part of that visible Church upon earth 
to which Christian men are to be joined. It 
implies, further, that the ministry so ordain- 
ed is not a merely external office of conven- 
ience and of outward government, but in- 
volves also the transmission of special gifts 
of grace, in order to the carrying on in the 
Church of the supernatural work of Christ 
by his Spirit." Those who hold to the doc- 
trine of Apostolical Succession maintain that 
Christ organized a distinct and permanent 
Church ; that he established a hierarchical 
order ; that he gave to his Apostles the ex- 
clusive right to preach and administer the 
sacraments ; that they were authorized to 
confer this prerogative upon their succes- 
sors ; and that the succession thus estab- 
lished has been continued from that day to 
the present. They also hold that no one 
not in this line of succession can legitimate- 
ly hold the office of an ordained minister in 
the Church of Christ. The doctrine is held 
by all Eoman Catholic divines, and by a ma- 
jority of the Ejiiscopalians. Some of the 
ablest scholars of the latter Church, how- 
ever, disown it. Thus Dean Alford declares 
it to be a " fiction of which I find in the 
New Testament no trace ;" and Archbishop 
Whately, speaking on this subject, says, 
" There is not a minister in Christendom 
who is able to trace up, with any aj^proach 
to certainty, his own spiritual pedigree." 
Even Cranmer held, with Wickliffe, that 
bishops are not an order distinct from the 
other clergy. The doctrine in the minds of 
its .advocates rests upon such passages as 
Matt, xvi., 19 ; xviii., 18-20 ; Rom. x., 15 ; 2 
Cor. v., 20. It is said that the power of ab- 
solution can not be possessed, nor the prom- 
ise of Christ's personal presence with his 
ministry fulfilled, nor a commission to preach 
as an ambassador of Christ executed, unless 
there is an order officially appointed, like 
the Jewish priesthood of old, to exercise the 
power of forgiveness, claim the fulfillment 
of the promise, and execute the commands 
of a spiritual ambassador. On the other 
hand, the opponents of the doctrine deny 
that there is any evidence that Christ framed 
such a Church organization, or established 
such a ministerial succession. They assert 
that the apostles were personal witnesses of 
his resurrection,^ and therefore could have 
no successors ; that in the primitive Church 
laymen preached, and, as some hold, admin- 
istered the sacraments f that Paul himself 
never received apostolic ordination ; that 
there is no historical evidence of an un- 
broken line of succession ; that the passages 
quoted in support of the doctrine in ques- 
tion are to be spiritually interpreted, and 



1 Acts !., 22 ; 1 Cor. xv., S.— 2 Acts ii., 4, 42, 46 ; vi., 
; viii., 1, 4, 3S ; xviii., 24-2G ; compare Mark ix., 38-40. 



APPII FORUM 



55 



APPLE OF SODOM 



do not necessarily imply any ecclesiastical 
order ; in a word, that ministers are a divine 
order only in this sense, that it is the Divine 
will that there should be an office of the min- 
istry in the Christian Church for the preser- 
vation of order, and for the better execution 
of its divinely-appointed work. 

Appii Forum, a well-known station forty- 
three miles from Rome, on the Appian Way, 
leading from Rome to the neighborhood of 
the Bay of Naples. The "Three Taverns" 
was a way-side inn, and customary resort of 
travelers, ten miles nearer Rome. Both are 
mentioned by Cicero. [Acts xxviii., 15.] 

Apple, Apple-tree. No word is more 
loosely used than this, and its equivalents, in 
various languages. The Romans called al- 
most' every kind of globular fruit — apples, 
pears, peaches, cherries, etc., not even ex- 
cepting walnuts — pomum; and we ourselves 
speak of love-apples, earth-apples, oak-ap- 
ples, pine-apples, thus applying the term to 
various fruits in no way allied to the ai^ple. 
The Arabs apply the name indiscriminately 
to the lemon, peach, and apricot, as well as 
to the true apple ; and it is probable that the 
Hebrews employed tappilach in a wide and 
comprehensive way to denote any round and 
fragrant or hreathing fruit — the root of the 
word meaning ^'to breathe;" but that they 
had much acquaintance with the true apple, 
which is a native of more northern latitudes, 
may be questioned. What specific tree is de- 
noted by this Hebrew word is difficult to de- 
termine. On the- whole, the citron, formerly 
so abundant in Palestine, appears to have 
the best claim to represent the " apple " of 
Scripture. It belongs to that delightful 
group including the orange, the lime, the 
lemon, and the shaddock. With its dark 
glossy, laurel -looking leaves, its evergreen 
branches, often bearing simultaneously ripe 
fruits and newly-opened flowers, and thus 
affording to the pilgrim, while resting in its 
deep shadow, the twofold refreshment of a 
delicious banquet and a fragrant odor, the 
citron may well claim pre-eminence " among 
the trees of the wood." 

"As the apple- [citron] tree among the trees of the 
wood, 
So is my beloved among the sons. 
I sat down under his shadow with great delight, 
And his fruit was sweet to my taste.''^ 

In tropical regions the fruits of the citron 
and its congeners are invaluable, on account 
of their anti- febrile virtues. These were 
doubtless well known to the Hebrews, and, 
in common with all antiquity, they greatly 
prized the pungent odor emitted by the rind. 
It was usual in the East to keep citrons in 
wardrobes for the sake of their i^erfume ; 
and as with modern Oriental ladies the fa- 
vorite vinaigrette is a citron, so in England, 
two or three centuries ago, an orange was so 



Sol. Song ii., 3. 



commonlj^ used as a scent-bottle, that it may 
often be seen in old pictures of queens and 
peeresses. It was also believed to have a 
disinfecting potency, and during the plague 
of London people walked the streets smell- 
ing at oranges. In keei3ing with these me- 
dicinal and restorative attributes of its or- 
der, it is said in Solomon's Song, 

" Comfort me with apples [citrons] ; 
For I am sick of love.''^ 

Such being the character of this beautiful 
family, there is a peculiar felicity in the 
comparison : "A word fitly spoken is like 
apples [citrons] of gold in pictures [grav- 
ings] of silver."^ Modern Jews ctill use 
citrons at the Feast of Tabernacles. In 
London considerable sums are expended in 
importing them, for this purpose, without 
blemish, and with the stalk still adhering 
— an effort, no doubt, to secure the " thick 
branches and boughs of goodly trees" men- 
tioned in Lev. xxiii., 40. Although it is so 
usual to siDcak of the forbidden fi^uit of Par- 
adise as an apple, we need hardly say that 
there is nothing in Scripture to indicate 
what kind of tree was the tree of the knowl- 
edge of good and evil. 

Apple of Sodom, a name given to a fruit 
growing on the shores of the Dead Sea. Jo- 
sephus, after sx3eaking of the yet remaining 
tokens of the divine fire which consumed the 
cities of the plain, remarks : "There are still 
to be seen ashes reproduced in the fruits, 
which indeed resemble edible fruits in color, 
but, on being plucked with the bauds, are 
dissolved into smoke and ashes." Fantastic 
as is this theory, there is in it nothing which 
does not apjjly almost literally to the fr-uit 
of the Oslier of the Arabs, the Asclepias gigan- 
tea of the botanists, which is found in abun- 
dance in Upper Egypt and Nubia, and also 
in Arabia Felix, but seems to be confined in 
Palestine to the borders of the Dead Sea. 
Dr. Robinson found at Ain Jidy several spec- 
imens of the tree, six or eight inches in diam- 
eter, and from ten to fifteen feet high. It 
has a grayish, cork-like bark, with long, oval 
leaves, and in general appearance and char- 
acter might be taken for a gigantic peren- 
nial species of our common milk- weed. Its 
leaves and flowers are very similar to those 
of the latter plant, and when broken off it in 
like manner discharges a milky fluid. The 
fr^uit greatly resembles externally a large 
smooth apple or orange, hanging in clusters 
of three or four together, and, when ripe, is 
of a yellow color. It is fair and attractive to 
the eye, and soft to the touch, but on being 
Xoressed or struck it explodes with a puff, 
like a bladder or puff-ball, leaving in the 
hand only the shreds of the thin rind and a 
few fibres. It is indeed filled chiefly with air, 
like a bladder, which gives it the round form ; 



Sol. Song ii., 5.-2 Prov. xxv., 11. 



APSE 



56 



AEABIA 



^^.^ 



while in the centre a small 
slender pod runs through it 
from the stem, and is connect- 
ed by thin filaments with the 
rind. The pod contains a 
small quantity of fine silk 
with seeds. The Arabs col- 
lect the silk and twist it into 
matches for their guns, pre- 
ferring it to the common 
match, because it requires no 
sulphur to render it combus- 
tible. 

Apse, or Apsis (vaulted 
arch), properly signifies any 
structure in a hemispherical 
form, and is used by eccle- 
siastical writers to designate 
sometimes that part of the 
interior of ancient churches 
where the bishop and clergy 
had their seats, sometimes the 
bishop's throne within, and 
sometimes the arched case 
upon the altar upon which the relics of 
saints were kept. 

Aquila (eagle), a Jew of Pontus, who, 
with his wife Priscilla, left Rome in con- 
sequence of the decree of Claudius banish- 
ing the Jews, 50 or 51 a.d. He repaired to 
Corinth, where St. Paul found him, whether 
at that time a Christian or not is doubt- 
ful. As they were of the same craft, tent- 
makers, the apostle and Aquila worked to- 
gether. Subsequently Aquila and Priscilla 
accompanied Paul to Ephesus, and, being 
left there, they, when ApoUos came, instruct- 
ed him more thoroughly in the truth of the 
Gospel. Aquila was at Ephesus when the 
First Epistle to the Corinthians was writ- 
ten. At a later period he had returned to 
Rome ; and still later he was again at Eph- 
esus. Nothing further is known with cer- 
tainty of these persons. Tradition says they 
were beheaded. [Acts xviii., 2, 3, 18-26 ; 
Rom. xvi., 3-5 ; 1 Cor. xvi., 19 ; 2 Tim. iv., 
19.] 

Arabah, a Hebrew word which signifies 
in general a> desert plain. The word does not 
appear in the Bible until the Book of Num- 
bers, and only once in our version in its orig- 
inal form.^ The Hebrew is either a com- 
mon noun, designating any great plain, as 
the "plains of Moab," the "plains of Jericho," 
etc. f or a proper name, in which case it is 
translated "the plain," or "the champaign," 
or "the desert."^ In the latter case it in- 
dicates the sunken plain or ravine which 
stretches from the foot of Antilibanus down 
to the eastern gulf of the Red Sea, a length 
of not less than two hundred and fifty 
miles. The whole of this tract was un- 




1 Josh, xviii., 18.— 2 Numb, xxii., 1; sxvi., 3, 63; 
xxxi., 12; xxxiii., 48; xxxv., 1: Josh. Iv., 13; v., 10: 
xiii., 32.-3 Deut. i., 7; ii., 8; iii., IT; iv., 40; xi., 30: 
Josh, iii., 16; viii., 14; xi., 16; Ezek. xlvii., 8. 



Valley of Arabah. 

derstood by the Israelites as comprised in 
the Arabah ; but as there is a break, a wall 
of cliffs crossing it about ten miles south of 
the Dead Sea, the modern Arabs call the 
part from the most northerly point to these 
cliffs the Ghor, while the southern portion 
is denominated Wady el AraJyah. The Ghor 
runs nearly due north and south ; the Ara- 
bah north-east to south-west. Through the 
deep cleft of the Ghor the Jordan flows ; and 
the " plains " of Moab or of Jericho denote 
portions of the hot valley on the east or west 
of the Jordan. The Wady el Arabah is from 
four to fifteen or sixteen miles in breadth, 
shut in on both sides by chains of rugged 
mountains ; those to the west are 1200 to 1500 
feet in height, the Tih being most dreary 
and desolate ; the eastern chain is 2000 to 
2300 feet, and Mount Hor rises to 5000, but 
is cultivated and fertile. Wadies on each 
side from time to time penetrate the mount- 
ain walls. The surface of the Arabah is a 
frightful desert, with scarce any vegetation, 
and the heat often intolerable. But through 
this region it was that the Israelites passed.^ 
It possesses, therefore, a peculiar interest for 
the student of Scripture. It used to be a 
favorite theory that the Jordan originally 
flowed into the Red Sea. This, it is now 
seen, is impossible, the Red Sea being on a 
level with the Mediterranean, while the Jor- 
dan and the Dead Sea are far below that 
level ; so that the northern portions of the 
Arabah drain to the Dead Sea. 

Arabia (desert), the name of an exten- 
sive country of South-western Asia, more 
extensive, as "now understood, than the dis- 
trict so called in both the Old and New Tes- 
taments. The Arabia of the Hebrews in- 
cluded only the tract between Palestine and 
the Red Sea, known as the Peninsula of 
1 See Jer. ii., 6. 



ARABIA 



57 



ARABIA 



Mount Sinai, tliougla the terms "Kedem," 
" the East/' and " the East country," proba- 
bly referred to Arabia Deserta. As at pres- 
ent known, it is bounded north by Palestine 
and Syria, east by the Euphrates, the Per- 
sian Gulf, and the Arabian Sea ; south by the 
Arabian Sea and the Sea of Bab-el-Man-deb, 
and west by the Red Sea and Egypt. It in- 
cludes Arabia Proper, or the great peninsu- 
la, as far as the northern wastes ; Northern 
Arabia, or the vast Arabian desert, bounded 
by the peninsula, the Euphrates, Syria, and 
the Desert of Petra ; Western Arabia, com- 
prising the Peninsula of Sinai and the Desert 
of Petra, bounded by the Red Sea, Egypt, Pal- 
estine, and Northern Arabia. 

Arabia Proper is generally considered to 
be divided into five districts, the most sacred 
of which is the Hijaz, containing the holy 
cities of Mecca and Medina. The most fertile 
of these districts is the Yemen.; within its 
boundary were Seba and Sheba, whose kings 
are mentioned in the Psalms, and whence it 
is surmised came the Queen of Sheba, who 
visited Solomon.^ Arabia Proper is peopled 
chiefly by Ishmaelites, but the inhabitants 
claim descent from Joktan, son of Eber, of 
the family of Shem,^ who erected a kingdom 
in Yemen. They have always lived in cities 
and permanent houses, practiced agriculture 
and commerce, and were anciently reputed 
very wealthy. But besides the Shemitic 
race, an old Cushite people ajipear to have 
had settlements in the Arabian peninsula, 
and there are inscriptions yet remaining 
in the ancient cities and on buildings of the 
south which seem to corroborate this. Ara- 
bia Proper was rich in gems and gold, and 
in spices, odoriferous shrubs, and fragrant 
gums.^ The riches and luxuries enumerated 
by ancient writers were not, however, all na- 
tive products of the country ; but as they 
reached Palestine and Egypt through Ara- 
bia, they were supposed to have been found 
there. 

Northern Arabia, or the Arabian Desert, is 
a high, undulating, parched plain, a wilder- 
ness, the abode of serpents and wild beasts. 
This desert is traversed by wandering, preda- 
tory tribes, descendants of Ishmael, and of 
Abraham's sons by Keturah, known of old as 
"dwellers in tents,"^ and ranging from Bab- 
ylonia on the east, to the borders of Egypt 
on the west.^ These Bedouins often extend 
themselves beyond the desert, and plunder 
the neighboring countries whenever occa- 
sion serves. We read of their incursions 
in Scripture. Sometimes, however, we find 
them subjected, and bringing tribute to Je- 
rusalem.^ Some trade seems to have passed 
through their hands, the productions, prob- 
ably, of Southern Arabia being transmitted 



1 Psa. Ixxii., 10 : 1 Kinas x., 1 ; 2 Chron. ix., 1.— 
2 GeD. X., 25-29.-3 1 Kings x., 10; Ezek. xxvii., 22.— 
^ Isa. xiii., 20; Jer. xlix., 31; Ezek. xxxviii., 11.— 
^ Num. xxiii., 7; 2 Chron. xxi., IG.— 6 2 Chron. xvii., 
11 ; xxi., 16, 17, 



by way of their country,^ and they also 
traded from the western portions of the pe- 
ninsula. This latter traffic seems to be fre- 
quently mentioned in connection with Ish- 
maelites, Keturahites, and other Arabian 
peoples.^ It seems, however, to have been 
chiefly in the hands of the inhabitants of 
Idumea. 

Western Arabia, comprehending the Pe- 
ninsula of Sinai ^ and the Desert of Petra, is 
nearly identical with the Arabia Petra^a of 
Ptolemy, so called, not from its rocky char- 
acter, but from its chief city, Petra, the Sela 
of Scrix)ture. It is a wilderness of rocks and 
craggy precipices, interspersed with narrow 
defiles and innumerable sandy valleys, many 
of which are nearly as barren as the rocks, 
but some of which are very fertile. The 
original inhabitants of this part of Arabia 
were the Horites, or Horim, of Mount Seir, 
who were dispossessed by the children of 
Esau ;* so that afterward it was peopled by 
the Edomites and Ishmaelites, the families 
having intermarried,^ and was known as the 
land of the Edomites, or Idumeans. Here 
were the settlements of the Nabathseans, 
generally supposed to be descendants of Ish- 
mael's son Nebaioth.® 

Inhabitants. — In general the origin of the 
Arabian tribes has been pointed out in the 
preceding sketch. Some peoples not properly 
Arabian, e. g., the Edomites, already named, 
and the Amalekites in Western Arabia, have 
occupied parts of the extensive peninsula. 
Between these naturalized clans and the 
pure Arabs a distinction has always been 
made. 

Arabian manners and customs tend to il- 
lustrate those we find mentioned in the Scrip- 
tures. Time and the mixture of nations have 
largely modified special types, and Moham- 
med confessedly borrowed Jewish observ- 
ances ; yet no one can mix with this people 
without being constantly and forcibly re- 
minded either of the early patriarchs or the 
settled Israelites. We may instance their pas- 
toral life, their remarkable hospitality that 
kindles beacon-fires on every hill to guide the 
wayfaring man, their universal respect for 
age, their familiar deference, their supersti- 
tious regard for the beard.'' On the signet- 
ring, which is worn on the little finger of the 
right hand, is usually inscribed a sentence 
expressive of submission to God, or of his 
perfection, a custom which illustrates Exod. 
xxxix., 30, and John iii., 33. As a mark of 
trust, this ring is given to another person, 
as in Gen. xli., 42. The inkhorn, worn in the 
girdle, is also very common,^ as well as the 
veil. A man has a right to claim his cousin 
in marriage, and he relinquishes this riglit 



1 Ezek. xxvii., 20-24.— 2 Gen. xxxvii., 25-28 ; 1 KiugP 
X., 15; 2 Chron. ix., 14; Isa. Ix., 6; Jer. vi., 20. — ^ See 
Wilderness of the Wanpekixgs. — * Gen. xiv., <; ; 
xxxvi., 20-22, 29, 30; Dent, ii., 12, 25.-5 (jen. xxviii., 
9: xxxvi., 2, 3.-6 See Edom, Edomites, Set.a.— ^ Lev. 
xix., 27, 32 ; xxi., 5 ; 2 Kings v., 13.— » Ezek. ix., 2, 3, 11. 



AEAM 



58 



ARARAT 




Bedouin Arabs. 
1, 2, of the Jordan ; 3, of the Hauran ; 4, 5, of the Desert. 

by taking off Ms shoe, as the kinsman of 
Ruth did to Boaz.^ The Bedouin of the des- 
ert is still a true Arab — the " wild man," ful- 
filling his destiny,^ still preserving his lib- 
erty; each tribe living apart and in tents, 
and retaining the habits of their forefathers. 
These Arab tents are from twenty to thirty 
feet long, and not more than six or eight feet 
high, made of goats' or camels' hair cloth, and 
black or brown in color. 

Religion. — The early Arabian religion is 
supi)osed to have been Fetichism (q. v.). 
The people adored also the heavenly bodies, 
and believed in the influence of the stars to 
give rain and to aid them against an enemy. ^ 
After the Christian era, the Gospel made 
l^rogress in Arabia, but so also did Judaism, 
and the corruptions of both paved the way 
for the success of Mohammed, who united the 
whole country in the Moslem faith in the 
seventh century. See Mohammedajstism. 

Aram {Mgh region)^ the name of the coun- 
try which is ordinarily in our version ren- 
dered Syria (q. v.). It stretched north-east 
of Palestine to and beyond the Euphrates. 
For, though some make that river the bound- 
ary, it is clear that there were Syrian or Ar- 
amaean tribes beyond the Euphrates.* The 
name occurs as Aram-naharaim in the title 
of the sixtieth Psalm, which means " Syria 
of the tivo rivers." Aram is frequently used 
alone for the land, or the people ] but some- 
times we have Padan-Aram, the plain or cul- 
tivated district of Aram, usually believed to 
be the region below Mount Masius, between 
the Khabour and the Euphrates. There were 
many small kingdoms, too, comi^rised in the 
country of Aram, distinguished each of them 
by some special name, as Aram Zobah, Aram 
Rehob, or Beth-rehob, Aram Maachah, Geslnir 



1 Ruth iv., 7, 8.-2 Gen. xvi., 10-12.-3 Jnfl<r. v., 20, 
21 ; Job xxxi., 2C-2S ; xxxviii., 81.— * 2 Sam. x., IG. 



in Aram, Aram Da- 
mascus ; all these 
smaller states being- 
Aram, or Syria gen- 
erally ; just as, in our 
own times, a number 
of inferior kingdoms 
and petty principal- 
ities form, in the 
aggregate, Germany. 
Damascus was by far 
the most powerful of 
them ; and its in- 
fluence gradually ex- 
tended, till by Aram 
or Syria there came 
to be understood that 
monarchy of which 
Damascus was the 
capital.^ This great 
country was peopled 
by the descendants 
of Shem, and possi- 
bly some one of the 
smaller tribes might be the posterity of Na- 
hor's grandson. 

Aramaic, or Aramean, pertaining to 
Aram, the son of Sliem. The Aramaic lan- 
guage, spoken in all the countries named 
Aramese, including Syria, Babylon, and Mes- 
opotamia, was divided into two principal 
dialects, the Western Aramaic, or Syriac, and 
the Eastern Aramaic, or Chaldee. The for- 
mer was that spoken almost universally in 
Palestine in the time of Christ. Ever since 
the Babylonian captivity, the pure Hebrew, 
in which the whole of the O. T., with the 
exception of a few chapters in Daniel and 
Ezra, is written, had gradually given place 
to the Aramaic. An Aramaic version of por- 
tions of the O. T. may have been in use in 
Christ's time ; at least the words uttered 
by him on the cross, from the beginning of 
the 22d Psalm, are in that dialect. The 
Talmud, especially the Babylonian, has a 
large admixture of Aramaic elements. The 
Aramaic dialect is, in general, the harshest, 
poorest, and least elaborated of all the Semit- 
ic languages, and has now almost entirely 
died out, and given place to the Arabic and 
Persian. Indeed, it is only found living 
among some tribes in remote districts of the 
mountains of Km^distan, and in two or three 
villages in Syria. 

Ararat (sacred land). All Eastern coun- 
tries point to some mountain within their 
bounds connected by tradition with the Del- 
uge ; but the most prevalent tradition fixes 
upon the mountains which separate thc^ 
southern part of Armenia from Mesopotamia. 
The name Ararat was unknown to the geog- 
raphers of Greece and Rome, and is still to 
tlie Armenians of the present day. Euro- 
peans have given the name exclusively to 
the mountain which rises immediately out 



1 Kings XX., 1 ; Isa. vii., 1, 2. 



AEAUNAH 



59 



ARCHDEACON 




Mount Ararat, from the Plain of Erivan. 



of the plain of the Araxes. It terminates in 
two conical peaks, named the Greater and 
Less Ararat, about seven miles distant from 
each other ; the former about seventeen, and 
the latter about thirteen thcrusand feet above 
the level of the sea. The summit of the 
higher is covered with eternal snow and 
ice. It is of volcanic origin, and was long 
deemed inaccessible, the Armenians main- 
taining that no one was permitted to reach 
the top, in order that the ark might be pre- 
served inviolable. It was, however, ascend- 
ed, in 1829, by Parrot, who, after two previ- 
ous failures, succeeded in reaching the sum- 
mit. In its broad signification, the term 
" the mountains of Ararat "^ is co-extensive 
with the Armenian plateau from the base of 
Ararat in the north, to the range of Kurdis- 
tan in the south. Viewed with reference to 
the dispersion of nations, Armenia is the true 
centre of the world ; and, at the present day, 
Ararat is the great boundary-stone between 
the empires of Russia, Turkey, and Prussia. 
See Aemenia. 

Araiinah (ark ; a large ash or pine), a Jeb- 
usite, it has been supposed, of royal race, 
from whom David purchased a threshing- 
floor as a site for an altar to the Lord. In 1 
Chron. xxi., 18-28 ; 2 Chron. iii., 1, the name 
is Oman. There is a discrepancy in the two 
accounts in respect to the price paid by Da- 
vid. According to the author of Samuel, it 
was fifty shekels of silver ; whereas in Chron- 
icles we find the sum stated to be six hun- 
dred shekels of gold. But we may suppose 
the floor, oxen, and instruments purchased 
for the fifty shekels ; the larger area, in 
which the Temple was subsequently built, 
for six hundred. Or perhaps the first-named 
sum was the price of the oxen, the last of the 
gi-ound. [2 Sam. xxiv., 18-25.] 

Archbishop, the title given to a metro- 
politan bishop, who superintends the conduct 
^ Geu. viii., 4; comp. Jer. li., 27. 



of the bishops in his province, and also ex- 
ercises ei)iscopal authority in his own dio- 
cese. The title is generally thought to have 
arisen in the third and fourth centuries, from 
the provincial synods being held once or 
twice a year in the chief town of the prov- 
ince, under the presidency of the bishop of 
the place. Another cause of the origin of 
the title is said to be the custom of plant- 
ing new bishoprics as Christianity spread, a 
slight supremacy being still retained by the 
original over the newly-appointed chief pas- 
tors. In the Oriental Church, the archbish- 
ops are still called " metropolitans." In the 
Romish Church, an archbishop derives his 
authority and title directly from the pope ; 
and in token of this he receives the pallium 
(q. v.), or consecrated cloak, from Rome. No 
one, though formally elected to the office, has 
q^ny right to assume the title of archbishop 
until he has received the pallium ; and it is 
not allowed to him before that time to con- 
secrate bishops, call a council, make the 
chrism, dedicate churches, or ordain clergy. 
I There are now in the United States seven 
, provinces of the Roman Catholic Church, 
and accordingly seven archbishops, with 
head - quarters respectively at New York, 
, Baltimore, Ncav Orleans, Cincinnati, St. Lou- 
i is, Oregon, and San Francisco. There are 
j no archbishops in the Protestant Episcopal 
j Church of the United States. In England 
; there are two — the Archbishop of Canter- 
I biuy and the Archbishop of York, of whom 
[ the first has precedence in ecclesiastical rank. 
In Ireland there are two Protestant and four 
j Roman Catholic archbishops. 

Archdeacon, an ecclesiastical dignitary, 
j whose jurisdiction is immediately subordi- 
, nate to that of the bishop. The archdeacon 
j originally was simj)ly the chief of the dea- 
; cons, who were the attendants and assistants 
j of the bishop in church affairs. His duties 
1 consisted in attending the bishop at the al- 



AECHELAUS 



60 



AKCHTTECTUEE 



tar and at ordiiiatious, assisting him in man- 
aging the I'^vennes of the church, and direct- 
ing The deacons in theii- duties. Ai'chdea- 
cons suhsequently attained in the Eoman 
Catholic Church an authority independent 
of the hishops. and became among the most 
influential of dignitaries, hut their dignity 
and intiueuce are now much reduced. In 
the Church of England, the office is an im- 
portant one. the archdeacon being a sort of 
assistant bishop, and invested with certain 
ecclesiastical functions of a judicial char- 
acter. 

Archelaus (prince of the people), the son 
of Herod the Great by Malthace, a Samari- 
tan lady. He and his brother Antipas were 
brought up at Eome. On his father's death. 
he succeeded to his authority over Idumea. 
Jndea. Samaria, including the important cit- 
ies of CcTsarea, Sebaste, Joppa, and Jerusa- 
lem, with the title of ethnarch. When he 
went to Eome to receive investiture, the 
Jews sent a complaint after him ; to which, 
however, the Emperor Augustus paid no at- 
tention. To this jom-ney oiu' Lord has been 
supposed to allude ui Luke xix., 1*2-14. Ar- 
chelaus was guilty of ciiielty in his admin- 
istration ; so that, in the ninth or tenth year 
of his government, the Samaritans preferred 
charges against him : and he was consequent- 
ly deposed and banished to Vienne. in Gaul. 
where it is generally believed he died. He 
married Glaphyi-a. the wife of his brother 
Alexander. It was thi'ough fear of him that 
Joseph and Mary, under the divuie sanction, 
carried Jesus into Galilee. [Matt. ii.. '2'2.^ 

Arcliitectmre. The art of building had 
its origin very early, in the desii'e of men for 
protection fi'om the elements and fi'om wild 
beasts. It was already in existence as early 
as the days of Cain. Each tribe construct- 
ed, fi'om the materials that jiresented them- 
selves, such habitations as best suited this 
purpose. Hence arose in countries remote 
fi-om each other architecture as indigenous 
as the vegetation itself: and the primitive 
styles of the Egyi^tian. Grecian, aud Orient- 
al structiu^es are found in the under-ground 
dwellings of the Xile. the oak cabin of the 
Grecian forests, and the tents of the nomad- 
ic peoples of Eastern Asia. For material 
needs, these rude buildings would answer, 
but in process of time a fresh want would 
be felt. 3Ian is not content with simple 
shelter. His restless mind must express its 
spu'itual longings. This he does most readi- 
ly by song, most imposingly by architecture. 
which a celebrated German writer has called 
'* frozen music." Thus the architecture of 
the various nations embodies not only their 
art. but also their religious characteristics. 

The earliest class of erections to which the 
title of architecture can with any propriety be 
given are those commonly termed Druidical 
temples. These consist of separate stones, 
often of cjeat size, raised on their ends, and 




ranged in a circle, an oblong figure, or par- 
allel lines. The most conspicuous instance 
of this is what is called '• Stonehenge."" in 
Salisbmy Plain, England. In the next stage 
we have an accm-ate measurement of parts, 
and a corresponding division of the build- 
ing. The rude cairn becomes a regularly- 
constructed pyi-amid : the pillar also makes 
its appearance, and a triangular arch. This 
stage was reached by the inhabitants of 
Central and Southern America before its dis- 
covery by Europeans, and by the Toltecs. who 
inhabited Mexico l^efore the Aztecs them- 
selves. The pyi-amid is met with even more 
frequently in Mexico than iu Egy^jt. and is 
the basis of both Mexican and Eg^-|ltian ar- 
chitecture. The remains of the latter, in 



ARCHITECTURE 



61 



ARCHITECTURE 



many points the most perfect the Tvorld has 
yet seen, are temjjles, palaces, and tombs. 
The walls of the Egyptian temples, and of 
their edifices generally, are perpendicular on 
the inside, but sloping on the outside ; the 
gate- ways and other openings follow the 
same principle, and there is a general con- 
vergence of the upward lines of the archi- 
tecture, as if the pyramid had been its type. 
The portico has double, and even triple, rows 
of columns crowded closely together. Some- 
times on the front of walls, colossal figures, 
frequently of Osiris, resembling the caryatides 
of Grecian architecture, are placed instead 
of columns. A spurious species of arch, pro- 



of the Assyrians^ culminated in the palace, 
which was always built upon an artificial 
platform. This platform was generally built 
of undried brick, in regular layers ; occasion- 
ally it was merely earth, surrounded at the 
sides by walls. The palace itself, containing 
courts, grand halLs, and private apartments, 
was very large. Its ground-plan shows only 
straight and parallel lines and right angles ; 
its walls were of sun-diled brick, faced with 
plain or sculptured slabs, and burned brick, 
enameled and brilliantly colored. WTiether 
it was of more than one story, and whether 
it was roofed over or not, is unknown. Tem- 
ples had several stories, decreasing ui)ward, 




Black Obelisk, from iSfimrud. 



duced by the overlapping of stones, is found 
ia buildings of great antiquity, but the old- 
est true arch of stone is in a tomb at Sac- 
cara. Brick arches, with the key brick, are 
found in Thebes. Wood being scarce, and 
stone of easy access, the Egyptians natural- 
ly chose the latter as the material for their 
massive structures, which have outlasted 
those of the Persians and Assyrians. The 
Egyptian architecture, like the Hindoo, de- 
lighted in caves, under-ground or gloomily- 
lighted structures, and vast sepulchral mon- 
uments, shrouding alike temple and tomb in 
awful mystery. 

Rawlinson tells us that the architecture 



' after the analogy of the Tower of Belus. 
Houses seem to have been built of mud, with 
conical roofs, open at the top, no windows, 
and square and arched door -ways. The 
round and pointed arch are frequently met 
with, and, in some instances, though rarely, 
the column is found. The Assyrians bestow- 
ed vast labor, exquisite finish, the most ex- 
traordinary elaboration, on edifices so fragile 
that no care could have preserved them." 
They clung to the low style they had be- 
come familiar with in their original country, 
Babylonia, where clay was the only material 

1 "Five Great Monarchies of the East"— ^ See Sem- 

NACUEEIiJ. 



AECHITECTUEE 



62 



AECHITECTUEE 



at command, althougli they had come into a 
country which abounded in rocky hills, fur- 
nishing an inexhaustible supply of limestone 
and sandstone. 

Jewish Architecture. — It has been claimed 
that the Hebrews invented scientific archi- 
tecture, and that classical nations are in- 
debted to the Temple of Solomon for the 
principles and many details of the art. But 




Egyptian, Babylonian, Assyrian, and Phoj- 
nician temples existed previously ; and the 
.Tews more probably borrowed from these the 
ideas which they embodied in new and beau- 
tiful combinations in their temple of Solo- 
The Jewish religion prohibited all 



o-raven images, and so took away from art 
fts then only powerful incentive. While the 
polytheistic nations built many and magnit- 
icent temples, the monotheistic Jews built 



only one. Their splendid edifices were com- 
pleted by the aid of Phoenician artists, and, 
after the Babylonish exile, foreigners helped 
them restore the Temple.^ 

The Greeks were the first to write the rules 
of architecture, and they furnish the finest 
models for posterity. The early Doric archi- 
tecture corresponds to the Egyptian in mass- 
ive strength, but is emancipated from sepul- 
chral life into outdoor liberty. 
The Greeks delighted in the open 
air. Under the clear sky they 
wrestled, taught, and worshiped. 
This sympathy with nature is ex- 
pressed by an architecture that 
is cold and formal within, beauti- 
ful and majestic without ; which 
points to nothing higher than its 
own completeness, and suggests 
no unrealized idea to the soul. 

With the victory of Christian- 
ity over Paganism as a state re- 
ligion, commences a new era — 
medigeval architecture. The use 
of the ancient basihcas or halls 
of justice for churches gave rise 
to the Basilican style, which pre- 
vailed throughout the fourth cen- 
tury. The church then consisted 
of a single oblong hall with from 
one to five aisles, a round apsis 
at the rear end, and an altar. 
The earliest branching off from 
this style was the Byzantine, which 
had its rise in Constantinople. 
; Its characteristics are a central 
flat dome, with half-domes at the 
ends of the cross, a profuse use 
of the round arch in colonnades 
and galleries, within and without, 
slender windows, a low entrance, 
the walls, and even piUars, being 
covered with Mosaic painting. 
This was the parent of nearly all 
the later styles of Christian and 
Mohammedan architecture, and, 
in combination with the ^asiZicaif, 
produced, first in Lombardy, and 
then on the Ehine, the Roman- 
esque, or Bound-arch GotMc, which 
between the seventh and twelfth 
centuries spread over most of 
Europe. To this style belongs 
the low round-tower of Newport, 
E. I., and the peculiar clinches 
and round -towers of North Ire- 
land, Scotland, and Scandinavia. In it the 
bell-tower, built separate from the edifice, 
makes its appearance, as also arched gal- 
leries within and without the church. This 
style prevailed throughout all of Europe ex- 
cept North Italy, until the pointed arch gave 
rise to the true Gothic. Meanwhile the .^r- 
acenic style— another outgrowth of the By- 
zaiitine---h{^^ 

11 Kings V. ; 1 Chron. xiv., 1. 



ARCHITECTURE 



63 



ARCTURUS 



over all Mohammedan countries. It arose 
in the seventh century, and spread quickly 
from Persia to the Atlantic. The Byzantine 
dome was retained, but surrounded by myr- 
iads of semi-domes, producing a most fairy- 
like effect. The rich fancy of the Orient used 
color freely, and added the minaret, which 
gave marvelous grace and lightness. This 
style finally developed into the Moorish. 



philosophy over Christianity, gave rise to the 
Renaissance, which is an adaj)tation of clas- 
sical architectural principles to the Cliristian 
temple. The grandest type of this is St. Pe- 
ter's at Rome. And finally the extravagant, 
insincere, almost infidel life of the 17th and 
18th centuiies manifested itself in the Baroco 
style of Italy, or the Rococo style of France 
and Germany. These false styles, together 




Fapade of the Cathedral of York. 



Directly antagonistic to the Grecian, whose 
disposition is to cling to the gTound, is the 
Gothic, whose whole force is given to ex- 
press spiiitual longing — a continual, un- 
fulfilled, but never-given-over struggle to 
mount upward. It i^ the most beautiful ex- 
pression of all ''frozen music," purest about j 
1300, and owes its decline mainly to the in- j 
ventiou of printing. The revival of classical ! 
studies in Italy, the spirit that would exalt ! 



with the invention of printing, caused the 
decay of all true architecture. Words gain- 
ed the ascendency over art as the exponent 
of ideas. As soon as paper literature became 
popular, the " stone literature " began to de- 
cline. Its last poem — the Gothic — was the 
best. 

Arcturus. The Hebrew words 'J.9/< and 
^Aisli, rendered "Arcturus" in Job ix., 9; 
xxxviii., 32, are now generally believed to 



AREOPAGUS 



64 



ARETAS 



be identical, and to represent the constella- 
tion Ursa Major, known commonly as the 
Great Bear. 

Areopagus (Jiill of Ares, i. e., Mars), a nar- 
row, naked ridge of limestone rock at Athens, 
sloping upward from the north, and termi- 
nating in an abrupt precipice on the south, 
fifty or sixty feet above a valley which di- 
vides it from the west end of the Acropolis. 
The court of the Areopagus was simply an 
open space on the highest summit of the 
hill, the judges sitting in the open air, on 
rude seats of stone hewn out in the solid 
rock. Sixteen steps, likewise cut in the 
rock, led to it from the valley of the Agora 
(market) below. This was the site of what 
we may call the Supreme Court of Athens. 



Near to the court was the sanctuary of the 
Furies, the avenging deities of Grecian my- 
thology, whose presence gave additional so- 
lemnity to the scene. It was a place with 
which the dread recollections of centuries 
were associated — a spot of silent awe in the 
midst of the gay and frivolous city. Those 
who withdrew to the Areopagus from the 
Agora came, as it were, into the presence of 
a higher power. No place in Athens was so 
suitable for a discourse upon the mysteries 
of religion. Here it was that Paul made his 
memorable address ' which led to the con- 
version of Dionysius the Areopagite. But 
it does not appear that the apostle was put 
upon trial; rather, he was placed on this 
spot in order that what he had to say might 




The Areopagus. 



Older than the days of Solon, it is mention- 
ed B.C. 740, but it was reorganized by him, 
and owed to him much of its spirit and char- 
acter. Its judges, called Areopagites, were 
chosen for life, but could be deposed, on trial, 
for misbehavior. They not only had cogni- 
zance of legal causes, but were also superin- 
tendents of good order and decency, reward- 
ed industry, punished extravagance, and ex- 
ercised a certain not very well-defined au- 
thority in the supervision of religion. On 
the spot occupied by this court, a long se- 
ries of awful causes connected with crime 
and religion had been decided, beginning 
with the legendary trial by the other gods, 
of Mars, the god of war, for murder, which 
gave to the place its name of "Mars Hill." 



be more commodiously heard by the multi- 
tude, who, with minds solemnized by the tra- 
ditions of the place, thronged up the stone 
steps, and clustered round the summit of the 
hill to hear his announcement of the new 
divinities. 

Aretas, a king of Arabia Petrsea, whose 
daughter had been married to Herod Antipas, 
and was divorced by him at the instance of 
Herodias. Aretas consequently attacked and 
entirely defeated Antipas, who solicited helj) 
from Rome ; and Vitellius, governor of Syria, 
was thereupon commanded by the emperor 
to march against Aretas. But before this 
command could be executed, Tiberius died, 
A.D. 87, and Antipas was soon after banished 



1 Acts xvii., 19-34. 



ARGOB 



65 



ARIAIfS 



to Lyons. Tliougli there is no distinct liis- 
torical record of the fact, yet there is strong 
presumption that, duiing the reigns of Calig- 
ula and Claudius, Aretas was in possession 
of Damascus. It was under an ethnarch, or 
gOYernor, appointed by him that the endeav- 
or was made to apprehend St. Paul. [Acts 
ix.,24,25; 2 Cor. xi., 32, 33.] 

Argob (stony), a region on the east of Jor- 
dan belonging to Og, king of Bashan, and 
said to contain sixty fortified cities.^ It is 
now identified with the Sejah, a very remark- 
able district south of Damascus, and east of 
the Eed Sea. See Bashan. 

Allans, ordinarily defined as a sect aris- 
ing about the beginning of the fourth cen- 
tury, who denied the proper divinity of Jesus 
Christ. They constituted, however, rather a 
school of thought than a sect. Their found- 
er, Arius, never seems to have thought of 
organizing a distinct denomination, but al- 
ways acted in and with the Church while he 
lived, and claimed to interpret correctly not 
only the Scriptures, but the doctrine and 
symbols of the Church. From the earliest 
ages, even in apostolic times, there were not 
wanting those who denied the divine char- 
acter of Christ. It was not till the third cen- 
tury that systematic attempts were made to 
define, philosoiDhically, his character, and de- 
termine his relations on the one hand with 
the Father, and on the other with the hu- 
man race. As might have been expected, 
this endeavor gave rise to long and bitter 
controversies. In these controversies there 
appeared certain theologians who denied 
that Jesus Christ possessed a human nature, 
or that there was any distinction between 
the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, they being 
the same person, appearhig, so to speak, in 
different characters.^ Arius commenced his 
career by vigorously combating these doc- 
trines. K we may believe ecclesiastical his- 
tory, his convictions were intensified by a 
personal jealousy of his bishop, Alexander, 
whom he accused of Sabellianism. He main- 
tained that Jesus Christ had existed long 
before the birth of man ; that he was the 
creator and ruler of the earth, but that he 
was himself called into being by the Father ; 
and so was, in the strict sense of the term, a 
creature, though i^ossessing a divine nature. 
One of the disputes to which the subsequent 
controversy gave rise was, whether the Son 
proceeded from the Father by an act of the 
Father's will, or whether he proceeded eter- 
nally fi'om the Father by a necessity of the 
divine nature, the latter being the orthodox, 
and the former the Arian view. Another 
question equally subtle was, whether the Son 
was of the same essence as the Father, or only 
of a similar essence. The former idea was 
expressed by the term — a Greek word — homo- 
oiision ; the latter by the word homoi-ousion. 
One of the most bitter theological battles 



Dent, iii., 4, 13 — 2 gee Monaecuians ; SAIJELLIA^■s. 
5 



ever fought turned upon the question, which 
of these terms should be used in the Cath- 
olic creed in defining the nature of Christ. 
Athanasius, who was the most vigorous op- 
ponent Arius had to encounter, a man of sin- 
gularly clear and subtle, as well as vigorous 
intellect, perceived that if the idea were once 
admitted into Christian theology that Christ 
is a created being, it would not stop there ; 
he asserted that it would end with destroy- 
ing the revelation of God in Christ, and the 
doctrine of redemption wrought by him. 
History has in this respect proved him to be 
right. The doctrines of Arius were carried 
by his followers much farther than he ever 
carried them, or perhaps imagined they would 
or could be carried. From the doctrine that 
Christ Avas Lord of all, yet himself a created 
being, sprang, by a process of gradual and 
not unnatural development, the idea that 
he was an angel commissioned to reveal the 
truth ; that he was a marvelous and miracu- 
lously-endowed man ; that he was an ordi- 
nary mortal, possessed of the common faults 
and frailties of his race ; and finally, in the 
words of one of the modern representatives 
of the extreme humanitarian school, that he 
was " an inferior man." It would, however, 
be quite unjust to attribute these views to 
Arius, and it is equally so to imj)ute them to 
those who hold his views. 

While Arius lived, both he himself and 
the doctrine which he maintained underwent 
many vicissitudes of fortune. The Arians 
were first condemned by a council at Alex- 
andria, under Alexander, bishop of that city, 
A.D. 320, and afterward by the general coun- 
cil of Nice, A.D. 315. The doctrine, howev- 
er, far from being extinguished, became the 
prevailing doctrine of the East. Arius, ban- 
ished by imperial decree for maintaining it, 
was recalled from banishment, and Athana- 
sius, who succeeded Alexander as bishop of 
Alexandria, was banished for refusing to re- 
ceive the once condemned, but now triumph- 
ant theologian. Eeceived at Constantino- 
ple by the Emperor Constantine, Arius died 
on the very day of his triumph, very sud- 
denly — his enemies assert under a judgment 
of God for his heresies ; his friends, as a con- 
sequence of poison administered by his foes. 
His death did not put an end, however, 
to the progress of the doctrine. After un- 
dergoing alternate persecution and protec- 
tion from different emperors, though never 
received in the Eoman Church after the M- 
cene Council, it re-appeared in Poland about 
the time of the Reformation, where, however, 
it was materially modified, and in its new 
form took the name of Socinianism.^ It was 
revived again in England after the Reforma- 
tion, and brought to this country, where it 
gave rise to the Unitarian Church. Those 
persons are still sometimes called Arians, 
though they themselves disown the name, 



See SociNiA>i8. 



ARISTAECHUS 



6Q 



ARK 



who acknowledge the divinity, l>ut deny tlie 
proper deity of Christ ; who hold, i. e., that he 
is the Son of God, and the Lord and ruler, and 
perhaps creator of the world, but assert that 
he is in some sense dependent upon and infe- 
rior to the Father, by whom they also say he 
was called into being. As a class, the Arians 
accept the Scriptures as an inspired book, 
and declare their doctrines to be in accord- 
ance with it. They lay great stress upon the 
fact that Jesus Christ is everywhere through- 
out the Bible called the Son of God, never 
brother; from which they deduce the con- 
clusion that he is subordinate, if not inferi- 
or, to the Father. They also quote as proof- 
texts such passages as the following : Matt, 
xix., 17 ; John xiv., 28 ; xvii., 1-3 ; 1 Cor. viii., 
6 ; XV., 28 ; 1 Tim. ii., 5 ; Heb. i., 2-9. The 
Arians have never entirely agreed among 
themselves in their endeavors to fix upon a 
common doctrine concerning the person of 
Christ, their common ground being only his 
subordination to the Father. During the 
Middle Ages those who held that Christ was 
of similar essence to the Father were called 
Semi- Arians ; those who held that the like- 
ness of the Son to the Father was in the 
will only were called Acacians, from Acacius, 
their leader ; and those who denied the like- 
ness of nature between the Father and the 
Son, Anomoeans, from a Greek word signify- 
ing dissimilar. But these names, as distinct- 
ive titles, have long since disappeared from 
theology, and even the views which they in- 
dicate are no longer held with that distinct- 
ness which characterized the discussions of 
the fourth and fifth centuries. See Humajsti- 
TARiANS ; SociNiAis^s ; Trinitarians ; Uni- 
tarians; Christology. 

Aristarchus (best ruler), a Thessalonian 
Christian, who accompanied St. Paul on his 
third missionary journey, was with him on 
his voyage to Eome, and is afterward men- 
tioned as his fellow -laborer and prisoner. 
According to tradition, he was Bishop of Apa- 
mea. [Acts xix., 29 ; xx., 4 ; xxvii., 2 ; Col. 
iv., 10; Philem.24.] 

Aristotelians, a name given to the follow- 
ers of Aristotle. From the circumstance that 
he gave his instruction while walking with 
his pupils in a grove, they received the name 
of Peripatetics. Since Aristotle himself has 
in no place expounded his doctrines sys- 
tematically, and since no two of his follow- 
ers agree in defining them, it is not easy to 
give an outline of that philosophical system 
which goes by the name of Aristotelianism. 
Indirectly, his analytical method greatly af- 
fected the theology of the Church, and in- 
creased, if it did not originate, the scholasti- 
cism (q. V.) of the Middle Ages. As a meta- 
physician, Aristotle may be regarded as the 
originator of the inductive system ; at least 
he maintained that philosophy should be 
based upon experience, though he did not al- 
ways adhere in this respect to his own prin- 



ciples. He believed in the existence of a God, 
but held it to be incredible that God takes any 
interest in the affairs of men. Whether he 
believed in immortality, is a disputed point. 
He taught that the final end of action is hap- 
piness, which consists in the active exercise 
of the mental capacities conformably to rea- 
son. It is not, however, so much the great 
principles of his philosophy as the method 
of his discussions which characterizes Aris- 
totelianism. These discussions lead the stu- 
dent through an endless maze of refined and 
subtle distinctions. Something of the same 
spirit still lingers in some forms of modern 
theology, and, as a system of ethics, some 
of the principles which Aristotle taught will 
live forever; but Aristotelianism, as a sys- 
tem of dialectics, perished with the revival 
of learning which accompanied the Eefor- 
mation. 

Ark. The term ark, as employed in the 
Bible, usually signifies the Ark of the Cove- 
nant (q. v.). It is elsewhere used only in 
describing the vessel, made of bulrushes, in 
which Moses was saved,^ and Noah's ark.^ 

1. Moseses Arlc was made of the papyrus 
which was commonly used by the Egyptians 
for light and swift boats,^ and was daubed 
" with slime," i. e., probably the mud of 
which bricks were customarily made in 
Egypt, which in this case was used to bind 
the layers of papyrus together in a compact 
mass, and perhaps also to make the sur- 
face smooth for the infant, and " with pitch" 
(q. v.), or bitumen, which made the vessel 
water-tight. 

2. Noah's ArTc. The term "ark," used in 
describing the vessel which Noah built by 
God's direction, as a means of saving him- 
self and his family from the flood (q. v.), 
might lead the reader to suppose that it was 
of the form of a vast chest or coffer, rather 
than of the form of a ship ; fitted rather to 
carry a heavy burden than to sail over the 
waters. This does not appear, however, to 
be the case. The actual form of the ark, in- 
deed, is not described, yet the proportions 
given are those of a ship (q. v.). In fact, it 
is remarkable that its proportions of length, 
breadth, and depth are almost precisely the 
same as those of the staunchest vessels of the 
present day. The Great Eastern, for exam- 
ple, is 680 feet long, 83 feet broad, and 58 feet 
deep — dimensions arrived at as the result of 
generations of experience and skill in ship- 
building. The ark was 300 cubits long, f.O 
broad, and 30 high. Reckoning the cubit 
at 21 inches, this would be — length, 525 feet ; 
breadth, 87 feet 6 inches ; height, 52 feet 6 
inches. This boat was to be made of gopher- 
wood,* and protected within and without by 
" pitch," or rather bitumen, which is par- 
ticularly suited for closing up the inter- 
stices of the timbers, and making the ves- 



1 Exod. ii., 3.-2 Gen. vi., 14-16 a See Reixp.— * See 

Cypuess. 



AEK OF THE COVENAJ^T 



67 



ARK OF THE COVENANT 



sel water-tight. It was to be divided into 
"rooms" — literally, "nests," i. e., compart- 
ments, fitted for the habitation of men and 
animals. These were to be arranged in three 
tiers, one above another. There was to be 
a door in the side of the ark, and means were 
also to be provided for admitting the light. 
There is a great variety of interpretation 
concerning the word here rendered "win- 
dow" in our Bible. The interpretation of 
Gesenius seems evidently the true one — viz., 
that this unusual word means really a set 
of windows, a window-course, a system of 
lighting. It is by no means clear that they 
were all in the roof or deck. They may have 
been in the gunwales, i. e., on the higher parts 
of the sides of the vessel, like the port-holes 
of a modern ship of war. And if they were 
covered with a transparent substance — the 
word is translated " transparency " by some 
scholars, and such a substance may easily 
have been known to the antediluvians, who 
had made the progress in arts described in 
Gen. iv., 21, 22 — it is quite possible that they 
might not have been confined to the upper 
story of the ship, as the word " above " does 
not necessarily mean on the upper part of 
the vessel, but may mean the top of the win- 
dow-course. The " window " in chap, viii., 
6, is a difi'erent word, and is properly an open- 
ing. Our Bible would convey the idea that 
Noah was commanded to make a window, 
and now opened that window ; whereas the 
original means that Noah was commanded to 
make a window-course, or light system, and 
that he opened (chap, viii., 6) the window or 
casement which he had made for that purpose. 
Ark of the Covenant, a coffer, or chest, 
in the ancient Jewish Tabernacle, or Temple. 
It was made of shittim, or acacia wood, three 
feet nine inches in length, two feet three 
inches in breadth and depth. It is elaborate- 
ly described in Exod. xxv., xxxvii. Though 
there was in it at one time the golden pot 
of manna and the rod of Aaron that budded,^ 




Ark of the Covenant. 

this was only for the sake of their better 
preservation ; and the proper contents of the 
ark were the two tables of the covenant, 
of which it was made the special repository. 
Simply as containing these, it formed the 
1 Heb. ix., 4. 



most hallowed portion of the Tabernacle fur- 
niture ; was the peculiar shrine of the God- 
head. Irreverence to it was irreverence to 
Jehovah. Hence the awful solemnity with 
which it was to be approached, and the se- 
verity that sometimes avenged any improp- 
er familiarity with which it was treated.^ 
Rightly considered, this was fitted to give a 
sublime view of the character of the O. T. 
religion, and placed it at an immeasurable 
distance from the idolatrous religions of 
heathendom. These, too, had their sacred 
shrines, that occasionally took a form not 
very dissimilar to the Ark of the Covenant, 
and yet how different. The Egyptian bow- 
ed himself before an innermost sanctuary, 
overhung with gilded tapestry ; but let the 
priest remove the curtain, and there appear- 
ed a cat, or a crocodile, or a domesticated 
serpent, wrax)ped in purple ; or, at best, the 
sacred beetle of the sun, overshadowed by the 
wings of two figures of the goddess Thmei, 
or Truth. The Israelite bowed himself be- 
fore a holy place, in which God was present- 
ed to his spiritual contemplation and relig- 
ious homage as a moral lawgiver, revealing 
himself as the Holy One and the Just, him- 
self perfectly good, and demanding a corre- 
sponding goodness from his covenant people. 
If this, however, had been all that belonged 
to the ark, and characterized the religion 
connected with it, it would have tended to 
overawe the hearts of men, and keep them 
at a distance from God rather than to draw 
them near to him ; for the tables of the tes- 
timony continually witnessed against their 
guilt, and proclaimed their liability to con- 
demnation. Hence the ark was furnished 
upon the top with a plate of gold, which 
served not merely as a lid to the ark and its 
contents, but also for the purpose of con- 
cealing and putting out of view what these 
disclosed as evil. It was the mercy-seat, on 
which, between the cherubim, the love of 
God was manifest as a cloud between the 
sinner and the accusing tablets. It was, 
therefore, an atonement-covering ; and ev- 
ery year, on the great Day of Atonement, 
the high -priest, entering into the Holy of 
Holies (q. v.), sprinkled the blood of the sac- 
rifice on and before the mercy-seat, to blot 
out all the transgressions which the law of 
the testimony underneath was ever charging 
upon the people. 

The history of the Ark of the Covenant 
is in perfect accordance with its intensely 
moral character. It was to the Israelites 
the token of the presence and power of God, 
and was borne by the priests in advance of 
the whole host.^ As soon as its bearers 
reached the brink of the Jordan, the waters 
were cut off; and while it stood on firm earth 
in the midst of the river, the multitude pass- 
ed over dry-shod. It was carried around 



» Numb, iv., 20; 1 Sam. vi., 19 ; 2 Sam. vi,, 6, 7.- 
2 Numb. X., 33-36 ; Psa. cxxxii., 8. 



AEKITE 



ARMENIAN CHURCH 



the walls of Jericho, and before it tliey fell.^ 
But when Israel had corrupted their ways 
before God, and treated with contempt the 
holiness embodied in the ark, it was found 
to carry no charm with it upon the field of 
battle ; and the Lord " delivered his strength 
into captivity, and his glory into the enemy's 
hands."^ Taken by the idolatrous Philistines, 
it was placed in the temple of their god Da- 
gon, when the latter fell down and was bro- 
ken in pieces before it. And though the 
Philistines, smitten with severe plagues for 
detaining it, returned it, after seven months, 
to the Hebrews, it remained for years sepa- 
rated from the Tabernacle, and was restored 
to its proper place only when, through the 
strenuous efforts of David, the interests of 
true religion had been again revived.^ It 
was afterward transferred, with the Taberna- 
cle furniture, to the Temple erected by Solo- 
mon,* where it remained until the last kings 
of Judah impiously placed their idols in the 
holy temple, and the Hebrew priests, shocked 
at the profanation, removed the ark, and car- 
ried it from place to place. On the accession 
of goodking Josiah to the throne, it was again 
returned to its place in the Temple.^ But 
when again the sins of the people drew down 
the divine vengeance, the ark, instead of 
proving a bulwark of strength, itself perish- 
ed in the destruction of the Temple by Neb- 
uchadnezzar. In the second Temple the 
Holy of Holies was empty, and on the Day of 
Atonement the high - priest sprinkled the 
blood upon the foundation-stone upon which 
the ark should stand. There may have been, 
however, as is found still in all Jewish syn- 
agogues, an ark, or coffer, in which was kept 
a copy of the Hebrew Scriptures in the form 
of an ancient roll. This manuscript is still 
taken from the ark with great solemnity, 
used, and returned with equal solemnity, in 
certain of the services of the synagogue. 

Arkite (The), one of the families of the 
Canaanites, and, from the context, evidently 
located in the north of Phoenicia. The site 
which now bears the name of 'Arka lies on 
the coast, two to two and a half hours from 
the shore, about twelve miles north of Trip- 
oli. [Gen. X., 17 ; 1 Chron. i., 15.] 

Armageddon {mountain of Megiddo) oc- 
curs only once as a compound proper name 
in Scripture, and that in the figurative lan- 
guage of prophecy.^ Yet the image, what- 
ever its symbolical import may be, rests on 
a historical basis, and the locahty implied 
in the Hebrew term which John uses is the 
great battle-field of the O. T. where Barak 
and Gideon conquered,^ where Saul and Jo- 
siah felP — the plain of Esdraelon, on the 
southern border of which Megiddo stood.^ 



1 Josh, iii.-vi.— 2 1 Sam. iv., 3-11 ; Psa. Ixxviii., 61.— 
3 2 Sam. vi. ; 1 Chrou. xiii. ; xv. ; xvi., 1-6.— ^ 1 Kings 
viii., 1-9; 2 Chron. v., 2-10.— ^ 2 Chrou. xxxv., 3.— 
« Rev. xvi., 16.— '^ Judg. iv. ; v., 19 ; vi., 33 ; vii.— " 1 
Sam. xxix., 1: xxxi. ; 2 Sara, iv., 4; 2 Chrou. xxxv., 
20-24.-8 See Esbeaelon. 



Armenia, a country of Western Asia, not 
mentioned in Scripture under that name in 
the original Hebrew, though it occurs once 
in the English version for Ararat.^ The three 
Hebrew terms, Ararat, Minni, and Togarmah,'^ 
seem to refer to this country either as a 
whole, or to particular districts. Armenia 
maybe described as that lofty plateau whence 
the rivers Euphrates, Tigris, Araxes, and 
Acampsis i3our down their waters in differ- 
ent directions. The climate is cold, but sa- 
lubrious. The country abounds in romantic 
forest and mountain scenery, and rich pas- 
ture-land. 

Armenian Church, the designation of one 
of the Oriental churches, comprising nearly 
the whole of the Armenian people or race. 
According to tradition, Armenia first received 
Christianity from Bartholomew and Thad- 
deus ; but it first became the religion of the 
state about the beginning of the fourth cen- 
tury, under the preaching of Bishop Greg:ory. 
In the ecclesiastical controversies which fol- 
lowed soon after concerning the twofold na- 
ture of Christ, the Armenian Christians agreed 
with the Monophy sites (q. v.), refused to ac- 
knowledge the authority of the Council of 
Chalcedon, and separated from the Eastern or 
Byzantine Church. Ecclesiastical historians 
have misapprehended the true causes of this 
separation. Tlie Armenians, being entirely 
distinct in language and race from the Greeks, 
desired a separation, and the Monophysite 
theory was rather used for that xmrpose. 
The separation once secured, the doctrine 
was never regarded with any interest. Rome 
has made many attempts to bring over the 
Armenian Church to the Catholic faith, but 
with poor success. In theology, the Arme- 
nians attribute only one nature to Christ, and 
with the Greeks hold that the Holy Spirit 
proceeds from the Father alone. Infants are 
baptized by partial immersion, and pouring 
water thrice on the head, as are also adult 
Jewish and other converts. But Roman- 
ist and Protestant Christians, though only 
sprinkled in baptism, are admitted to their 
communion. They administer extreme unc- 
tion (q. V.) only to ecclesiastics, and to them 
only after death ; believe in and practice 
to an extraordinary degree the worship of 
saints; maintain the doctrhie of the real 
presence ; practice confession, absolution, 
and penances ; attach great merit to fasting 
and other ascetic works, observing 185 days 
of the year as fast-days, when no animal food 
can be eaten, and abound in monastic orders. 
But they reject the doctrine of Purgatory, 
and, accordingly, never grant indulgences. 

The Armenian race is now divided into 
three parts: Gregorian, Roman Catholic, and 
Protestant. The Gregorians are the ancient 
original national Church, called Gregorian, 
from their first great bishop and illuminator. 



1 2 Kings ,viA., oi.— 
xxvii., 14; xxxviii.,6. 



X., 37.-2 Gen. viii., 4 j Jer. li., 2T ; Ezek. 
xviii., 6. 



AEMmiANS 69 

The Roman Catliolics and Protestants are 
converts from the national Chnrch. The 
Catholics affect to call themselves the United 
Armenians, and the national Church schis- 
matic, and a sect. The number of Arme- 
nians is not accurately known. They may he 
estimated at about 3,500,000— viz., 3,000,000 
in Tm-key, 400,000 in Russia, and 100,000 in 
Persia. The Armenians in Russia, Persia, and 
India are Gregorian ; in Turkey also, mainly 
Gregorian, with an intermixture of Papists 
and Protestants. The Pai)ists have not re- 
ceived favorably the doctrine of Infallibility. 

Amiinians, a name given, in the first in- 
stance, to the followers of Arminius, a cel- 
ebrated theologian of HoUand, in the six- 
teenth century. The sect which bears his 
name is confined to Holland, and is now re- 
duced to something like twenty congrega- 
tions, and a few thousand members. It was, 
however, no part of the object of Arminius 
to found a separate sect, and his peculiar 
theological views pervade to a greater or less 
extent the doctrines of the Lutheran, Meth- 
odist, and Episcopal Churches. In fact, the 
Protestant world may be said to be divided 
into Calvinists and Arminians, of whom the 
first tend to look at all theology from the side 
of the divine administration, while the other 
tend to consider chiefly the duties and respon- 
sibilities of man. The controversies between 
Calvinists and Arminians have been very bit- 
ter, but it is not possible to draw a distinct 
line between them. A great deal that is 
called Calvinism is certainly not to be found 
in the writings of John Calvin ;' a great deal 
that is called Arminianism, Arminius himself 
never taught. The questions at issue between 
them are no longer the subject of imbittered 
controversy, and are gradually giving way 
to others of a more immediately practical 
nature. In some churches, as the Episcopa- 
lian and the Congregational, Arminians and 
Calvinists are united in a common organiza- 
tion ; and there is no such radical difference 
between them, even when they exist in sep- 
arate sects, as to prevent their cordial co- 
operation in evangelical organizations for 
Christian work — such, for example, as the 
Young Men's Christian Associations. 

Historicallj', Arminianism was a reaction 
against some of the extreme teachings of 
Calvinism (q. v.). Arminius himself studied 
theology at Geneva, where the doctrines of 
Calvin were taught in their most rigorous 
fonn by Theodore Beza. It was only by a 
gradual process that he came first to ques- 
tion, then to deny the doctrine of absolute 
predestination (q. v.). His own views have 
to be gathered from various passages in his 
works; but after his death his followers, 
in 1610, presented to the asembled states 
of the province of Holland a remonstrance, 
containing five propositions, which may be 
regarded as a fair embodiment of the doc- 
trines of the Arminians, who as a sect are, 



ARMS, ARMOR 

from this circumstance, sometimes called 
Remonstrants. For a fair understanding 
of the controversy, the propositions which 
follow should be compared with the fa- 
mous five points of Cahdnism (q. v.) : 1. 
" That God had indeed made an eternal de- 
cree, but only on the conditional terms that 
all who believe in Christ shall be saved, 
while all who refuse to believe must perish ; 
so that predestination is only conditional. 
2. That Christ died for all men, but that 
none except believers are really saved by 
his death. The intention, in other words, is 
universal, but the efficacy may be restricted 
by unbelief. 3. That no man is of himself 
able to exercise a saving faith, but must be 
born again of God in Christ, through the 
Holy Spirit. 4. That without the grace of 
God man can neither think, will, nor do any 
thing good ; yet that grace does not act in 
men in an irresistible way. 5. That believ- 
ers are able, by the aid of the Holy Spirit, 
victoriously to resist sin ; but that the ques- 
tion of the iDOSsibility of a fall from grace 
must be determined by a further examina- 
tion of the Scriptures on this j)oint. See 
Methodists. 

Arms, Aimor. The progress of modern 
discovery has thrown much light upon the 
modes of attack and defense used by ancient 




^£^IICTi^^ini-'5feajn<i 



:b3 



za 




^^^^^^ 



Primitive Striking Weapons. 

1, 2, 3, Clnbs ; 4, 5, Crooked Billets, or Throwing-bats; 
6, Mace; T, Battle - axe ; 8, Hard-wood Sword; 9, 
Shark's-teeth Sword; 10, Flint Sword; 11, Sawfish 
Sword ; 12, 13. Egyptian Battle-axe. 



AKMS, ARMOR 70 

nations. "We are familiar with the weapons 
of the Greeks and Romans ; and those of the 
Assyrians and Egyptians have either been 
preserved, or are found represented in the 
still -existing sculptures and paintings of 
those peoples. But no arms used by the Is- 
raelites have yet been discovered ; neither is 
any sculpture known to exist on which their 
weapons are depicted. We can only, there- 
fore, gather from the notices in Scripture, 
and by comparison with what we know of 
the habits of the neighboring nations, the 
nature of the arms with which the Israelites 
fought. The first implements of war were 
those used first in hunting, but converted by 
the wicked to the destruction of their fel- 
low-men, and were naturally the most sim- 
ple. 1. Among these were the club and the 
throwing-bat. The club was originally a 
heavy piece of wood, variously shaped, made 
to strike with, and, according to its form, de- 
nominated a mace, a bar, a hammer, or a 
maul. The throwing-bat, or throw-stick, is 
still used among the native Arabs. These 
instruments, at first but crooked billets, with 
flints set into a groove on the side, or sharks' 
teeth bound to them, or, later, with a steel 
or bronze blade, made the true battle-axe. 
2. The sword was so commonly employed, 
that it very early became a synonym for 
war. We may gather that it was probably a 




-=^:=^===^%te 



Oriental Cutting or Piercing Weapons. 

1, 2, Swords ; 3, 4, Tulwar Swords ; 5, Quarter-pike ; G, 

Horn Dagger. 

light, short weapon, much the same as a large 
dagger, double-edged, and strong enough to 
inflict a fearful wound. It was carried in a 
sheath slung by a girdle, and rested upon the 
thigh or the hips. That it was of metal, is 
indicated by the allusion to its brightness and 
" glittering ;" but from Josh, v., 2, 3,^ we may 
perhaps infer that in early times the mate- 
rial was flint. The sword is said to "de- 
vour," because the Hebrew word for " edge " 
js literally " mouth" of the sword.^ 3. Of 
the spear there were different kinds. That 



1 The marginal reading is "knives of flints." — 
2 Judg. iii., 16; 1 Sam. xvii., 51 ; xxv., 13; 2 Sam. ii., 
26; XX., 8, 10; Psa. xlv., 3; cxlix., C; Ezek. xiv., 17. 



ARMS; ARMOR 

of Goliath was of extraordinary size ; the 
shaft, or staff, a heavy piece of wood, the 




Bowmen and Spearmen. 

head made of metal. This kind of spear 
Saul was in the habit of using ; and it was 
this, called "javelin" in our version, with 
which he tried to pin David to the walL 




Oriental Projectiles. 
1, 2, Spear-heads ; 3, 4, Darts ; 5, Oryx-horn Spear- 
head. 

This spear must have had a metallic strong 
point at its butt end ; it could thus be with 
more facility stuck into the ground, and it 
was with this point that Abner struck Asa- 
hel quite through his body.^ There was a 
lighter kind of spear, which, when not in use, 





Implements of Archery. 
1, 2, 3, 4, Bows ; 5, Quiver ; C, Bow-case ; 7, 8, Arrows. 



2 Sam. ii., 23. 



ARMS, ARMOR 71 

■was suspended from the shoulder. This is 
the weapon erroneously rendered '^ target" in 
1 Sam. xvii., 6 ; and with this Joshua signal- 
ed his troops. 4. The chief offensive weapon 
was the bow. This is mentioned very early, 
as used both in the chase and in war.^ Bows 
were made of great strength, sometimes of 
steel or brass,^ and considerable force was 
required to bend them. The Hebrew word 
for " bend " signifies, properly, " to tread." 



ARMS, ARMOR 




Treaclmg the Bow. 

We know, therefore, that the foot was used. 
The soldier carried upon his person a capa- 
cious quiver, often closed by a lid or cover, 




Assyrian Bow, Arrow, and Quivers. • 

and well stocked with arrows. These arrows 
were carefully sharpened, and appear to have 
been sometimes barbed, and poisoned, or tip- 



^ Gen. xxvii. 
xviii., 34. 



xlviiL, 22; xlix., 23, 24.-2 Psa. 



ped with burning matter. Possibly bolts and 
stones, as well as arrows, were discharged 
from the bow. Such bows would be like the 
cross-bows of the Middle Ages. Larger en- 
gines for this purpose were devised by Uz- 
ziah's officers.^ 5. The sling was made of 
plaited thongs, broad in the middle, to hold 
the missile securely. This simple weapon, 
with which David killed the giant Philistine, 
was the natural attendant of a shepherd. 
Later in the monarchy, slingers formed part 
of the regular army.^ 

Of defensive armor we find several kinds 
mentioned in the Bible : 1. The coat of mail 
of Goliath (1 Sam. xvii. 5, properly, " clothed 
with a harness of scales"). It was made 




Coat of Mail. 
1, Egyptian tegulated ; 2, Sleeve of ring-mail, Ionian. 

of small plates of metal, fastened closely to- 
gether, though sometimes for the breastplate 
prepared leather was used. It was a mailed 
coat that Ahab wore. The same original 
word is rendered habergeon in Neh. iv., 16. 
The habergeon mentioned in reference to 
the gown of the high-priest is supposed to 
have been of linen, thickly woven or quilt- 




Armor for the Head. 

1, Of Eushes ; 2, Egyptian ; 3, 4, Western Asia ; 5, 

Carian ? 6, 7, Egyptian ; 8, Assyrian ; 9, Greek ; 10, 

Ionian; 11, Parthian; 12, 13, Other Asiatic Tribes. 

ed, with a binding on the neck, and plated 
on the breast with mail. The meaning of 
the "habergeon" of Job xli., 26, is doubt- 



1 2 Chron. xxvi., 15. See Engines. — * 2 Kings iii.. 25. 



AEMS, AEMOR 



72 



ARMY 



ful; some suppose it is an offensive weap- 
on. 2. The defense of the head was a hel- 
met. We may infer the shape from the 
Hebrew word which implies height and 
roundness. It was very early made of rush- 
es, and in the form of a skull-cap. After- 
ward the skins of the heads of animals were 
used, and adorned with rows of teeth, manes, 
and bristles. Wood, linen, cloth in many 
folds, and felt were also in early use. Later, 
they were made of metal. The nations of 




Assyrian Helmets, from iron Originals in the British 
Museum. 

Farther Asia, however, used the braided or 
woolen cap, which they still retain, as the 
kaouk, or fez. 3. Greaves were known even 
so early as the time of David, for Goliath 
wore them. They consisted of a pair of 
covers for the shin, of brass or strong leath- 
er, bound by thongs around the calves and 
above the ankles. 4. Of shields or targets 
there were two kinds. One, very large, pro- 
tected the body, and, when not in actual use, 
was borne by an attendant. Another small- 
er kind seems to have been more especially 
employed by light-armed troops. The dif- 
ference between these two pieces of armor is 
manifest by the greater weight of gold re- 
quired for the first.^ They were sometimes 
made of light wood, sometimes of wicker- 
work or osier ; were covered with bull's hide 
of two or more thicknesses, and were border- 
ed with metal. Sometimes they were stud- 
ded with nails or metal pins. They were 
grasped by a wooden or leathern handle, or 
occasionally suspended by a thong from the 
neck. They were smeared with oil, both to 
preserve them from injury by weather, and 
to render them so smooth that missiles might 
more readily glance off. They were also kept 
in coverings till actually wanted. Hence to 
"anoint" or "uncover" the shield was to pre- 
pare for battle.^ 

Paul's description of the Christian's ar- 
mor^ becomes doubly forcible if we remem- 
ber that he wrote that passage while chain- 
ed to a soldier, and in close proximity to mil- 
itary sights and sounds. It is gathered from 
Roman arms and armor. The apostle's enu- 



1 1 Sam. xvii., 7; 1 Kings x., IG, 17.— ^ Isa. xxi., 5; 
xxii,, 6.-3 Eph. vi., 14-17. 



meration exactly coincides with the figures 
on the Arch of Severus, and mentions all the 
essential parts of the Roman heavy armor 
except the spear. The soft or flexible parts 
of their heavy armor were made of cloth 
or leather. The metal x^rincipally used was 




Roman Soldier. 

that composed of copjper and tin, which we 
call bronze, or, more properly, bell -metal. 
Iron came afterward to be extensively used 
instead of copper ; and gold, silver, and tin 
were used unalloyed, more esioecially to en- 
rich and adorn the armor. 

Army. 1. Jewish Army. — The military 
organization of the Jews commenced with 
their departure from the land of Egypt, and 
was adapted to the nature of the expedition 
on which they then entered. Every man 
above twenty years of age was a soldier; 
each tribe formed a division, with its own 
banner and its own leader ; their positions 
in the camp or on the march were accurate- 
ly fixed ; the whole army started and stop- 
ped at a given signal. Thus they came up 
out of Egypt ready for the fight. On the 
approach of an enemy, a conscription was 
made from the general body, under the di- 
rection of a muster-master, by whom, also, 
the officers were appointed. The army was 
then divided into thousands and hundreds, 
under their respective captains, and still fur- 
ther into families, the family beiug regarded 
as the unit in the Jewish polity. With the 
kings arose the custom of maiutaiuiug a 
body-ouard, which formed the nucleus of a 
standing army.^ Thus Saul had a band of 
3000 select warriors ; and David, before his 
accession to the throne, 600.^ This baud he 



^ Exod. xiii., 18 ; Nnmb. i., 3 ; ii. ; x., 5, 6, 14 ; xxxi., 
14; Dent, xx., 5-9; 2 Chron. xxv., 5; xxvi., 11-15.— 
2 1 Sam. xiii., 2 ; xiv., 52 ; xxiii., 13 ; xxiv., 2 ; xxv., 13. 



ARMY 



73 



AENOLDISTS 



retained after lie became king, and added 
tlie Cheretliites and Pelethites, together with 
another class, Shalishim, officers of high rank, 
the chief of whom was immediately about 
the king's person.^ He also organized a na- 
tional militia, divided into twelve divisions, 
under their respective officers, each of which 
was called out for one month in the year. At 
the head of the array, when in active service, 
he appointed a commander-in-chief. Hither- 
to the army had consisted entirely of infan- 
try, the use of horses having been restrain- 
ed by divine command ; but we find that, as 
the foreign relations of the kingdom extend- 
ed, this i^rohibition was disregarded. David 
reserved a hundred chariots^ from the spoils 
of the Syrians ; and these probably served as 
the foundation of the force which Solomon 
afterward enlarged, through his alliance with 
Egypt. It does not appear that the system 
established by David was maintained by the 
kings of Judah ; but in Israel the proximity 
of the hostile kingdom of Syria necessitated 
the maintenance of a standing army. The 
militia were occasionally called out in time 
of peace ; but such cases were exceptional. 
On the other hand, the body-guard appears to 
have been regularly kept up.^ Occasional 
reference is made to war- chariots ; but in 
Hezekiah's reigu no force of the kind could 
be maintained, and the Jews were obliged to 
seek the aid of Egjqjt for horses and chariots.'* 
The maintenance and equipment of the sol- 
diers at the public expense dates from the es- 
tablishment of a standing army. It is doubt- 
ful whether the soldier ever received x>ay 
even under the kings. He was, however, at 
least at some periods, provided with arms, 
and there are notices of armories. So also 
there was a repository for the shields used 
not in war but on occasions of state.^ 

Of the tactics of Israelitish armies in the 
field we know but little. Sometimes the 
forces were divided into two, and sometimes 
into three bodies f the disposition in the last 
case being probably into a centre and two 
wings. We have also instances of ambush- 
es, night attacks, and flank movements, with 
the purpose of hemming the enemy in ;'' and 
when the onset was made, it was accom- 
panied with loud shouts.^ The numerical 
strength of the Jewish army can not be as- 
certained with any degree of accuracy. In 
the Maccabean wars it was found necessary 
for the Jews to defend themselves on the 
Sabbath-day, and in those wars we first of 
all find any notice of regular pay being 
given to the soldiery. A standing force 
seems to have been continued from that 
time ; till, ultimately, the Jewish armies 



1 2 Sam. XV., 18; 1 Chron. xii— ^ 2 Sam. viii.,4; 1 
Kings X., 26, 28, 29 ; 1 Chron. xxvii., 1.— 3 i Kings xiv., 
28; 2 Kings xi., 4-11; 2 Chron. xiv., 8; xxv., 5.-4 2 
Kings viii., 21 ; xviii,, 23, 24; Isa. xxxi., 1.— & 1 Kings 
xiv., 27, 28 ; 2 Chron. xi., 12 ; xxiii., 9 ; xxvi., 14 • Sol. 
Song iv., 4.— « 2 Sam. x., 9-14.— '^ Gen. xiv., 15; Jos^h. 
viii. ; Judg. xx., 29 ; 1 Sam. xiv., 36 ; 2 Kings viii., 21 • 
2 Chron. xiii., 13.— » 1 Sam. xvii., 20. 



were assimilated to those of their Roman 
conquerors. 

2. Roman Army. — The Roman army was 
divided into legions, the number of which 
varied considerably, from 3000 originally to 
6000 at the time of Christ, each legion be- 
ing under six tribunes, who commanded by 
turns. Claudius Lysias, termed the " chief 
captain," was such a tribune.^ The legion 
was subdivided into ten cohorts, usually 
called "band" in the N. T., the cohort into 
three maniples, and the maniple into two 
centuries, containing originally 100 men, as 
the name implies, but subsequently from 50 
to 100 men, according to the strength of the 
legion. There were thus in a legion 60 cen- 
turies, each under the command of a cen- 
turion. The '^ captain of the guard" men- 
tioned in Acts xxviii., 16, was the commander 
of the PrcBtorian troops. In addition to the 
legionary cohorts, independent cohorts of 
volunteers served under the Roman stand- 
ards. One of these cohorts was named the 
Italian, as consisting of volunteers from It- 
aly. The cohort named "Augustus"^ may 
have consisted of the volunteers from Se- 
baste. The head - quarters of the Roman 
forces in Juclea were at Caesarea. A cohort 
was usually stationed at Jerusalem ; but at 
the great festivals this force was increased, 
disturbances being then not unlikely — the 
more because the emblems on the Roman 
standards were considered idolatrous by the 
Jews. 

Arnoldists, a sect which arose in the 
twelfth century, deriving its name from Ar- 
nold of Brescia, a young priest, and a pupil 
of the celebrated Abelard, from whom he 
probably imbibed those spiritual tendencies 
which led him to long after a pure Church. 
He preached against the ambition and luxu- 
ry of ecclesiastics, not sparing the pope him- 
self. He maintained that the popes, as well 
as laymen, should be subordinate to the civ- 
il power ; that the disposal of kingdoms and 
princijialities did not belong to the Church 
of Christ ; that the clergy should not accu- 
mulate wealth, but should depend upon the 
offerings of the faithful, or, at the most, upon 
tithes for their support. The corrupt bish- 
ops and priests he declared to be unworthy 
of their name, and the secularized corpora- 
tion which called itself the Church to be no 
longer the house of God. He diffused his 
opinions with unwearied diligence, proclaim- 
ing the necessity of both a civil and eccle- 
siastical revolution. His sentiments were 
condemned by the Lateran Council in a.d. 
1139, and he was banished from Italy by 
Pope Innocent II. ; but returning to Rome 
after the death of the pope, in a.d. 1145, Ar- 
nold threw himself with enthusiasm into the 
popular movement to restore the ancient 
consular government, in lieu of the oppress- 
ive domination of a Roman bishop. During 
1 Acts xxi., 31, 37; xxii., 24.— ^ Acts xxvii., 1. 



AENON 



74 



ASA 



the successive reigns of Lucius II., Eugene 
III., and Anastasius IV., Rome was in a 
state of agitation little differing from an- 
archy; and when Adrian IV. was elected 
pope he resorted to the bold and unprece- 
dented measure of excommunicating the first 
city in Christendom. The Eomans quailed, 
and as a step toward reconciliation they ex- 
iled Arnold, who sought a refuge in Cam- 
pania, where he was treated with kindness 
and respect. In the negotiation between 
the pope and Frederick I. of Germany, pend- 
ing the coronation of the latter, the pope 
stipulated that Arnold should be surrender- 
ed into his hands. This was done, and in 
1155 he was strangled, his body burned, and 
the ashes thrown into the Tiber. 

The discourses of this young enthusiastic 
reformer had naturally produced a great im- 
pression on the Italian people, and after his 
death the ideas which he had contended for 
continued to ferment in the popular mind. 
The very Frederick I. who gave Arnold over 
to death was the one with whom commenced 
the hundred-years' controversy between the 
popes and the German emperors, in which 
the one represented the ecclesiastical and the 
other the secular power — a controversy re- 
appearing in a different form in the disputes 
which agitate Roman Catholic Europe to- 
day. The spirit of reform which was thus 
awakened gathered strength as time went 
on, until, finally, it burst forth in the Ref- 
ormation of the sixteenth century. It is 
doubtful how long the followers of Arnold 
continued to exist as a sect, but he seems to 
have left many followers, who propagated 
his doctrines in Upper Italy. They were 
condemned by Pope Lucius III., at the Coun- 
cil of Verona, in 1184, and are mentioned in 
later laws against the heretics. By some 
Baptist writers Arnold is claimed as one of 
the forerunners of their denomination, as 
he is said to have been accused of denying 
infant baptism. This was the nearest ap- 
I)roach to an heretical charge against him, 
and his moral character has never been im- 
peached. 

Amon, the river or torrent which form- 
ed the boundary between Moab and the 
Amorites, on the north of Moab, and after- 
ward between Moab and Israel (Reuben). 
There can be no doubt that the Wady el 
Mojeb of the present day is the Arnon. Its 
principal source is near Katrane, on the Haj 
route. [Numb, xxi., 13-26 ; Judg. xi., 22 ; 
Deut. ii., 24, 36 ; iii., 8, 16 ; iv., 48 ; Josh, xii., 
1, 2 ; xiii., 9, 16 •, Judg. xi., 13, 26.] 

Aroer. There are several cities of this 
name, of which, however, the most impor- 
tant is a city on the torrent Arnon, the 
southern point of the territory of Sihon, 
king of the Amorites, and afterward of the 
tribe of Reuben, but later again in posses- 
sion of Moab. It is the modern Ara'ir, upon 
the very edge of the precijiitous north bank 



of the Wady Mojeb. [Deut. ii., 36 ; iii., 12 ; 
iv., 48 ; Josh, xii., 2 ; xiii., 9 ; Judg. xi., 26 ; 
2 Kings X., 33 ; 1 Chron. v., 8.] 

Artaxerxes (tlie great ivarrior), the name 
of two Persian kings mentioned in the O. T. 
The first, mentioned in Ezra iv., 7-24, was in- 
duced by the adversaries of Judah and Ben- 
jamin to put a stop to the rebuilding of 
the Temple. He is identified with Smerdis, 
the Magian impostor, and pretended brother 
of Cambyses, who usurped the throne B.C. 
522, and reigned for eight months between 
the reigns of Cambyses and Darius Hystas- 
pis. The second one, mentioned in Ezra vii., 
1, and Neh. ii. *, v., 14, under whose auspices 
Ezra and Nehemiah were permitted to carry 
on the work of restoration, is probably Lon- 
gimanus, the son of Xerxes, B.C. 464-425, al- 
though he is identified by Josephus with 
Xerxes himself. But Xerxes and Ahasuerufi 
(q. V.) are undoubtedly the same. 

Arvad (tvandering, place of fugitives), the 
Aradus of the Greeks, an island, with a town 
on it of the same name — modern Ruad — two 
or three miles off the coast of Phoenicia, op- 
posite Antaradus. Its inhabitants appear to 
have had a considerable share in the nav- 
igation and commerce of the Phoenicians. 
[Ezek.xxvii., 8, 11.] 

Asa (physician), the son of Abijah, grand- 
son of Rehoboam, and third king of Judah, 
B.C. 955-914. During the first part of his 
reign, his grandmother, Maacah (q. v. ), queen- 
regent, possessed the real power, and under 
her administration the idolatry and corrup- 
tion of the kingdom were very great. On 
Asa's assuming the reins of government, he 
commenced and prosecuted a vigorous ref- 
ormation. He removed her from her office, 
destroyed her private sanctuary, and com- 
mitted to the flames the obscene wooden 
idol it contained; the polygamy of the court 
ceased ; the worship of foreign deities was 
forbidden ; the worst form of licentious rites 
was partially extirpated ; the groves, which 
served as heathen temples, were cut down, 
and the worshiped images destroyed. Asa 
also reorganized the army, whose numbers 
are estimated at over half a million of men.^ 
In the fourteenth or fifteenth year of his 
reign, his country was invaded by an im- 
mense army, estimated at a million, beside 
three hundred chariots from Ethiopia, under 
Zerah (q. v). Asa met the invading host at 
Mareshah, a town on the southern borders 
of Benjamin. The army appears to have oc- 
cupied a large plain, Asa to have advanced 
to the battle from the hills. The EgjT)tian 
monuments enable us to picture the general 
disposition of Zerah's army. The chariots 
formed the first corps, in a single or double 
line ; behind them, massed in phalanxes, were 
heavy-armed troops ; probably on the flanks 



1 580,000 (2 Chron. xiv., S). But this is thought by 
many scholars to be an error. The numbers appear to 
be out of all proportion to the size of the kingdom. 



ASAHEL 



75 



ASCETICISM 



stood archers and horsemen, in lighter for- 
mations. No doubt the Ethiopian, confident 
in his numbers, disdained to attack the He- 
brews or clear the heights, but waited in the 
broad valley or on the plain. Asa, casting 
himself upon God in a prayer,^ whose im- 
plicit trust reminds us of David's best expe- 
riences, boldly attacked the invading host. 
The chariots, broken by the charge, and 
made unmanageable by flights of arrows, 
were forced back upon the cumbrous host 
behind. The whole army were thrown by 
the first onset into a panic, from which they 
could not recover themselves. So complete 
was the Jewish success, that the pursuit of 
the enemy was pressed as far south as Gerar. 
This victory, one of the most important in 
Jewish history, was celebrated by a great sac- 
rificial service to the Lord, and followed by a 
" solemn league and covenant," in which all 
the people swore solemnly to re-establish, as 
the state religion, the worship of Jehovah.^ 
The great altar was also renewed, and the 
Temple service reinstated. The latter part 
of Asa's reign did not fulfill the promise of 
its commencement. The quarrel between 
Judah and Israel had not ceased. Baasha, 
king of Israel, seized on Ramah, a town 
within the borders of Judah, and began to 
fortify it. Asa, perhaps growing old and 
timid, resorted to policy, rather than to cour- 
age and to God. He sent silver and gold 
from the Temple treasures to Benhadad, king 
of Syria, asking his interference. Benha- 
dad attacked Israel on the north, and Baasha 
was forced to leave Eamah, to protect his 
northern border. Hanani^ rebuked Asa for 
his conduct. The angry king seized the 
faithful prophet and cast him into prison. 
A partial explanation of the change in Asa's 
character that led to this and other tyran- 
nies which characterized the close of his 
reign may be found, perhaps, in a disease of 
the feet, probably the gout, from which he 
suffered in his last years. He died in the 
forty-first year of his reign, and was buried 
with signal honors in Jerusalem. [1 Kings 
XV. ; xvi., 1-8; 2 Chron. xiv., xv., xvi.] 

Asahel (made hy God), nephew of David, 
and youngest son of his sister Zeruiah. He 
was among David's body-guard when the 
latter was a fugitive from Saul in the wil- 
derness, and was made one of the chief cap- 
tains in the organization of his army after 
David's coronation. While fighting, under 
the command of his brother Joab, against 
Ishbosheth's army at Gibeon, Asahel pur- 
sued Abner, who was obliged to kill him in 
self-defense, though with great reluctance. 
Like Achilles, he was celebrated for his 
fleetness of foot.- The effect of his death 
upon the army* leads us to believe that he 
was a great favorite. See Abner. [2 



1 2 Chron. xiv., 11.— 2 2 Chron. xv., 12-15.— 3 Prob- 
ahly the father of the prophet Jehu (1 Kinofs xvi., 1, 7). 
Nothing else is known of him.— * 2 Sam. ii, 23. 



Sam. ii., 18 ; xxiii., 24 ; 1 Chron. xi., 26 ; 
xxvii., 7.] 

Asaph (asseniMer), a Levite, of the family 
of Gershom, son of Berachiah, eminent as a 
musician, and appointed by the Levites to 
preside with Heman and Ethan over the 
choral services which David organized.^ He 
appears to have been the founder of a school 
of poets and musical composers who were 
called, after his name, the sons of Asaph. 
They were, perhaps, though that is uncer- 
tain, his lineal descendants,^ and to a late 
period continued to serve as the choristers 
of the Temple.^ A number of the Psalms 
(q. V.) are attributed to him. He seems to 
have been a prophet as well as a poet.* His 
son Joah was chronicler to the kingdom of 
Judah in the reign of Hezekiah,^ and one of 
his descendants, Mattaniah, was conductor 
of the Temple choir after the return from 
Babylon. 

Ascension-day, an important festival in 
the Greek, Roman, and English Churches, ob- 
served on Thursday, forty days after Easter, 
and ten days before Whitsunday, in com- 
memoration of our Lord's ascension into 
heaven. The origin of this feast is very 
ancient and obscure. It is certain that it 
was observed in the fourth century, and 
probably earlier, though the attempt to trace 
it to the days of the apostles is not suc- 
cessful. The first mention of it is found in 
the Apostolic Constitutions. In the Romish 
Church, after the Gospel has been read, the 
Paschal candle is extinguished, to denote 
our Saviour's leaving the earth. The altar 
is dressed with flowers, images, and relics, 
and the priest and his attendants wear their 
white vestments. It is one of the six days 
in the year for which the Church of England 
appoints special psalms. During the Dark 
Ages some most ridiculous pageantry was 
introduced into the observance of this day, 
such as representations of the ascension of 
Christ by drawing an image up through the 
roof of the Church, and casting down the 
image of Satan in flames, to represent his 
falling as by lightning from heaven. 

Asceticism. The necessity of special exer- 
cises and discipline for the purpose Of repress- 
ing those sensual tendencies which weaken 
and corrupt the nature has been recognized 
in all nations, and from the earliest ages. 
The word asceticism is of Greek origin, and 
signifies those exercises among the Greeks 
by which their athletes were accustomed to 
harden the body, and so prepare themselves 
to excel in the arena. A similar discipline 
is submitted to at the present day by their 
degenerate successors, the modern athletes. 
It is not only the body, however, which re- 
quires these special exercises. A similar 



1 1 Chron. vi., 39 ; xv., 16-19 ; xvi., 5.-2 1 Chron. 
XXV., 1, 2.-3 2 Chron. xx., 14 ; Ezra iii., 10 ; Neh. vii., 
44; xi., 22.-4 2 Chron. xxix., 30.— ^ 2 Kings xviii., 18, 
37; Isa. xxxvL, 3, 22. 



ASCETICISM 



76 



ASHDOD 



need has been experienced in respect to the 
soul. The asceticism of the athlete sinks 
into insignificance when compared with that 
of the religionist. In the Jewish Church 
asceticism was not unknown. Indications 
of it are, to be seen in the lives of some of 
the prophets, as Elijah, Daniel, and John the 
Baptist, and something of the same spirit 
was manifested by the Nazarites (q. v.) and 
the Essenes (q. v.). Oriental philosophy in- 
tensified this spirit of asceticism. Accord- 
ing to this philosophy, the most striking 
manifestation of which is to be found in 
Brahminism, the highest possible condition 
is that of simple existence, free from all pas- 
sion, emotion, and feeling. The body, and 
all that comes from and is connected with 
it, is regarded as absolutely evil, and the 
perfection of virtue has only been attained 
when not only the bodj^ is brought into sub- 
jection to the spirit, but when all those de- 
sires and sentiments which are even remote- 
ly connected with the physical organization 
are utterly annihilated. Hence the practice 
of asceticism is nowhere carried to such a 
frightful extent as in India. The suicides in 
the sacred Ganges and under the wheels of 
Juggernaut (q. v.) ; the practices now, or re- 
cently, x)revalent of offering children as sac- 
rifices, and of burning widows ; the frightful 
self-tortures ; the life of voluntary beggary ; 
the long and exhausting fasts, are all sup- 
ported not only by faith in their aptness to 
placate the deity, but also by the belief that 
thus the evil principle is most effectually de- 
stroyed, and the most perfect virtue, i. e., in- 
difference, is secured. From the heathen 
religions of the East the principles and prac- 
tices of asceticism were borrowed by the 
Christian Church. It is not to be forgotten 
that the N. T. itself contains passages which 
inculcate a duty the misapprehension of 
which has led to Christian asceticism. We 
are commanded to mortify, i. e., to put to 
death our members which are upon the earth. 
Our old man is said to be crucified with 
Christ, and he that is dead to be freed from 
sin. Paul at times conformed to the Jewish 
system of vows and fasting ; Christ repeat- 
edly declares that cross-bearing is essential 
to Christian discipleship, and directly as- 
serts that it is better to pluck out an eye or 
cut off a hand if it tempt to sin.^ From the 
earliest ages of the Christian Church, there- 
fore, asceticism has been practiced. To ab- 
stain from flesh or wine ; to fast frequently ; 
to devote many hours to exercises of devo- 
tion ; to maintain celibacy ; to surrender all 
worldly possessions, and assume a life of 
voluntary poverty ; to leave wife, children, 
home, friends, and retire either to the abso- 
lute solitude of the woods, or, at a little later 
period, to the comparative solitude of the 



1 Matt, v., 29, 30; x., 3S ; xvi., 24; cnmp. xix., 12; 
Mark viii., 34; x., 21; Act? xxi., 26; Rom. vi., 6- 1 
Cor. vii., 29, 30, 33-40; Col. iii., &. 



monastic cells, was regarded never indeed 
as a condition of salvation, but as the nec- 
essary condition for attaining the highest 
state of virtue and piety. To be, as regards 
all human feeling and earthly life, dead, was 
esteemed the most perfect following of Him 
who declared of his mission, " I am come 
that they might have life, and that they 
might have it more abundantly."^ Un- 
doubtedly "these ascetic practices grew part- 
ly out of a desire to make atonement for sin, 
and to earn the approbation of God; but 
they were more largely due, probably, to the 
mistaken opinion that virtue consists not in 
the government, but in the crucifixion of 
one's self. The Reformation left really no 
place in its philosophy for ascetic practices ; 
and it is possible that the Protestant world 
has not always given sufficient weight to 
those passages quoted above, which seem to 
inculcate special exercises for the purpose 
not indeed of crucifying the body, but of 
bringing it under subjection. So far, how- 
ever, as the spirit of asceticism lingers in 
the Protestant Church, it is in forms that 
are unorganized and undefined. The prin- 
ciple of asceticism is, as we have said, that 
there is in man an evil principle (or evil 
principles) which must be absolutely de- 
stroyed before the soul is pure and holy. 
The opposite philosophy is gaining ground 
in Protestantism, if, indeed, it does not un- 
derlie Protestant theology, viz., that there is 
nothing absolutely evil in man ; that there 
is no faculty, sentiment, or desire to be erad- 
icated ; that the worst sins are only misdi- 
rected energies ; and that the true problem 
of life is, preserving every power unimpair- 
ed, to bring them all into subjection to the 
law of God. See Buddhism; Moxachism; 
Nazarite; Shakers. 

Ash, a tree mentioned in Scripture only 
once.^ The Hebrew is oren, which probably 
suggested to the translator the Latin or- 
nus, ash, which, however, is not found na- 
tive in Palestine. Martin Luther translates 
it cedar; the Septuagint, ^i«e. What tree is 
intended is uncertain. 

Ashdod (fortified place, castle), the Azotus 
of the Greeks and Romans f a city of the 
Philistines, on the .sea-coast, about midway 
between Gaza and Joppa, and the capital of 
one of their five states. When the Philis- 
tines generally were subdued by the Israel- 
ites, this town must also have been subject 
to their sway ; but we read of no special acts 
of violence or marks of subjugation being in- 
flicted upon it till the time of Uzziah, who 
"broke down the wall of Ashdod, and built 
cities about it." Even this did not prove 
more than a temporary humiliation ; for, up- 
ward of a century later, it withstood for 
twenty - nine years the force of Egypt, the 
longest siege on record, though at last it was 
taken by Psammeticus, about B.C. 630 ; and 
1 Johu X., 10.— 2 Tsa. xliv., 14.— 3 Acts viii., 40. 



ASHEE 



77 



ASHER 



•when, more than a century later, the Jews 
returned from Babylon, the population of 
Aslidod was in so flourishing a condition, 
that the women of the place became a snare 
to them ; and for taking wives from Ashdod 
they iucurred the severe reproof of Nehe- 
miah. It was among the places visited by 
Philip the Evangelist, and became at an ear- 
ly period the seat of a Christian Church. 
From the dawn of European civilization, it 
has been known only as an Arab village, 
called Esdud, situated on a grassy hill, and 
containing in its environs the remains of 
former greatness. [Josh, xiii., 3 ; xv., 47 ; 
1 Sam. v., 4 ; vi., 17 ; 2 Chron. xxvi., 6 ; Neh. 
xiii., 23, 24; Jer. xxv.,20; Amos i., 8.] 

Asher (happy), one of the sons of Jacob 
by Zilpah, Leah's maid ; so called because 
Leah 'accounted herself happy at his birth. 
He had four sons and a daughter. Two 
grandsons are also mentioned. Probably one 
of the sons, Ishuah, died without posterity, 
as, when the families of the tribe are enu- 
merated, they are but five — three from the 
sons, two from the grandsons. The blessings 
pronounced, first by Jacob and afterward by 
Moses, upon this tribe, consist chiefly of a 
play upon the import of the name Asher, and 
an indication that the reality should corre- 
spond with the happy omen implied in it, 
that there should belong to it a rich portion 
and a numerous oflspring. This tribe mul- 
tiplied fast. At the first census they num- 
bered 41,500 males fit for war ; at the second, 
53,400.^ 

The territory of Asher was in the north- 
western part of Palestine, reaching to the 
Mediterranean on the west, on the north 
bounded by Lebanon and Syria, on the east 
by Naphtali and Zebulun, on the south by 
Zebulun and Manasseh. Dr. Thomson reck- 
ons it at about sixty miles in length, with 
a mean breadth of ten or twelve miles. A 
particular description of it is given in Josh, 
xix., 24-31. This territory properly inclosed 
Tyre, and reached northward to Sidou. But 
the tribe did not conquer the whole of the 
portion allotted to it.^ It probably enjoyed 
the advantages of the Phoenician commerce, 
and, satisfied with the fruitfulness of its own 
soil, it took little part in the troubles which 
distracted the more southern tribes. It did 
not even share with Zebulun and Naphtali 
in the victory over Jabin, but remained se- 
cure from molestation in its creeks, where 
the chariots of Sisera could not penetrate. 
Most likely the Asherites were infected with 
the idolatry of their Phoenician neighbors. 
The population seems gradually to have de- 
creased. In the list of 1 Chron. vii., 30-40, 
the fighting-men were but 26,000. Asher is 
not mentioned in the distribution of gov- 
ernments by David. And, though many of 

1 Gen. XXX., 12, n ; xlvi., 17 ; xlix., 20; Nnmb. i., 40, 
41 ; xxvi., 44, 45, 47 ; Deut. xxxiii., 24, 25.-8 Judg. i., 




MANA.S SEH -1^^^# 



Scale of Miles 
60 to aHe^j-ec 



Map of the Tribe of Asber. 



ASHIMA 



78 



ASIA 



Aslier came to Jerusalem at the call of Hez- 
ekiah,^ yet their country must have been 
overrun successively by the Assyrian and 
Babylonian conquerors. No judge or emi- 
nent man is named of this tribe : the proph- 
etess Anna, however, was an Asherite.^ 

Ashima, a god of the Hamathite colonists 
in Samaria. It has been regarded as iden- 
tical with the Mendesian god of the Egyp- 
tians, the Pan of the Greeks, and has also 
been identified with the Phoenician god Es- 
mCln. [2 Kings xvii., 30.] 

Ashkelon, or Askelon (migration), one of 
the chief cities of the Philistines, on the sea- 
coast, between Gaza and Ashdod, about thir- 
ty-seven miles south-west of Jerusalem. It 
was a strongly-fortified town, and from its 
position must have been the theatre of many 
conflicts during the wars carried on between 
Egypt and Syria. Herod the Great was born 
there, and he afterward adorned it with baths, 
colonnades, and other ornamental works. It 
continued to be a place of considerable im- 
portance in later times, and is often mention- 
ed in the history of the Crusades. Eichard 
held his court within its walls. But it has 
long since fallen into ruin, and modern trav- 
elers describe the place as " one of the most 
mournful scenes of desolation ever beheld." 
Its modern name is El Jore. The " escha- 
lot," or '' shallot," a kind of onion, was first 
brought from Ashkelon, whence its name. 
[ Judg. i., 18 ; xiv., 19 ; 1 Sam. vi., 17 ; 2 Sam. 
i., 20 ; Jer. xxv., 20 ; xlvii., 5, 7 ; Amos i., 8 ; 
Zeph. ii., 4, 7 ; Zech. ix., 5.] 

Ashkenaz, a son of Gomer, of the family 
of Japheth,^ called also Ashchenaz.* We may 
probably recognize the tribe of Ashkenaz, 
on the northern shore of Asia Minor, in the 
name of Lake Ascanius, and in Europe in 
the name Scand-isi, Scand - ina>Ym. Knobel 
considers that Ashkenaz is to be identified 
with the German race. 

Ashtaroth, an ancient city east of the 
Jordan, in Bashan. It was one of the chief 
places in the dominions of Og, and probably 
received its name from the worship therein 
of Ashtoreth. It was afterward in the ter- 
ritory of the eastern Manassites. It is also 
called Beeshterah and Astaroth, and is possi- 
bly the same as Ashteroth-karnaim. [Deut. 
i., 4 ; Josh, ix., 10 ; xii., 4 ; xiii., 12, 31 ; xxi., 
27; 1 Chron. vi., 71.] 

Ashtoreth (met more frequently in the 
plural form, Ashtaroth ;^ the singular is 
met with but twice),^ the great goddess of 
the Canaanitish nations, the partner of Baal, 
with whose worship that of Ashtoreth was 
often associated. This worship of the gods 
in pairs, which we find widely spread over 
the heathen world, had its origin in a po- 
etic conception of the world and all its mul- 



1 1 Chron. xxvii., 16-22; 2 Chron. xxx., 11.— 2 Luke 
ii., .SO,— 3 Gen. x., 3.—'* 1 Chron. i., 6; Jer. li., 27.— 
6 Judg. ii., 13 ; X., 6 ; 1 Sam. vii., 3, 4 ; xii., 10 ; xxxi., 
10.-6 1 Kings xi., 5, 33 ; 2 Kings xxiii., 13. 



tiform changes as a birth, or succession of 
births (the heathen recognized two gods, 
a male and a female). The former of these 
the Canaanitish tribes called Baal, i.e., Lord; 
the latter, Ashtoreth ; or more frequently 
they used the plural forms, Baalim and Ash- 
taroth, representing each one rather as a 
power, widespread and multiform, than as 
a person. There is no reason to doubt 
that the great Assyrian goddess Ishtar is 
the Astarte of the Greeks and Romans, and 
the Ashtoreth of the Old Testament, whose 
widespread worship under different names 
existed in all countries and colonies of the 
Syro- Arabian nations. We find Ashteroth, 
or Ashteroth-karnaim, as the name of a 
city so early as the time of Abraham,^ and 
there is no doubt that the goddess was 
worshiped at ancient Carthage. Solomon 
himself built a temple to her honor on the 
Mount of Olives, and thus introduced idola- 
try among his people.^ It was put down by 
good King Josiah. Her worship was accom- 
panied by lascivious rites, and is generally 
classed with that of Baal (q. v.). Upon Phoe- 
nician coins she is represented as having two 
horns, or the head of a bull, with a star as 
her' symbol. Aslier ah, which is incorrectly 
rendered in our translation "grove,"^ is rath- 
er an idol symbol of Ashtoreth,* probably 
a pillar made of wood (for it is spoken of as 
cut down^), as the symbol of Baal was of 
stone. 

Ash -Wednesday, first day of Lent, so 
called from the custom, said to have been 
observed in the ancient Church, of penitents 
expressing their humiliation by appearing 
in sackcloth and ashes. In the case of pub- 
lic and scandalous sinners, the priest, hav- 
ing first heard their confession, laid ashes on 
their heads, and sprinkled them with holy 
water, recited aloud over them the seven 
penitential Psalms, assisted therein by all 
the clergy lying prostrate on the ground. 
After the procession, in which they walked 
barefoot in their penitential dress, they were 
turned out of the church, not to be again 
admitted till the Thursday before Easter. 
The origin of this ceremony, and of the day, 
is somewhat uncertain. It is generally at- 
tributed to Gregory II., in the beginning of 
the eighth century. In the Roman Catholic 
cities of Europe, Ash- Wednesday marks the 
transition from the Carnival to Lent ; and at 
Rome the people go into their churches on 
the morning of that day, when the officia- 
ting priest puts ashes on their heads, saying, 
" Dust thou art, unto dust thou shalt re- 
turn." The day is observed in the Church 
of England, but without the ceremony of the 
ashes. 

Asia. The origin of this name is obscure ; 
but, as a designation of one of the greater 



1 Gen. xiv., 5.-2 1 Kings xi., 5.-3 2 Kings xvii,, 10. 
—4 Comp. 2 Kings xxi., 7; xxiii., 6.— ^ Judg. vi., 25, 
26, 29, 30; 2 Kings xxiii., 14. 



ASPERSION 



79 



ASSAMESE 



divisions of the known world, it came into 
use in the fifth century before Christ. In 
the O. T. it does not occur. In the N. T. it 
is used, in a narrower sense, for a Eoman 
province, which embraced the western part 
of Asia Minor, and of which Ephesus was the 
capital. [Acts ii., 9 ; vi., 9 ; xvi., 6 ; xix., 10, 
22, 26.] 

Aspersion, a name sometimes given to 
baptism by pouring or sprinkling. In the 
Romish Church, sprinkling with holy water, 
which is mixed with salt and blessed with a 
special benediction, is called aspersion. 

Ass. To those who are familiar only with 
the ass as it is seen in the Western countries, 
the frequency and manner of its mention in 
the Scriptures can not fail to cause surprise. 
With us it has become the symbol of stub- 
bornness and stupidity ; while, on the con- 
trary, in the East it is especially remarkable 
for its patience, gentleness, intelligence, and 
meek submission, and its possession of great 
power of endurance. Thus Issachar^ is apt- 
ly described as a '' strong ass." As a meas- 
ure of wealth, the ass is named with the cam- 
el, the ox, the sheep, and the goat. In ag- 
riculture the ass held an important place. 
The dii-ection not to yoke the ox and the ass 
together,^ indicates that it was sometimes 
done then as now. The ass was used in irri- 
gation, and in tilling the ground.^ Addition- 
al force is given to the passa ge where Christ 
speaks of the millstone, when we know that 
it. Avas an ass's millstone, and was much 
larger and heavier than the millstone turned 
by hand. Asses were used in drawing char- 
iots, and both men and women of wealth 
and distinction used them in riding; and 
thus our Lord, on fulfilling the prophecy of 
Zechariah and making his entry into Jeru- 
salem* on an ass, indicated, not his inferiori- 
ty, but the peaceable nature of his kingdom ; 
for the ass was used in peace as the horse 
was in war. He came as the herald of 
peace, and not of war ; and, though meek 
and lowly, was yet a prince, riding, as be- 
came a prince, on an ass's colt, which had 
borne no inferior burden. The saddle was 
not like the article we know by that name, 
but something quite large and complicated 
in structure, composed of several thicknesses 
of cloth, and a very thick pad of straw flat 
at the top — not rounded like ours. The pom- 
mel was very high, and the rider was perch- 
ed high above the Ijack of the animal. Over 
the saddle was thrown a cloth or carpet of 
bright colors, varying in material and orna- 
ment according to the wealth of the possess- 
or. The bridle was often decorated with 
bells, embroidery, tassels, and shells. The 
manner of carrying burdens was probably 
much the same as now, the package being 
tied firmly on either side of the pack-saddle. 
The milk of the ass was, in all probability. 



1 Gen. xlix., 14.— ^ Deut. xxii., 10.— 3 isa. xxx., 24; 
xxxii., 20.— 4 Zech. fe., 9; Matt, xxi., 1-11. 



considered lawful food, but it is not clear 
that it was used. The flesh was forbidden ; 
and that it was repulsive in the extreme 
may be seen from the statement made in the 
description of the siege of Samaria.^ Some 
commentators have tried to show that the 
ass's head there referred to means a certain 
measure, but that seems far-fetched and un- 
warranted. 

The ivild ass of the Scriptures differs es- 
sentially from the domesticated ass, as will 
appear from the graphic description in the 
book of Job.^ Although many zoologists 
have considered that the wild ass is the pro- 
genitor of the domesticated, the resemblance 
between them is only in appearance, and the 
origin of the latter is so ancient that there 
are no data whereon to build a theory. Cer- 
tain it is that the wild ass is almost untam- 
able, even where the attempt has been made 
when the animal was very young, and has 
been continued with several successive gen- 
erations. The wild ass is migratory, savage, 
intractable, fleet, and wary. The prophecy 
concerning IshmaeP is literally, " He will be 
a ivild ass man" (or, "a ivild ass of a man"), 
i. e.j one like a wild ass ; which gives to the 
prophecy far more force than it has in our 
authorized version. 

The worship of the ass has prevailed 
somewhat among the heathen ; but more 
commonly the ass was considered a spe- 
cial abomination. The Jews and the early 
Christians were accused of ass -worship by 
their idolatrous neighbors, and it has taxed 
the ingenuity of learned men to discover 
whence the calumny arose ; but none of the 
explanations are satisfactory. 

Ass (Feast of). During the Dark Ages, 
the 14th of January every year was observed 
in commemoration of the Virgin Mary's 
flight into Egypt, which was supposed to 
have been on an ass. A beautiful and rich- 
ly-attu-ed young woman, with an infant in 
her arms, represented Mary and Jesus. She 
was mounted on a handsomely-caparisoned 
ass, and escorted by a large procession to 
the church, where she was placed near the 
altar, while high mass was celebrated. It 
is said that the people, instead of making 
the usual responses, brayed in imitation of 
the ass, and that the priest substituted the 
braying for portions of the service, and that 
a hymn in honor of the ass was sung. This 
unseemly exhibition was abolished in En- 
gland in the thu-teenth century, but it con- 
tinued to be observed on the Continent un- 
til the end of the sixteenth century. 

Assamese (Religion of the). The coun- 
try of Assam is situated on the north-west- 
ern frontier of Burmah, stretching across the 
plains of the Brahmapootra, from seventy to 
one hundred miles in breadth, toward the 
Himmalaya Mountains. It reaches on the 



1 2 Kings vi., 25.-2 Job xxiv., 5; xxsix., 5-S.— ^ Gen. 
xvi., 12. 



ASSASSINS 



80 



ASSYRIA 



north-east to tlie borders of China. Assam 
was formerly an independent state, hnt in 
1822 it was incorporated with the empire of 
Burmah, and in 1826 it was ceded to the En- 
glish. The Assamese practice no mode of 
worship belonging either to heathens or Mo- 
hammedans. They have temples and divin- 
ities of their own. It has sometimes been 
supj)osed that they were addicted to offering 
human sacrifices ; but this is very doubtful, 
unless, perhaps, on the death of relatives — 
a custom which has prevailed extensively 
throughout the nations both of Asia and Af- 
rica. A most efficient and energetic mission 
has been established among the Assamese by 
the American Baptist Union. 

Assassins, a small tribe or clan of fanat- 
ical men, probably a branch of a Moham 
medan sect called the Schites, having their 
principal home in the mountains in Northern 
Syria. Although now but a small and insig- 
nificant body, they at one time occupied a 
considerable tract of land among the mount- 
ains of Lebanon. Their religion was a 
strange compound of the Zoroastrian, Jew- 
ish, Christian, and Mohammedan creeds ; but 
their distinguishing tenet was the union of 
the Deity with the chief, whose orders were 
promptly obeyed as coming directly from 
heaven. From their marauding and mur- 
derous habits, they were dreaded by all 
within their reach, and powerful princes are 
said to have secretly paid tribute to their 
sheik, the Old Man of the Mountain, to se- 
cure the safety of their life and property. 
Before he assigned to them their bloody 
tasks, he had them thrown into a state of 
frenzy by the intoxicating influence of the 
Hashish, which led to their being called 
Sashishmen. By the Europeans this title 
was corrupted to Assassins, and transplant- 
ed into the languages of the West, with the 
signification of murderers. By some, how- 
ever, the name is supi^osed to be a corrup- 
tion of Hassanees, the followers of Hassan, 
their first chief, or possibly derived from a 
Turkish word signifying to kill silently and 
by surprise. By many these fierce people 
are supposed to be descendants of Ishmael, 
and are sometimes called Ismayeyilah, or 
Ishmaelites. 

Assumption (Festival of the). In both 
the Romish and Greek Churches, this festi- 
val is observed on the 15th of August, in 
honor of the alleged miraculous ascent of 
the Virgin Mary into heaven. There is no 
account in Scripture of the manner of the 
Virgin Mary's death, and this feast is found- 
ed on legends. It was first instituted in the 
seventh century. See Mariolatry ; Mary. 

Assurance of Faith. This term is used 
in two senses. It is sometimes employed to 
signify the doctrine that one may have per- 
fect confidence in his final salvation — a doc- 
trine which rests upon that of the PerscAer- 
ance of Saints (q. v.). It is more commonly 



employed to indicate the belief that the 
Christian need not be in a state of uncer- 
tainty concerning his spiritual condition ; 
that there is such a thing as having a per- 
fect and invincible assurance of divine par- 
don, and of peace with God, which does not 
rest upon inferences and conclusions, but 
upon the witness of the Spirit in the heart 
— a witness manifested in '^his comforting 
us, his stirring us up to prayer, his reproof 
of our sins, his drawing us to works of 
love." As thus stated, it would probably be 
theoretically denied by few theologians, al- 
though it is, iierhaps, experienced by but 
few Christians. But it has sometimes led 
to, or at least been held in, a spuit of self- 
conceit, and those who hold to Assurance of 
Faith have been confounded with the Per- 
fectionists (q. v.). 

Assyria, Asshur, a former great kingdom 
of Asia, which probably derived its name 
from Asshur, the son of Shfem.^ Its site was 
the upper portion of the Mesopotamian val- 
ley. The cities which formed its capitals 
lay, all of them, upon the Middle Tigris, and 
the heart of the country was a district on 
either side of that river, inclosed within the 
thirty-fifth and thirty-seventh parallel. By 
degrees, these limits were enlarged, and the 
term Assyria came to be used in a loose and 
vague way of a vast and ill-defined tract ex- 
tending on all sides from this central region. 
On the west, the Mediterranean and the River 
Halys appear to have been the boundaries ; 
on the north, a fluctuating line, never reach- 
ing the Euxine, nor extending beyond the 
northern frontier of Armenia ; on the east, 
the Caspian Sea and the Great Salt Desert ; 
on the south, the Persian Gulf and the Des- 
ert of Arabia. This territory has a length, 
diagonally from Diabekr to the alluvium of 
the lower valley, of 350 miles, and a breadth, 
between the Euphrates and the mountain 
chain of Zagros, varying from 300 to 170 
miles. Allowing Assyria the extent here as- 
signed, her area was probably not less than 
75,000 square miles — very much larger than 
Chaldea or Babylon, exceeding that of Prus- 
sia or Austria, and almost equaling that of 

j Great Britain. She was thus, from her size, 
calculated to play an important part in his- 
tory, since no nation with which, at the peri- 
od of her greatness, she came in contact pos- 
sessed so extensive a territory. Within these 

: limits, the face of the country is tolerably 
varied. Lower ranges of hills on the north 
and north-east adjoin the chains of Armenia 
and Kiu'distan ; undulating districts succeed, 
sinking down into the great Mesopotamian 

j flat intersected by the beautiful limestone 
ridge of the Sin jar. The tracts on the right 
bank of the Tigris are almost desert ; those 
on the left, eastward, are well watered and 
more fertile ; and there are still evident traces 
of ancient cultivation and prosperity. The 

. 1 Geu. X., 22. 



ASSYRIA 



81 



ASSYRIA 




33- LONe EA^TOrCRCENV^/CH 4|-fi- 



Map of Assyria. 



climate varies, of course, with the latitude, 
and elevation from an " extreme " one in the 
north of Western Assyria to a more moder- 
ate one in Eastern Assyria. But little rain 
falls in Assyria, and the greatest part of the 
country, elevated above the courses of the 
rivers, tends, in the absence of a sufficient 
water supply, to become a bare and arid 
desert. If water is to be supplied in ade- 
quate quantity to the thirsty soil, it must 
be derived from the rivers. The dependence 
of the present inhabitants, both for pasture 
and grain, is upon the occasional rains of 
winter, and. the frequent showers of spring. 
There is scarcely any ii-rigation ; and though 
the soil is so productive that wherever the 
land is cultivated, good crops are commonly 
obtained by means of the spring rains, and 
elsewhere Nature robes herself in verdure of 
the richest kind during the spring, yet the 
heat of summer spreads barrenness over the 
scene, the crops ripen and are gathered in ; 
" the grass withereth, the flower fadeth ;" 
nothing continues to live but what is coarse, 
dry, and sapless, and the land, before an Eden, 
becomes a desert. It is certain that over 
6 



wide districts, now quite incapable of sus- 
taining a settled population, there was main- 
tained in Assyrian times an effective system 
of irrigation, whereby regions that at pres- 
ent with difficulty furnish a partial subsist- 
ence to wandering Arab tribes were enabled 
to supply to scores of populous cities suffi- 
cient food for their consumption. The only 
products of Assyria which acquired such 
note as to be called by its name were its silk 
and its citron trees. We find all trees, from 
the oak in the North to the olive in the 
South ; of which the most important are the 
orange, lemon, pomegranate, apricot, vine, 
fig, and mulberry. The product for which 
Assyria is remarkable is the manna (q. v.), 
which is deposited on the trees and shrubs, 
and also on the sand and rocks, 

InhaMtants and Civilization. — It appears 
now to be doubted by none that the ques- 
tion as to the origin of the Assyrians is an- 
swered in Scripture : '^ Out of that land," 
Shinar, " went forth Asshur and builded Nin- 
eveh." That they had previously dwelt in 
the lower part of the great valley, is indi- 
cated by the whole character of their archi- 



ASSYRIA 



82 



ASSYRIA 



tecture; being a peculiar style adapted to 
low, flat alluvium, where there were no nat- 
ural elevations, and where stone was not to 
be had; and their religion is almost iden- 
tical with that which prevailed in the lower 
country from a very early time. The evi- 
dence of the monuments thus accords in a 
most striking way with the statement of the 
Bible.^ Deriving originally letters and ele- 
ments of learning from Babylon, the Assyri- 
ans appear to have been content with the 
knowledge thus obtained, and neither in 
literature nor in science to have progressed 
much beyond their instructors. Their writ- 
ten characters are manifestly derived from 
the Chaldeans. But their art and manufac- 
tures were, in the main, of native growth, and 
from these we may best gather an impression 
of the national character. These, as they are 
described by Professor Rawlinson,^ show us 
a patient, laborious, painstaking people, with 
more appreciation of the useful than the or- 
namental, and of the actual than the ideal. 
Architecture, the only essentially useful fine 
art, forms their chief glory ; sculpture, and 
still more painting, are subsidiary to it. At- 
tention is concentrated upon the most useful 
edifice, the palace and house ; the ideal and 
spiritual, the temple and the tomb, are sec- 
ondary, and api^ear as appendages of the pal- 
ace. In sculpture, it is the actual, the his- 
torically true, which the artist strove to rep- 
resent. There is nothing in Assyrian bas- 
reliefs (except a few mystic figures of their 
deities) which is not imitated from nature, 
with careful finish and minute detail, to the 
elaboration of every hair in a beard, and ev- 
ery stitch in the embroidery of a dress. The 
Assyrians were the first to take art from the 
conventional, and apply it to the vivid rep- 
resentation of the highest scenes of human 
life, and this with an ever-increasing grace 
and delicacy of execution. They were skill- 
ed in engraving even the hardest substances, 
Their carved ornaments, engraved gems, dish- 
es, ear-rings, vases, and bronzes are invaria- 
bly of elegant form, and indicate a consider- 
able knowledge of metallurgy and other arts. 
Among them is transparent glass, believed 
till lately to have been a modern invention. 
But the most remarkable discovery of all is 
that of a magnifying lens. In their metal- 
lurgy they used bronze, composed of tin and 
copper, in exactly the proportions used as 
the best at the present time ; and where more 
than common strength was required, as in 
the legs of tables, the bronze was ingeniously 
cast over an inner structure of iron — a prac- 
tice unknown to moderns until the discov- 
ery of Assyrian specimens, from which it has 
been imitated. They knew the use of the 
pulley, the lever, and the roller, and lifted 
large masses to considerable heights. Add 
to this that they were acquainted with the 



» Gen. X., 11.- 
Eastern World." 



•Five Great Monarchies of the ^ Josh. x. 
xxxvii., 29 



principles of the arch, that they constructed 
tunnels, aqueducts, and drains, and it will 
be apparent that their civilization equaled 
that of almost any ancient country, and did 
not fall immeasurably behind our boasted 
modern achievements. But they were still, 
in most important points, barbarians ; their 
government was rude and inartificial — a sort 
of confederation, formed of many tributary 
states, whose kings were so far independent 
that they were only bound to furnish troops 
to the superior lord in time of war, and to 
furnish him a yearly tribute. On the occa- 
sion of every change, these tributary states 
seem to have striven to throw off the Assyri- 
an yoke, and refused tribute ; hence the sov- 
ereign was always engaged in putting down 
some struggles for independence. War was 
Avaged with ruthless ferocity. Cities were 
attacked by raising artificial mounds ; the 
besieging armies sheltered themselves be- 
hind shields of wicker-work, and battered 
the defenses with rams. In the field they 
had formidable war - chariots. Many pas- 
sages in the Bible^ are illustrated by the 
sculptures, showing the modes of punish- 
ment practiced on the vanquished. They 
were flayed, they were impaled, their eyes 
and tongues were cut out, rings were placed 
in their lips, and their brains were beaten 
out with maces. The religion was a poly- 
theism under various forms. The chief de- 
ity was Asshur, probably the Nisroch of the 
Scriptures (the eagle -headed deity of the 
sculptures). Next to Asshur was a triad, 
answering to the classical Jupiter, Neptune, 
and Pluto. But there were 4000 others — 
the sky, sun, moon, and planetary bodies 
presiding over the phenomena of nature and 
the events of life. 

History. — The independent kingdom of 
Assyria covered a space of at least a thou- 
sand years. The period of extensive dom- 
ination seems to be included between about 
1150 and 625 B.C. — not much over five cen- 
turies. The Assyrian Empire, at its widest 
extent, seems to have reached from the Med- 
iterranean and the River Kalys in the west, 
to the Caspian Sea and the Great Desert in 
the east ; and from the northern frontier of 
Armenia south to the Persian Gulf. It em- 
bodied the earliest, simplest, and most crude 
conceptions of a widely-extended dominion. 
It was a " kingdom empire," like those of 
Solomon, Nebuchadnezzar, and Chedorlao- 
mer (q. v.), and was the largest, the longest in 
duration, and the best known of all such gov- 
ernments. Its most famous monarchs were 
Ninus, and his widow and successor, Semira- 
mis. When the great tide of Scythian inva- 
sion, that swept from the Caucasus even to 
the borders of Egypt, had ebbed, there was 
left but the shadow of Assyria's former self; 
and her downfall, prophesied by Isaiah, Na- 



24; 2 Kings xix., 
Ezek. xxvi., 7-12. 



; Psa. Ix., 12; Isa. 



ASSYRIA 



83 



ASSYRIA 



hrun, and Zephaniab/ was effected by the 
Medes. Assyria had served its purpose when 
it had been God's scourge for his people Is- 
rael. It had prepared the East for a ceutral- 



thee, that no more of thy name be sown. I 
will make thy grave ; there is no healing of 
thy bruise." Assjrria fell before the Medes 
and Babylonians, was divided between her 




ized government, and its work was done. And 

it came to pass as the Lord had said, '' The 

Lord hath given a commandment concerning 

i Isa. X., 5-19; Nahum; Zeph. iL, 13-15. 



conquerors, and was never again reckoned 
among the nations ; the very places being 
for long centuries unknown where her proud- 
est cities had stood. The following are the 



ASTROLOGY 



84 



ASTRONOMY 



principal specific prophecies concerning As- 
syria : Isa. v., 25-30 ; x., 5-34; xxxvii.j Nah. 
i.-iii. ; Zeph. ii., 13-15. 

Astrology (science of the stars). At an ear- 
ly period of the world, the worship of the 
stars arose from that contemplation of them 
which in every part of the globe, and partic- 
ularly in the East, has been found a source 
of deep and tranquil pleasure. Men deemed 
either fire, or wind, or the swift air, or the cir- 
cle of the stars, or the violent water, or the 
lights of the heavens to be gods. According- 
ly, the religion of the Egyptians, Chaldees, 
Assyrians, and ancient Arabians, was noth- 
ing else than star -worship. The heavenly 
bodies were accepted by them as symbols 
and manifestations of the deity. Astrology 
was thus at once the foundation of knowl- 
edge and of worship. Science and religion 
were one. The priests were savants. The 
stars were the subjects of their studies and 
their adoration ; they were believed to exer- 
cise an important influence on the destinies 
of mankind ; a comprehension of their move- 
ments was believed to afford valuable infor- 
mation concerning the future. The character 
of this worship was formed from the notions 
of the good or ill which certain stars occa- 
sioned. To placate the baneful star, to adore 
the beneficent one, was in large measure its 
object. Astrology found its sphere princi- 
pally in stars connected with the birth of in- 
dividuals. Among the Egyptians, every day 
was deemed to be under the influence of some 
star ; according to the day on which a person 
was born, so would be the events he would 
meet with, the character he would bear, and 
the period of his death. Astrology concerned 
itself also with the determination of lucky 
and unlucky days. The Chaldeans " inhab- 
iting," as Cicero says, "vast plains, whence 
they had a full view of the heavens on every 
side," became so famed for their supposed 
skill in astrology, that among the Babyloni- 
ans the words Chaldean and astrologer were 
regarded as synonymous.^ The practice of 
astrology was forbidden to the Hebrews.'^ 
In Greece, astrology was held in estimation 
not only by private individuals, but even by 
public magistrates. The, Spartan ephori, ac- 
cording to Plutarch, made regular observa- 
tion of the heavens every ninth night during 
the year. The same respect was paid by the 
Romans to the appearance of the heavens, 
and even the movements of their armies were 
often regulated by these natural phenomena. 
Numbers of those who denied the existence 
of any divinity, nevertheless believed that 
they could not safely appear in public, or 
eat, or bathe, unless they had first carefully 
ascertained from the almanac the position of 
the planet Mercury, or the distance of the 
moon from the crab. The introduction of 
Christianity brought astrology into complete 

1 Isa. xlvii., 13; Dan. ii., 2; iv., 7; v., 7.-2 Deut. 
xviii., 10. 



discredit ; and in the Christian Church, from 
the earliest times, astrologers were looked 
upon as engaged in a pagan and idolatrous 
practice, and, accordingly, subjected to the 
severest ecclesiastical censure. In spite of 
the opposition of the Church, however, as- 
trology was maintained not only among the 
ignorant and vulgar, but among the higher 
classes, during the Middle Ages. Cardinal 
D'Aniy, "the eagle of the doctors of France," 
who died in 1420, maintained that the Del- 
uge might have been predicted by astrology. 
Even Tycho Brahe and Kepler, who saw the 
weakness of astrology as a science, could not 
shake off the fascination, or deny a certain 
connection between the " constellations " of 
the planets and the qualities of those bom 
under them. The Copernican system gave 
the death-blow to astrology. Belief in it is 
not now ostensibly professed in any Chris- 
tian country, though now and then an advo- 
cate appears. But it still holds sway in the 
East, and among Mohammedans wherever 
situated ; and the craving of the ignorant 
of all countries for divination is gratified by 
the publication of multitudes of almanacs 
containing astrological predictions, though 
the writers no longer believe in them. 

Astronomy ( laivs of tlie stars ), a science 
which appears to have grown out of as- 
trology (q. v.). The cradle of astronomy is 
to be found in Asia. Pliny ascribes its or- 
igin to Phoenician mariners, and speaks of 
astronomical observations found on burned 
bricks among the Babylonians, which ascend 
to above 2200 years before his time. Alex- 
ander sent to Aristotle from Babylon a se- 
ries of astronomical observations extending 
through 1900 years. The astronomical knowl- 
edge of the Chinese and Indians is claimed 
to have existed from a still earlier period. 
From the remote East astronomy traveled 
in a westerly direction. The Egyptians at 
a very early period had some acquaintance 
with it. To them is to be ascribed a pretty 
near determination of the length of the 
year, as consisting of 365 days. The Egj^- 
tians were the teachers of the Greeks. 
Among the Israelites no astronomical knowl- 
edge flourished but that simplest kind which 
the clear skies of their land would have 
taught the shepherds who watched their 
flocks by night. This was the case with 
the Arabs, who mastered this primitive as- 
tronomy, without ever making great prog- 
ress in the theoretical part of the science. 
A distinguishing peculiarity of the astro- 
nomical views of the Israelites is the tone 
of religious and devotional sentiment that 
pervades them ; nor is it possible to find in 
any other writings, even at this day, so pure 
and elevated piety, in connection with obser- 
vations on the starry firmament, as may be 
gathered even in single books of the Bible.* 
As earlv '"s the time of Job^ the coustella- 



Amos V. 



Psa. xis.— 2 Job ix., 9 ; xxxviii., 31. 



ATHALIAH 



85 



ATHENS 



tions were distinguislied. one from another, 
and designated by peculiar and appropriate 
names. 

Athaliah (afflicted ly Jeliovali), daughter 
of Ahab and Jezebel, and seventh sovereign 
of Judah. She married Jehoram, the son of 
Jehoshaphat, king of Judah, and introduced 
into the kingdom the worship of Baal. After 
the great revolution, by which Jehu seated 
himself on the throne of Samaria, she killed 
all the members of the royal family of Judah 
who had escaped his sword, availing herself, 
probably, of her position as king's mother 
to perpetrate the crime. From the slaugh- 
ter of the royal house, one infant, named Jo- 
ash, the youngest son of Ahaziah, was res- 
cued, and subsequently placed on the throne 
by Jehoiada, the high-priest, by whose com- 
mand Athaliah herself was put to death, in 
the seventh year of her reign. See Jehoi- 
ada ; JoASH. [2 Kings xi. ; 2 Chron. xxii., 
10-12 ; xxiii., 1-15.] 

Atheism {no God). In strictness of 
speech, atheism applies only to that philos- 
ophy which denies the existence of a su- 
preme, divine Being. In this sense atheism 
is exceedingly rare ; still, it has an existence. 
Thus the Epicureans asserted the eternal 
existence of matter and motion, and attrib- 
uted the origin of the world to a fortuitous 



concourse of atoms. Atheism, in this pure 
and simple sense of the term, is nearly, if 
not quite, extinct. There are no writers left 
of any note who maintain it ; nor, in fact, 
can it be maintained by any one not abso- 
lutely ignorant of modern science. There 
are, however, four modern views, which 
amount practically to atheism, though this 
term is repudiated by their advocates. One 
of these asserts that matter and force con- 
stitute all existence, and that what is ordi- 
narily regarded as spirit is only a product 
of matter ; the universal force which per- 
vades all matter is the only God which this 
philosophy recognizes. A second regards 
God and the universe as the same ; all is 
God, and God is all. A third admits the 
existence of a God — ^not, however, a living, 
personal being, but an unconscious and ab- 
stract one — an idea, not a reality. A fourth 
theory positively maintains the existence 
of a great First Cause, but denies that any 
thing can be known concerning him. These 
four forms of infidelity will be treated of 
under the respective titles of Materialism ; 
Pantheism ; Idealism ; and Positivism. 

Athens was the most celebrated city of 
Greece, and was distinguished for the mili- 
tary talents, the learning, the eloquence, and 
the politeness of its inhabitants. It is said 




Circuit of (he Ancient City 
before the Persian Wars 
J?oate of the Panatlicnaic 
JProcesswn 



Map of Ancient Athens. 



ATHENS 



86 



ATONEMENT 



to have been founded by Cecrops, and an 
Egyptian colony, about 1556 years before the 
Christian era. It was called Athens in honor 
of Athena, or Minerva, who was chiefly wor- 
shiped there, and to whom the city was dedi- 
cated. The city at first was built on a rock, 
in the midst of a spacious plain ; but in proc- 
ess of time the whole plain was covered with 
buildings, which were called the lower city. 
No city of Greece or of the ancient world 
was so much distinguished for philosophy, 
learning, and the arts. The most celebrated 
warriors, poets, statesmen, and philosophers 
were either born or flourished there. The 
most celebrated models of architecture and 
statuary were there, and for ages it held its 
pre-eminence in civilization, arts, and arms. 
The city still exists, though it has been often 
subject to the calamities of war, to a change 



part to it the blessings of the Christian re- 
ligion. 

To the Christian student Athens is chiefly 
interesting in connection with Paul's visit to 
it, as described in Acts xvii. It was a city 
wholly given to idolatry. There were more 
gods in Athens than in all the rest of the 
country. "It was easier," says Petronius, 
"to find a god there than a man." Here 
paganism had attained all the religion of 
which it was capable. From Athens, as the 
centre of Grecian culture, went forth those 
influences which were corrupting all of 
Greece. Its religion was a religion of ar- 
chitectural splendor, but of moral weakness. 
The schools of Plato and Aristotle had given 
place to those of a corrupt Epicureanism.* 
The people, dissatisfied alike with the re- 
ligion and the philosophy of the past, and 




Athens Restored. 



of masters, as well as to the moldering hand 
of time. It was twice burned by the Per- 
sians, destroyed by Philip II. of Macedon, 
again by Sylla, was plundered by Tiberius, 
desolated by the Goths in the reign of Clau- 
dius, and the whole territory was ravaged 
and ruined by Alaric. From the reign of 
Justinian to the thirteenth century, the city 
remained in obscurity, though it continued 
to be a town at the head of a small state. 
It was seized by Omar, general of Moham- 
med the Great, in 1455, was sacked by the 
Venetians in 1464, and was taken by the 
Turks again in 1688. In 1812 the popula- 
tion was 12,000 ; but the city has since been 
desolated by the sanguinary contests be- 
tween the Turks and the Greeks, and left 
almost a mass of ruins. It is now free, 
and efforts are making by Christians to im- 



too well educated to remain contentedly in 
ignorance, were famed throughout the laud 
for that intellectual restlessness which the 
sacred writer has indicated. The altar to 
the Unknown God which Paul made the 
text of his discourse, is referred to in classic 
writers f and the infidelity which broke out 
into open ridicule of the doctrine of the res- 
urrection, and brought his address to a sud- 
den close, was characteristic of a city whose 
religion and philosophy were alike mate- 
rialistic. See Paul; Areopagus; Altar. 
[Acts xvii., 16-34.] 

Atonement. This word occurs only once 
in the N. T. ; and though it is of frequent oc- 
currence in the O. T., it is not there used in 
a theological sense. The same Greek word, 
however, occurs several times in the N. T., 



1 See Epxoueeans.— 2 See Altar. 



ATONEMENT 



87 



ATONEMENT 



being ordinarily translated by "reconcilia- 
tion."^ The etymological signification of the 
English word is indicated by its composition. 
To atone is to make at-one. The doctrine 
of the atonement assumes, therefore, that 
God and man are somehow at variance, and 
that reconciliation, or at-one-ment, is neces- 
sary. This idea not only underlies the Gos- 
pel, but is the fundamental idea of all relig- 
ions, heathen as well as Christian. There is 
in the human soul an all but universal con- 
sciousness of estrangement from God, and 
nearly all religious systems are built upon 
this consciousness. It is the office of the 
priest to mediate between the offender and 
the offended deity ; the office of the sacrifice, 
and of the self-inflicted tortures, to make 
peace with an offended God. And even when 
a reformation like that of Buddha in India 
attempts to sweep away the whole system 
of heathen ceremonies, and substitute a re- 
ligion of repentance and purity, the doctrine 
of the atonement still remains, for it still 
continues to be taught that repentance and 
holiness are necessary to make reconciliation 
between the sinner and the Deity. There is 
perhaps, therefore, no doctrine about which 
there has been more elaborate discussion 
than the doctrine of the atonement. The 
question how man shall be reconciled with 
his Maker, as it is the all-important question 
of life, so it is the one which constitutes 
the most important line of division between 
different denominations. Without entering 
into an explanation of the views of those who 
deny that there is any variance, or any rec- 
onciliation necessary, and without entering 
into the arguments by which the doctrine 
of the atonement is customarily sustained, 
for which the reader is referred to theolog- 
ical treatises, we propose to give in this arti- 
cle a summary of the different views which 
have prevailed in the Christian Church. 

That a doctrine of atonement is taught 
by the apostles, and indirectly, even before 
the crucifixion, by Christ himself, is hardly 
a matter of dispute. Those who deny this 
doctrine altogether, also, for the most part, 
deny the authority of the Scriptures. The 
apostles, however, recognizing the universal 
heart -hunger for a Saviour, seem to have 
been more engaged in pointing out Jesus 
Christ as the one through whom salvation 
was proclaimed, than in proving the neces- 
sity for a Saviour, or explaining the "phi- 
losophy of the plan of salvation." The ear- 
ly fathers imbibed their spirit, and followed 
their example ; and while their works are full 
of the recognition of the fact that Christ's 
sufferings and death are the only ground of 
pardon, it is not until the third century that 
we find any considerable traces of the subse- 
quent discussions why those sufferings and 
death were necessary, or hotv they operate in 
effecting a reconciliation between God and 



^ Kom. v., 11 ; xi., 15; 2 Cor. v., 18, 19. 



man. The first theory of any considerable 
importance is generally designated as the — 

1. Satisfaction Theory. — Of this, Anselm, in 
the beginning of the twelfth century, may, 
perhaps, be regarded as the author, though 
the germs of his teaching are to be found 
as far back as the days of Athanasius, in 
the fourth century. According to this the- 
ory, there is that in the nature of God him- 
self which demands punishment for sin, and 
which must 'be satisfied before pardon is 
possible. The infinite guilt which man had 
contracted by his sins against an infinite 
God could be atoned for by no mere crea- 
ture, only by a person possessed of an in- 
finite nature. Thus, in order to atone for 
the sins of the human race, it was neces- 
sary that there should be a God-man, whose 
human nature should enable him to incur 
the debt, while his divine nature should en- 
able him to pay it. Nor could his holy life 
suffice for this atonement, since even he was 
under obligation to live perfectly. But be- 
ing sinless, he was under no sentence of 
death ; hence, by voluntarily dying for the 
honor of God, a recompense from God be- 
came his due, and this recompense consists 
in the forgiveness of the sins of his breth- 
ren. This view has been modified in various 
ways by different theologians since ; but its 
essential idea that an atonement is necessary 
in order to satisfy a sentiment or principle 
in the nature of God, underlies the doctrine 
as it is held at the present day by a consid- 
erable class of theologians, especially those 
in the Scotch and Old-School Presbyterian 
Churches. It has even been held that Christ 
literally descended into hell when crucified, 
and suffered the pains of the lost — the exact 
punishment which would have been inflict- 
ed upon the sinners being meted out to him ; 
and it is even argued that, being possessed 
of an infinite nature, he was capable of suf- 
fering in three days as much as the en- 
tire human race would suffer in an eternity. 
From this view has sprung the doctrine of 
limited atonement, i. e., that only sufficient pro- 
vision was made by the sacrifice of Christ 
for the pardon of those whom God had fore- 
known and chosen to life from eternity, in 
opposition to the view that salvation is 
provided for all, though it proves efficacious 
only to those who accept it. 

2. Governmental Theory. — The government- 
al theory of the atonement, while it lays 
equal stress upon the doctrine, affords a dif- 
ferent interpretation. It sprang, probably, 
from a revulsion of feeling against certain 
views of God's character as hard and unfor- 
giving, which became identified in the pop- 
ular mind with the satisfaction theory. Ac- 
cording to the governmental theory, God is 
always perfectly willing to forgive repent- 
ant sinners. He requires no satisfaction or 
atonement. As the father, in the parable of 
the Prodigal Son, received the returning pen- 



ATONEIk'IENT t 

itent, so God is ready to receive those who 
unfeignedly turn from their sins unto him. 
But in order to the maintenance of any gov- 
ernment, it is necessary that the violation 
of law should he punished. The ohject of 
this punishment is not merely the reforma- 
tion of the offender ; it is often inflicted, both 
in family and civil governments, upon offend- 
ers who are completely reformed. Its ohject 
is the maintenance of the law, and the pres- 
ervation of government itself. Man hav- 
ing sinned against the law, it is necessary to 
punish him, or to provide some substitute 
which shall produce the same effect — ^not to 
satisfy God, but to maintain the law which 
would be undermined by a system of free 
pardons. In other words, God could not ad- 
minister a just government and freely for- 
give sins, which are not merely personal to 
himself, but which affect the universal king- 
dom which he rules. This theory, in sub- 
stance, though with many minor modifica- 
tions, is the one which prevails among the 
evangelical churches of New England, and 
in the New School branch of the Presby- 
terian Church. It is substantially the one 
held by the Methodist divines, though as 
a class they are generally more engaged 
in practically applying the doctrine of the 
atonement than in theoretical explanations 
of its philosophy. 

3. Moral Influence Theory. — The moral in- 
fluence theory, which dates from the days 
of Socinus,^ maintains a doctrine of atone- 
ment, but denies that it is vicarious ; that is, 
that Christ suffered in any proper sense the 
punishment of man's sins. In this respect 
it differs, as the reader will observe, from 
the preceding theories, all of which agree in 
regarding Jesus as, strictly speaking, a sub- 
stitute for man. Accordiug to this theory, 
God is always ready and able to pardon the 
sinner. There is, indeed, a variance between 
them, but the estrangement is all on man's 
part ; the obstacles to his forgiveness are only 
in his own heart. The sole object of Christ's 
sufferings and death is expressed by his dec- 
laration, " If I be lifted up from the earth, I 
will draw all men unto me." In other words, 
the only object of the atonement, according 
to this view, is to afford an exhibition of 
divine love and forgiving kindness ; it acts 
only upon the human mind, not upon the di- 
vine. ^' It does not influence God to forgive, 
but influences man to repent, and by repent- 
ance to be renewed and reconciled to God." 
The advocates of this theory do not deny 
that there is an almost universal impression 
that God requires to be appeased or satis- 
fied before sin can be pardoned, but they 
assert that this impression is erroneous, and 
that it is the very object of the atonement 
to correct it. They do not deny that in hu- 
man government punishment is a necessity, 
and free forgiveness is impracticable, but 
1 See SooiNiANS. 



? ATONEMENT (DAY OF) 

they assert that this is an imperfection be- 
longing to the human state, and does not ex- 
ist in the government of God ; and they deny 
that sufferings borne by an innocent person 
afford any just substitute for punishment 
inflicted upon the guilty. This is the view 
generally maintained by Unitarian divines, 
but has also found expression in a modified 
form from some who are in other respects 
regarded as orthodox. It should, howev-er, 
be added, that some Unitarians deny that 
Christ's death was in any sense atoning. Ac- 
cording to their view, he saves us only by 
teaching us absolute truth, and by setting 
us a perfect example ; saves us only so far 
as we accept that truth and follow that ex- 
ample. 

4. To these views should be added a fourth, 
which, though it has rarely found expression 
in theology, is perhaps the one most common 
in the hearts and experiences of the people. 
This view, hinted at by Bishop Butler, may 
be briefly stated thus : The N. T. teaches us 
that we are saved, not alone by the exam- 
ple and teachings of Jesus, but by his suffer- 
ings and death. It is the cross of Christ 
which is the power of God unto salvation. 
Moreover, it is by viewing the cross of Christ, 
not by mere endeavors to follow his exam- 
ple, that the soul obtains peace and con- 
sciousness of pardon. But how it is that 
Christ crucified saves us is not revealed. 
The sins of man were the occasion of Christ's 
death, and by his death he saves us from our 
sins ; this is the fact revealed alike by Scrip- 
ture and by experience ; but the Scripture 
makes no revelation of the reason why that 
death was necessary, nor is it possible, by 
any analysis of experience, to come to any 
satisfactory conclusion as to the method in 
which that death operates in reconciling the 
soul with God. We have simply to accept 
the fact that Christ has died for us, and that 
through his death we are saved. According 
to this view, the pMlosopTiy of the plan of sal- 
vation is not a matter of revelation, nor one 
upon which any thing can be known with 
certainty. 

For a consideration of the sacrificial sys- 
tem of the O. T., and its relations to the doc- 
trine of the atonement, see Sacrifice. 

Atonement (Day of). In the Talmud, the 
Day of Atonement is styled the " Great Fast- 
ing," or sometimes " The Day." It was ob- 
served on the tenth day of the seventh month, 
Tisri, and was a day of entire rest from all 
labor — the only day in the year when the 
entire congregation of Israel fasted.^ Upon 
this day alone throughout the whole year 
was the high-priest permitted to enter the 
Holy of Holies, but not without due prepara- 
tion under pain of death. After the usual 
morning sacrifice, having laid aside the rich 
robes of his office and bathed himself, he put 
on the holy linen garments. He then led into 
1 Lev. xxiii., 2T-32. 



ATTALIA 



89 



AUTHORIZED VERSION 



the outer sanctuary a young bullock for a 
sin-offering, and a ram for a burnt-offering — 
botb of them for himself and his household, 
including, as some suppose, the whole body 
of priests and Levites. Having thus com- 
pleted his personal preparations, the public 
ceremonies appointed for the day followed. 
These are fully detailed in the sixteenth 
chapter of Leviticus. The most character- 
istic feature of these services were the cere- 
monies connected with the scape-goat. By 
these peculiar ceremonies, by which, while 
one goat was sacrificed upon the altar as a 
sin-offering, his fellow bore away the sins 
of the people into the wilderness, the double 
lesson was taught that there was no remis- 
sion of sins without the shedding of blood, 
while by the sacrifice, thus typified, of the 
Lamb of God, the sins of the people were 
buried in oblivion — blotted from the book 
of God's remembrance. Thus the distinct- 
ive character and design of the day was to 
bring sin — the collective sin of the whole 
year — to remembrance, for the purpose of be- 
ing earnestly dealt with and atoned. Since 
the destruction of Jerusalem, and in conse- 
quence of the impossibility of offering the 
usual sacrifices, the Jews, though they still 
observe the day of expiation, have substi- 
tuted very different observances from those 
employed. 

Attalia, a maritime town at the mouth 
of the River Catambactes, in Pamphylia, not 
far from the border of Lycea. It derived 
its name from its founder. Attains Philadel- 
I)hus, who built it in a convenient place, to 
command the trade of Syria or Egypt. It 
still exists under the name of Adalia, with a 
population of 8000, and is the chief port on 
the south coast of Asia Minor. Its numer- 
ous Roman ruins attest its ancient great- 
ness. [Acts xiv., 25.] 

Attrition, an imperfect kind of contrition 
which, according to the Council of Trent, 
" arises from a consideration of the turpi- 
tude of sin, or from a fear of hell and punish- 
ment." With the absolution of the priest, 
this, according to Romish doctrine, avails 
to secure divine pardon. Without penance 
and absolution, nothing suffices except per- 
fect contrition. See Contrition. 

Augustinian Monks, an order of monks 
in the Romish Church Avhose origin is by 
legend traced back to Augustin, a.d. 354. 
In fact, however, the idea of such an order 
originated with Pope Innocent IV., though 
it was carried into execution, a.d. 1256, by 
his successor, Alexander IV., who combined 
several scattered hermitical congregations 
into one order. The order increased under 
several succeeding popes, until it embraced 
more than 2000 rehgious houses. Corrup- 
tions gradually crept in, and, in consequence 
of its degeneracy, a more austere society 
was formed, and, a.d. 1600, was confirmed by 
Pope Clement VIII. This is one of the or- 



ders of mendicant or begging friars, and to 
these Reformed Augustinians Luther is said 
to have belonged. After the French Revo- 
lution, the order was wholly suppressed in 
France, Spain, and Portugal, and partially 
in Italy and Southern Germany. An order 
of nuns, called Augustines, allege that their 
society was established by St. Augustin, and 
that his sister was their first abbess. 

Augustus, the first Roman emperor. He 
was the son of Cains Octavius, by Atia, Ju- 
lius Caesar's niece, and was born B.C. 62. 
Being adopted by his great-uncle, and made 
his general heir, he came into Italy as Cains 
Julius Caesar Octavianus. He formed one of 
what is called the second triumvirate, with 
Mark Antony and Lepidus. Lepidus was 
soon set aside, and Antony entirely defeated 
at the battle of Actium, B.C. 31. After this 
victory, Octavius was saluted emperor (im- 
peratm') by the Senate, and, B.C. 27, had the 
designation, or title, Augustus. It was he 
who confirmed Herod as King of the Jews, 
and enlarged his dominions. In his reign 
our Lord was born. He died at Nola, in 
Campania, in the 76th year of his age, a.d. 14. 
[Luke ii., 1.] 

Aureola, or Aureole {gold -colored), the 
crown of rays designed to represent flame, 
put by the old painters around the figures 
of saints, investing the whole body, as the 
nimbus does the head. 

Authorized Version, the phrase common- 
ly used to designate the English version of 
Scripture in general use at the present day. 
Attempts were made to translate the Bible 
into the English, or rather the Anglo-Saxon, 
as early as the seventh century. Such a ver- 
sion was attempted by the venerable Bede, 
and another, in the ninth century, by Alfred 
the Great ; but all these attempts were frag- 
mentary and imperfect. They were, for the 
most part, loose paraphrases — poems found- 
ed on Bible narratives, or abridgments ; and 
down to the year 1360, the Psalter was the 
only book of the Scriptures literally trans- 
lated into the English language. About this 
time, Wycliffe, lamenting the degeneracy of 
the Church, and the irreligion of the peo- 
ple, commenced and completed the transla- 
tion of the N. T. from the Vulgate (q. v.), or 
Latin version. For this offense he was cited 
to appear before the Court of Rome, and 
probably nothing saved him from condem- 
nation except his failing health and early 
death, in 1384. Although before the days of 
printing, his translation seems to have been 
extensively circulated ; one hundred and sev- 
enty manuscript copies, more or less, are still 
extant, some of them bearing the names of 
their royal owners. It is said that the yeo- 
men were so anxious to obtain the word of 
God, that they often gave a load of hay for 
a few chapters. One and a half centuries 
later, William Tyndale published the first 
part of the Holy Scriptures ever printed in 



AUTHORIZED VERSION 



90 



AUTHORIZED VERSION 



the Englisli language. They were printed 
at Hamburg, Cologne, and subsequently at 
Worms; for Rome had still the control of 
England, and the first edition was so effect- 
ually destroyed, that only two copies of it 
are known to exist. The priests, however, 
overreached themselves ; for they bought up 
Tyndale's Testaments at a high price, and 
publicly burned them, but by the operation 
unwittingly put Tyndale out of debt, and 
gave him the means to issue a larger and 
better edition. By treachery he was be- 
trayed into the hands of the priests and 
put to death ; but his work lives to-day as 
the basis of our English Bible. Almost sim- 
ultaneously with his death was published 
the whole Bible, translated by Myles Cover- 
dale, and soon after the (so called) Mat- 
thew's Bible, published under that name 
by John Rogers, the martyr. The acces- 
sion of Bloody Mary drove the Reformers 
from England, and gave rise to the Genevan 
Bible, so entitled from the fact that it was 
prepared and published at Geneva. After 
her death, the leading dignitaries in the En- 
glish Church, under Queen Elizabeth, took 
measures for the publication of an official 
translation, which went by the name of the 
Bishops' Bible. The pressure for a transla- 
tion had become by this time too strong to 
be resisted, and a version in English appear- 
ed toward the close of the sixteenth century, 
prepared by Romish divines, not as Tyn- 
dale's, from the Greek, but from the imper- 
fect Vulgate. It derives its popular name 
of the Douay version, from the fact that the 
O. T. was published at Douay ; the N. T. was 
published at Rheims, and is kno^vn as the 
Rhemish version. 

These various versions were, in God's prov- 
idence, only preparations for the great work 
of rendering the Bible in an authorized man- 
ner into the English tongue. On the acces- 
sion of James I., fifty-four of the first schol- 
ars of the kingdom, without regard to sect 
or party, eminent alike for learning and for 
piety, were appointed to make a new trans- 
lation. They were engaged in the work for 
eeven years — a.d. 1604-1611. Three years 
were occupied in individual investigations ; 
three more in systematic and united work. 
Only forty-seven of the fifty -four scholars 
were actually engaged. They were divided 
into six classes — two at Westminster, two at 
Oxford, and two at Cambridge. The books 
of the Bible were divided among these class- 
es. Each member of each class translated 
all the books intrusted to the class. Then 
the whole class met, and, after thorough re- 
vision, adopted a common text. Then that 
text was transmitted in succession to each 
of the other classes for revision. Then the 
text of the Avhole Bible, approved by the en- 
tire six classes, was submitted to the final re- 
vision of six elected delegates, with six con- 
sulting assistants, and their approved man- 



uscript was placed in the skillful hands of 
Dr. Smith, distinguished for his knowledge 
of ancient languages, to examine and pre- 
pare it for the press. In their work, not 
only the former English versions, but the 
Hebrew, Chaldee, Greek, Syriac, Latin, Span- 
ish, French, Italian, and Dutch were all con- 
sulted ; and among the commission were not 
only men eminent for Biblical learning, but 
men distinguished as linguists, naturalists, 
antiquarians, and historians. A single sig- 
nificant circumstance indicates how desirous 
the translators were to bring the reader into 
contact with the very letter of the originals. 
Every word which had no direct representa- 
tion in the original Hebrew or Greek was 
printed in italics, that it might be seen what 
the translators had supplied; and in the 
marginal readings was added further infor- 
mation where the minds of the translators 
were in doubt. Thus it will be seen that 
the English version of the Scriptures is real- 
ly the fruit of a century of study ; to which 
should be added the reflection, that it was 
prepared at a time when the Reformation 
was yet fresh, and the Reformers, scarcely 
free from the trammels of Rome, had not 
yet begun to divide into different denomina- 
tions. There probably had never been an 
era in the history of the Church so favorable 
for the preparation of an unsectarian trans- 
lation of the Scriptures as that in which the 
King James version was prepared. 

Still, though a remarkable translation, it 
is not claimed by any to have been inspired, 
or to be infallible. The state of the original 
text was imperfect ; the knowledge of the 
Greek and Hebrew grammars was less ac- 
curate and thorough than it is now ; the 
same Greek and Hebrew word is not infre- 
quently rendered by different English words, 
which sometimes produces confusion; and 
the English language itself has undergone 
changes which require in the translation 
some modification. These facts have led 
individual scholars to attempt further revis- 
ions, none of which have done aught to sup- 
plant the King James version. A society, 
however, has been organized in this country 
under the auspices of the Baptist denom- 
ination, and is now engaged in preparing a 
new translation ;^ and two committees — one 
on the O. T., and one on the N. T. — embra- 
cing representatives from different Protest- 
ant Churches, have been formed in England 
for the same purpose. The following resolu- 
tion, indicating the general principles upon 
which this revision is conducted, will give 
the reader an idea of what it aims to accom- 
plish : 

" Resolved, That the general principles to be follow- 
ed by both companies be as follows: 

" 1. To introduce as few alterations as possible into 
the text of the authorized version consistently with 
faithfulness. 

"2. To limit, as far as possible, the expression of 



* See Bible Sooietees. 



AUTO-DA-FE 



91 



AWL 



such alterations to the language of the authorized and 
earlier Engli-sh versions. 

"3. Each company to go twice over the portion to 
be revised — once provisionally, the second time final- 
ly—and on principles of voting as hereinafter is pro- 
vided. 

"4. That the text to be adopted be that for which 
the evidence is decidedly preponderating; and that 
when the text so adopted diflers from that from which 
the authorized version was made, the alteration be in- 
dicated in the margin. 

"5. To make or retain no change in the text on the 
second final revision by each company, except two- 
thirds of those present approve of the same, but on 
the first revision to decide by simple majorities. 

" 6. In every case of proposed alteration that may 
have given rise to discussion, to defer the voting 
thereupon till the next meeting, whensoever the same 
shall be required by one-third of those present at the 
meeting, such intended vote to be announced in the 
notice for the next meeting. 

" 7. To revise the headings of chapters, pages, para- 
graphs, italics, and pronunciation. 

"8. To refer, on the part of each company, when 
considered desirable, to divines, scholars, and literary 
men, whether at home or abroad, for their opinions." 

Auto-da-fe (act of faith) was the name 
given to the procession or ceremony that 
used to take place in Spain and Portugal at 
the execution of heretics condemned to death 
by the Inquisition. It was generally held 
on a Sunday, between Whitsunday and Ad- 
vent, very often on All -Saints' Day. At 
dawn, the dismal tolling of the great bell 
of the high, church gave the signal to be- 
gin the drama of the day, for as such it was 
looked upon by the people, who thronged to 
it in troops, believing that they did a good 
work in merely looking on. Men of the 
highest rank reckoned it prudent to give 
their countenance to the "holy" tribunal at 
these processions, and even grandees of Cas- 
tile did not disdain to make themselves fa- 
miliars of the Inquisition. The procession 
was led by the Dominicans, carrying the 
flag of the Inquisition ; next followed the 
penitents, on whom only penance had been 
laid ; behind them, and separated by a great 
cross, which was borne before, came those 
condemned to death — barefoot, clad in the 
saiihenito,^ and with a pointed cap on the 
head ; then effigies of the fugitives ; and, 
lastly, the bones of dead culprits, in black 
coffins, painted with flames and hellish sym- 
bols. The frightful train Avas closed by the 
army of priests and monks. The procession 
went through the principal streets to the 
church, where, after a sermon on the true 
faith, the sentence was announced. In the 
mean time, the accused stood before a cruci- 
fix with extinguished torches in their hands. 
After the sentence had been read to them, 
an officer of the Inquisition gave each of the 
condemned a blow on the breast with his 
hand, as a sign that they were given over 
by that tribunal to the secular i^ower, at 
the same time beseeching the secular officer 
not to touch their blood or put their lives in dan- 
ger ! The latter then took them in charge, 
had them fettered, and taken to prison. A 
few hours afterward they were brought to 
the place of execution. If they yet, at the 



A robe painted over with hideous figures. 



last, made profession of the Catholic faith, 
they were so far favored as to be first stran- 
gled ; otherwise they were burned alive, 
and with them the effigies and bones of the 
fugitive and dead culprits. As a rule, the 
king, along with his whole court, had to ex- 
alt by his presence the solemnity of this hor- 
rible transaction. The last auto-da-fe was 
held as recently as toward the middle of last 
century. Since the Revolution, workmen 
cutting a new street through an ancient 
square in Madrid came upon a singular stra- 
tum, which bore a frightful witness to the 
reality and extent of these terrible scenes, 
which history has not exaggerated. It was 
composed of long black layers, some of them 
150 feet in length, containing unmistakable 
remains of human beings — bones, singed 
hair, and shreds of burned garments. The 
workmen were digging on the site of the old 
auto da fe, and unconsciously exhuming the 
debris of the Inquisition fires. See Inquisi- 
tion. 

Ave Maria (Latin, hail, Mary!), the first 
two words of a praj^er in common use in the 
Romish Church. It consists of the angel 
Gabriel's salutation to Mary^ with an added 
prayer, thus : " Hail, Mary, full of grace, the 
Lord is with thee ; blessed art thou among 
women, and blessed is the fruit of thy womb, 
Jesus. Holy Mary, mother of God, pray for 
us sinners, now and in the hour of our death. 
Amen." Although it now holds a more im- 
portant place in the Romish rosary than 
even the " Paternoster" or "Lord's Prayer" 
itself, its use does not date farther Iback 
than the fifteenth century, when it was first 
used as a short prayer before sermon by 
Ferrerius. An edict of John XXII. (1326) 
ordains that every Catholic shall, morning, 
noon, and evening, at the warning of the 
bells, repeat three aves, and this summons 
to prayer is still retained in some places, - 
the bells being called the Angelus bells, or 
Angelus Domini. The use of this prayer 
is not only supposed to bring immediate 
temporal and spiritual blessings, but is also 
believed to gain many indulgences (q. v.), 
which are supposed to abridge the suffer- 
ings of purgatory. 

Av/l, an instrument spoken of in the Bi- 
ble as used for piercing the ear of a slave. 




^^^mJ 



Egyi)tian Awls. 

Among Oriental nations, this was a sign of 

perpetual servitude, and in Lydia, India, and 

1 Luke i., 28. 



AXE 



92 



BAAL 



Persia, it was the practice to perforate the 
ears of boys dedicated to the service of the 
gods. There can be no doubt that the in- 
struments were the same as those with which 
the Israelites had recently been acquainted 
in Egjrpt, both in this case and also in that 
of the axe. 

Axe, the rendering in the English Bible 




Ancient Egyptian Axes, etc. 

of seven different terms in the original which 
probably designated instruments not alto- 



gether alike. The most common term so 
translated^ embodies the idea of sharpness, 
and from its connection seems to denote an 
axe with a heavy head, used for felling trees 
and lopping off branches. Another word was 
from the root " to sever." This instrument 
consisted of a head of iron, fastened with 
thongs, or otherwise, upon a handle of wood, 
and so liable to slip off, and was used for fell- 
ing trees and shaping wood.^ Another word, 
translated tongs once, and once axe, used in 
both cases with respect to fashioning an idol,^ 
denotes a carver's knife or chisel. The ^'bat- 
tle-axe "* was probably, as its root indicates, 
a heavy mace or maul. 

Azekah (dug over, hroTien np). A place to 
which Joshua's pursuit of the Amorites ex- 
tended after the battle for the relief of Gib- 
eon. It stood in the plain country of Ju- 
dah, to which tribe it was allotted. In later 
times, we find the Philistines pitcliing near it. 
It was fortified by Eehoboam, and was one of 
the last towns taken by Nebuchadnezzar, in 
Zedekiah's reign, before Jerusalem fell. It 
was again inhabited after the return from 
captivity. It has not yet been satisfactorily 
identified, but it must have been very near 
Beth - horon. [Josh, x., 10, 11 ; xv., 35 ; 1 
Sam. xvii., 1 ; 2 Chron. xi., 9 ; Neh. xi., 30 ; 
Jer. xxxiv., 7.] 



B. 



Baal, a geographical term, occurring as 
the prefix or suffix to the names of several 
places in Palestine. Whether it has any 
reference to the worship of Baal at the par- 
ticular spot is uncertain. Thus we have — 
1. Baal-gad, a place in the valley of Leba- 
non, on the northern or north-western bound- 
ary of Palestine,^ perhaps the same with 
Baalbek, perhaps Banias. 2. Baal-hajNION, 
a place at which Solomon^ is said to have had 
a vineyard, the locality of which is unknown. 
3. Baal-hazor, where Absalom had a sheep- 
farm.^ 4. Baal-hermon,* perhaps only an- 
other name for Hermon. 5. Baal-meon, a 
town fortified by the Reubenites, and after- 
ward possessed by the Moabites f also called 
Beth-baal-meon, Beth-meon, and Beon.^ 6. 
Baal-perazim, a place near the valley of 
Rephaim.' 7. Baae-shaxisha, a place near 
the Gilgal mentioned in Elisha's history.^ 
8. Baal-tamar, a place near Gibeah of Ben- 
jamin.® 9. Baal-zephon, a point near to 
which the Israelites crossed the Eed Sea, 
of the location of which nothing more is 
known. ^^ The Jewish Rabbis also assert 
that there was an Egyptian god of this 



1 Josh, xi., 17; xii., 7.-2 Sol. Song viii., 11.— 3 2 Sam. 
xiii., 23.—* Jndg. iii., 3; 1 Chron. v., 23.-5 Nnmb. 
xxxii., 38; 1 Chron. v., S.— » Numb, xxxii., 3; Josh, 
xiii., 17; Jer. xlviii., 23.— ^ 2 Sam. v., 20; 1 Chron. 
xiv., 11.— s 2 Kings iv., 42.-9 judg. xx., 33.— i" Exod. 
xiv., 2, 9; Numb, xxxiii., 7. 



name. The word also occurs alone as a 
name both of persons and a place.^ 

Baal, Bel, or Belus (lord or master), the 
name of a heathen deity very generally wor- 
shi]3ed by the nations with whom the Israel- 
ites chiefly came in contact. Heathen wor- 
ship was essentially a deification of nature, 
and the worship of Baal and Ashtoreth (q. 
v.), or, in the plural, of Baalim and Ashta- 
roth, was an adoration of the productive 
powers of nature. It has been attemjjted to 




Ancient Medals with the Head of Baal. 

identify Baal with one or other of the gods 
of classic mythology, but there can be little 
doubt that Baal is the sun, and Ashtoreth 



1 Found in Judir. ix., 48; 1 Sam. xiii., 20, 21 ; Psa. 
Ixxiv., 5; Jer. xlvi., 22.-2 Deut. xix., 5; xx., 19; 1 
Kings vi., 7 ; 2 Kings vi., .5 ; Isa. x., 15, 34.-3 jg^. xliv., 
12; Jer. X., 3.-4 Jer. li., 20.— ^ 1 Chron. iv., 33; v., 5; 
viii., 30 ; ix., 36. 



BAALBEK 



93 



BAAL-PEOR 




Ruins at Baalbek. 



tlie moon. We may easily gather from the 
sacred writers a notion of the pomp and cer- 
emonies of Baal-worship. There were tem- 
ples, images, and altars on eminences and 
on house-tops.^ There were multitudes of 
priests who offered incense and even human 
sacrifices, dancing about them with horrible 
gesticulations, and thus provoked to anger 
the God of heaven.^ The Israelites came in 
contact with Baal-worship when on the bor- 
ders of Moab and Midian ; and very soon 
after their establishment in Canaan they 
yielded to its evil influence.^ Through the 
time of the judges it appears to have more 
or less prevailed, though checked now and 
then by some energetic magistrate, till the 
days of Samuel. In later times, we find the 
worship of Baal openly practiced in the 
northern kingdom of Israel, being sanction- 
ed by the alliance of Ahalb with Jezebel ; 
and, in spite of the exertions of Elijah and 
the policy of Jehu, it prevailed till the pe- 
riod of the carrying away of the ten tribes. 
Judah, too, was grievously infected with the 
same idolatry ; and it was probably for the 
purpose of exposing the deceit and impos- 
ture connected with the worship of Baal, or 
Bel, that that apocryphal addition to the 
Book of Daniel, which Jerome calls " the 
fable " of Bel and the Dragon, was written. 
But the foolishness and incredibility of this 
story defeated its purpose, and it never re- 
ceived any credit except with the divines of 
the Council of Trent. 

Baalbek (city of Baal), the name of a ruin- 
ed city, once the most magnificent of SjTian 
cities, now only famous for the splendor of 
its ruins, the most imposing of which is that 
of the great Temple of the Sun. Of its fifty- 
four Corinthian columns, six are still stand- 



1 1 Kings xvi., 31, 32 ; 2 Kings x., 25-27 ; x1., 18 ; Jer. 
xi., 13 ; xxxii., 29.-2 i Kings xviii., 19-30 ; Jer. vii., 9 ; 
xix., 5.-3 Numb, xxii., 41; xxv., 3; Judg. ii., 11-13. 



ing. Their circumference is about 22 feet, 
and the length of the shaft, 58 ; with pedes- 
tal, capital, and entablature, they measure 
about 89 feet in height. The unanimous 
voice of Mohammedan tradition attributes 
this temple to Solomon. It is not impossi- 
ble that he may have built here ; but the 
oldest inscriptions do not antedate the age 
of Antoninus Pius, a.d. 138-161. Under Con- 
stantine the temple became a Christian 
church. Under the misrule to which Syria 
has been subject, the city and its temple 
have been pillaged, and fallen into decay, 
and Baalbek is now only an insignificant 
village of a few hundred inhabitants. 

Baali (my lord) occurs only in Hos. ii., 16. 
The word had originally been used in its un- 
exceptionable meaning of lord or husband, 
and is thus applied to Jehovah in Isa. liv., 5 ; 
but as it had become common in its applica- 
tion by the Israelites to the heathen deities 
which they had worshiped, and besides con- 
veyed the idea of possession and rule, rather 
than that of affection, God here declared that 
in future he would be called Ishi (my man), 
the name more usually employed to express 
the relation of husband, and which was not 
liable to the same objections. 

Baal-peor (lord of the opening), a god of 
Moab and Midian, and probably the same 
with Chemosh. Solomon built a temple to 
this deity on the Mount of Olives. Very lit- 
tle is really known of the nature of his wor- 
ship, but it is an almost universal opinion, 
which appears to be sustained by Numb. 
XXV., that it was licentious in its character. 
Human sacrifices appear to have been offered 
to him, and it is conjectured from Psa. cvi., 
28, that the worshipers ate of the victims 
that had been sacrificed to him. His name, 
Baal-peor, is perhaps derived from the mount- 
ain in Moab called Peor, at the north-east 
end of the Dead Sea, where groves were 



BAASHA 



94 



BABISM 



planted, and altars erected to his worship. 
It is conjectured by some, however, that the 
mountain received its name from the god. 
[Numb. XXV. ; Deut. iv., 3 ; Josh, xxii., 17 ; 1 
Kings xi., 7, 33 ; 2 Kings xxiii., 13 ; Psa. cvi., 
28 ; Jer. xlviii., 7, 13, 46 ; Hos. ix., 10.] 

Baasha (probably valor), third sovereign 
of Israel, and the founder of its second dynas- 
ty, B.C. 953-930. He was the son of Ahijah, 
of the tribe of Issachar, was of humble origin, 
but possessed a boundless and cruel ambition 
He conspired against King Nadab, and slew 
him, with the whole of Jeroboam's family, 
but did nothing to abate the idolatrous prac- 
tices which Jeroboam had established. His 
reign was marked by a disastrous war with 
Asa, king of Judah. The statement in 2 
Chron. xvi., 1, can not be reconciled with 
the chronology of his life, and is generally 
regarded as an error in the text for the six- 
teenth year of Asa's reign. His own reign 
lasted twenty -four years. [1 Kings xv., 
27-34 ; xvi., 1-7 ; 2 Chron. xvi., 1-6.] 

Babel (Tower of). If a proper verbal uni- 
formity had been maintained in our English 
Bible, the Tower of Babel would have been 
called the Tower of Babylon, or Babel would 
have been the designation alike of the tow- 
er and the city ; for in the original Babel is 
the word used to express both. There can 
be no doubt as to the import of the name, 
and the occasion that gave rise to it. A de- 
rivative of the verb meaning " to confound,^ 
it signifies '^confusion," "because the Lord 
did there confound the language of all the 
earth." But the aim of men in setting about 
building such a tower, and the manner of 
the divine frustration of it, have been the 
occasion of fruitful conjecture and diverse 
opinions among critics and divines. The 
subject also became involved in early fable 
and tradition, which, in a diversity of forms 
and among many nations, bears testimony 
to the same general truth as the Scripture 
narration. But in none of these fables and 
traditions, from none of the many opinions 
of sacred critics, can we learn any thing more 
than is given us in the Scripture account, 
which is our only authentic source of infor- 
mation. This ascribes to the projectors of 
the undertaking two definite objects, and no 
more : first, that they might make to them- 
selves a name ; second, that in this wonderful 
achievement of a still undivided race, they 
might have a bond of unity and local at- 
tachment that would thwart God's declared 
design regarding the diffusion of mankind 
through the earth. These two aims, with- 
out the addition of others which are mere 
conjecture — as that it was intended for pur- 
poses of idolatry, or as a place of refuge in 
any future deluge — were sufficient of them- 
selves to provoke God's interposition. That 
there was something miraculous in this in- 
terposition, seems plainly implied in the nar- 
rative, since, on simply natural principles, it 



were impossible to account for such a confu- 
sion of language in this comparatively small 
population as would arrest their building 
project, and separate entire troops of the 
builders from their cherished home ; a con- 
fusion which is mirrored in mythical stories, 
and to which, in this far-off day, the new sci- 
ence of philology bears historical and philo- 
sophical testimony. 

The Tower of Babel is only once mention- 
ed in Scripture, and then as incomplete. It 
was built of bricks, and the '' slime" used for 
mortar was probably bitumen. Such author- 
ities as we possess represent the building 
as destroyed soon after its erection. When 
the Jews were carried captive into Babylon, 
they were struck with the vast magnitude 
and peculiar character of certain of the Bab- 
ylonian temples, in one or other of which 
they thought to recognize the very tower 
itself. But it can not with the least cer- 
tainty be identified with any of the build- 
ings of a- later kind, such as the lofty and 
magnificent Temple of Belus. That many 
writers of classical and Christian times did 
so identify them, is only a proof of the influ- 
ence of ancient fable and tradition. , The 
whole that can be said respecting an his- 
torical connection between them is, that the 
city of Babel, begun by Nimrod, and the 
Tower of Babel, then also, or not very long 
afterward, commenced, probably stood near- 
ly upon the same site as that occupied by 
the later city and its wonderful structures. 
[Gen. xi., 1-9.] 

Babism. In a.d. 1825, a child was boru 
in Shiras, Persia, and by his parents named 
Mirza ali Mohammed. He was of studious 
habits, and early became a deep thinker on 
his every-day readings of the Koran. When 
about eighteen years of age, he journeyed to 
the tomb of the Prophet, and while at Mecca 
conceived the idea of the falsity of the claims 
of Mohammed, and resolved, by the forma- 
tion of a new sect, to supplant his teachings. 
In 1848, he published a book entitled " Biy- 
yan" {the exposition), which maybe regarded 
as the Bible of Babism, except that it does 
not pretend to be complete ; for it is a car- 
dinal point of Babism that Mirza is only 
one of a line of prophets, and that the reve- 
lation of the Biyyan is to be supplemented 
by future revelations. Mirza also assumed 
the name of the Bab (i. e., the door or gate), 
whence his doctrine takes its name. He in- 
veighed against Mohammedanism ; taught 
that there is one true God, who, however, will 
remain unknown till the last judgment ; that 
man is an emanation from God ; that at the 
day of the last judgment "-"every thing will 
be annihilated except the divine nature ;" 
i. e., every thing evil or separate from God, 
who will draw all things unto himself. He 
at the same time taught the uselessness of 
praying toward or making pilgrimages to 
Mecca; discouraged polygamy; prohibited 



BABYLON 



95 



BABYLON 



concubinage ; and abolished the veil as a 
symbol of woman's inferiority, a badge of her 
social isolation, and a cover for intrigue and 
indecorum. The Bab lived a godly life. To 
his preaching the people flocked in crowds, 
especially the upper classes. The followers 
of Mohammed tried in vain to check the 
current. The reigning Shah is even thought 
to have imbibed his doctrines, at least he 
offered to them no opposition. Babism over- 
ran Persia; enthusiastic disciples preached 
it in adjoining countries. Many of the high- 
est Persian ladies abandoned their veils, in 
token of their conversion to the doctrines of 
this new prophet. But when Mohammed 
Shah, the reigning monarch, died, the new 
Shah arrested the founder of the sect, the 
" Bab," and sent him to trial. When he 
was brought before the tribunal, he con- 
founded lawyers, judges, and people with 
his eloquence, and they were alarmed at his 
ability. Notwithstanding the impossibility 
of the proof of any crime, he was found 
guilty, and his retraction demanded. He re- 
fused. The imprisonment of eighteen months 
had not wearied his spirit. He believed in 
God, and, still better, that he was in his 
hands, and feared nothing from men. 

Capital sentences in Persia are usually 
carried out in private. In this instance the 
Shah intended to make a public example, 
as a warning to the followers of the con- 
demned, and to the undecided populace. 
One of them retracted, and saved his life. 
The Bab and the other disciple were put to 
death ; but their martyrdom has done noth- 
ing to check the progress of Babism. A new 
Bab has taken the place of the founder of 
the sect, which was prepared for such a 
change by his prophecies. 

We have given greater space to the his- 
tory of Babism, both because the ordinary 
sources of information are inaccessible to the 
ordinary reader, and because, as a transition 
movement, it promises to break down that 
wall of prejudice which has hitherto shut 
out Mohammedan countries from the light 
of the Gospel, and to prepare the way for 
the preaching of the Cross to the Persian, 
and perhaps, eventually, to the entire Mo- 
hammedan world. 

Babylon (the Greek form of B^b-il, " the 
gate of the god II," or " the gate of God," after- 
ward, in derisive reference to the confusion 
of tongues, changed to Babel, confusion) is 
the name given to the capital of the Baby- 
lonian monarchy, and also to the monarchy 
itself. Babylon, the capital, was probably 
the largest and most magnificent city of 
the ancient world — vast in size, astonish- 
ing in magnificence.^ It was built in the 



^ For our knowledge of Babylon we are dependent 
largely on the statements of Herodotus and Ctesias. 
Even the most trustworthy of the ancient historians 
were in the habit of constant exaggeration, and their 
statements are therefore to be accepted with caution. 
But their descriptions of Babylon are regarded as cor- 



form of a square, upon both sides of the 
Euphrates, surrounded by populous suburbs, 
interspersed among fields and gardens, the 
whole surrounded by a deep moat, and in- 
closed within a vast system of double walls, 
measuring, according to the least estimate, 
forty miles, or ten each way. These walls 
are variously stated by different writers to 
have been from thirty -two to eighty -five 
feet thick, and from seventy -five to three 
hundred feet high. Even at the smallest 
dimensions they were enormous. 

They were built of baked brick, laid in 
a cement of bitumen, with layers of reeds 
between the courses. On the summit were 
low towers, said to have been two hundred 
and fifty in number, placed along the outer 
and inner edge, tower facing tower, with 
space enough between them "for a four- 
horse chariot to turn in." The wall was 
pierced with a hundred brazen gates, twen- 
ty-five in each face, from which great streets 
led, crossing each other at right angles, 
and thus cutting up the whole area into 
square blocks. The Euphrates divided the 
town nearly in half. Its banks were lined 
throughout with quays of brick, laid in bit- 
umen, and were further guarded by two 
walls of brick, which skirted their entire 
length. In each of these walls were twen- 
ty-five brazen gates, corresponding to the 
number of streets which led to the river, 
through which access to the quays was 
gained. Boats at these landing-places con- 
veyed passengers from side to side ; while 
for those who disliked this method of cross- 
ing there was not only a bridge 3000 feet 
long, but also a tunnel, fifteen feet wide and 
twelve feet high to the top of its arched 
roof. The most remarkable buildings which 
the city contained were the two palaces — • 
one on either side of the river — and the 
great Temple of Belus. Of these palaces, 
the larger and more magnificent was nearly 
seven miles in cu-cuit, inclosed by three lofty 
walls with prodigious towers. The second 
wall was three hundred feet high, the inte- 
rior still higher, of colored brick, represent- 
ing figures and hunting scenes. The smaller 
palace had a high wall three and a half miles 
in circumference, and was similarly embel- 
lished. The great Temple of Belus rose from 
a base of a quarter of a mile in length and 
breadth. It was of pyramidal form, eight 
square compartments or stages being placed 
one upon another. A winding ascent, pass- 
ing around all the stories, led to the plat- 
form on the summit, on which stood a large 



rect, in the main, by so careful a student of ancient 
history as Professor Rawlinson, who remarks ("Five 
Great Monarchies," vol. ii., p. 511), "I think no dis- 
cerning reader can peruse the account of Babylon and 
the adjacent region given by Herodotus without feel- 
ing that the writer means to represent himself as 
having seen the city and country. Thus the question, 
whether he was an eye-witness or not, depends on his 
veracity, which no modern critic has impugned." Our 
account is taken largely from Professor Rawlinson's 
work. 



BABYLON 



96 



BABYLON 



and rich shrine, containing no image, but a 
golden table, and a large couch handsome- 
ly draped, where the god was supposed to 
dwell. In Babylon were the ^' Hanging Gar- 
dens," which, like the huge walls of the city, 
the Greeks regarded as one of the seven 
wonders of the world. This extraordinary 
pleasure-ground, built by Nebuchadnezzar 
to satisfy a whim of his wife Amydis, was a 
square, supported upon several tiers of open 
arches, towering into the air to the height 
of at least seventy-five feet, and covered at 
the toj) with a great mass of earth, in which 



Babylon was the metropolis of the prov- 
ince of the same name, and of the great 
Babylonian Empire. Its history goes back 
to a time not very much later than the 
Flood, and some find its origin in the unfin- 
ished Tower of Babel (q. v.). In the rev- 
olutions of centuries it underwent many 
changes under the various Chaldean, Ara- 
bian, and Assyrian dynasties ; and its story, 
from the chief city of the province in the 
southern portion of Mesopotamia to its su- 
premacy over the great Chaldaic-Babyloni- 
an Empire, is full of romance. The history 




Chart of the country around Babylon, with limits of the ancient city. 



there grew not merely flowers and shrubs, 
but also trees of the largest size. 

The houses were in general lofty, being 
three or even four stories high. They are 
said to have had vaulted roofs, unprotected 
by tiling, which the dry climate rendered 
unnecessary. The beams and pillars used 
in the houses were of palm-wood, all other 
timber being scarce in the country. Such, 
if we may believe the descriptions of eye- 
witnesses/ was the general character of the 
city and its chief edifices. 



1 Herodotus and Ctesias : see ante. 



of the Babylonian Empire commences with 
Nabopolassar, who appears to have mounted 
the throne B.C. 625. The original Chaldean 
monarchy, which began almost at the same 
time as the city of Babylon, B.C. 2234, per- 
ished, through an Arab invasion, about B.C. 
1500. These invaders were superseded by 
the Assyrians, with whom the Babylonians 
seem to have struggled contiuuallj^, until, in 
the latter half of the seventh century, the 
little Babylonian province became sudden- 
ly the mistress of an extensive empire. On 
the fall of Assyria, about B.C. 625, or a little 



BABYLON 



97 



BABYLON 



later, Media and Babylonia divided between 
them ber extensive territory. The empire 
then, reaching from Luristan on the one 
side, to the borders of Egypt on the other, 
had a direct length from east to west of 
about 980 miles ; while its length, for all 
practical purposes, owing to the interposi- 
tion of the desert between its western and 
eastern provinces, was perhaps not less than 
1400 miles. Its breadth varied from 100 to 
280 miles, and its entire area was probably 
250,000 square miles — about the present size 
of Austria. Nebuchadnezzar is the great 
monarch of the Babylonian Empire, which, 
lasting only 88 years — from B.C. 625 to B.C. 
538 — was for nearly half the time under his 
sway. To him is due its military glory ; and 
its constructive energy is due to his grand- 
eur of conception and skill in construction. 
But for him it would, perhaps, have had no 
place in history. He defeated Necho, the 
Egyptian invader, and recovered Syria, crush- 
ed rebellion in Judea, and carried the Jews 
into captivity, took Tyre, and humiliated 
Egypt. 

But it was in the midst of this magnifi- 
cence that the prophet Jeremiah's voice was 
heard : " It shall come to pass, when seventy 
years are accomplished, that I will punish 
the King of Babylon, and that nation, saith 
the Lord, for their iniquity, and the land of 
the Chaldeans, and will make it perpetual 
desolations."^ And the prophetic books con- 
tain no more remarkable evidence of the di- 
vine inspiration which dictated them than 
is afforded by the details which the proph- 
et gives of the circumstances attending the 
destruction of Babylon.'^ 

After the death of Nebuchadnezzar the Per- 
sian invasion came ; and while, in fancied se- 
curity and scornful strength, the Babylonians 
followed the example of their king, Belshaz- 
zar, and gave themselves up to religious or- 
gies and drunken excess, the soldiers of Cy- 
rus, creeping in through the deep bed of the 
Euphrates, from which they had drawn off the 
water, massacred the revelers, mastered the 
city, and fulfilled the prophecy which Daniel 
interpreted a few brief hours before from the 
handwriting on the wall. Thus perished 
the Babylonian Empire. The golden city 
has become heaps of rubbish. So complete- 
ly was its magnificence swept off by the 
"besom of destruction," that the very site of 
it was for a long time a perplexing mystery. 
From its fallen towers have arisen not only 
all the present cities in its vicinity, but oth- 
ers which, like itself, have long ago gone 
down into the dust. Since the days of 
Alexander, we find four capitals, at least, 
built out of its remains ; Selucia, by the 
Greeks ; Ctesiphon, by the Parthians ; Al- 
maidan, by the Persians ; Kufa, by the Ca- 
liphs, with towns, villages, and caravansa- 
ries without number. Its modern represent- 

1 Jer. XXV., 12.— 2 Jer. 1., 2, 3 ; li., 30-32, 56-68. 
7 



ative is Hillah — about forty miles south- 
west of Bagdad, on the Euphrates — a town 
which, though next to Bagdad and Basra, 
the greatest in the pashalik, is meanly and 
irregularly built, narrow and dirty, with di- 
lapidated mosques and public baths ; but it 
is inclosed by a strong wall, and well pro- 
tected by a garrison, towers, and a battery, 
and contains a population of about 10,000 
Jews and Arabs, carrying on a rather ani- 
mated commerce on the Euphrates. This 
town is in almost all directions surrounded 
by immense ruins — shapeless heaps of rub- 
bish, lofty banks of ancient canals, fragments 
of glass, marble, pottery, and bricks, mingled 
with a nitrous soil which impedes all vegeta- 
tion, and renders the neighborhood " a naked 
and hideous waste," re-echoing only the dis- 
mal sounds of the owl and jackal, of the 
hyena and the lawless robber. These piles 
mark the area once occupied by the mistress 
of the ancient Eastern World. 

The Babylonian Empire was but little 
more than a reproduction of the Assyrian. 
With the same loose organization of prov- 
inces under native kings, and the same 
result of ever - recurring revolt and con- 
quest, it failed equally with Assyria to win 
the affection of the subject nations, and 
was without their aid in its time of need. 
But Babylonian civilization was superior to 
the Assyrian in originality, literary charac- 
ter, and width of culture. Assyria drew 
from Babylonia, but Babylonia drew only 
from herself. Her genius, says Professor 
Eawlinson, thought out an alphabet ; work- 
ed out the simpler problems in arithmetic ; 
invented implements for the measurement 
of time ; made enormous structures out of 
fragile clay ; invented the art of polishing, 
boring, and engraving gems ; reproduced 
with truthfulness the outlines of human and 
animal forms ; attained to a high perfection 
in textile fabrics ; studied with success the 
motions of the heavenly bodies ; conceived 
of grammar as a science ; elaborated a sys- 
tem of law ; saw the value of exact chro- 
nology ; in almost every branch of science 
made a beginning — thus rendering it com- 
paratively easy for other nations to proceed 
with the superstructure. It was from Baby- 
lonia, child of old Chaldea, that Greece de- 
rived her architecture, her sculpture, her 
science, her philosophy, her mathematical 
knowledge — in a word, her intellectual life. 

Babylon is several times referred to in the 
N. T. These references are unquestionably 
to the city whose history we have given 
above, except in the passage in 1 Pet. v., 13, 
and in the prophetic references in the Book 
of Revelation. The former, we think, prob- 
ably refers to the historic city, though some 
commentators regard it as standing for 
Rome.^ The references in Revelation^ are 

1 See Peter, Epistle of.— ^ Kev. xiv., 8 ; xvi., 19 ; 
xvii., 5; xviii., 2. 



BACA 



98 



BALAAM 



regarded by nearly all Protestant commen- 
tators as a symbol for persecuting Rome, 
papal and pagan. This view is confirmed 
by the fact that the Jews, in their hatred of 
Rome, were accustomed to designate it Bab- 
ylon, as a term of opprobrium. 

Baca {weeping). This word occurs only 
in Psa. Ixxxiv., 6 : '' Who, passing through 
the valley of Baca (valley of weeping), make 
it a well (a place of fountains)." The pas- 
sage represents the believer's course as a pil- 
grimage, in which his tears of sorrow are 
turned to fountains of blessing. The same 
word is also the name of a tree (improperly 
translated ^^ mulberry-trees"^), so called from 
its iveeping (distilling) droj>s of a vegetable 
gum. The psalmist is thought by some to 
have referred to a real locality so entitled ; but 
the various attempts to ascertain its situation 
have resulted only in uncertain surmises. 

Badger. This word occurs generally in 
connection with skins. From what animal 
these were obtained is still merely conject- 
ural. The skins were used as an outer cov- 
ering for the Tabernacle and its appurte- 
nances^ (being mentioned among the cost- 
liest materials used for the sacred edifice), 
and also for shoes suitable for a richly-dress- 
ed woman.^ Hence we see that the badger- 
skins in question must have possessed three 
qualities — they must have been costly, capa- 
ble of forming a defense against the weath- 
er, and strong enough to be employed in 
the manufacture of shoes. The skin of the 
animal now known as the badger exactly 
meets these conditions. The animal exists 
throughout the whole of the district trav- 
ersed by the Israelites, but is small, rarely 
seen, and captured with difficulty. Its long 
and thick, though light, fur throws off rain 
or snow as off a pent-house, and its skin, 
peculiarly tough, affords a very suitable ma- 
terial for shoes. 

Bag. This word, in our English version, 
translates several Hebrew words, one of 
which is also translated crisping - pins, but 
undoubtedly denotes a sort of reticule car- 
ried by Hebrew ladies. The reference in 2 
Kings v., 23, is to a custom still existing in 




Aucieut Egyptian Money-bags. 

the East, under which, to save the trouble 
of repeated counting, a certain sum is put 
up in a bag, which, being sealed and prop- 
erly labeled, passes current for the amount 
it contains. It is the authority of the seal 



i 2 Sam. v., 2.^, 24; 1 Chron. xiv., 14, 15. 
XXV., 5; xxvL, 14.— 3 Ezek. xvi., 10. 



-2 Exod. 



which gives the bag currency; for the seal 
is that of a public officer, or of a person of 
known responsibility, and if, when at length 
opened, any deficiency should appear, he is 
bound to make it good, if the claimant can 
prove that the bag was previously free from 
any marks of violence, and that the seal re- 
mained unbroken. 

The shepherd's bag which David had is 
supposed to have been one used for the pur- 
pose of carrying the lambs which were un- 
able to walk. The bag which Judas carried 
was probably a small box or chest such as 
was originally employed by musicians to 
keep the tongues or reeds of their pipes 
while traveling. It thence came to be em- 
ployed customarily as a purse. 

Balaam (destruction of the people), a remark- 
able soothsayer, whose history is given in 
Numb, xxii.-xxiv. He was the son of Beor, 
or Bosor, and belonged to Aram or Syria, the 
mountains of the East, and dwelt at " Pethor, 
which is by the river of the land of the chil- 
dien of his people ;" from which expressions 
it has been thought probable that he came 
from the countries watered by the Tigris or 
the Euphrates. Since' his country is said to 
have been Mesopotamia,^ it may be that he 
came from the birthplace of Abraham, Ur of 
the Chaldees — an hypothesis which receives 
confirmation from the fact that the Chal- 
deans were always famous among ancieut 
nations for their skill in divining. He gain- 
ed so great a reputation as a prophet, that 
it was believed that his blessings or curses 
could influence the destinies of nations. Ac- 
cordingly, when the Moabites and Midian- 
ites apprehended danger from the advance 
of Israel, they sent to Balaam with offers of 
reward if he would go and curse the Hebrew 
tribes. The prophet was unwilling to lose 
the opportunity of aggrandizement, though 
he professed obedience to God, who warned 
him that the Israelites were blessed, and re- 
buked him by an angel, and by the portent 
of his ass speaking. Much ridicule has been 
directed by unbelievers against the account 
of Balaam and his ass, and ajDologists for 
the truth of the Bible have sometimes been 
led to explain the transaction as a vision. 
But the plain historical statement need give 
no trouble to those who believe that the ser- 
pent spoke with Eve. If one creature was 
made to speak as the instrument of Satan, 
another might well do the same as an in- 
strument of the great Angel of the Cove- 
nant. When Balaam came to Balak, instead 
of pronouncing curses, he uttered, under di- 
vine inspiration, blessings upon Israel ; and 
four times he uttered prophecies which are 
among the noblest and most distinct in 
Scripture. Balak seems to have parted 
from him in the utmost displeasure, and he 
went back to his own place. But he must 
have been subsequently induced to return 
1 Deut. xxiii., 4. 



BALM 



99 



BANNERS 



to Balak, for it was witli liim that the con- 
trivance originated by which the Israelites 
brought a curse upon themselves. And he 
met his death by the sword among the Mid- 
ianites, whom the children of Israel destroy- 
ed when they had returned to the God of 
their fathers, and had been directed by him 
to take vengeance on their seducers/ 

The character of this extraordinary man 
has to be inferred almost exclusively from 
the Scriptural narrative, but has been very 
variously estimated. The explanation of 
Balaam's character, which was tirst brought 
out clearly by Hengstenberg, appears to us 
more consistent with the various facts ap- 
parent in the narrative than any other. 
According to his view, Balaam is supposed 
to have been from the first a worshiper, in 
some sort, of the true God, and to have learn- 
ed some elements of pure and true religion 
in his home in the Far East, the cradle of the 
ancestors of Israel. But though prophesy- 
ing, before the ambassadors of Balak came 
to him, in the name of the true God, yet 
prophecy was to him a mere business, not 
a religion. The summons of Balak proved 
to be a crisis in his career. It gave op- 
portunity for immediate contact with God's 
people — for closer intercourse with God him- 
self, and thus for attaining that fullness 
of prophetic gifts and dignity to which he 
would seem to have aspired. But he loved 
the wages of unrighteousness, and strove, for 
the sake of them, to break away from the 
line of conduct distinctly prescribed to him 
by God. When his perversity was at length 
overborne by irresistible influence from on 
high, and the gold and honors of Balak 
seemed to be finally lost, he became reckless 
and -desperate, and, as if in defiance, coun- 
seled the evil stratagem by which he hoped 
to compass indirectly that ruin of God's peo- 
ple which he had been withheld from work- 
ing otherwise. He thus, like Ahithophel, in 
O. T. history, and Judas, in the N. T., set in 
motion a train of events which involved his 
own destruction. 

Balm, Balsam-tree, the gum of a tree or 
shrub mentioned as growing in Gilead ; else- 
where also in Palestine. It was considered 
a choice product, used in healing wounds, 
and was an article of export. The monks 
of Palestine exhibit a bush like a crab-apple- 
tree, bearing a small nut, from which a kind 
of liquid balsam is made. This they sell as 
the famous Balm of Gilead. But there are 
several trees which bear a similar spicy 
gum, and it is not known with any certain- 
ty which is the one referred to in the Scrip- 
tures. [Gen. xxxvii., 25 ; xliii., 11 ; Jer. viii., 
22 ; xlvi., 11 ; li., 8 ; Ezek. xxvii., 17.] 

Bambino, a term in art descriptive of the 

swathed figure of the infant Saviour, which, 

surrounded by a halo, and watched over by 

angels, is a frequent su bject for the altar- 

^ Numb. xxiL-xxiv. ; xxxi., 8, 16. 



piece in Roman Catholic churches. The 
Sanctissimo Bambino is a figure in the Church 
of the Ara Cceli at Rome. It is carved in 
wood from the Mount of Olives, painted to 
imitate flesh, is richly dressed, and is en- 
tirely covered with the jewels and precious 
stones which have been votive offerings. It 
is kept in a casket lined with satin, and its 
presence is supposed to have miraculous 
healing and protecting powers. The carv- 
ing is attributed to a Franciscan monk, and 
the painting to St. Luke. At Christmas it 
is brought out into a little chapel, which is 
built expressly for it, and fitted up with a 
manger to enact the scene of the birth of 
Christ. Here it is laid in state, covered 
with evergreens, and is attended with great 
crowds of country people. It is frequently 
carried to the beds of the sick, whom it is 
supposed to heal by its presence, and the 
fees both of its patients and of reverential 
visitors are a source of revenue to the Church. 

Bampton Lectures. Rev. John Bamp- 
ton, canon of Salisbury, England, dying in 
1751, left by his will his lands and estates for 
the maintenance of a course of eight lectures 
to be preached annually in defense of the 
Christian faith. These sermons go by the 
name of the Bampton Lectures. They have 
been preached ever since 1780, and, being 
regularly published, number now nearly one 
hundred volumes. Some of these sermons 
have given rise to heated theological discus- 
sions, as that of Dr. Hampden, in 1832, and 
that of Dr. Mansel, on the " Limits of Relig- 
ious Thought," in 1858. Many of them have 
afforded a valuable contribution to Chris- 
tian literature. 

Banners have been used from the earliest 
times, and in all countries, for directing the 
movement of troops. By every warlike peo- 
l^le they have been regarded as emblems of 
national honor — hence, when taken from an 
enemy, have always been regarded as pe- 
culiar trophies of victory, and displayed in 
places of honor in churches and public build- 
ings. We read of them constantly in the 
O. T. — four Hebrew words being indiscrim- 
inately translated banner, standard, ensign, 
flag, or signal. 1. Degel, something conspic- 
uous — a banner of a large kind, serving for 
three tribes together, one of which pertained 
to each of the four general divisions. These 
standards were worked with embroidery.^ 2. 
0th, a sign — a smaller flag, or ensign, which 
belonged to single tribes, and perhaps to the 
separate classes of families; originally mere- 
ly a pole or spear, to the end of which a 
bunch of leaves, or something similar, was 
fastened. Most modern expositors incline 
to the opinion that the ensigns were flags 
distinguished by their colors, or by the name 
of the tribe to which each belonged.^ 3. 
Nes, something lofty. This standard was not. 



1 Nnmb. i., 52; ii., 2, 3; Sol. Song ii., 4; vi., 4, 10.— 
2 Numb, ii., 2, 34. 



BANQUET 



100 



BANQUET 




Ancient Banners. 



like the others, home from place to place, 
hut appears to have heen a long pole with a 
flag fastened to its top, erected on eminences, 
chiefly on the irruption of an enemy, to point 
out to the people a place of rendezvous. Its 
appearance was thus the signal for the war- 
cry, and the hlowing of the trumpets.^ 4. 
Maseth, fi'om its elevation — a sign or signal 
given hy fire. This is supposed by some to 
have been a long pole, on the top of which 
was a grate not unlike a chafing-dish, made 
of iron bars, denoting by its shape the party 
to which it belonged. There appear to be 
several allusions in Scripture to the banners 
of ancient nations. A proper knowledge of 
these banners might aid us in understand- 
ing more clearly the sacred predictions. 
For instance, some believe that the he-goat 
with one horn refers, through that symbol 
of the Macedonian people, to Alexander the 
Great ; the ram with two horns, to Media 
and Persia ; the eagle, to Rome.^ To give a 
defeated party a banner was a token of pro- 
tection, and a sure pledge of fidelity, God's 
lifting or setting up a banner is a most ex- 
pressive figure, and imports his protection 
and aid in directing his people. Banners 
were formerly a part of the accustomed or- 
naments of the altar, and were suspended 
over it, that in the Church the triumph of 
Christ may evermore be held in mind by his 
followers. 

Banquet. Festal entertainments among 
the Hebrews often had a religious aspect ; 
thus they accompanied those great solemni- 
ties of worship when the people were to ap- 
pear before the Lord in the place where his 
sanctuary was f were usual at the ordinary 
sacrifices, and at the making of covenants.* 
The more domestic occasions on which ban- 
quets were given were at the weaning of 
children ; at weddings ; on birthdays, espe- 
cially those of kings ; at certain rural an- 
niversaries, as sheep-shearing, harvest, and 
vintage ; and in the exercise of hospitality 
on the arrival or departure of friends, or 
even strangers.^ Banquets were generally 



1 Isa. v., 26; xi., 12; xiii., 2; Jer. iv., 6; li., 27 

2 Dan. viii., 3, 5; Matt, xxiv., 28; Luke xvii., 37.— 

3 See Festival.— 4 Gen. xxvi., BO; xxxi., 40; Dent, 
xvi. ; 1 Sam. ix., 12, 13; 1 Kinj^s iii., 15.—* Gen. xviii., 
2-8; xix., 3; xxix., 22; xl., 20; Jud?. ix., 27; 1 Sam. 
XXV., 36-38 ; 2 Sam. iii., 3.5 ; xiii., 23-29 ; Matt, xiv., 6 ; 
Luke v., 29 ; John ii., 1-11. 



held in the evening ; 
and the beginning to 
feast early in the day 
is censured.^ Invita- 
tions were customari- 
ly sent by servants ; 
and fitting prepara- 
tions were made by 
killing oxen, mingling 
wine, and furnishing 
the table.^ It was 
then customary, when 
everything was ready, 
to send again to the invited guests. This 
practice survives to the present day, "not 
very strictly among the common people, 
nor in cities where Western manners have 
greatly modified the Oriental, but in Leb- 
anon it still prevails. If a sheikh ... in- 
vites, he always sends a servant to call 
you at the proper time. This servant oft- 
en repeats substantially the formula mention- 
ed in Luke xiv., 17, ' Come ', for the supper 
is ready.' "^ 

The guests, when they arrived, were bound 
to appear in befitting di'ess.* Sometimes the 
master of the house bestowed robes on those 
he entertained^ — a custom still maintain- 
ed in Oriental courts. The guests were re- 
ceived with a kiss ; water was offered for 
their feet if they had come from a journey; 
rich perfumes were poured upon their head, 
beard, clothes, and sometimes feet ; and they 
were, it would seem, occasionally crowned 
with flowers.® Persons were arranged at 
table (at which the ancient Hebrews sat, 
though afterward the custom of reclining 
was introduced) according to their rank and 
the honor intended to be paid them.''' Por- 
tions were selected by the master of the feast 
for each guest ; and a double or even five- 
fold portion, or some peculiar dainty, was 
taken to those who were specially honored.® 
Joseph, at his entertainment to his brethren, 
sat at a separate table, and to this circum- 
stance, probably, the sending of messes is to 
be attributed. In ordinary cases, where all 
sat at one board, the custom in this respect 
might differ little from our own, save that 
it was probably the ancient practice, as it 
certainly is at the present day, for an Orient- 
al entertainer, in his politeness, to pick out 
of the dish some choice morsel for an hon- 
ored guest, and even occasionally to insist 
on putting it into his mouth. Portions were 
sometimes sent from the banquet to poor 
friends f but this seems to have been more 
on occasions of general festivity than at an 
ordinary social entertainment. The enter- 
tainer did not always preside ; for we find a 



1 Eccles. X., 16 ; Isa. v., 11, 12.— 2 Prov. ix., 3 ; Matt, 
xxii., 3, 4.-3 Thomson's "The Land and the Book," 
i., 178.— 4 Eccles. ix., 8; Matt, xxii., 11, 12.-5 2 Kings 
X., 22.-6 Qep, xviii., 4; xix., 2; Psa. xxiii., 5; Amos 
vi., 0: Luke vii., 45; John xii., 3.— '^ Gen. xliii., 33; 1 
Sam. ix., 22; Luke xiv., 7-10.— ^ Gen. xliii., 34; 1 Sam. 
ix., 23, 24.-8 Neh. viii., 10, 12; Esth. ix., 19, 22. 



BANNS 



101 



BAPTISM 




Ancient Triclinium, or Dinner-bed. 



" governor," or " ruler^ of tlie feast," distinct 
from the bridegroom, who furnished the wed- 
ding entertainment. This '^ governor" was 
generally some chosen friend ; and his duty 
was to take charge of the provision and to 
direct the servants. 

The sumptuousness of a banquet was ex- 
hibited in the- multitude of the guests, the 
daintiness and profusion of the viands, the 
richness of the wines, often mixed with 
spices, and the music, dancing, and varied 
revelry, carried frequently to an excess of 
luxurious debauchery, which we find the 
prophets and apostles censuring in the 
strongest language.^ A wedding banquet 
lasted a week ; riddles being sometimes pro- 
X)osed for the entertainment of the com- 
pany.^ Occasionally it seems to have been 
extended to fourteen days. Royal banquets 
were sometimes very protracted. The fes- 
tival celebrated by Ahasuerus lasted half a 
year, being wound up by a sx^ecial enter- 
tainment continued for seven days. At this 
feast the sexes were separated. But at Bel- 
shazzar's banquet his wives and concubines 
were present.* In the N. T. we read of 
women being admitted to the room where 
a banquet was given. It is, however, some- 
times noted that they waited on the guests.^ 

Banns (proclamation) of Marriage. In 
the primitive Christian Church parties were 
liable to ecclesiastical censure if they mar- 
ried without the approval of the Church. 
This led to a public proclamation of the 
intention of marriage — sometimes at the 
church service, sometimes by posting on the 
church door. The omission of this ceremony 
did not ordinarily, however, invalidate the 



1 John ii., 8-10.— 2 Isa. v., 11, 12; Araos vL, 3-6; 
Matt, xiv., 6 ; Rom. xiii., 13 ; 1 Pet. iv., 3,-3 Gen. 
xxix., 27, 28; Judg. xiv., 10-18.— * Comp. Esth. i., 
3-9, with Dan. v., 2.-6 John ii., 1-5; xii., 2. 



marriage, if it were otherwise legal. In En- 
gland, the proclamation of banns can only 
be dispensed with by the substitution of a 
license from the Bishops' Court, or a regis- 
trar's certificate. In this country, the prac- 
tice, which was maintained for some time in 
New England, has gone almost wholly out 
of use. 

Baptism. The origin of baptism as a re- 
ligious rite is lost in the mists of antiquity. 
Grotius has even imagined that it is as old 
as the Deluge, and was established in com- 
memoration of that event. At the time of 
Christ ablution in various forms was already 
universal in Oriental countries. It was cust 
tomary in Egypt, Greece, and Rome as a 
preparation for prayer, and a token of puri- 
fication from sin. In all the Temple -serv- 
ices priests were required to wash them- 
selves before entering the holy presence. 
But it possessed a peculiar significance in 
Palestine, where every Gentile who entered 
the Jewish Church was baptized, as a sign 
that he was washed of his past sins and 
errors, and entered, cleansed, a new life. 
The entire household of the proselyte was 
baptized, including the infants ;^ while, on 
the other hand, the only form known was 
that of immersion. It is probable that 
John borrowed his baptism from this prac- 
tice, and, by baptizing the Jews, taught 
them by a significant symbol that it was 
not enough to be a child of Abraham, but 
that Jew as well as Gentile needed to be 
cleansed of his sins by repentance, and to 
enter a new life by faith. Thus interpreted, 
the symbol would conform and add force to 
his peculiar teaching. Christ himself never 
administered baptism, nor is there any evi- 
dence that he recognized the rite, or direct- 



1 So says Alford on Matt, iii., 6; but he quotes no 
authority for his statement. 



BAPTISM 



102 



BAPTISM 



ed its employment "by Ms disciples, till after 
liis resurrection. The only passage indica- 
ting that it was ever so used is John iv., 1, 2, 
which directly asserts that Jesus did not 
himself baptize, and which indicates nothing 
more than that his first disciples, who were 
also disciples of John the Baptist, had caught 
the rite from their earlier teacher, and prac- 
ticed it in imitation of him. There is noth- 
ing to prove that any of the twelve were 
ever baptized in the name of the Father, 
the Son, and the Holy Ghost, or indeed re- 
ceived any baptism whatever, except such 
as John the Baptist probably administered 
to Andrew, Peter, Philip, and John.^ After 
Christ's resurrection, however, he adopted 
the rite of baptism, and gave it a new sig- 
nificance. " Go ye, therefore," said he, " and 
teach all nations, baptizing them in the 
name of the Father, and of the Son, and of 
the Holy Ghost." John had baptized only 
unto repentance. With him the symbol, 
like his preaching, indicated no other meth- 
od of purification than that of repentance 
and reformation. Adopted by Christ, it ob- 
tained a new signification. It indicated that 
purity which comes alone from the power of 
God, alforded through Christ by the indwell- 
ing of the Holy Ghost. From this time bap- 
tism appears to have been universally ad- 
ministered in the case of all converts. It 
was the door by which every one entered 
the Chi'istian Church. The only condition 
of receiving it was repentance, and faith in 
the Lord Jesus Christ.^ From that day to 
the present it has been maintained, though 
in different forms, and with different meth- 
ods of administration, by nearly all Chris- 
tian denominations — the Greek, the Roman, 
and the Protestant. To this general state- 
ment the Friends (q. v.) furnish the only ex- 
ception. Doing away with all ceremonies, 
they hold that under the Christian dispensa- 
tion the symbol is merged in its fulfillment, 
and the baptism of water is supplanted by 
the baptism of the Holy Ghost. This sim- 
ple ceremony has given rise to a theological 
controversy which to the present day divides 
Protestant Christendom. Any thing like a 
full account of that controversy would far ex- 
ceed our limits. We propose simply to state, 
as briefly as possible, the issue as it exists 
at the present time between the Baptists, or 
Immersionists, and the Pedobaptists (child- 
baptizers), or those who believe in infant 
baptism. This issue involves four points — 
1. Wliat is the significance of baptism ; 2. 
Who are the proper su))jects of baptism ; 3. 
What is the proper method of baptism ; 4. 
Is baptism an essential prerequisite to par- 
ticipation in the Lord's Supper ? 

1. The Significance of Baptism. — In the Ro- 



1 John i., 29-44.-2 Acts ii., ?,S, 41 ; viii., .3.5-39; but 
verse 37 is not in tlie best manuscripts, is rejeofed by 
Alforcl and Lange, and doubted by Barnes and Words- 
wortli. 



man, Greek, and to a limited extent in the 
Episcopal and Lutheran Churches, baptism 
is held to liave a direct efficacy in washing 
away sin. ^' The design of this sacrament," 
says a Roman Catholic catechism,^ '^ is to make 
us Christians, to deliver us from the slavery 
of Satan, under which we are born, to unite 
us to Jesus Christ as members of his body, 
and to give us a title and right to receive all 
the other sacraments and helps of religion 
in this life, and eternal happiness in the life 
to come." Rev. J. H. Blunt, of the Church 
of England, in his " Theological Dictionary," 
uses language quite as strong. ''By bap- 
tism," says he, " we are cleansed from sin, 
adopted into God's family, being made his 
childi-en by spiritual birth, so that his first- 
begotten Son is not ashamed to call us breth- 
ren." He adds that an unrepentant adult is 
regenerated if baptized, and illustrates his 
doctrine by referring to the case of Simon 
Magus,'^ who, he says, was regenerated by 
baptism, and received the gift of the Holy 
Ghost, which, however, remained like seed 
in a barren ground. Such is the doctrine 
of baptismal regeneration. The principal 
texts which are cited in its support are the 
following : Acts ii., 38 ; xxii., 16 ; Eph. v., 
26 ; Gal. iii., 27 ; 1 Cor. xii., 13 ; Tit. iii., 5. 
By the Baptists the ceremony is regarded as 
a token, not as a means, of regeneration — as 
a symbol, therefore, which should always fol- 
low, never precede, conversion. They hold, 
accordingly, that repentance and faith are 
the prerequisites of baptism, which, there- 
fore, can be administered only to those who 
give evidence of possessing a Christian ex- 
perience. In the other Protestant Churches 
baptism is generally regarded as a symbol 
of purification — a rite of initiation into the 
visible Church, and a sign or seal for the 
purpose of more solemnly ratifying God's 
covenant of grace with his chosen people. 
They, therefore, agree in administering bap- 
tism to infants with those who maintain 
the doctrine of baptismal regeneration, but 
they do not agree with them in considering 
it necessary to infant salvation. 

2. The 2))'oper Subjects of Baptism. — In the 
Greek, the Roman, and most Protestant 
Churches, the infants of believers are admit- 
ted to baptism. The grounds upon which 
this is done have been partially stated above, 
and, in fact, the question between Baptists 
and Pedobaptists (i c., child -baptizers) is 
largely one as to the significance of the rite 
itself. The additional arguments for infant 
baptism may be concisely stated as follows. 
In the JcAvish Church the covenant was 
with Abraham and his children, and by the 
rite of circumcision infants were admitted 
to the visible Church. It is not to be sup- 
posed that the privileges of believers have 
been limited by the coming of Christ. That 

1 " The Sincere Christian," by Bishop Hay.— ^ Acts 
viii., 13-21. 



BAPTISM 



103 



BAPTISM 



he welcomed children to the invisible Church, 
and that they are heirs of the kingdom of 
heaven, is clearly stated ; and while the doc- 
trine of the damnation of infants has been 
often imputed in theological controversy, it 
has never been held as a dogma by even a 
respectable minority of Christians. It is, 
therefore^ fitting that they should be re- 
ceived imb the bosom of the visible Church, 
whose protection they greatly need. It is 
true that the doctrine of infant baptism is 
not directly taught in the N. T. ; but it is 
also true that it is nowhere expressly taught 
who may receive the ordinance. There are 
several references to household baptism ; and 
although it is not expressly stated that there 
were infant children in those households, 
nevertheless, since infants were received into 
the Jewish Church, and the infants of pros- 
elytes received baptism with their parents, 
it is to be presumed that they received it 
also in the Christian Church — an opinion 
which is confirmed by the fact that it was 
practiced unquestionably as early as the 
time of TertuUian (a.d. 200). The Baptists, 
who admit none to baptism but those who 
give evidence of possessing a Christian ex- 
perience, base their objections to infant bap- 
tism partly upon their interpretation of the 
rite, partly upon the following arguments. 
Baptism, they say, is not a substitute for cir- 
cumcision ; if it were, Paul, whose writings 
abound with arguments against the continu- 
ance of circumcision, would have somewhere 
indicated, as he has not, that baptism is a 
substitute. It may be admitted that chil- 
dren are received by Christ, and, if they die 
in infancy, are received into the kingdom of 
heaven, without its following that they are 
to receive a rite which should be regarded 
as a symbol of conversion, and should accom- 
pany a profession of faith. Christ's commis- 
sion to his disciples^ connects baptism with 
instruction, and those who were baptized in 
the early Church first acknowledged their 
sins and professed their faith in Christ.^ 
There is not in the N. T. any clear account 
of any person being baptized except upon 
condition of repentance and faith. There is 
no evidence that the households which are 
spoken of as being baptized contained any 
infant children ; and even if they did, it 
must be presumed that the language would 
have been understood not literally, but as 
applicable only to those members of the 
household who received the Gospel, and so 
were proper subjects of baptism ; thus, even 
in the case of the household of the jailer, 
while it is said " he and all his " were bap- 
tized, it is also first said that the apostles 
spake the word of the Lord "to all that 
were in his house."^ 

3. The Mode of Baptism has also given rise 
to great controversy. The Baptists, or Im- 



1 Matt, xxviii., 19.— 2 Matt, iii., G 
12; ix., IT, IS.— 3 Acts xvi., 31-33. 



Acts ii,, 41 ; viii., ^ Matt. 
ii., 41. 



mersionists, hold that baptism can only be 
administered by immersion. They maintain 
that the Greek word haptizo signifies to im- 
merse ; that the indications of Scripture all 
point to immersion as the mode observed by 
the Apostolic Church ; that the Scripture 
figures relating to baptism indicate the same 
thing ;^ that the command to baptize carries 
with it the command to baptize in the man- 
ner in which the apostles baptized ; and that 
any departure from this method is in so far 
a departure from the law of God. . They do 
not generally consider this to be fatal to 
Christian experience, or to affect the per- 
sonal salvation of the individual, but they 
regard it as fatal to Church order, and ac- 
cordingly, as we shall presently see, lay far 
greater stress upon the rite than other de- 
nominations. In the Eastern Churches im- 
mersion is the common method of baptism, 
but in the Western Churches pouring or 
sprinkling is generally substituted. The 
most impartial scholars outside the Baptist 
Church admit that baptism in the Apostolic 
Church was generally by immersion, partial, 
if not complete, but they think there are 
traces in the Bible of both sprinkling and 
pouring. They regard it as incredible that 
3000 persons should have been immersed in 
a single day in a city so sparingly furnished 
with water as Jerusalem.^ Yet most Pedo- 
baptists would probably consider that, even 
if it were clear that all converts were im- 
mersed in the Apostolic Church, it would 
not follow that they are always to be im- 
mersed ; that, on the other hand, in the ab- 
sence of any explicit direction, the question 
of mode may fairly be regarded as left to be 
determined by the Church according to its 
peculiar circumstances of place, age, and cli- 
mate. 

4. Is Baptism a Prerequisite to the Lord^s 
Supper ? — Most Christians regard baptism as 
a prerequisite to partaking of the Lord's 
Supper ; for this has been regarded in al- 
most all ages as the peculiar privilege of 
members of the Church, and nearly all de- 
nominations are agreed in considering bap- 
tism, in some form, a condition of Church 
membership. Hence a large proportion of 
the Baptist denomination, considering that 
only immersion is baptism, also hold that 
only those who have been immersed have 
a right to come to the Lord's table. This 
doctrine is popularly known as close com- 
munion, and those who hold it are often 
called Close Communionists, or Close Com- 
munion Baptists. This position is a logical 
consequence of the other two — viz., that only 
immersion is baptism, and that baptized per- 
sons alone can partake of the Lord's Supper. 
In the Congregational and Baptist Chtirches 
there has lately sprung up a party who deny 
the latter of these positions — who maintain, 



iii., 16: Acts viii., 



Rom. vi., 4.-2 Acts 



t 



BAPTISM 



104 



BAPTISTS 



that is, that neither haptism nor church 
membership is an essential prerequisite to 
the communion j that there is no other 
condition except that which is implied in 
Christ's command, '^ Do this in remembrance 
of me." Those in the Baptist Church who 
hold this view, and they are very numerous 
in England, are popularly known as Open 
Communionists, or Open Communion Bap- 
tists. 

5. Roman Catholic Baptismal Bites. — In the 
Roman Catholic Church the rite of baptism 
is accompanied by an elaborate ceremonial. 
The water for baptismal purposes is blessed 
at Easter and Pentecost — a lighted torch be- 
ing placed in the font for that purpose to 
represent the divine love enkindled in the 
soul, and holy oil being mixed with the wa- 
ter to represent the union of the soul with 
God. When a person is presented for bap- 
tism, the priest meets him at the door of the 
church, to denote that he has no right to 
enter that sacred place, and, after telling 
him the conditions on which baptism will 
be granted, proceeds to prepare him for it. 
He breathes upon him, to symbolize the im- 
parting of the Holy Spirit ;' makes the sign of 
the cross upon his forehead and breast ; puts 
a little salt that has been blessed into the 
person's mouth, as an emblem of wisdom f 
exorcises the devil ; touches the ear and nos- 
trils with a little spittle, to signify the open- 
ing of the soul to the word of God ;^ receives 
the public renunciation of the devil from the 
candidate or his sponsors (q. v.); anoints him 
with oil, as a symbol of his consecration ; 
interrogates him or his sponsors concerning 
his faith, and then administers baptism by 
pouring or dipping three times. Immedi- 
ately afterward the candidate is anointed 
on the crown of the head with holy oil, as 
a symbol of his priesthood ; clothed with a 
white garment, as an emblem of his inno- 
cence ; and a lighted torch is put in his 
hand, as an emblem of the good example 
which his vows require of him.^ In the 
Eastern Churches symbolical services of a 
like nature accompany baptism. 

6. Who may administer Baptism. — There has 
been some discussion as to who may admin- 
ister baptism. It is clear that in the Apos- 
tolic Church baptism was administered by 
others than the apostles.^ It is the general 
practice of all Churches to administer bap- 
tism through an ordained minister ; but 
baptism by laymen, and even by heretics, is 
recognized not only by the Protestant, but 
also by the Greek and Eoman Churches. 
And the right of every one to baptize him- 
self has even been maintained by a small 
sect known as Se-baptists. 

In the phrase '' haptizedfor the dead,^' which 
occurs only in 1 Cor. xv., 29, some suppose 
that there is a reference to a custom, which 



» John XX., 22.-2 Lev. ii., 13 ; Mark ix., 49.-3 Mark 
vii., 33 4 Matt, v., 16.— 5 Acts viii., 38; ix., 13. 



certainly existed at a very early age in the 
Church, of baptizing the living in lieu of the 
dead. At a later date, when one had died 
without baptism, a living man was hid un- 
der the bed of the deceased. The priest, 
coming to the dead man, asked him if he 
would receive baptism, and, getting no an- 
swer, accepted the affirmative reply of the 
living, and so baptized him in the place of 
the dead, that the latter might not be pun- 
ished for the want of baptism. Among the 
Christians in Africa, even the dead them- 
selves were sometimes baptized. 

Baptistery (a large basin). In the early 
Church a separate building, to which this 
name was given, was erected for the admin- 
istration of the rite of baptism. Some of 
these still exist in connection with the ca- 
thedrals of Europe. That of St. Sophia, at 
Constantinople, was so spacious as to have 
served on one occasion for the residence of 
the Emperor Basilicus. In the sixth cen- 
tury, they were constructed in the porch ; 
and they are now generally built in the 
Baptist churches under or in connection 
with the pulpit. 

Baptists, the name of those Christian de- 
nominations which maintain that baptism 
can be administered only upon a personal 
profession of Christian faith. Generally, 
though not always, Baptists are immersion- 
ists. This doctrine has been maintained by 
different sects from a very early age of the 
Church. In the United States the Baptist 
denomination owes its origin to Eoger Wil- 
liams, who, before his immersion, was an 
Episcopalian minister. Many minor denom- 
inations have embraced in a modified form 
their principles, and take their name. There 
are Fi-ee-ivill Baptists, who are Arminian in 
doctrine, and Ojjen Communionists in prac- 
tice ; German Baptists, popularly known as 
Bunkers (q. v.) ; General and Particular Bap- 
tists, a division which prevails in England, 
the former of whom hold Arminian, the lat- 
ter Calvinistic, views ; Old - school Baptists, 
sometimes called Anti-mission, and popularly 
knowli as Hardshell Baptists, whose extreme 
Calvinism leads them to oppose missionary 
societies, Sunday-schools, and other similar 
institutions for the conversion of men, but 
who are not fellowshiped by the other Bap- 
tists and are becoming extinct ; Seventh-day 
Baptists, who keep the seventh day of the 
week instead of the first ; and Six-principle 
Baptists, so called from the six principles^ 
which constitute their creed, which is Ar- 
minian in its character. The Christians (q. 
v.), or Camphellites, should also be included 
in the list of leading Baptist denominations. 

In polity, Baptists are Congregational.'* 
Their peculiar doctrines are treated of under 
the title Baptism (q. v.). Their statistics it 
is difficult to give. Next to the Methodists, 



1 Founded on Heb. vi., 1, 2.-3 See Congkegation- 

ALI8T8. 



BAEABBAS 



105 



BARNABAS 



they constitute the largest Protestant de- 
nomination in the United States. The reg- 
ular Baptists, excluding, that is, the minor 
denominations given above, are reported to 
have 592 associations, 13,000 churches, and 
over a million of members, in the United 
States. They have established several col- 
leges and theological seminaries, and main- 
tain 2 quarterlies, 74 monthlies, and nearly 
30 weekly papers. They have separate or- 
ganizations for mission work, both home and 
foreign, a denominational publication socie- 
ty, and two Bible societies (q. v.). Except 
in their peculiar views regarding baptism, 
the regular Baptists do not differ in doctrine 
from other evangelical denominations. Their 
general views have been thus defined by the 
New York State Ba^jtist Convention, and the 
definition may be regarded as certainly fair, 
though not, strictly speaking, official. A 
regular Baptist Church is ^' one which is 
Congregational in polity, Calvinistic in sub- 
stance of doctrine ; which maintains the 
immersion of believers as the 
initiatory rite of a visible 
Church, and restricts the Lord's 
Supxier as an ordinance of the 
Church to those who have 
been thus initiated into a body 
of baptized believers, and be- 
come subject to their disci- 
pline." 

Barabbas (son of Ahha), a 
man who had been engaged in 
an insurrection, accompanied 
with robbery and murder, 
shortly before Christ's cruci- 
fixion. In some of the later 
Greek manuscripts, and, as 
Origen says, in copies of his 
time, and in the Armenian ver- 
sion, he is called Jesus Barab- 
bas. In that case, the import of Pilate's 
question might be, "Whom will ye that I 
release unto you — Jesus, the son of Abba, or 
Jesus which is called your Messiah ;" an un- 
manly artifice, shrewd, but unavailing to 
turn the passions of the people. Of Barab- 
bas nothing more is known. [Matt, xxvii., 
15-21.] 

Barak {lightning), the son of Abinoam of 
Kedesh-naphtali, a general whom God raised 
up to deliver Israel from the oppression of 
Jabin, king of Canaan. He was directed to 
muster 10,000 men of Naphtali and Zebulun 
toward Mount Tabor. He refused, however, 
unless Deborah would accompany him. To 
this she consented, but assured him that he 
would not, in consequence, have the whole 
honor of the victory. Accordingly, Deborah 
and Barak marched together. After the bat- 
tle, in which the people of God were victo- 
rious, they celebrated the victory in a divine 
ode, and Israel had many years' rest from 
enemies. The date is difficult to determine. 
[Judg. iv., V. ; Heb. xi., 32.] 



Barley, a well-known species of grain. 
The Hebrew word implies '^bristling," ap- 
propriately descriptive of the bearded ears 
of barley ; and when used in the singular it 
signifies barley in growth ; when in the plu- 
ral, the grain after threshing. Barley was, 
of course, not so much valued as wheat — a 
remarkable illustration of which is the fact 
that, whereas the ordinary meat-offering was 
of fine, that is, wheat flour, the offering of 
the woman suspected of adultery was to be 
of barley meal. Barley-harvest was earlier 
than that of wheat — this grain being usual- 
ly cut in April ; whence its destruction in 
Egypt by the hail-storm. The barley gen- 
erally grown in Palestine is our own com- 
mon kind. [Exod. ix., 31 ; Numb, v., 15 ; 
Hos. iii., 2.] 

Barn, a deposit for grain. Among the 
Orientals, it was commonly under ground.^ 
This, some think, preserved the grain better 
than a granary above ground, and at the 
same time was less apt to be discovered by 




Vaulted Granaries. 

the enemy in times of emergency. This 
kind of store-house is in general use by the 
peasantry throughout the East, granaries 
above ground being confined to towns and 
their vicinities — a distinction which may 
also have prevailed among the Jews. The 
Hebrew word rendered "barn" in 2 Kings 
vi., 27, and Job xxxix., 12, signifies rather 
a threshing-floor (q. v.). 

Barnabas {son of exhortation or of consola- 
tion), the surname given by the apostles to 
Joses, or Joseph, a Levite of Cyprus. Wheth- 
er he was a personal disciple of our Lord we 
have no information. He is first named as 
being at Jerusalem shortly after the ascen- 
sion, and selling his land to bring the price 
into the common fund of the Church, After 
the conversion of Saul of Tarsus, Barnabas 
introduced him into the society of the apos- 
tles, and was afterward his fellow-laborer in 
many places, especially at Antioch. It has 
been said that Barnabas founded the Church 
of Milan, and that he was stoned to death 



See Cave. 



BARTHOLOMEW 



108 



BAETHOLOMEW 



at Salamis, in Cyprus, but these accounts 
can not be relied on. His festival is cele- 
brated throughout the Roman Church on 
the 11th of June, St. Barnabas's Day. [Acts 
iv., 36, 37.] 

The Ejpistle of Barnabas was known to the 
early Church, but for several centuries lost 
sight of. In 1859, Tischendorf brought from 
Mount Sinai a complete MS. of it in Greek, a 
translation of which is given in the "Amer- 
ican Presbyterian Review" for January and 
July, 1864. The chief modern critics prop- 
erly disbelieve its genuineness, holding that 
it existed anonymously in the Alexandrian 
Church, and was ignorantly attributed to 
Barnabas, 

Bartholome-w, St. (Massacre of). In 
1572, during the reign of Charles IX., there 
occurred a general massacre of the Hugue- 
nots (q. v.), commencing at Paris on August 
24, the festival of St. Bartholomew. For 
three days the streets of Paris ran with 
blood ; and similar massacres followed in the 
provincial cities where the Huguenots had 
been most powerful. Catherine de Medici, 
the mother of the king, was undoubtedly 
the instigator of this great tragedy ; but 
whether it was a long -premeditated plot, 
or one suddenly devised for the purpose of 
exterminating the Reformers, is a question 
upon which historians differ. Expressing 
her desire that a complete reconciliation 
between Catholics and Protestants should 
be effected, Catherine proposed a marriage 
between her daughter Marguerite and Hen- 
ry of Navarre. Considerable opposition was 
made to this union. Some of the Hugue- 
nots were suspicious, and the Poj)e abso- 
lutely refused to sanction it until Henry 
was reconciled to the Romish Church. Re- 
luctantly, however, Jeanne d'Albret, the 
mother of young Henry, gave her consent, 
and was herself induced to accept an invi- 
tation to Paris. Within a month after her 
arrival there, she died, and a suspicion was 
prevalent that she was poisoned by a pair 
of perfumed gloves which were sent to her 
by the mother of the expected bride. A 
great number of Huguenots gathered in Par- 
is, under a solemn oath of safety, to celebrate 
the marriage. The ceremony took place on 
August 18, notwithstanding the dispensation 
from the pope was still withheld. Daring 
the festivities that followed, the Huguenot 
leader, Coligny, was shot by an assassin, em- 
ployed probably by Catherine or the Duke 
of Guise. The work was not done effectu- 
ally, for the wound was not mortal. King 
Charles Avas enraged, Coligny having been 
assured of his x>i"otection, and he sent his 
own surgeon to attend him, and went him- 
self to his bedside. The Huguenots, still 
trusting to the j)rofessions of Catherine and 
the king, seem never to have thought of es- 
caping from the city, though dangers were 
thickening about them. If, as some assert. 



the queen-mother originally designed only 
the death of Coligny, now, when she saw 
her plot had failed, she resolved to bring 
about the destruction of the entire sect. 
She assured the young king — then scarcely 
twenty-two years old, and accustomed to be 
guided by her — that Coligny was in league 
with the Huguenots against him and her- 
self; that they were already arming; that 
there was no safety excejDt in the death 
of Coligny, and a general massacre of his 
confederates. Charles was not easily per- 
suaded, but at length, in a moment of terror 
or frenzy, he gave the fatal command. At 
dawn, the tolling of the great bell at the 
Palace of Justice announced that the mas- 
sacre of St. Bartholomew had commenced. 
Coligny, still in bed, feverish from his 
wounds, was stabbed in the breast, and, 
while yet breathing, was hurled from the 
window upon the pavement below. Then 
began a horrible and wholesale slaughter. 
The city gates were closed and guarded ; 
Catholics illuminated their houses as a dis- 
tinguishing mark, and to give light to carry 
on the work of destruction, amidst which 
they were to recognize one another by a 
white sash on the arm and a white cross in 
the cap. The frightful scenes that followed 
baffle description. The air rang with yells 
and curses, groans and pistol-shots; the 
streets were strewed with mangled bodies ; 
the doors were blocked with the dead and 
dying; from secret hiding-places, shrink- 
ing, shrieking creatures were torn out and 
stabbed ; women and children imbrued their 
hands in blood ; and, under the sanction of 
the great cause, distinctions of creed be- 
came confounded, and all private resent- 
ments were gratified. Several thousands 
perished in Paris, and in every part of the 
kingdom ; nor was the slaughter stayed un- 
til, according to the belief of the times, a 
hundred thousand men, women, and chil- 
dren had been miserably murdered. The 
news of this horrible massacre was received 
by Pope Gregory XIII. with unbounded joy ; 
Rome rang with rejoicings ; Philip II. of 
Spain is said to have laughed for the first 
and only time in his life when he heard how 
the Huguenots had been betrayed ; but from 
every Protestant land there arose a cry of 
horror. Catherine found she had gained 
nothing by her treachery. The English and 
German nations were alienated, and the Hu- 
guenots, so far from being exterminated, 
rapidly increased in strength and numbers, 
from the encouragement received by the 
general indignation and sympathy of Prot- 
estant countries. The wretched young King 
of France became a pr(;y to the most tor- 
turing remorse ; his conscience never slept. 
He was soon stricken with a fatal disease, 
and in his last hours he was perpetually 
haunted by recollections of the massacre. 
" Sleeping or waking," he said to his confi- 



BAEUCH 



107 



BASHAN 



dential physician, "the murdered Huguenots 
seem ever present to my eyes, with ghastly 
faces, and weltering in blood." History re- 
cords no more desperate and dreadful slaugh- 
ter than the massacre of St. Bartholomew. 
See Huguenots. 

Baruch (blessed), son of Neriah, and broth- 
er of Seraiah, who held a distinguished of- 
fice in the court of Zedekiah. He was of 
the illustrious family of Judah, and of dis- 
tinguished acquirements, and is especially 
known as the faithful friend and amanuen- 
sis of the prophet Jeremiah, whose oracles 
he twice committed to writing in the reign 
of Jehoiakim. Nothing certainly is known 
of him apart from the information given in 
Scripture, though he is said by Josephus to 
have shared Jeremiah's imprisonment dur- 
ing the siege of Jerusalem. [Jer. xxxii., 12, 
13, 16 ; xxxvi., 4-32 ; xliii., 3-6 ; li., 59.] 

Baruch (the Book of). This is remark- 
able as being the only book in the Apocry- 
pha which is formed on the model of the 
prophets. It may be divided into two main 
parts : i. to iii., 8, and iii., 9, to end. The first 
jjart consists of an introduction, followed 
by a confession and a prayer. The second 
part opens with an abrupt address to Israel, 
pointing out the sin of the people in neg- 
lecting the divine teaching of Wisdom, and 
Introduces a noble lament of Jerusalem 
over her children. Again the tone of the 
book changes suddenly, and the writer ad- 
dresses Jerusalem in words of triumphant 
joy, and paints in glowing colors the return 
of God's chosen peoj)le, and their abiding 
glory. Chapter vi., entitled "The Epistle 
of Jeremy," is a work of a later period, and 
has no proper place with the rest of the 
book. The author of the book obviously 
claims to be the companion of Jeremiah, but 
there is abundant internal evidence of for- 
gery, and it is a matter of mere conjecture 
by whom it was written. By the Jews it 
has never been highly esteemed, and there 
are no references to it in any of the apostolic 
fathers. Protestants unanimously deny its 
canonical authority, but it was placed in the 
Eomish canon by the Council of Trent. 

Bashan (probably soft, fertile soil) is the 
name in Scripture for a singularly fertile 
tract of country lying between Mount Her- 
mon and the land of Gilead, and extending 
from the Arabah, or Jordan Valley, on the 
west, to Salcah and the border of the Gesh- 
urites and the Maachathites, on the east. 
The Rephaim — "the giants" — who bore the 
brunt of the onset of Chedorlaomer and his 
confederates in that memorable raid of the 
Arab chiefs of Mesopotamia into Eastern 
and Central Palestine,^ were the aboriginal 
inhabitants of Bashan, and probably of the 
greater part of Canaan. Of this remark- 
able race of men, by the side of whom the 
Jewish spies said long afterward that they 



1 Gen. xiv., 5. 



were as grasshoppers,^ was Og, king of Ba- 
shan, who, when the Israelites, tempted by 
the beauty of the country, appeared upon 
its borders, marshaled his military forces 
upon the plain before Edrei, and made a 
valiant struggle for country and life, only 
to meet with entire destruction. At that 
time one district of the country, Argob, had 
sixty fenced cities, with walls, gates, and 
bars, besides a great many unwalled towns.^ 
This important country, together with a part 
of Gilead, was assigned by Moses to the half- 
tribe of Manasseh ; but it must also have 
been at least partially occupied by Gadites.^ 
It is mentioned as one of Solomon's districts, 
over which an officer was appointed, and as 
overrun by Hazael, king of Syria, and is, no 
doubt, included in the country conquered by 
Tiglath-pileser.* It had remained, therefore, 
in the possession of the Manassites about 
seven hundred and ten years — from 1450 to 
740 B.C. After the captivity, its name, as a 
geographical term, disappears from history. 
When the Israelites were carried away, the 
scattered remnants of the original tribes 
came back, and filled and occui)ied the whole 
country. Henceforth the name Bashan is 
never mentioned by either classic or sacred 
writer. But the four provinces into which 
it was then rent are often spoken of, and all 
but one of them have retained, almost per- 
fectly, their ancient names. The most east- 
ern of these, Ard el-Bataniyeh, the classical 
Batansea, or Bashan Proper, is a very pic- 
turesque, mountainous district, with a rich 
soil and evergreen oak forests, dotted with 
towns of remote antiquity now deserted, but 
preserved in a state nearly perfect, with 
stone doors, stone roofs, and massive stone 
walls. Between Damascus and this outer- 
most region, wliich is north of the range of 
Jebel Hauran or ed-Druze, is the Lejah an- 
swering to the Argob and Trachonitis of the 
Old and New Testaments — a "stony" region, 
remarkable for the ruins of cities of massive 
strength and difficult access. Its rocky in- 
tricacies have been an asylum for all male- 
factors since the time when Absalom fled to 
it after the murder of his brother, and it is 
to-day the perfectly safe resort of the peo- 
ple when fleeing from the Bedouin robbers. 
South of the Lejah, Trachonitis, or Argob, 
and west of Batanaea, or Bashan Proper, lies 
the rich plain strictly called the Hauran — a 
name preserved unaltered since the times 
of Ezekiel,^ but also named at present En- 
nukrah — " the plain." It is the most fertile 
region in Syria, filled with deserted villages 
and towns, the most familiar of which to us, 
as being named in Scripture, are the north- 
ern Bozrah, now Busrah, and Beth Gamul, 
now Um el-Jemal. West of Hauran, toward 
the Sea of Galilee, the Jordan, and the Lake 



1 Numb, xiii., 33.— ^ Dent, iii., 1-14.— ^ Numb, xxxii., 
33; Dent, iii., 13; Josh, xiii., 29-31 ; 1 Chron. v., 11-16, 
—4 1 Kings iv., 13; 2 Kings x., 32, 33.-5 Ezek. xlvii., 16. 



BASILIANS 



108 



BAT 



of Merom, lies the better-known province of 
Jaulan, the classical Gaulanitis, and the re- 
gion in which the city of refuge, Golan, must 
have stood. Northward of Jaulan and Hau- 
ran lies Jedur, the Iturea of the N. T. and 
the classics, the country of Jetur, the son of 
Ishmael. This region bears, we are inform- 
ed, remarkable testimony to the faithfulness 
and minute accuracy of Bible narrative and 
description. The vast ruins scattered over 
its surface tell of its former populousness. 
Its rich pasture-lands and wide champaigns 
of waving corn still proclaim its wondrous 
fertility. The oak forests cover its mount- 
ain sides, as in days of old/ with a garment 
ever fresh and green. The ancient names, 
too, cling to it still. We have Golan, and 
Kenath, and Salcah, and Hauran, and Edrei, 
but little changed by the lapse of long cen- 
turies. 

Basilians, monks and nuns following the 
rule of St. Basil the Great, who, about the 
year 358 a.d., retired, with his two brothers 
and several others, into a monastery which 
he built near Pontus. The order spread 
with great rapidity, according to some writ- 
ers even numbering 90,000 before the death 
of Basil in the East alone ; and the Basilian 
rule was, up to the time of St. Benedict, a.d. 
480, the basis of all monastic institutions. 
The monks of the Greek Church belong to 
this order. They have three ranks — proba- 
tioner, proficient, and perfect ; wear plain 
black clothes, consisting of a long cassock, 
a great gown with large sleeves, and for 
their head a hood hanging down upon the 
shoulders. They wear no linen, sleep on 
straw without sheets, eat no flesh, fast very 
often, and til? the ground with their own 
hands. In 1569, Pope Gregory XIII. united 
the Basilian monks of Italy, Spain, and Sic- 
ily into one congregation, at the head of 
which was the Monastery of St. Saviour, at 
Messina. This order is said to have pro- 
duced 14 popes, 1805 bishops, 3010 abbots, 
and 11,085 martyrs, besides an enormous 
number of confessors and nuns. It boasts 
also of several emperors, kings, and princes 
who have embraced its rule. 

Basilica, a building among the ancient 
Eomans, used as a court of law or a place 
of merchandise. On the conversion of Con- 
stautine, many of these public halls were 
given for the purpose of Christian worship, 
and some of them were converted into 
churches. Thus the word basilica came to 
denote churches, though in modern use it is 
only applied to those churches, as the Late- 
ran at Kome, which are distinguished for 
their size and magnificence. There are in 
Rome seven churches which bear this name, 
all of them possessing peculiar privileges. 

Basket. There are various Hebrew words 
rendered in our version '' basket." The bas- 
kets in which the heads of Ahab's sons were 
1 Psa. xsii., 12; Isa. ii., 13 ; Ezek. xxvii., C. 



put^ were, of course, of large size. The same 
word is translated "pots" in Psa. Ixxxi., 6 ; 
it means probably those baskets in which 




Ancient Egyptian Bread-baskets of Gold. 

heavy burdens were carried by two men on 
a pole resting on their shoulders. A word 
is elsewhere used^ which possibly designated 
a smaller basket for domestic purposes. An- 
other word, occurring only in Jer. vi., 9, ap- 
pears to have been a grape -basket. The 




Various Forms of Ar)cient E^ryptian Baskets. From 
the Monuments. 

fruit-basket of Amos viii., 1, 2, was probably 
of wicker-work, with a lid ; for in Jer. v., 27, 
it is put for a bird-cage. Another basket is 
mentioned in Gen. xL, 16-18, which, from the 
derivation of the original term, we might 
suppose to be constructed of twigs or osiers ; 
nor is the statement in Judg. vi., 19, that it 
was used for holding cooked meat, at vari- 
ance with this supposition, as some have as- 
serted. In the N. T. we have the large bas- 
ket, made of rope, in which St. Paul escaped 
from Damascus — probably a form of the an- 
cient fish-basket ; and two other words, one 
of which is used for the seven " baskets " of 
fragments that were taken up after one of 
Christ's miracles, and the other for the twelve 
"baskets " of the other similar miracle.^ This 
variation is itself a strong evidence that the 
two miracles are quite distinct. 

Bat ( " the night-iird "). The Hebrew name 
of the bat is expressive of its nocturnal 
habits. Bats are common in the East, clus- 
tering in caverns, among ruins, and in dense 
groves during the day. Frequenting the 
same spot for years, their resting-place be- 
comes inconceivably loathsome and repul- 
sive ; and no sooner does the torch of the 
traveler shine into it, than they rush forward 
in great numbers, like moths to a candle, 
putting out the light, dashing against the ex- 
plorer, beating their leathery wings against 



1 2 Kin^s X., 7.-2 Deut, xxvi., 2. 4; xxviii., 5.- 
3 Matt, xvi., 9, 10 ; Mark viii., 19, 20 ; 2 Cor. xi., 33. 



BATH-KOL 



109 



BEAST 



his face, and clinging to Ms dress. Thus 
their habitations are most revolting to hu- 
man beings, and we comprehend the abhor- 
rence with which the bat is mentioned in 
Scripture. It is the animal pronounced un- 
clean in the words, "All fowls that creep, 
going upon all fours, shall be an abomina- 
tion unto you." Though a mammal, with 
Tery long toes, and a well-develoj)ed mem- 
brane between them, it is naturally placed 
in the Mosaic lists ^vith fowls, in conse- 
quence of being able to fly. [Lev. xi., 19 ', 
Deut. xiv., 18 ; Isa. ii., 20.] 

Bath-Kol (daughter of the voice). When the 
Spirit of God ceased to speak by the mouth 
of the O. T. prophets, the Jews pretended 
that the Bath-Kol was substituted for it — a 
secret voice or suggestion speaking to their 
hearts, or a voice from heaven, sometimes 
accompanied, as they alleged, by thunder. 
It was called the daughter of a voice be- 
cause it succeeded in place of the oracular 
voice, delivered from the mercy-seat, when 
God was consulted by Urim and Thummun 
(q. v.). It was, in fact, nothing more than 
a species of divination which the Jews in- 
vented. 

Bath-sheba {claughier of the oath), daugh- 
ter of Eliam, granddaughter of Ahithophel, 
and wife of Uriah (q. v.). She was seduced 
by King David during the absence of her 
husband at the siege of Kabbah. Hence, 
perhaps, the enmity of Ahithophel to David, 
and David's remorseful dread of him. The 
child of this adulterous intercourse died. 
After the lapse of the period of mourning 
for her husband, who was slain by the con- 
trivance of David, she was legally married 
to the king, and bore him Solomon and 
three other sons. In 1 Chron. iii., 5, she is 
called Bath-shua, and her father Ammiel, 
instead of Eliam. She is afterward noticed 
only in consequence of her good-natured in- 
tercession for Adonijah, which incidentally 
displays the respect with which she was 
treated by King Solomon, her son. 

Bay -tree. This is probably equivalent 
to a "native" tree, i. e., one that has grown 
in its own soil, and has never been trans- 
planted — prosperous, therefore, and unde- 
caying. K a particular tree is meant, as 
some contend, the ancient celebrity — which 
has not yet passed away — the ever-green, 
grateful appearance, the thick shade, and 
the spicy odor of the laurel point it out as 
that which was most likely in the mind of 
the Psalmist. [Psa. xxxvii., 35.] 

BdeUium occxirs but twice in the Scrip- 
tures — in Gen. ii., 12, as a product of the 
land of Havilah, and in Numb, xi., 7, where 
the manna is likened to it and to hoar-frost. 
There are several opinions as to the sub- 
stance meant. Some would have this bdel- 
lium a precious stone. Gesenius supposes 
that the pearls found in abundance on the 
shores of the Persian Gulf will answer the 



conditions of the sacred text ; but it is most 
probably the aromatic gum hdellium, which 
issues from a tree growing in Arabia, Media, 
and the Indies. 

Beans. This vegetable, which was among 
the provisions furnished to David's troops 
while he lay at Mahanaim, and was to be a 
material for Ezekiel's bread,^ constitutes a 
common article of food in the East at the 
present day. The kinds most common in 
Syria are the white horse-bean and the kid- 
ney-bean. 

Bear. The bear of Palestine ( Jlrsus Syri- 
acus) is nearly allied to the common brown 
bear, being only somewhat lower and longer, 
with the head and tail more prolonged, the 
color a dull buff or light bay, clouded some- 
times with darker brown. It has a ridge 
of long hairs, semi-erect, running from the 
neck to the tail. To a sullen and ferocious 
disposition, it joins immense strength, little 
vulnerability, great sagacity, and the power 
of climbing trees. It is said still to be found 
in some parts of the Lebanon. The habits 
of this animal are often alluded to in Scrip- 
ture, and it is twice used as a symbol exhib- 
ited to a seer in a vision. [1 Sam. xvii., 34- 
37 ; 2 Kings ii., 24 ; Isa. xi., 7 ; Dan. vii., 5.] 

Beard. With the Jews, as with all Ori- 
ental nations, the beard was an object of 
care and importance. They viewed it as 
the special mark of manly dignity, and the 
loss of it as a disgrace, or degrading punish- 
ment.^ They encouraged its growth, and 
were careful to trim it, dress it, and anoint 
it with perfumed unguents. Where inti- 
macy permitted, the beard was the object 
of salutation, and Joab availed himself of 
this to deceive Amasa.^ Only in seasons of 
sorrow and calamity did they neglect their 
beards ; in deep affliction they cut them off, 
or tore them out, or covered them up.* They 
were forbidden by Moses to round off the 
corners of their beards^ — a practice which 
was common among the Arabians, and had 
with them an idolatrous signiffcance, on 
which account, doubtless, it was forbidden 
to the Jews. The preservation of the beard 
established a distinction between the de- 
scendants of Abraham and the Egyptians, 
who shaved except when mourning ; though 
they had the custom of wearing false beards, 
made of plaited hair, and graduated accord- 
ing to rank. The removal of the beard was 
a part of the ceremonial treatment proper to 
a leper. ^ 

Beast. In the Bible, this word, when 
used in contradistinction to man,'' denotes a 
brute creature generally ; when in contra- 
distinction to creeinng things,^ it has refer- 
ence to four-footed animals. Among the 
wild beasts of the Holy Land were the bear. 



1 2 Sam. xvii., 28; Ezek. iv., 9.-2 2 Sam. x., 4; Isa. 
vii., 20; Ezek. v., 1-5.-3 2 Sam. xx., 9.-4 2 Sam. xix., 
24; Ezra ix., 3; Isa. xv., 2 ; Jer. xli.,5.— ^ Lev. xix., 
27; xxi., 5.-6 Lev. xiv., 9.—'' Psa. xxxvi., 6.-8 Lev. 
xi., 2-7 ; xxvii., 26. 



BEATIFICATION 



110 



BEE 



bison, wild boar, leopard, lion, and wolf. 
Their ravages seem to have given the Isra- 
elites great trouble, and this fact probably 
led to the frequent symbolical use of the 
term to designate certain tyrannical king- 
doms or powers.^ An objection has some- 
times been made, that the Israelites could 
not have had the difficulty in extirpating 
the wild beasts which we find represented in 
Scripture.^ Dr. Thomson, however, in " The 
Land and the Book," asserts that their num- 
ber at the present day is so great as to jus- 
tify all that the Bible history says on this 
point. 

The four beasts referred to in Rev. v., 6- 
14, should rather be translated living crea- 
tures, and the term appears to be used to 
symbolize animated nature. 

Beatification. In the Romish Church, 
an act by which the pope, after certain pro- 
longed inquiries into the life of the candi- 
date, declares him blessed, and permits cer- 
tain honors to be paid to him by the order 
or church to which he belonged, and from 
the bishop of which the application must 
come. No person can be beatified until fifty 
years have elapsed from the time of his 
death. Beatification is the first step toward 
canonization (q. v.) ; but the former, accord- 
ing to Cardinal Wiseman, " is generally con- 
fined to a particular diocese, religious order, 
or province, while the latter extends to the 
whole world ; the former is permitted — not 
merely tolerated ; the latter is enjoined to the 
faithful." 

Bed, Bedstead. That there were among 
the O. T. peoples, as among the Orientals to- 
day, chambers specially reserved for sleep- 
ing, and that these were a most private part 
of the house, is evident from the Scriptures. 
In those used by the master of the house 
and the family, some kind of low frame or 
bedstead was placed.^ In Arabia and Egypt 
such a frame is rudely made of palm-sticks, 
and in Palestine of boards. Og's bedstead 
was of iron.* The frame is sometimes car- 





Ancient Egyptian Lattice Bedstead. 



Uneutai Sleeping Apartment. 

stead. On this a mat or padded quilt is 
laid, and then a quilt of finer material ; or 
perhaps, in summer, a thin blanket forms 
the coverlet. Poorer persons use their ordi- 
nary clothing, sometimes wrapping it round 
their bodies without any kind of mattress 
beneath. Hence the prohibition against 
detaining a garment in pledge after sun- 
set.^ Indeed generally the Orientals do not 
change their dress in going to bed. They 
are satisfied with taking off the upper gar- 
ment and loosening the girdle. It will easi- 
ly be understood, from what has been said, 
how Christ could command those he healed 
to "take up" their bed and walk. 

Occasionally we find beds of an ornament- 
al character spoken of, the bedstead being 
very probably a light couch carved or in- 
laid.^ We read of the use of pillows. Jacob 
is said to have placed the stones at Beth- 
el for pillows, covered, doubtless, with some 
of his garments. That put by Michal in 
David's bed was made of goat's hair. Sim- 
ilar pillows are still common — skins stuifed 
with cotton or other soft substance. The 
pillow upon which our Lord was sleeping, in 
the storm on Galilee, was a place of repose 
in the stern of the vessel, and the transla- 
tion should be, " on the pillow " (not, " a pil- 
low").' 

Bee. That Palestine abounded in bees 
is evident from the description of that land 
by Moses, for it was " a land flowing with 
milk and honey." The spe- 
cies that most abounds is 
called the banded bee. It 
closely resembles the com- 
mon honey-bee of our own 
country, though it is not 
exactly the same. Both 
of them share the instinct- 
ive dislike of strangers, 



ried to the flat top of the house during the 
season when persons sleep there. But ac- 
commodation for the night is much more 
simply provided in a large reception-room. 
The divan or platform at the end or side of 
the apartment serves the purpose of a bed- 



and jealousy of intrusion.* 



1 Dan. vii., 3-2S ; Rev. xiii., 1 ; xvi., 13 : xvii., 10, 11. 
—2 Exod. xxiii., 20.— 3 Exod. viii., 3 ; 2 Kinj^s vi., 12 ; 
Eccles. X,, 20.— 4 Deut, iii., 11 ; 1 Sam. xix., 15 ; 2 
Kings iv., 10. 



The wild bees inhabit some of the rocky* 
ravines in Palestine, multiplying to such an 
extent as to render it dangerous for human 
beings to attempt to pass. The abundance 
of wild honey is evident from many pas- 
sages of Scripture.® We find no mention of 



1 Exod. xxii., 26, 2T ; Deut. xxiv., 13.— 2 Prov. vii., 
16, 17 ; Amos vi., 4.-3 Gen. xxviii., 11 ; 1 Sam. xix,, 
13; Mark iv., 3S.— ^ Deut. i., 44; P.«a. cxviii., 12.— 
5 Deut. xxxii., 18; Psa. Ixxxi., 16.— « Jadg. xiv., 8; 1 
Sam. xiv., 27. 



BEELZEBUB 



111 



BEETLE 



domesticated bees; but, as the manners of 
the East are mucla the same now as they 
were three thousand years ago, it is proba- 
ble that bees were kept then, as they are 
now, in hives consisting of cylindrical vases 
of coarse earthenware, laid horizontally. 

Beelzebub, the prince of devils, was a god 
of the Ekronites. The word literally means 
the lord of flies, so called because this deity 
was supposed to protect his votaries from the 
numerous swarms of flies with which that 
country abounded. The correct reading in 
the N. T. is supposed to be, not Beelzebub, but 
Beelzebul, an Aramean form of the word, mean- 
ing the lord of dung or filth. The name, thus 
altered by the Jews by changing a single 
letter, was given to Satan to express supreme 
contempt and aversion. The Jews seem to 
have first given to Satan the name of a hea- 



Beersheba {ivell of the oath), a place in the 
extreme south of Palestine, so that '' from 
Dan to Beersheba " was a common form of 
expression for the entire length of the coun- 
try. It was a place of very great antiqui- 
ty, was associated with the personal history 
both of Abraham and Isaac, and first re- 
ceived the name of Beersheba on account of 
the oath or covenant of peace wliich Abime- 
lech entered into with Abraham concerning 
a well, the possession of which was disputed. 
In Isaac's time we find the name imposed a 
second time, and on the same ground — name- 
ly, a covenant of peace between him and 
the King of Gerar. A town of some conse- 
quence afterward rose on the spot, and re- 
tained the same name. On the apportion- 
ment of Canaan, Beersheba was assigned 
first to Judah, afterward to Simeon, and it 




Well at Beersheba. 



then god, and then, to express their sense of 
the character of Satan, to have changed that 
name by altering a single letter, so as to 
express their aversion in the most emphatic 
manner. By ascribing to his power the mira- 
cles wrought by Christ, they poured upon him 
the greatest possible abuse and contempt. [2 
Kings i., 2 ; Matt, xii., 24 ; Luke xi., 15.] 

Beer-Lahai-Roi {well of the living one that 
sees me, or rather, of seeing God and living), the 
fountain where the angel of the Lord appear- 
ed to Hagar, who had fled from her mistress 
Sarai, and promised her a large posterity. 
It was in the south country, between Kadesh 
and Bered, and has been supposed to be at 
Moildhi, on the road from Gaza to Suez. It 
is afterward mentioned as merely Lahai-Roi 
in our version. [Gen. xvi., 7-14 ; xxiv., 62 ; 
XXV., 11.] 



is frequently mentioned afterward in pro- 
verbial expressions such as the above. In 
later times it seems to have been a seat of 
idolatry ; but it was inhabited after the cap- 
tivity. The district round must have borne 
the name of the place. The site of Beer- 
sheba is supposed to be in the modern Wady 
es-Seb'a. There are two large wells, besides 
five smaller ones, still existing ; while the 
ruins of a town, Bir es-Seb'a (the Arabic for 
the well of the lion), appear on some low hills 
to the north of the larger wells. [Gen. xxi., 
14, 22-34 ; xxii., 19 ; xxvi., 17-33 ; Judg. xx., 
1 ; Amos v., 5 ; viii., 14 ; Neh. xi., 27, 30.] 

Beetle {lea/per). The original word so 
translated can not mean the beetle, which 
was never used as food by the JeAvs, or per- 
haps any other nation, but probably refers 
to some variety of the locust (q. v.). This 



BEGHAEDS 



112 



BELLS 



surface. It often leaves the river, and, for- 
cing its way into cultivated grounds, eats 
vast quantities of green food, and destroys 
as much as it eats by the trampling of its 
heavy feet. The teeth of the hippopotamus 
are peculiarly formed and arranged, so that 
it can cut through the stems of thick, strong 
herbage, as with shears ; and the strength 
of its jaws is so great, that an angered hip- 
popotamus has been known to bite a man 
completely in two. 

Bellows. This word does not occur tiU 
somewhat late in the sacred Volume ;^ but 
the instrument must have been in use in 
very early times. Wilkinson describes bel- 
lows from an ancient Egyptian picture oi 
the age of Thothmes III., probably contem- 
porary with Moses. " They consisted of a 
leather bag, secured and fitted into a fi?ame, 
from which a long pipe extended, for carry- 
ing the wind into the fire. They were work- 



conclusion is confirmed by the derivation of 
the word, which signifies to galloj) like the 
grasshopper. The real beetle, however, was 
very common in Egypt, and is supposed by 
many to be referred to in Exod. viii., 21, 
where our Bible translates " swarms of flies." 
Among the Egyptians the beetle was wor- 
shiped as a divinity, and stones cut in the 
form of the beetle were used as charms. 
[Lev.xi.,22.] 

Beghards (prayet'-malcers). Societies of 
laymen giving themselves wholly up to de- 
votion arose, it is said, in Italy, and from 
thence spread to Germany, though the first 
that is positively known of them is their 
establishment at Louvain, a.d. 1220. They 
were chiefly unmarried tradesmen, who, 
while they occupied separate houses, lived 
together under a master, took their meals in 
common, and met daily for devotional exer- 
cises. They were assiduous in deeds of char- 
ity, visiting and ministering to the sick, 
and attending to the burial of the dead. 
With the Beguines (q. v.), they showed 
early signs of degeneracy and decline, and 
great immoralities are charged to them, 
although these charges are undoubtedly 
exaggerated by the hostile writers of their 
time. They never attained the numbers 
or the reputation enjoyed by the Beguines, 
and are now wholly extinct. 

Beguines, the name of the earliest of 
all lay societies of women united for pious 
purposes. They first arose in the Nether- 
lands, but soon spread through France and 
Germany. They were not restricted by 
vows, nor did they follow the rule of any 
order, but were united under a superieiire 
for the exercise of piety and benevolence. 
They lived in separate small cottages, hav^ 
ing in common a church, hospital, and a 
house of reception and common entertain- 
ment. In the thirteenth and fourteenth 

centuries, the Beguines and the Beghards t^^^ po^p^g of ancient Egyptian Bellows. ' 

(q. V.) became somewhat entangled with «,&,;!;, the leather case: c,?, the pipes conveying the wind 
other sects, and were accused of some im- to the fire; d,m, the fire; h, q, charcoal; k is raised as 

, ,' , ,. rrn 1 if full of air ; 2, i), r, crucibles. 

moral and corrupt practices. These and 

some heresies which called forth the inter- 




ference of the Inquisition, bred an enmity 
which caused open war between them and 
the Church, until finally, like many other 
sects, they were lost sight of in the Eefor- 
mation. There are still to be found in dif- 
ferent parts of Germany Beguinen - hciuser 
(Beguin-houses), but they are simj^ly alms- 
houses, or retreats for poor spinsters. 

Behemoth. The identification of the stu- 
pendous animal described in Job^ has puz- 
zled innumerable critics. The weight of 
evidence seems to be in favor of the hippo- 
potamus. This animal inhabits the reedy 
banks of the Nile, where it loves to lie in 
the shadow of the tall water -i)lants, its 
whole body concealed in the water, only the 
eyes, ears, and nostrils appearing above the 



1 Job xl., 15-24. 



ed by the feet ; the operator standing upon 
them, with one under each foot, and press- 
ing them alternately, while he pulled up 
each exhausted skin with a string which he 
held in his hand." 

Bells. Large bells such as are now used 
in churches were unknown in ancient times. 
Small bells, however, were in use among 
the Greeks and Eomans, and no doubt also 
among the Jews. Small golden bells (ac- 
cording to the Rabbins, seventy-two in num- 
ber) were attached, alternating with pome- 
granate-shaped knobs or tassels, to the hem 
of the high -priest's robe — the robe of the 
ephod.^ These would sound as the high- 
priest entered the holy place, announciug, 
so to speak, his approach to the palace of 
the great King, and t hey would notify to 
1 Jer. vi., 29.-2 Exod. xxviii., 33-35; xxxix., 25, 20. 



BELLS 



113 



BELLS 



the people without that he was performing 
his sacred functions. They were to he worn 
under pain of death. A time is foretold 
when God's truth shall so have pervaded 
the minds of men, even in their humblest oc- 
cupations, that the inscription, " Holiness to 
the Lord," which the high-priest wore upon 
the golden plate attached to his mitre, should 
he equally home by the bells of the horses ;^ 
that is, that even the commonest things 
should bear a sacred character. The He- 
brew word in this case hardly signifies act- 
ual bells — rather pieces of metal, attached 
for ornament to the necks of the horses, 
which would tinkle as the animals moved. 
In Isa. iii., 16-18, reference is made to little 
tinkling bells which are worn by women in 
the East to this day, upon their wrists and 
ankles, as an ornament, and for the sake of 
the pleasant sound they produce.* 

The introduction of bells into Christian 
churches is usually ascribed to Paulinus, 
Bishop of Nola, in Campania (400 a.d.) ; but 
there is no evidence of their existence for 
at least a century later. Prior to that time 
rehgious assemblies were called together by 
the blowing of a trumpet, the knocking of a 
hammer, a public crier, or by private notice. 
That bells were first made in Campania, is 
inferred from the name given to them — cam- 
pana; hence campanile, the hell-tower. Their 
use in churches and monasteries soon spread 
through Christendom, and as early as the 
seventh century they were employed to an- 
nounce to the people the approach of the 
canonical hours. They were suspended ei- 
ther in the steeples or church-towers, and 
were long of comparatively small size. It 
was not until the fifteenth century that 
they reached really considerable dimensions. 
The largest bell in the world is the Great 
Bell or Monarch of Moscow, above 21 feet in 
height and diameter, and weighing 193 tons. 
It was cast in 1734, but fell down during a 
fire in 1737, was injured, and remained sunk 
in the earth till 1837, when it was raised, 
and now forms the dome of a chapel made 
by excavating the space below it. The 
largest bell on this continent, we believe, is 
that of the Roman Catholic Cathedral at 
Montreal, which weighs 13|- tons. It was 
cast in 1847. 

From old usage, hells are intimately con- 
nected with the services of the Christian 
Church, so much so that, apparently from a 
spirit of opposition, the Mohammedans re- 
ject the use of bells, and substitute for them 
the cry of the muezzin from the top of the 
mosques. Being associated in various ways 
with the ancient ritual of the Church, bells 
gradually acquired a kind of sacred charac- 
ter; they were consecrated by a complete 
baptismal service, received names, had spon- 
sors, were sprinkled with water, anointed, and 



^ Zech. xiv., 20 ; comp. Judg. viii , 21. — ^ gee Oena- 

MENT8. 

8 



finally covered with the white garment, like 
infants. This usage of baptizing hells was 
unknown in the primitive Christian Church. 
It is first mentioned in the sixth century, 
but is still continued in the Roman Catho- 
lic Church. The avowed design of the cere- 
mony, which must be performed by a bish- 
op, is to devote the bell to God's service, 
that he may confer on it the power not 
merely of striking the ear, but of touching 
the heart by the influence of the Holy Spirit. 
Formerly bells had upon them pious inscrip- 
tions, often indicative of the wide-spread 
belief in the mysterious virtue of their sound. 
Church bells were at one time tolled for 
those passing out of the world. The cus- 
tom of ringing this "passing lell " grew out 
of the belief that devils troubled the expir- 
ing patient, and lay in wait to afflict the 
soul the moment it escaped from the body. 
The tolling of the passing hell was retained 
at the Reformation, and the people were in- 
structed that its use was to admonish the 
living, and excite them to pray for the dy- 
ing. But by the beginning of the eighteenth 
century, the passing bell, in the proper sense 
of the term, had almost ceased to be heard. 
The tolling, indeed, continued in the old fash- 
ion, but it took place after the death, instead 
of before. The practice of slowly and sol- 
emnly tolling church-bells at deaths, or while 
funerals are being conducted, is still a usage 
in various parts of the country, more partic- 
ularly as a mark of respect for the deceased. 
The pardon hell was tolled before and after 
divine service, for some time prior to the 
Reformation, to call the worshipers to a pre- 
paratory prayer to the Virgin Mary before 
engaging in the solemnity, and an invoca- 
tion for pardon at its close. It was abolish- 
ed, as a matter of course, among all Protest- 
ants at the Reformation. The ringing of 
the curfew hell, supposed to have been in- 
troduced into England by William the Con- 
queror, was a custom of a civil or political 
nature, and strictly observed only till the 
end of the reign of William Rufus. Its ob- 
ject was to warn the public t< extinguish 
their fires and lights at eight o'clock in the 
evening. The eight o'clock ringing is still, 
however, continued in many parts of En- 
gland and Scotland. Chimes are a set of 
bells of difterent notes, harmoniously tuned 
to each other so as to be capable of playing 
a melody. In all that belongs to the play- 
ing of bells in belfries, the inventive genius 
of the Netherlands long since arrived at pro- 
ficiency. In some of the church towers of 
that country, the striking, chiming, and play- 
ing of bells is incessant. The ringing of the 
chimes usually accompanies the striking of 
the hours, half-hours, and quarters ; while 
the playing of tunes comes in as a special di- 
vertisement. In some instances, these tune- 
playing bells are sounded by means of a 
cylinder, on the principle of a barrel-organ ; 



BELSHAZZAR 



114 



BEN-HADAD 



but in others, they are played with keys by 
a musician. 

Belshazzar (BeVs prince), according to the 
Scripture account as given in Dan. v., the 
last king of Babylon, was captured with that 
city by Cyrus, and was by him put to death. 
But according to secular history, the last 
king of Babylon was one Nabonnedus, or La- 
bynetus, who was defeated in the open plain, 
and retired to the neighboring city of Borsip- 
pa, and was blockaded there ; and at length 
surrendering to Cyrus, his life was spared, and 
a principality in Carmania was bestowed on 
him, where he died. But this seeming dis- 
crepancy is removed, and the Scripture ac- 
count is confirmed, by a remarkable discov- 
ery made by Colonel Eawlinson in 1854, at 
Mugheir, the ancient Ur. Documents were 
brought to light which prove that Nabonne- 
dus, during the last years of his reign, asso- 
ciated his son Bil-shar-uzur with himself in 
the government, and allowed him the royal 
title. He then, probably, conducted the de- 
fense of Babylon within the walls, while the 
father commanded without. Bil-shar-uzur 
was very young at the time ; but princes as 
young as he have held high command in the 
East. Thus Herod the Great was governor 
of Galilee at fifteen. In Dan. v., 11, 13, 18, 22, 
etc., where Nebuchadnezzar is referred to as 
the father of Belshazzar, the word may prop- 
erly be translated ancestor, and is rendered 
"grandfather'' in the margin. For an ac- 
count of the capture of Babylon during the 
reign of Belshazzar, see Babylon. 

Benaiah (huilt by Jehovah), the son of Je- 
hoiada, the chief priest, and therefore of the 
tribe of Levi, though a native of Kabzeel, in 
the south of Judah ; set by David over his 
body-guard, and occupying a middle rank 
between the first three of the " mighty men " 
and the thirty " valiant men of the armies." 
The exploits which gave him this rank are 
narrated in 2 Sam. xxiii., 20-23 ; 1 Chron. xi., 
22-25. He was captain of the host for the 
third month. Benaiah remained faithful to 
Solomon when Adonijah aspired to the sov- 
ereignty ; and was made commander-in-chief 
of the whole army in the place of Joab, 
whom, at King Solomon's command, he 
slew. See Joab. [2 Sam. xx., 23 ; xxiii., 
20-23 ; 1 Kings i., 38 ; ii., 28-34 ; 1 Chron. xi., 
22-25 ; xviii., 17 ; xxvii., 5 ; xxviii., 6.] 

Benedictines, the general name of all the 
monks following the rule of St. Benedict, 
who aimed at repressing the irregular and 
licentious life of the wandering monks by 
introducing a stricter discipline and order. 
The first Benedictine monastery was that 
founded at Monte Cassino, in the kingdom 
of Naples, about a.d. 529, by St. Benedict 
himself. The order increased so rapidly 
after the sixtli century, that the Benedic- 
tines must be regarded as the main agents in 
the spread of Christianity, civilization, and 
learning in the "West. They are said at one 



time to have had as many as 37,000 monas- 
teries, and counted among their branches 
the great order of Cluny, founded about 
910, and the still greater order of the Cis- 
tercians, founded in the following century. 
Numbering among its monks many celebra- 
ted scholars, the Benedictine order has ren- 
dered services to literature which it would 
be difficult to overestimate. The rule of St. 
Benedict was less severe than that which 
the Eastern ascetics followed. Besides im- 
plicit obedience to their superior, the Bene- 
dictines were to shun laughter, to hold no 
private property, to live sparely, to exercise 
hospitality, and, above all, to be industrious. 
Compared with the ascetic orders, the Bene- 
dictines, both in dress and manners, may be 
styled the gentlemanly order of monks ; and 
they deserve a high tribute of respect for 
their artistic diligence and literary under- 
takings. The order boasts of numberiDg 
among its followers twenty-four popes, two 
hundred cardinals, thirty emperors and em- 
presses, forty-seven kings, more than fifty 
queens, and an immense number of lesser ec- 
clesiastics, princes, and noblemen. A great 
variety of societies of women, more or less 
following the Benedictine rule, have been 
formed at different periods. 

Benefice. This word originally signified 
any kind of grant or gift. It became re- 
stricted in time to the lands which kings 
bestowed on valiant warriors. While the 
Church possessed only alms and contribu- 
tions, the Church revenues were in the hands 
of the bishops ; but when it came to pos- 
sess heritable property, part of it was as- 
signed for the maintenance of the clergy, 
and probably at that time the word bene- 
fice was first adopted as an ecclesiastical 
term. It is now used in England to denote 
all Church preferments, except bishoprics. 
In countries where the Church is established 
by law, the questions who shaU. have the 
right to bestow and who the right to re- 
ceive benefices give rise to many and per- 
plexing problems. See Patron; Advow- 

SON. 

Benefit of Clergy, a privilege by which 
persons in holy orders were formerly exempt- 
ed from the jurisdiction of lay tribunals, and 
handed over to the bishop for trial. It was 
subsequently modified in England, and ex- 
tended to all who could read, and finally, un- 
der Queen Anne, to all persons convicted of 
what were designated as clergiable offenses. 
Laymen, if convicted, plead the benefit of the 
clergy in arrest of judgment, upon which, un- 
der the former statute, they were burned on 
the hand and discharged. Upon a second 
offense, they could not make this plea. Fine 
or imprisonment was subsequently substi- 
tuted for burning the hand. Benefit of cler- 
gy is now abolished both in England and in 
this country 

Ben-hadad (son, or worshixier, of Hadad, 



BENI-ISRAEL 



115 



BENJAMIN 



probably the sun), tbe name of three Assyr- 
ian kings. 

1. The son of Tabrimon, son of Hezion, 
King of Syria. He was a powerful mon- 
arch — the smaller principalities around Da- 
mascus being at the time subject to its sov- 
ereign. His alliance was courted by Baasha 
and Asa ; and, on receiving a large present 
from the last-named prince, he attacked and 
overran the northern part of the Israelit- 
ish territory. [1 Kings xv., 18-20 ; 2 Chron. 
xvi., 2-4 ; comp. 1 Kings xx., 34.] 

2. The son of the preceding. He was 
generally at war with Israel, and was once 
taken prisoner. In a battle with him, three 
years later, Ahab was killed. It was he 
that, in the reign of Jehoram, sent a letter 
to that king desiring the cure of Naaman's 
leprosy. He afterward besieged Samaria, 
but broke up his army in consequence of 
a sudden panic. He was ultimately mur- 
dered by his successor, Hazael. This Ben- 
hadad was worsted in three great battles by 
the Assyrian king Silima-rish, or Shalmanu ■ 
bar, whose victories are recorded on the fa- 
mous black obelisk now in the British Mu- 
seum. [1 Kings XX., xxii. ; 2 Kings v., 1-7 ; 
vi., vii., viii., 7-15.] 

3. The son of Hazael, who succeeded his 
father. His reign was, on the whole, disas- 
trous. He suffered three defeats from King 
Joash of Israel. [2 Kings xiii., 24, 25. 

Beni-Israel, a peculiar class of people, 
about 6000 in number, found in India. They 
claim to have descended from seven men 
and seven women who came to India from 
a country to the northward 1600 years ago. 
Their dress, manners, and customs are a 
strange mixture of those of the Jews and 
Hindoos. Each of the Beni-Israel, generally 
speaking, has two names — one derived from 
a character mentioned in Scripture, and an- 
other adopted out of deference to Hindoo 
usage. The Beni-Israel all profess to adore 
Jehovah, the God of Abraham, of Isaac, and 
of Jacob. Many of them, however, publicly 
worshiped, till lately, and some of them at 
the present time secretly worship, the gods 
of the Hindoos, and particularly those who 
are supposed to be possessed of a malevolent 
character ; and a few of them practice divi- 
nation, according to the rites of the Hindoos. 
Though they have remained quite distinct 
from the people among whom they have been 
so long scattered, they still realize the pre- 
diction inDeut. xxviii., 64, "Thou shalt serve 
other gods, which neither thou nor thy fa- 
thers have known, even wood and stone." 
In the synagogue of the Beni-Israel there is 
no Sepher-Torah, or manuscript of the law, 
such as the Jews have. They admit, how- 
ever, the divine authority of all the books 
of the O. T. It is only lately that they have 
become familiar with the majority of the 
names of the inspired writers ; and it was 
not without hesitation that they consented 



to acknowledge the later prophets. Cir- 
cumcision is performed on the day appoint- 
ed by the law of Moses. The rite is con- 
sidered as marking the descent of the Beni- 
Israel from Abraham ; but no spiritual mean- 
ing is attached to it, except by individuals 
who may have had intercourse with Chris- 
tian missionaries. The Beni-Israel reckon 
their day as it is reckoned among the Jews 
— from sunset to sunset. They call their 
months also by the Hebrew names. The 
weekly Sabbath is in some degree observed 
by about a third of the population. It is 
thought by many that this singular people 
belong to the long exiled and lost tribes of 
Israel. 

Benjamin {son of the right hand), the 
youngest son of Jacob, and the second whom 
Rachel bore to him. She died on giving 
birth to this child. She named him Benoni, 
" son of my pain ;" but his father changed 
this to a more pleasing expression, signified 
by Benjamin, " the man of thy right hand," 
the title given to the Lord's chosen people, 
or rather to Christ, their covenant head.^ 
Benjamin was his father's favorite after the 
disappearance of Joseph, Rachel's other son ; 
and Joseph paid him special honor both be- 
fore and after he had made himself known 
to his brethren.^ 

Benjamin appears to have had ten sons ; 
yet the tribe which descended from him was 
one of the smallest in Israel, and is so spoken 
of in Scripture.'^ This was partly owing to 
the guilt of the tribe in shielding the wick- 
ed men who committed a horrible outrage at 
Gibeah, on account of which all the other 
tribes united in making war with it, and 
brought it so near destruction that only six 
hundred men were left. The details of this 
, melancholy record of sin and suffering are 
j given in the last chapters of the book of 
1 Judges, as also the scheme by which these 
; few men were provided with wives, after the 
j other tribes had sworn that they would per- 
j mit no intermarriage. There must, howev- 
er, have been causes for the smallness of the 
tribe in operation from the iirst ; for these 
ten sons of Benjamin produced only seven 
heads of families, and the number of the tribe 
at the first census, in the wilderness of Sinai, 
was only 35,400 ; and at the second, in the 
plains of Moab, 45,600. Afterward it mul- 
tiplied greatly ; for in the time of David 
there were reckoned 59,434 mighty men of 
valor, and it is not clear that this was the 
entire strength of the tribe. In the time of 
King Asa they had risen to 280,000 ; and in the 
time of Jehoshaphat apparently still higher, 
to 380,000.^ Even when small in numbers, 
the tribe of Benjamin was distinguished by 
its character for bravery, and by the favor of 

1 See Psa. Ixxx., 17.— 2 Gen. xxxv., 16-20 ; xliii., 34 : 
xliv., 30; xlv., 22.-3 i Sam. ix., 21; Psa. Ixviii., 27.— 
* Numb, i., 36, 37: xxvi., 3S-41 ; 1 Chron. vii., 6-12; 
2 Chron. xiv., 8 ; xvii., 17, IS. 



BENJAMIN 



116 



BEENICE 




Map of the Tribe of Beujaraiu. 



the Lord, as is indicated in the blessings of 
Jacob and Moses, and in the fact that they 
took their place immediately behind the tab- 
ernacle in the order of march through the 
wilderness. The tribe of Benjamin seems to 
have occupied a middle position in politics, 
as it did in situation, between the two great 
rival tribes of Ephraim and Judah. Saul, 
the first king of Israel, belonged to this 
tribe, which subsequently, in the division of 
the kingdom, coalesced with Judah. After 
the exiles returned from Babylon, we read 
very little of the separate tribes ; yet there 
is enough to show that Benjamin and Judah 
were the two tribes which kept closest to- 
gether, and contributed most to the new 
colony in Judea.' 

The territory allotted to the Benjamites 
extended from the Jordan eastward to the 
frontier of Dan in the west. Southward it 
was separated from Judah by the Valley of 
Hinnom, and in the north it was contigu- 
ous to Ephraim. It was a compact oblongs 
about twenty-six miles in length by twelve 
in breadth. It is said to have been a fer- 
tile territory ; and it was admirably situated 
for the development of the characteristics of 
the tribe. Its great distinguishing features 
were its passes and its heights. The latter 
were of considerable elevation, being 2000 
feet and upward above the level of the mar- 
itime plain ; and the former, caused in part 
by the torrents which ran down either side 
of this lofty water-shed, were the only means 
of access to the land of the Philistines on 



1 Josh, xviii. ; 1 Sam. ix., 1, 2 ; xii., 21-23 ; 2 Chron. 
xi., 1-12 ; Ezra x., 9 ; Neh. xi. 



the east, and to the fords of the Jordan on 
the west. These advantages of territory in 
the hands of a hardy and warlike tribe in- 
sured an independence to Benjamin which 
the Hebrew records contrast with its numer- 
ical feebleness and limited territory. Even 
down to N. T. times, there are indications 
that the glory of Benjamin as the favored of 
the Lord was not wholly forgotten, at least 
by those who belonged to that tribe.^ 

Berea, a city of Macedonia, memorable 
because of a visit of the apostle Paul during 
his missionary tour. It is on the eastern 
slope of the Olympian range, and commands 
an extensive view of the neighboring plains. 
It has many natural advantages. Plane-trees 
spread a grateful shade over its gardens. Its 
ancient name is said to have been derived 
from the abundance of its waters ; and the 
name still survives in the modern Verria, or 
Kara-Verria. A few insignificant ruins of 
the Greek and Eoman periods remain to this 
day. It still boasts of 18,000 or 20,000 inhab- 
itants, and is placed in the second rank of the 
cities of European Turkey. [Acts xvii., 10-14.] 

Bemice, or Berenice, the eldest daugh- 
ter of Herod Agrippa I., and sister to Herod 
Agrippa II., married first to her uncle Her- 
od, king of Chalcis, after whose death she 
lived under suspicious circumstances with 
her brother. She then became the wife of 
Polemon, king of Cilicia. This connection 
was soon dissolved ; and she returned to- 
Agrippa, and was subsequently the mistress, 
first of Vespasian, then of Titus. [Acts xxv., 
13, 23 ; xxvi., 30.] 



Acts xiii., 21 ; Phil, iii., 5. 



BERYL 



117 



BETH-EL 




Bethany. 



Beryl, a precious stone of whicli frequent 
mention is made in Scripture. It was one 
of the gems in the high-priest's breast-plate, 
and constitutes one of the foundations of the 
New Jerusalem. From the Hebrew name 
Tarshish, it has been thought by some to 
have come originally from Tarshish, ie.,Tar 
tessus, in Spain, and has been identified with 
the topaz, which is still found there. But 
other hypotheses have been suggested, and 
what stone is meant is by no means certain. 
[Exod. xxviii., 20 ; xxxix., 13 ; Sol. Song v., 
14 ; Dan. x., 6 ; Eev. xxi., 20.] 

Beth-abara (place of passage, house of tlie 
ferry), a place beyond, that is, on the east 
of the Jordan, where John the Baptist was 
baptizing,^ Instead of Beth-abara, the best 
copies of the original manuscripts have Beth- 
any, which has substantially the same mean- 
ing, doat-house; so that it is not improbable 
that this last is the true name of the place. 
But if so, it must be carefully distinguished 
from the Bethany by Jerusalem. The exact 
site is unknown. 

Bethany (house or place of dates), a well- 
known village about two miles from Jerusa- 
lem, on the eastern slope of the Mount of 
Olives, in a hollow near the place where 
the road to Jericho begins to descend more 
8tee]3ly to the Jordan valley. Fruit and 
other trees grow around — oUve, almond, and 
oak — giving the spot an air of seclusion and 
repose. Few places are more endeared to 
the Christian's heart than Bethanv. It was 



1 John i., 28. 



here that the Lord lived in social intercourse 
with the family he loved ; here he manifest- 
ed the tenderest sympathies of our nature ; 
here he performed the stupendous miracle 
of raising the dead Lazarus ; and from some 
neighboring spot on the slopes of Olivet he 
gloriously ascended, a cloud receiving him 
from the wondering gaze of his assembled 
disciples. Bethany is now called el-'Azari- 
yeh — a mean village containing about twen- 
ty families. The people pretend to show 
the house of Lazarus, with his tomb, also 
the house of Simon the leper ; but these tra- 
ditions are entirely untrustworthy. [Matt, 
xxi., 17 ; xxvi., 6-13 ; Mark xi., 1, 11, 12; xiv., 
3-9 ; Luke xix., 29 ; xxiv., 50, 51 ; John xi., 
1-46; xii., 1-8.] 

Beth-el, originally Luz, an ancient town, 
which Eusebius places twelve miles north 
of Jerusalem, on the right hand of the road 
to Shechem. Jacob rested here one night 
on his way to Padan-Aram, and commemo- 
rated the vision with which he was favor- 
ed by erecting, and anointing with oil, the 
stone which had served him for a pillow, 
and giving to the place the name of Beth- 
el (house of God), which eventually super- 
seded the more ancient designation of Luz.' 
Later it became a boundary town of Benja- 
min toward Ephraim, and was actually con- 
quered by the latter tribe from the Canaan- 
ites.^ At this place, already consecrated in 
the time of the patriarchs, the ark of the 
covenant was, apparently, for a long while 



1 Gen. xxviii., 11-19 ^ Josh, xviii., 22; Judc 



22-26. 



BETHESDA 



118 



BETHLEHEM 



deposited, and probably the tabernacle also. 
It was also one of the places at which Sam- 
uel held in rotation his court of justice.^ 
Jeroboam made it the southern seat of the 
worship of the golden calves ; and it seems 
to have been the chief seat of that worship.^ 
This completely desecrated Beth-el in the 
estimation of the orthodox Jews, and the 
prophets name it with abhorrence and con- 
tempt, even applying to it, by a sort of jeu de 
mot, the name of Beth-aven (house of idols), 
instead of Beth-el {Jiouse of God).^ After the 
Israelites were carried away captive by the 
Assyrians, all traces of this illegal worship 
were extirpated by Josiah, king of Judah, 
who thus fulfilled a prophecy made to Jero- 
boam 350 years before.* The place was still 
in existence after the Captivity, and was in 
the possession of the Benjamites.^ From the 
fourth century till the nineteenth the true 
site of Beth-el remained unnoticed, and ap- 
parently unknown ; but it is now identified 
withBeitin (Arabic form for Beth-el) — a mass 
of ruins of three or four acres in extent, in a 
singularly bleak region, where Jacob could 
scarcely have found any spot on which a pil- 
low of stone was not ready laid for his head. 
On the east is the lofty hill on whose broad 
top, olive-crowned, Abraham built his altar ; 
and here he probably stood with Lot, com- 
manding a view of the whole land, when 
Lot, looking past the long gray declivities of 
the wilderness, saw in the distance the ver- 
dant meadows, and shady groves, and spark- 
ling waters of the Jordan, "even as the Par- 
adise of Jehovah, like the land of Egypt," 
and made his unfortunate choice. In the 
western valley is a large and very ancient 
cistern, now in ruins ; but the two springs 
which fed it of yore bubble and sparkle as 
when the maidens of Sarah filled their pitch- 
ers from them, and the herdsmen of Abra- 
ham and Lot quarreled about their waters. 
The desolation of Beth-el, and the shapeless 
ruins scattered over its site, are not without 
their importance even yet. They are silent 
witnesses to the truth of Scripture, and the 
literal fulfillment of prophecy uttered by 
Amos many centuries ago.^ 

Betiiesda Qioiise of mercy), an intermit- 
tent spring, near the sheep-gate of Jerusa- 
lem, famous chiefly for the miracles wrought 
there by Christ, and recorded in John v., 
1-9. In our English version are these words, 
descriptive of the spring : " For an angel 
went down at a certain season into the pool, 
and troubled the water: whosoever then 
first after the troubling of the water stepped 
in was made whole of whatsoever disease 
he had." This is probably an interpolation 
of a later date, and, at all events, embodies 
only the popular belief of the time, since it 

1 Jndg. XX., 26 ; comp. 1 Snm. x., 3 ; 1 Sam. vii., 16.— 
2 1 Kin£r!!xii.,2S; xiii., 1.— ^ Hop. iv., 15; v., S; x.,5,S. 
— •« 1 Kings xiii., 1, 2; xxiii., 15-18.— ^ Ezra ii., 28; 
]Seh. vii., 32.— « Amos v., 5. 



is quite inadmissible to suppose that " God 
would really thus miraculously interpose to 
throw down from time to time a single boon 
among a company of cripples, to be seized 
by the most forward, selfish, and eager, leav- 
ing those most discouraged, helpless, and 
miserable, to be overwhelmed again and 
again with bitter disappointment." The 
large reservoir Birket Israil, within the 
walls of the city, close by the St. Stephen's 
Gate, and under the north-east wall of the 
area of the great mosque, is generally con- 
sidered to be the modern representative of 
Bethesda. See Pool. 

Beth-horon (Jiouse of the holloiv), the name 
of two places, the upper and the nether, said 
to have been built by Sherah, a daughter or 
descendant of Ephraim. They both lay on 
the southern border of Ephraim, close to 
the territory of Benjamin. The deep valley 
between the two places may, perhaps, ac- 
count for the name, '■^ House of the hollow" 
The pass of Beth-horon is rugged and diffi- 
cult, yet it is the only one by which an 
army could approach Jerusalem from the 
coast, and the two villages completely com- 
mand it. This shows why the wise Solomon 
"built Beth-horon the upper, and Beth-horon 
the nether, fenced cities, with walls, gates, 
and bars."^ Down this pass the five kings of 
the Amorites were driven by Joshua in the 
battle described in Josh, x., 1-15. The same 
spot was the scene of a victory by Judas 
Maccabeus ; and in the last Jewish war, 
Cestius Gallus, a Koman general, when ap- 
proaching Jerusalem by this pass, also sus- 
tained a disastrous defeat. Thus was the 
same pass the scene of one of the first and 
one of the last victories that crowned the 
Jewish arms. The modern villages Beit- 
'ui'-el-Foka and el-Tahta occupy the sites 
of Beth-horon, the upper and the nether re- 
spectively. 

Bethlehem {house of bread), a village five 
miles south of Jerusalem, and east of the road 
to Hebron. It occupies part of the summit 
and sides of a narrow ridge which shoots out 
eastward from the central chain of the Ju- 
dean mountains, and breaks down abrupt- 
ly into deep valleys on the north, south, 
and east. The steep slopes beneath the vil- 
lage are carefully terraced, and the terraces 
sweep in graceful curves round the ridge 
from top to bottom. In the valleys below, 
and on a little plain to the eastward, are 
j some corn-fields, whose fertility, doubtless, 
' gave the place its name, Beth-lehem, " house 
of bread ;" while the dense foliage of the 
I olive and fig trees, ranged in stately rows 
i along the hill-sides, and the gUsteniug leaves 
' of the vines that hang in festoons over the 
terrace banks, serve to remind us, amidst the 
I desolations of the whole land, and especial- 
! ly in contrast with the painful barrenness of 
the neighboring desert, that this little dis- 
I 12 Chrou. viii., 5. 



BETHLEHEM 



119 



BETHLEHEM 



trict is still Ejphrath, " the fruitful." Imme- 
diately beyond these fields and terraced gar- 
dens is " the wilderness of Judea." It is in 
full view from the heights of Bethlehem. 
White lime -stone hills thrown confusedly 
together, with deep ravines winding in and 
out among them, constitute its chief fea- 
tures. Not a solitary tree, or shrub, or tuft 
of green grass is anywhere to be seen. The 
village contains about five hundred houses. 
The streets are narrow and crooked, but 
being here and there arched over, and hav- 
ing the rude balconies of the quaint houses 



following inscription : "Hie de virgine Maria 
Jesus Christus natus est" (Here of the Virgin 
Mary Jesus Christ was born). Over the cave 
stands the splendid Basilica of Helena, the 
oldest monument of Christian architecture 
in the world. It is now sadly out of repair, 
but its four rows of marble Corinthian col- 
umns are still grand and imposing. 

Bethlehem and its eventful history have 
been before the world for 2000 years. It is 
one of the oldest towns of Palestine, and 
one of the most noted. In sacred interest 
it is second only to Jerusalem. Near it is 




View of Bethlehem. 



projecting irregularly along their sides, they 
have a picturesque mediaeval look. On the 
eastern brow of the ridge, separated from the 
village by an open esplanade, is a great con- 
vent, grim and massive as an old baronial 
castle. It is built over and around the tra- 
ditional sanctuary of Bethlehem. The build- 
ings composing the convent are large and 
splendid. They are all encompassed by a 
lofty wall, whose huge buttresses rest on the 
shelving rocks far below. The nucleus of 
the whole is a rock-hewn cave, measuring 
38 feet by 11 feet, at one end of which is the 



the tomb where Jacob buried his much- 
loved Rachel.^ In the valleys which it 
overlooks was the field of Boaz, where Ruth 
gleaned for grain, and gained a husband.^ 
Within its precincts David, her great-grand- 
son, was born ; here he was anointed king f 
and in the neighboring fields, where a thou- 
sand years later the birth of the Son of 
David was announced to the watching shep- 
herds, he watched his father's flocks. Here, 
in his after-history, his three oflScers broke 
through the Philistine host to bring their 



1 Gen, XXXV., 19.— 2 Ruth i., 19 3 1 Sam. xvi., 1-13. 



BETHPHAGE 



120 



BEZEK 



king water from the well of Ms childliood.^ 
And hither, in the fourth century after 
Christ, Jerome, fleeing from persecution, 
lived for a quarter of a century, engaged in 
his great work, the composition of the Latin 
translation of the Scriptures, the accepted 
version of the Roman Catholic Church. Hith- 
er Joseph and Mary, according to the decree 
of the Roman emperor, had to repair, as de- 
scendants of David, to David's city. Here, 
in the adjoining fields, the angelic host an- 
nounced the glad tidings of a Saviour's birth. 
Hither also came the Eastern sages to pre- 
sent their offerings ; and here was the cruel 
slaughter of the little ones by Herod, awak- 
ening, as it were^ again Rachel's lamenta- 
tion.^ 

Bethphage (Itouse of unripe Jigs), a village 
on the road between Jericho and Jerusalem, 
upon a shoulder of the Mount of Olives, and 
evidently very near to Bethany. But its 
precise position has not been ascertained, 
and it is an undecided question whether 
Bethphage was east or west of Bethany. 
[Matt, sxi., 1 ; Mark xi., 1 ; Luke xix., 29.] 

Bethsaida {house offish), a town of Gal- 
ilee, on the shore of the Lake of Gennesa- 
ret,^ and the city of the apostles Philip, An- 
drew, and Peter.* The topography of this 
entire region is involved in great obscurity, 
and affords more than one point on which 
the ablest geographers differ. Among these 
problems, none, perhaps, is more perplexing 
than that concerning the site or sites of 
Bethsaida. John describes it as in Galilee f 
Josephus, as in Gaulonitis. Luke tells us 
that Jesus fed the multitudes in a " desert 
place, belonging to the city, called Beth- 
saida."^ Mark tells us that, after the feed- 
ing, " he constrained his disciples to get 
into the ship and go to the other side before 
unto Bethsaida."'' It has been conjectured, 
therefore, that there were two Bethsaidas — 
one in the land of Gennesaret, on the west- 
ern coast, the other in the plain of Butaiha, 
on the north-eastern shore. This conjec- 
ture, however, originated by Reland, avow- 
edly for the purpose of harmonizing the 
Gospel narratives, has no historical confir- 
mation, and the hypothesis is not necessary. 
The site of one Bethsaida is admitted to 
have been on the north shore of the sea, 
near the mouth of the river Jordan, which 
divided the city into two sections — that of 
Galilee, and that of Gaulonitis. The for- 
mer, on the western shore, was a mere fish- 
erman's hamlet ; the latter, Herod Philip, 
tetrarch of Gaulonitis, had built, naming it 
Julius, in honor of the daughter of his pa- 
tron, the Roman emperor ; but both consti- 
tuted one town, which, with the common 
people, retained the ancient name of " House 
of Fish." The disciples sailing from the foot 



1 2 Sam. xxiii., 15-17.— ^ Matt, ii., 1-18; Lnke ii., 
1-20.— 3 Matt, xi., 21 ; Lnke x., 13.— ■« John i., 44; xii., 
21.-5 John xii., 21.— 6 Luke ix., 10.—'' Mark vi., 45. 



of the Jaulan, near the north-eastern corner 
of the lake, toward Capernaum, as John says 
they did, would pass near Bethsaida, espe- 
cially if in the darkness of the night they 
kept near the shore, and thus might well be 
described by Mark as going unto Bethsaida, 
whither the Lord would follow them on foot. 

Bethshan, or Bethshean (house of quiet). 
Bethshan, afterward the Scythopolis of the 
Greeks, now the Beisan of the Arabs, was a 
city of temples. The extensive remains of 
the ancient city, which consisted of several 
distinct quarters or wards, are situated just 
where the great plain of Esdraelon begins to 
descend to the Jordan valley. Its natural 
position is very strong, and it is well water- 
ed. It was allotted to Manasseh, though lo- 
cally within the territory of Issachar. The 
Mauassites, however, were not able at first 
to subdue it.^ To the- wall of this place the 
Philistines, after the disastrous battle of Gil- 
boa, fastened the body of Saul and his sons, 
when the men of Jabesh-gilead daringly 
stole them away. Jabesh-gilead was on the 
mountain east of the Jordan, in full view of 
Bethshan ; and these brave men could creep 
up to the wall along Wady Jalud without 
being seen, while the deafening roar of the 
brook would render it impossible for them 
to be heard. 

Beth-shemesh (house of the sun), a city on 
the frontier line of Judah, afterward allotted 
to the priests. It was the place to which 
the ark of God was first brought when sent 
away by the Philistines, and where a terri- 
ble judgment was inflicted upon the people 
for their irreverent curiosity. It was again 
the scene of sad disaster when the power of 
Judah under Amaziah went down beneath 
the conquering arm of Israel under Joash ; 
and the last we hear of it in Scripture is 
in the unhappy reign of Ahaz, when this, 
with other neighboring places, was occupied 
by the Philistines. It is the modern 'Ain- 
Shems, on the north-west slope of the hills 
of Judah, two miles from the Philistine 
plain, and seven from Ekron. It has been 
thought identical with Ir-shemesh,'^ and, if 
not the same, it must have been very near 
it. Mount Heres^ may have been another 
name, or the appellation of some neighbor- 
ing eminence where the worship of the sun 
was maintained. [Josh, xv., 10 ; xxi., 16 ; 
2 Kings xiv., 11-13 ; 1 Chron. vi., 59 ; 2 Chron. 
XXV., 21, 23 ; xxviii., 18.] 

Beulah (married). This word is used by 
Isaiah* symbolically to describe the condi- 
tion of the land of Israel when, desolate no 
more, it shall again be the Lord's delight. 
Hence it has passed into the common lan- 
guage of Christendom to signify a condition 
of joy and peace in union with God. 

Bezek (lightning), a city over which there 
reigned a cruel king, Adoni- bezek. This 

1 Josh, xvii., 11, 16; Jiidg. i., 27; 1 Chron. vii., 29.— 
2 Josh, xix., 41 3 Judg. i., 35.—* Isa. Ixii., 4. 



BIBLE 



121 



BIBLE 



chieftain was vanquished by the tribe of 
Judah, who cut oif his thumbs and great 
toes, and brouglit him prisoner to Jerusa- 
lem, where he died. He confessed that he 
had inflicted the same cruelty upon seventy 
petty kings whom he had conquered.^ This 
account might lead us to suppose that Bezek 
lay within the tribe of Judah or Simeon, but 
the only place of this name of which the an- 
cient geographers speak (strictly two places 
near together) was near the boundary be- 
tween Ephraim and Manasseh, seventeen 
miles from Shechem. This situation agrees 
w^ith what we shoTild expect as the scene 
of the numbering of King Saul's first army, 
which took place at Bezek."^ 

Bible. 1. This word is of Greek origin, 
and signifies book, or rather little book, i e., 
a collection of small books. It is used to 
designate the sacred writings of Christen- 
dom. It is a curious fact that the sacred 
writings of most nationalities possess a title 
etymologically analogous to that of our own. 
Scriptures means writings; Koran, what is 
read; Veda, knowledge. The word Bible is 
not found in our authorized version, but the 
Greek word occurs frequently in the N. T., 
being always translated book, sometimes in- 
dicating the books of the O. T.^ The more 
common word is Scripture, or Scriptures.^ 
In its present sense the word Bible seems to 
have been first used about the fifth century, 
previous to which time the book so desig- 
nated was called the Scriptures, or the sa- 
cred writings, or the books of the Old and 
New Testaments ; but as these were used in 
the churches, and were regarded as their au- 
thority in all religious matters, they came 
to be called the books, i. e., the Bible. 

2. Analysis. — The most simple division of 
the Bible in its present form is that which 
is also the most familiar — the division into 
the Old and New Testaments, or covenants. 
The O. T. contains the record of God's first 
covenant with man, concisely expressed in 
the declaration of Moses, and subsequently 
of Joshua to the people — a covenant con- 
ditioned on the faithfulness with which they 
fulfilled the laws of God imposed upon them.^ 
The N. T. contains, on the other hand, the 
revelation of that new covenant of which 
there are but hints in the symbols of the 
Old, of which Jesus is the mediator, and the 
expression of which is found in the declara- 
tions of Christ and of his apostles that it is 
by faith in him alone that there is hope and 
life.^ A period of about 400 years elapsed be- 
tween the last of the O. T. writings, the book 
of Malachi, and the first of the N. T. writ- 
ings — a gap which marks very distinctly 
the transition from the Old to the New. 



1 Judg. i., 4-T.— 2 1 Sam. xi., 8.-3 Mark xii., 20; 
Luke XX., 42; Acts i., 20; vii., 42.—* Matt, xxi., 42; 
xxii., 29; Mark xii., 24; Luke xxiv., 27, 32, 45; Johu 
v., 39 ; vii., 3S, 42 ; Acts viii., 32, 35 ; xvii., 2.-5 Deut. 
xxvi., 16-19 ; XXX., 19, 20.— « John iii., 16-19 ; vi., 29 ; 
Acts ii., 38, 39 ; Rom. Iii., 25-28 ; Gal. v., 1-6. 



This difference between the old and new 
covenants, or testaments, is recognized by 
the apostles, especially Paul, though rather 
as a distinction in the methods of divine ad- 
ministration than in sacred literature ; since 
at his time the Christian writings had not 
been gathered together, and the N. T. exist- 
ed only as a fact, not as a book.^ The O. T. 
itself was divided among the Jews into three 
classes of books — the law, the prophets, and 
the sacred writings, or hagiographa. The 
law was comprised in the first five books.'^ 
The prophets were divided into two classes, 
the earlier and later — the former including 
the books of Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and 
Kings ; the latter including the major proph- 
ets, Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and the twelve 
minor prophets. The sacred writings em- 
braced the Psalms, Proverbs, Job, Solomon's 
Song, Lamentations, Ruth, Ecclesiastes, Es- 
ther, Daniel, Ezra, Nehemiah, 1 and 2 Chron- 
icles. The Sadducees, at the time of Christ, 
accepted only the Pentateuch as the un- 
doubted word of God. In common lan- 
guage, the law and the prophets^ included 
the whole collection, though a more accu- 
rate form of statement was that given above. 
Philosophically, the books of the O. T. may 
be divided into five classes : 1. Law ; 2. His- 
tory ; 3. Poetry ; 4. Prophecy 5 5. Moral In- 
struction. 

3. History. — It is not easy to arrive at a 
correct and trustworthy conclusion respect- 
ing the origin, growth, and completion of the 
Bible. It is not a single symmetrical vol- 
ume, but a collection composed of sixty-six 
separate books, written by between forty 
and fifty different writers, living centuries 
apart, speaking different languages, subjects 
of dififeieut governments, and brought up un- 
der different civilizations. Over 1500 years 
elapsed between the writings of Moses and 
those of John. The books of Moses were 
written by one who was bred in all the learn- 
ing of Egypt ; many of the Psalms by a He- 
brew outlaw hiding in the wilderness, with 
no other learning than that of a Jewish shep- 
herd boy; the writings of Daniel, Jeremi- 
ah, and Ezekiel by prophets in Babylonian 
captivity ; those of the apostles, at an era 
Avhen Greek culture had just passed its me- 
ridian. The O. T. writings constitute but a 
part of a larger body of writings, some of 
which remain only in summaries of their 
contents, made for permanent use in the 
books which are now extant. Later Jewish 
writings, not extant in the Hebrew language, 
are not received among Protestants as in- 
spired.* Among the Roman Catholics they 
are acknowledged as having a certain au- 
thority in religious doctrine and practice, 
and hence are called deuterocanonical, in dis- 



1 For distinction between the old and new cove- 
nants, see Galatians and Hebrews passim, especially 
Galatians iv. and Hebrews viii., ix. — ^See Penta- 
teuch.— 3 Matt, v., 17 • vii., 12 ; xxii., 40.—* See Apoc- 

EYPHA. 



BIBLE 



122 



BIBLE 



tinction from the strictly canonical writings 
in Hebrew. The method in which the books 
which we now possess have been selected 
from a greater number, the principles upon 
which they have been gathered together into 
one volume, and the manner of their almost 
miraculous preservation, constitutes the sub- 
ject of an important part of biblical history. 

Our first definite information concerning 
the sacred books is that which is afforded 
by the direction given to Moses to write the 
law and history in a book, and put it in the 
side of the ark for preservation.' This book 
was kept for the guidance of the people 
and for the government of the king. Ad- 
ditions were made to it from time to time 
by subsequent writers ; and in the days of 
the kings, scribes appear to have been ap- 
pointed whose business it was to keep a 
careful record of the important events oc- 
curring in Jewish history, which was pre- 
served and subsequently incorporated with 
the law. The prophets also did not re- 
strict themselves to oral teaching, but, in 
some cases at least, had scribes whose busi- 
ness it was to reduce to writing their mas- 
ter's teachings, and keep them in a book 
form.^ A double sanctity thus attached to 
these writings, and they were guarded by a 
double protection. In a Church which per- 
mitted no graven image of God, they occu- 
pied its place as a manifestation of the un- 
seen Jehovah. In a state which possessed 
no other written constitution, they were the 
only guarantee which the people possessed 
against the despotism of their rulers. Thus 
political interest and piety combined to 
shield them with a reverential care which 
has preserved their purity to a degree which 
those will concede to be remarkable who do 
not believe it to be supernatural, and they 
are regarded to-day by the devout Jew with 
a veneration almost equal to that which the 
Eomanist accords to the Host. 

In the degeneracy of the Jewish nation 
under the idolatrous administration of the 
successors of Rehoboam, these sacred writ- 
ings were suffered to fall into disuse, and 
were so entirely forgotten as to have been 
practically lost, though they seem never to 
have been taken from their place. In the 
reformation conducted by Josiah (q. v.), they 
were again brought to light, and, as in the 
reformation under Luther centuries later, 
constituted the most important instrument 
in securing the repentance aud purification 
of the nation.^ Again, in the Babylonish 
captivity this book was lost sight of by the 
Jews, though there is evidence that they 
were accustomed to meet in Babylon in lit- 
tle companies and be instructed in the law 
by the scribes, who, perhaps, possessed copies 



1 See Writings ; Book. Exod. xvii., 14 ; xxxiv., 27 ; 
Dent, xxxi., 9.— ^ Joph. i., 8 ; xxiv., 26 ; 1 Sum. x., 25 ; 
1 Chron. xxvii., 32 ; xxix.. 29 ; 2 Chrou. xxxiii., IS, 19 ; 
Isa. XXX., 8 ; Jer. xxx., 2 ; xxxvi., 2 : xlv., 1 ; li., 60. — 
3 2 Kings xxii., 8 ; xxiii., 28 ; 2 Chrou. xxxiv., 1-4. 



of it, or who taught its precepts from mem- 
ory. On the restoration of the Jews to Je- 
rusalem, the Bible was again brought out. 
A pulpit of wood was constructed, and Ezra 
and his companions read the law to the 
people, commenting upon and explaining it 
as they read. Such public reading of the 
Bible^ was the only method in which it could 
be promulgated in an age when printing 
was unknown, since the expense of manu- 
scripts put them out of the reach of the com- 
mon people, comparatively few of whom, 
moreover, were able to read. It is generally 
believed that it was at this time that the sa- 
cred writings of the Jews were collected into 
one book, probably by Ezra, from whose day 
dates the establishment of the synagogues, 
and the synagogue service, and the regular 
reading of the Scriptures therein.'^ It is also 
probable that there was some division of the 
Bible at this time into sections answering to 
our chapters, since it is difficult to under- 
stand how otherwise regular readings could 
have been allotted for each Sabbath and for 
feast-days. At all events, at the time of 
Christ the O. T. Scriptures existed among 
the Hebrews substantially as they do among 
us at the present time, though in two ver- 
sions — that of the original Hebrew, and that 
of the Greek translation, known as the Sep- 
tuagint (q. v.). 

No such systematic attempt was made to 
form a N. T. literature, which is, indeed, 
rather a growth than a formation. The 
evangelists wrote their accounts of Christ's 
ministry for the instruction of the early 
disciples. These accounts appear to have 
been written independently of each other, 
though their internal structure leads to the 
opinion that in many cases their writers de- 
riA^ed their information from the same source, 
viz., oral teaching current in the churches, 
and fragmentary documents preserved there- 
in. Two of the evangelists, Matthew and 
John, were apostles, and eye-witnesses, and 
the latter may have had the Gospels of his 
predecessors before him when he wrote. But 
there is no evidence that Mark and Luke 
personally accompanied Jesus in his earthly 
ministry. The apostles writing their epis- 
tles to the churches, usually, though not al- 
ways, to meet some special exigency, direct- 
ed these letters to be publicly read, and to be 
exchanged among the churches, and seem to 
have claimed for them the same authority as 
that which was accorded to the O. T. Scrip- 
tures.^ These letters and Gospels were care- 
fully preserved by the respective churches, 
and in the early controversies were regarded 
as decisive of disputes. No attempt, how- 
ever, was made to form them into a collec- 
tion until the second century. Nor is it 



1 Neh. viii., ix., xiii., 1; comp. Josh, viii., 34; 2 
Kincs xxii., 8; Jer. xxxvi., 4-6.— ^ See Canon.— 3 1 
TheSs. v., 27 ; Coloss. iv., 16 ; 2 Pet. iii., 2, 15, 16 ; Heb. 
i., 1, 2; ii.,1-4. 



BIBLE 



123 



BIBLE CHRISTIANS 



known by wliom tlie collection was made, j 
The correctness of the judgment displayed j 
in the selection is not only confirmed by the i 
action of successive councils, whose decrees ■ 
are of no little weight, since they were ren- j 
dered by learned men more familiar with 
the subject than we now can possibly be- 
come, but it receives a yet stronger ratifica- 
tion from a mere comparison of the apocry- 
phal books with those which are generally 
regarded as canonical. 

Both the O. T. and the N. T. Scriptures 
were written upon papyrus, vellum, or parch- 
ment.^ During the Middle Ages a favorite 
occupation of the monks was the copying of 
the manuscripts of the N. T., either in full or 
in part. Of these manuscripts, or portions 
of them, there are said to be now preserved 
more than two thousand copies, bearing date 
from the fourth to the fifteenth centuries; 
and the ablest scholars have devoted their 
best energies to a careful comparison of these 
numerous manuscripts for the purpose of 
ascertaining what is the original reading. 
Many have spent their lives in collecting and 
collating them. The English version of the 
N. T. had for its basis the Greek text, print- 
ed from very late manuscripts in 1516, and 
several times reprinted, with some correc- 
tions, from that date to 1598, thirteen years 
before the first printing of King James's 
version in 161 1.'^ It is conceded by all schol- 
ars to be less correct than the text of some 
later editions. But the variations, though 
numerically great, are seldom practically im- 
portant. Out of nearly 400,000, very few af- 
fect the sense, and fewer still have any bear- 
ing on the doctrinal and practical teachings 
of the Bible. Nearly all are merely varia- 
tions in orthography (as in English,/aror and 
favour), or, in the order of words (as, then 
went there out to meet him, and then there ivent 
out to meet him), or in names of the same per- 
son (as, Cephas and Peter), and similar varia- 
tions incident to manual transcription. The 
copyist sometimes undertook to correct ap- 
parent errors in grammar, added a conjunc- 
tion or a participle to give clearness to the 
sentence, modified its verbal phraseology in 
order to make it conform to parallel passages, 
or inserted a marginal explanation in the 
text. Thus it is now known that 1 John v., 7, 
" There are three that bear record in heaven, 
the Father, the Word, and the Holy Ghost, 
and these three are one," is an interpolation, 
added to the Greek text as late as the six- 
teenth century. The statement in John v., 
4, was probably added by the copyist for 
the purpose of explaining why the impotent 



1 2 Tim. iv., 13.— ^ The " received Greek text " {textus 
receptiis), on the continent of Europe, is that of the El- 
zevir edition of 1633 and 1634. In England and Amer- 
ica the " received text " is Mill's reprint, with a few 
typographical errors corrected, of Stephens's edition 
of 1550, often difl'ering from the Elzevir edition. The 
groundlessness of itspretensions to be accepted as the 
"received text" of the N. T. is shown by a writer in 
the Edinburgh Review for July, 1851. 



folk gathered about the pool of Bethesda (q. 
V.) ; and in some of the ancient manuscripts 
Barabbas is called Jesus Barabbas, the name 
of Jesus having perhaps been subsequently 
omitted by the copyists from a sentiment 
of reverence. These illustrations will afford 
an idea of the most important variations in 
the original manuscripts of the N. T. The 
great majority of them, however, are of no 
possible importance, being merely changes 
in punctuation, or in single letters (as if one 
should write ei for i), or the accidental trans- 
position of words in a sentence. The Jew- 
ish copyists regarded the text with an al- 
most idolatrous veneration. The slightest 
error in the copy led them to cast away their 
work and begin it anew ; and there is reason 
to believe that the boast of Josephus that, 
through all the ages that had passed, none 
had ventured to add to, take away from, 
or transpose aught of the sacred writings, 
may well represent the spirit in which He- 
brew copyists have always done their work. 
The monks of the Middle Ages were not 
equally scrupulous. But the very isolation 
which seems so inconsistent with that Chris- 
tian activity which characterizes the nine- 
teenth century gave them opportunity for 
painstaking and careful copying, years being 
sometimes expended in the writing of a sin- 
gle manuscript. 

For an account of various translations of 
the Bible, see Versions ; for a consideration 
of the authenticity of the Bible as we pos- 
sess it, see Canon and Apocrypha; for a 
consideration of the authorship and charac- 
ter of special books, see their several titles ; 
for a history of the preservation of the Bible 
during the Middle Ages, see Manuscripts ; 
for a discussion of its authority, see Inspi- 
ration ; Christianity rests upon the Bible, 
and for a brief statement of the reasons 
which lead the Christian world to accept 
the system, and the book on which it is 
founded, as divine, the reader is referred to 
Christianity. 

Bible Christians, a Christian sect in En- 
gland and Wales, sometimes called Bryan- 
ites, from their founder, William O'Bryan, a 
Wesleyan local preacher, who separated from 
the Methodists in 1815. In general arrange- 
ments the Bible Christians differ but little 
from the Wesleyan Methodists, having the 
same system of societies, classes, circuits, 
and local and itinerant preachers. Their 
annual conference and some inferior meet- 
ings are somewhat more popularly com- 
posed, consisting of equal numbers of min- 
isters and laymen. They disapprove the 
title Eeverend as contrary to the simplici- 
ty of Christianity. Women are admitted 
to preach, but not allowed to take part in 
Church government or discipline. In doc- 
trine the sect is at one with Arminian Meth- 
odists, and the forms of worship are much 
the same. They generally partake of the 



BIBLE SOCIETIES 



124 



BIBLICISTS 



Lord's Supper sitting rather than kneeling, 
as more conformable to its original observ- 
ance. 

Bible Societies. The iirst movement for 
the formation of a Bible Society for the dis- 
tribution of Bibles in the English tongue 
arose in England in 1780, where an associ- 
ation was formed for the distribution of 
Bibles among soldiers and sailors. It was 
soon followed by a similar association for 
the purpose of distributing Bibles in the 
French tongue, which was probably occa- 
sioned by the infidelity of that nation. It 
was not till 1802, however, that the first 
steps were taken toward the formation of 
the British and Foreign Bible Society, which 
was not fully established till 1804. Its 
formation took place in consequence of the 
deep impression made upon the mind of the 
Rev. Thomas Charles, of Bala, in Wales, by 
the destitution of the sacred Scriptures in 
the sphere of his labors, and particularly 
by a circumstance strikingly illustrative of 
that destitution. Meeting a little girl in 
one of the streets of the town, he inquired 
if she could repeat the text from which he 
had preached on the preceding Sunday. In- 
stead of giving a prompt reply, she remain- 
ed silent, and then, weeping, told him that 
the weather had been so bad she could not 
get to read the Bible. She had been accus- 
tomed to travel every week seven miles over 
the hills to a place where she could obtain 
access to a Welsh Bible. Mr. Charles, on 
his next visit to London, brought the sub- 
ject of the want of Bibles in Wales under 
the notice of the Committee of the Religious 
Tract Society, when it was suggested that a 
society might be formed for the distribu- 
tion of Bibles wherever destitution existed 
throughout the world. The society was con- 
stituted on the widest possible basis, church- 
men and dissenters being alike included in 
it. The society now issues annually more 
than a million and a half of copies of the 
Bible, besides such portions of the Scrip- 
tures as have been printed in languages not 
possessing the complete translations. The 
number of translations alone amounts to 
not less than 157. Numerous Bible Societies 
also now exist throughout the Continent, 
particularly in Germany. 

Next in the magnitude and importance 
of its operation to the British and Foreign 
Bible Society is the American Bible Society. 
It was founded in New York City in May, 
1816, and still has its head-quarters there. 
It embraces in its management members of 
all Protestant Christian denominations. Its 
declared object is the " circulation of the 
Holy Scriptures without note or comment." 
It now owns and occupies a fine building in 
the city of New York, erected by the pro- 
ceeds of special contributions and the sales 
of real estate before acquired. The society 
employs seventeen power -presses and foui* 



hundred persons, makes from three to four 
thousand volumes a day, and issues between 
700,000 and 800,000 volumes per annum. In 
1870, the receipts of the society were nearly 
three-quarters of a million of dollars — in ex- 
act figures, $747,058. Under the auspices of 
the society the Bible has been translated 
into other tongues, and circulated in papal 
and heathen countries as well as in our 
own. 

The attempt to translate the Bible into 
foreign tongues gave rise, in 1835, to a seri- 
ous difficulty. The Baptist missionaries at 
Burmah published a translation of the Bible 
into Burmese, in which the Greek words 
baptismos and baptizo were rendered immer- 
sion and immerse. The society refused to 
make appropriations for this version, and 
the controversy which ensued led to the for- 
mation of the American and Foreign Bible 
Society. It was agreed by this society that 
in the distribution of the English Scriptures 
the King James version should be employ- 
ed ; but that in making new translations aid 
should be given to "such versions only as are 
conformed as nearly as possible to the orig- 
inal text in the Hebrew and Greek." This 
society prints and circulates the Scriptures 
in fifty different languages and dialects. Its 
reported receipts in 1871 were $16,054. 

All its supporters were not satisfied, how- 
ever, with its position, and in 1850 a seces- 
sion took place, the seceders forming the 
American Bible Union. The avowed object 
of this society is to " procure and circulate 
the most faithful versions of the sacred 
Scriptures in all languages throughout the 
world." It is most widely known by its 
labors in the preparation of a new English 
version, in which the words baptizo and bap- 
tismos are always rendered immerse and im- 
mersion, but in which, also, other material 
changes are introduced which are believed 
to conform the version more nearly to the 
original. The critical value of these labors 
has been the subject of much heated discus- 
sion. The society has not confined itself to 
this work of revision, but has also prepared 
and published new revisions of the Italian 
and Spanish N. T., and circulated the Scrip- 
tures largely in foreign lands. Its reported 
receipts for 1871 were $58,368. 

Biblicists, a school of theologians of the 
twelfth century, who supported their re- 
ligious tenets by a simple appeal to the 
Scriptures, along with opinions of the fa- 
thers and the decrees of councils, but with- 
out being guided by human reasoning, as 
were the philosophical or scholastic theo- 
logians who were called Sententiarii, and 
who appealed rather to philosophical prin- 
ciples than to the Scriptures. The former 
were by far the more popular of the two as 
theological teachers. The most noted of 
the Biblicists were St. Bernard, Peter the 
Chanter, and Walter of St. Victor. 



BILDAD 



125 



BISHOP 



Bildad {quarrelsome) the Shuhite, one of 
the friends of Job. The Shuah of which 
he was a prince or patriarch was probably 
the district assigned to Shuah YI., son of 
Abraham by Katurah, and was probably in 
Arabia Petrsea. In his discussions, Bildad 
betrays the ardor and confidence of youth. 

Birth, Birthday. In Oriental countries, 
mothers were originally the only assistants 
deemed necessary for their daughters at the 
.seasons of childbirth. In cases of more than 
ordinary difficulty those matrons noted for 
skill on such occasions were invited in, and 
thus eventually rose into notice that class 
of women denominated midivives. The child 
was no sooner born than it was washed in 
a bath, rubbed with salt, and wrapped in 
swathing - bands ;^ which last custom, long 
widely spread through the world, still exists 
in the East, and was not abandoned in our 
own country until the last century. The 
mother after the birth of a son was regarded 
as unclean for seven days, and during the 
thirty-three days succeeding the seven re- 
mained at home. If a daughter were born, 
the number of the days of uncleanness and 
seclusion were doubled. After the expira- 
tion of this period, she went into the taber- 
nacle or temple and offered a lamb of a year 
old, or, if she was poor, two turtle-doves and 
two young pigeons, for a sacrifice of purifi- 
cation. We see this law obeyed at the birth 
of our Lord, and may mark the poverty of 
Mary, who brought two doves, or pigeons.^ 
Birthdays have been celebrated as days of 
rejoicing and feasting in most countries, and 
there are many examples of the usage to be 
found in Scripture. The birthday of a son, 
especially, was made a festival, and on each 
successive year was celebrated with renewed 
demonstrations of festivity and joy.^ The 
pains of childbirth are frequently referred 
to in Scripture emblematically.* For new 
birth, see Regeneration. 

Birthright, any thing to which one is en- 
titled in virtue of his birth. The word, how- 
ever, came to be applied especially to the 
rights of the first-born. Among the Hebrews 
these were not definitely settled in the pa- 
triarchal times. It is probable that the 
priesthood descended to the eldest ; great 
respect was certainly paid him ; and, when 
the family had multiplied, the first-born by 
lineal descent had large authority over the 
tribe. By the Mosaic law he was to have a 
double portion of the father's substance^ — a 
right of which he could not be deprived by 
caprice. Still the birthright might be trans- 
ferred, as Esau's was to Jacob, by sale and 
purchase, or forfeited, as Reuben's was, by 
unfilial conduct. It is sometimes asserted 
that the birthright extended to the king- 
dom ; but this is questionable. It is true, 

1 Ezek. xvi., 4.-2 Lev. xii. ; Luke li., 24—3 Qen. xl., 
20; Job i., 4; Matt, xiv., 6.-4 John xvi., 21 ; Rom. viii., 
22 ; Gal. iv., 19 ; 1 Thess. v., 3 ^ Dgut. xxi., 15-17. 



that Jehoshaphat is said to have left his 
kingdom to Jehoram, because he was the 
first-born; and, very naturally, the eldest 
son would have superior opportunities for 
obtaining the crown. But, so far as Scrip- 
ture shows, a younger son often succeeded. 
Solomon, for example, was a younger son. 
So, it is to be presumed, was Abijah. So cer- 
tainly was Jehoahaz.^ The Jews attached 
a sacred import to the title of "first-born" 
and "first -begotten" — hence the peculiar 
significance of these terms as applied to the 
Messiah. 

Bishop. This word occurs in the N. T. as 
a translation of the Greek word epislcojjos. 
Strictly speaking, the word means overseer, 
and is once so translated.^ The cognate 
word episJcope is translated " visitation," 
"■ bishopric," and " office of a bishop."^ The 
verb episTcopeo occurs twice. Once it is ren- 
dered "looking diligently," once, "taking 
the oversight."* These passages indicate 
very clearly the function of a bishop to be 
that of an overseer, and on this point all 
Christian scholars are agreed. But in what 
sense he was an overseer is a question which 
has given rise to protracted disputes, and 
which still divides the Christian Church 
into two parties. 

I. There appears to be no question that 
the term is sometimes used in the N. T. as 
equivalent to the word pastor, or presby- 
ter, or elder, i. e., as signifying the one who 
had the oversight of the individual church. 
Those who maintain most strenuously the 
thtee orders of ministers in the Church, 
bishops, presbyters, and deacons, still con- 
cede that the term bishop or overseer is 
sometimes used to indicate the overseer of 
the local church — in other words, its pastor. 
Thus Charles I., who was a most vigorous 
and a not unlearned defender of the Episco- 
pal form of government against the Pres- 
byterians, maintained a distinction between 
the "overseers of the flock" and the "over- 
seers of the flock and of the pastors." So 
Dean Alford, in commenting on Acts xx., 17, 
asserts positively that elders and bishops 
were originally, and in apostolic usage, syn- 
onymous ; and even Dr. Wordsworth, who 
may be regarded as representing in his com- 
mentary the High-Church view of ecclesias- 
tical government, asserts that every presby- 
ter is an episJcopos, or overseer, of the flock 
committed to his charge. This, however, is 
the only function of the bishop or overseer 
which the Congregationalists and Presby- 
terians recognize. Their position concern- 
ing the office of bishop, as that term is used 
in the N. T., is summed up by Dr. Dexter in 
his work on Congregationalism,^ from which 
we condense. 



1 2 Kin2:s xxiii., 31, 36; 2 Chrou. xi., 18-22.— 2 Acts 
XX., 28.-3 Luke xix., 44; Acts i., 20; 1 Tim. iii., 1 ; 1 
Pet. ii., 12.—* Heb. xii., 15; 1 Pet. v., 2.-5 " Congre- 
gationalism," p. 102. 



BISHOP 



126 



BISHOP 



" The term bishop or overseer (episkopos) 
occurs only five times in the N. T. Once in 
1 Pet. ii., 25, it is applied to Christ as ' the 
Shepherd and Bishop ' of souls, where it is 
coupled with the word usually translated 
'pastor.' Three times it is used in such 
connection as to make it obviously the title 
of the one office of the Church besides that 
of deacon, viz., in 1 Tim. iii., 2 ; Tit. i., 7 ; 
and Phil, i., 1. The only other instance of 
the use of the word is in Acts xx., 28, where, 
at Miletus, Paul expressly tells the elders of 
the Church at Ephesus that the Holy Ghost 
has made them bishops, or overseers, over 
that flock, to feed the Church of God which 
he hath purchased with his own blood." 

II. Those who advocate the Episcopal 
form of government maintain, however, that 
while the term episJcopos, or bishop, is un- 
doubtedly sometimes used as synonymous 
with pastor or presbyter, i. e., to indicate the 
overseer over the individual flock, it is also 
used to designate a distinct class of church 
officers, the successors, in some sense, of the 
apostles, who were appointed to oversee the 
churches and pastors, either taking a par- 
ticular district or diocese (q. v.) under their 
special supervision, or exercising a general 
supervision over all the Christian churches, 
and traveling from one to another as the 
apostles did, especially Paul. They main- 
tain that the apostles not only acted thus as 
overseers of the churches, but also appointed 
others to succeed to them. " Thus," says 
Dr. Blunt, ^ " we read that St. Paul ordained 
Timothy bishop of Ephesus, and Titus of 
Crete. He gives them in his epistles direc- 
tions for the ordination of priests and dea- 
cons, and for the due performance of their 
episcopal functions, bidding them charge 
presbyters with authority, and to lay hands 
suddenly on no man."^ This, which may be 
termed the episcopalian doctrine of the func- 
tions of the bishop or overseer, is stated in 
Dr. Wordsworth's note on 1 Tim. iii. substan- 
tially as follows : " On the whole, then, we 
see the following characteristics of the regi- 
men of the apostolic Churches exhibited in 
Holy Scripture : 1st, a single person, such as 
Timothy at Ephesus, and Titus in Crete, in 
St. Paul's age, appointed by the apostle him- 
self to govern the churches founded at those 
places. In like manner we see the angel of 
Ephesus, and the angels severally of each of 
the other six Asiatic churches in St. John's 
age, holding the first place in the Church, 
with principal authority over all its mem- 
bers.^ We see, 2dly, Preshuteroi, i. e., pres- 
byters, called also episTcopoi (bishops or over- 
seers), as being overseers of their respective 
flocks. 3dly, Deacons. It would be profit- 
less to engage in verbal discussion concern- 



J " Dictionary of Doctrinal and Historical Theolo- 
gy," art. Bishop.— 2 He quotes the following texts : 
1 Tim. i., 3; iii., 1-13; v., 22; 2 Tim. ii., 14; Tit, i., 
5-10.— 3 Rev. ii., 1,8, etc. 



ing the name given to the office of the person 
who, as Timothy or Titus did, occupied the 
highest place in each of these churches, hav- 
ing been put there by apostolic authority, 
and who is addressed as the representative 
of that Church by Christ himself in the Apoc- 
alypse. The thing itself is plainly apparent 
in Holy Scripture, and as such is to be re- 
vered as the ordinance of God." 

The result of this discussion, if an unset- 
tled discussion can be said to have any re-, 
suit, is this : According to all scholars, the 
terms bishop and presbyter, or pastor, are 
used interchangeably in the N. T., but ac- 
cording to those who maintain the episco- 
pal form of government, including Eoman 
Catholics, Methodists, and Episcopalians, 
the apostles were overseers over the local 
churches and their pastors, and the term 
bishop is appropriately employed to desig- 
nate their successors in office, while, accord- 
ing to those who reject the episcopal mode 
of government, the apostles were simply per- 
sonal witnesses of the resurrection of Clirist, 
possessed no other authority than such as 
this fact and their divine inspiration ac- 
corded to them, and so, in the nature of the 
case, could have no successors in the Chris- 
tian Church. 

The term bishop is now practically used 
only in the episcopal sense to designate an 
officer who acts as overseer over a number 
of churches. They are, in general, of two 
kinds — those whose office is limited to a par- 
ticular district or diocese, known as diocesan 
bishops, and those whose jurisdiction is exer- 
cised over all the churches of their faith and 
order, known as itinerant bishops.^ Titular 
bishops, or bishops in partibus or in partihus 
infidelium, in the Eoman Catholic Church, 
answer to missionary bishops in the Episco- 
pal Church. They are invested with office, 
but have no diocese, and differ from the mis- 
sionary bishops in that their office is often 
that of a sinecure. Many of them live at 
Rome, and are simply attaches of the Papal 
court. But they are supposed to represent 
the unbelieving world, who, at least in 
theory, are not left without a shepherd by 
the Papal Church. Suffragans are assistants 
or substitutes of Metropolitans (q. v.). Au- 
tocephali (i. e., himself the head) is a name 
given to certain bishops in the Greek Church 
who claimed to be independent of all supe- 
rior ecclesiastical authority. 

The method of appointment, and the du- 
ties of the bishop, are diflerent in different 
cases. In the Roman Church, when the 
sovereign is a Roman Catholic, the appoint- 
ment is generally made by him, but subject 
to papal approbation. Elsewhere the bishop 
is elected by the priests of the diocese, but 
the election must be approved both by the 
sovereign and by the pope. His duties are 
all summed up in the general one to pre- 



See Episoopaoy. 



BITHYNIA 



127 



BLASPHEMY 



serve, defend, increase, and promote the 
power and authority of the Roman See, and 
he is required to make stated reports to the 
pope. In the Church of England the bishop 
is the head of the clergy in his diocese ; he 
ordains them, institutes them to benefices, 
licenses them to preach, visits them, super- 
intends their morals, and enforces discipline, 
for which latter purpose he has several 
courts under him, and can suspend or deprive 
inferior clergy for due cause. The bishops 
are nominally elected by the dean and chap- 
ter of the cathedral ; but as the dean and 
chapter can only elect on the royal license, 
and the royal license always designates the 
persons to be elected, they are practically 
appointed by the crown. Upon their elec- 
tion they become peers of the realm, and are 
summoned to the Parliament as well as the 
other nobles. But in respect of their per- 
sons bishops are not peers with the nobility, 
and in cases of alleged crime they are tried 
by a jurj'^ in the same manner as commoners. 
In the Episcopal Church of America, the 
bishops are elected by their own diocesan 
convention.^ Their duties differ from those 
of the bishops of the Church of England 
chiefly in being of a purely spiritual nature. 
In both churches all applicants for admis- 
sion are confirmed by the bishop, and all 
clergy are ordained by him. In the Method- 
ist Episcopal Church there are no dioceses ; 
the bishops are all itinerant bishops. They 
are elected by the General Conference, and 
their duties involve a general supervision of 
all the churches. There are in the United 
States (1871), in the Eoman Catholic Church, 
seven archbishops and fifty -three bishops ; 
in the Episcopal Church, fifty-three bishops, 
including assistant and missionary bishops ; 
and in the Methodist Episcopal Church, ten 
bishops. The oiSfice of archbishop is un- 
known in the Methodist Episcopal Church 
and in the Protestant Episcopal Church of 
America, neither of which recognize any dif- 
ference of degrees in the order of bishops. 

Bithynia. This province of Asia Minor is 
mentioned only in Acts xvi. 7, and in 1 Pet. 
i., 1. Bithynia, considered as a Roman prov- 
ince, was on the west contiguous to the Ro- 
man province of Asia (q. v.). On the east its 
limits underwent great modifications. The 
province was originally inherited by the Ro- 
man republic, B.C. 74, as a legacy from Nico- 
medes III. The chief town of Bithynia was 
Nicaea, celebrated for the General Council 
of the Church held there in a.d. 325 against 
the Arian heresy. 

Bittern, a bird or animal mentioned in the 
threats of the desolation of Babylon, Idu- 
mea, and Nineveh.^ From the apparent der- 
ivation of the word, some commentators im- 
agine that the hedgehog is intended; but 
the context in all the passages would seem to 



1 See Convention. — ^ jga. xiv., 23 ; xxxiv., 11; Zeph. 
ii., 14. 



point to some solitude-loving, aquatic bird, 
which might well be represented by the one 
now known as the Bittern. This bird inhab- 
its the most deserted i)laces — bog-lands, bor- 
dering extensive and dingy pools, far from 
any human habitation. By day it is silent, 
but after the sun has gone down, its wild, se- 
pulchral cry, wailing out through the dark- 
ness, pierces to an immense distance, suggest- 
ing dismal, forsaken desolation. 

Blasphemy, in the Hebrew theocracy, was 
a far more serious crime than it is in the 
American republic. Jehovah was, in a pecul- 
iar sense, the King of the Jews. He framed 
their original constitution ; he promulgated 
their first laws ; he appointed, at the out- 
set, their chief officers ; in him was vested 
the title to all the land ; the people were 
tenants at his pleasure. When the form 
of government was changed, its essential 
character remained still the same ; the mon- 
archy was still a theocracy ; the kings were 
the Lord's anointed ; they governed in his 
stead ,' and their decrees, issued in his name, 
were supported by at least the supposed 
sanction of his authority. The whole theo- 
ry of the Hebrew government was tersely 
expressed in the phrase, " The Lord is king." 
Under such a constitution, to do aught to 
diminish the reverence with which his name 
was invested, or to turn the hearts of the 
people from their complete allegiance to him, 
was a capital crime. It answered to the m- 
men majestatis of the Roman, to the prcemunire 
of English jurisprudence. It was an offense 
alike against Church and State. It was not 
only irreligion, it was treason. This was 
blasphemy ; the greatest crime known to the 
Mosaic code. Its statutory books are full 
of the most explicit provisions against every 
form of this offense. Care was taken to in- 
vest the name of Jehovah with awe, and his 
will with a supreme authority. The first pro- 
vision of the fundamental constitution was, 
'' Thou shalt have no other gods before me." 
The second guarded against degrading con- 
ceptions of his person by forbidding all sen- 
suous representations of him. No picture, 
no image was ever permitted to depict him 
to the imagination. No man might ever 
speak his name irreverently, or use it in 
light and trivial conversation/ No prophet 
might teach in any other name than his. No 
man might work real or pretended miracles 
under guise of any other than divine author- 
ity. No teacher might propose for the wor- 
ship of the people any other deity. Any in- 
fraction of these statutes, in whatever form, 
was punished with death.^ It was of this 
crime Jesus was accused, and for it con- 
demned by the Sanhedrim. It was not of 
speaking irreverent or injurious language, 
but of treason to the God of the Hebrews. An 
explicit statute forbade preaching any other 



1 Exod. XX., 1-7. 
xviii., 9-20. 



-* Exod. xxii., 20 ; Dent, xiii., 1-5 ; 



BLESSING 



128 



BOOK 



God than Jehovali. Though he prophesied 
truly, and authenticated his mission by ap- 
parent miracles, he was still liable to be con- 
demned to death. It was under this statute^ 
that Jesus was tried for proclaiming himself 
equal with God. 

Blasphemy against the Holy Ghost, men- 
tioned by Christ as an unpardonable sin, and 
referred to apparently by John,^ seems to 
have been left purposely somewhat unde- 
fined. It is defined by Dean Alford as a 
• state, rather than an act, consisting not so 
much in any specific sin as in that general 
hardness of heart in which it becomes in- 
accessible even to the influence of God's 
Holy Spirit ; one of the chiefest indications 
of which is openly attributing the evident 
work of God to the agency of Satan. But 
it is certainly significant that only those are 
warned against it who, in the Church of 
God, deliberately oppose God's cause. 

Literally, blaspheme means to speak evil 
of, and in this sense is used several times in 
/ the New Testament f though when so used 
it is ordinarily translated railing, defaming, 
slandering or evil-speaking.* It has now 
come to signify any evil or irreverent speak- 
ing concerning God or divine things; but 
this is not the ordinary use of the term in 
Scripture. 

Blessing, or Benediction. From early 
ages some form of blessing has been used on 
special occasions, both by private individu- 
als^ and ecclesiastics. Jehovah commanded 
Aaron to pronounce a solemn benediction.® 
This, called Aaron's blessing, was used by the 
Jewish priests in the sanctuary, and is still 
used in the synagogues. In some of the prim- 
itive churches a benediction preceded the ser- 
mon, though the general custom was, as now, 
to pronounce it at the close of the morning 
service. The deacon called on the people to 
bow and receive it, and after it was given 
by the pastor, the deacon dismissed the con- 
gregation with the usual form, ''Depart in 
peace." In the Romish Church the act of 
blessing is not limited to persons, but is ex- 
tended to inanimate things, which are bless- 
ed by a sprinkling of holy water, making 
the sign of the cross, and repeating certain 
prayers. It differs from consecration (q. v.) ; 
the latter being accompanied by anointing 
with holy oil. There is scarcely any thing 
that has not been the subject of benedic- 
tion. Altars, churches, church-yards, vest- 
ments, vessels, bells (q. v.), candles at Can- 
dlemas, ashes on Ash -Wednesday, palms on 
Palm- Sunday, the first-fruits of corn and 
wine at the harvest and vintage, and of the 
sea at the fishing-season, are but a few of 
the things which have received special ben- 
edictions to fit them for sacred uses. The 



1 Dent, xiii., 1-5.— 2 Matt, xii., 22-37; Lnke xi., 17-23; 
1 John v., 16.— 3 Acts xxvi., 11.— ■» Mark xv., 29 ; Rom. 
iii., S; xiv., 16; 1 Cor. iv., 18; x. 30.— * Gen. xlix.— 
6 Num. vi., 24-26. 



blessing of food before a meal is still a mat- 
ter of daily observance. It was practiced 
by the Jews, and thus came into use among 
the first Christians. 

Book. The Hebrew term is more com- 
prehensive than our English word hooTc. It 
signifies a writing, then any thing written, 
such as bills of accusation, divorces, letters ; 
hence, finally, a volume or book. These an- 
cient books, like ours only in being the reg- 
istry wherein things were written, often re- 
ceived thek names with reference to the con- 
tents ; thus we find the books of the Kings, 
books of some individual reign or personal 
history, books of the generation, or genealo- 
gy, the book of judgment, and pre-eminent- 
ly the book of the law.-^ The name Mrjath- 
sepher (book-city, city of looks), the earlier 
name of the city afterward called Dehir, 
shows that written records were in use 
among the Canaanites before the occupation 
of their country by the children of Israel. 
Moses was commanded 
to write for a memori- 
al, in a book, the im- 
portant events of the 
progress from Egypt 
to Canaan; and God 
himself delivered to 
the Israelites the first 
book of which we have 
any description, and 
the best, the ten commandments, written 
with his own fijDger upon tables of stone. 

Books were written on skins, or linen, or 
cotton cloth, or the Egyptian papyrus ; from 
the latter — the material most used for writ- 





ing — our word paper is derived. The old- 
est documents which contain the writings of 
a Semitic race are probably the bricks of 
Nineveh and Babylon, which are covered 
with inscriptions. Tablets of wood, of lead, 
and of brass were also employed. The Jews 
also engraved writing upon gems or gold 
plates.^ Before the manufacture of x^aper 
the Chinese wrote upon thin boards, with a 
sharp tool. Reeds and canes are still used 
as writing implements among the Tartars ; 
and the Persians and other Orientals write 
on leaves, or the bark of trees. The Greeks 
and Romans occasionally engraved their laws 
on tablets of brass. Even before the days of 
Homer tablet-books were made of wood cut 
in thin slices, which were painted and pol- 



1 Gen, v., 1 ; Dan. vii., 10; Matt, i., 1 ; Kev. xx. 
-2 Exod. xxxix., 30. 



BOTTLE 



129 



BOTTLE 



islied ; and tlie pen was an iron instrument, 
called a style. In later times, these surfaces 
were waxed over, that the writing might be 
obliterated for further use. Tablet -books 
were not discontinued till the fourteenth 
century of the Christian era. At length the 
superior preparations of paper, parchment, 
and vellum became general, and superseded 
other materials in all entirely civilized na- 
tions. 

If an ancient book were large, and in- 
scribed upon tablets, these were sometimes 
connected by rings at the back, through 




which a rod was passed by which to carry 
them ; if inscribed upon skins, or other flex- 
ible materials, a number of them were con- 
nected together. These were written in small 
columns,^ upon the inside only, with rare ex- 
ceptions, and were rolled round a stick or 
cylinder ; if they were very long, round two 
cylinders, from the two extremities. Hence 
a book or roll written within and without 
betokens the fullness of its contents.'^ These 
rolls could be easily sealed; hence a sealed 
book is an unopened book, whose contents 
are secret. Such a book is the one with sev- 
en seals — the number seven denoting com- 
pleteness — referred to in Eev. v., 1, which 
John, in prophetic vision, saw unrolled. 

The ^^ Boole of Life^^ is, as it were, a regis- 
ter of those who are to live forever in the 
divine favor — God's book, which he keeps 
of his chosen.^ The ^'Book of the Wars of the 
Lordj'^ alluded to in Numb, xxi., 14, appears 
to have been an ancient document known 
to Hebrews, but not preserved in the sacred 
cauon. It was probably a collection of sa- 
cred odes commemorative of the triumphant 
progress of God's people. 

Bottle. Several words are used in Scrip- 
ture which our translators have rendered 
"bottle." The skins of kids and goats, and 
sometimes of oxen, were and are still used 
for holding liquids. When the animal is 
killed, the head and feet are cut off, and the 
body drawn out without any further incis- 
ion. The skin is tanned with acacia bark ; 
the legs then serve for handles, and the neck 
as the mouth of the " bottle," being tied up 
when the wine or water has been poured in. 
The hairy side is outward. These bottles 
are in constant use in Syria and the ad- 
jacent countries, and are very common also 
in Spain. Hence we may easily understand 
the wine-bottles of the Gibeonites, " old and 



iii., 5. 




Ancient Italian Skin-bottles. From the delineations 
in Herculaueum and Pompeii. 

rent and bound up," and also comprehend the 
allusion of our Lord to the danger of put- 
ting new wine, brisk and fermenting, into old 
bottles, which it was likely would then burst.* 
So the single " bottle " of wine brought by 
Ziba,^ instead of being out of proportion to 
the bread and fruits, contained, very prob- 
ably, a large quantity. The comparison, 
moreover, of" a bottle in the smoke,"^ shriv- 
eled and dried up, is very intelligible. Be- 




Modern Oriental Water-skins. 

sides these skin-bottles, others of glass, met- 
al, and earthenware were also in use. Some 
of these have been discovered in Egypt and 
Assyria. Tear -bottles were employed, in 
which the tears of mourners were collected.* 




Ancient Egyptian Bottles, propeily so called ; 1 to 7, 
of glass ; 8 to 11, of earthenware. From the Brit- 
ish Museum. 

Many of these have been discovered in an- 
cient tombs ; they are made of thin glass or 
plain pottery, with a bulbous body, a long, 
slender neck, and a funnel-shaped mouth. 



. „^ — ^„„^ „ , „„„ „ 

1 Jer. xxxvi., 23 — 2 Rgv. v., 1.— 3 Phil, iv., 3 ; Kev. 1 Josh, ix., 4 ; Matt, ix., 17.— 2 2 Sam. xvi., 1 3 Psa 

' ^ cxix., 83.-4 psa. h'i., 8. 



BOWING AT THE NAME OF JESUS 130 



BRAKMANISM 



Bo"wing at the Name of Jesus, In har- 
mony with the apostolic injunction/ Queen 
Elizabeth and Archbishop Parker ordered all 
persons to take off their hats in church, and 
bow their heads at the pronouncing of the 
name of Jesus ; and, by the canons of 1603, 
no man is allowed to cover his head in church 
except in case of infirmity, when he may use 
a night-cap or coif; and whenever in divine 
service the Lord Jesus is named, due and 
lowly reverence is to be done by all present. 
This is now usually done simply by bowing 
the head — an observance maintained in all 
Romish churches and by many Episcopa- 
lians. 

Box-tree. Probably a species of cedar, 
which in our gardens is seen only as a dwarf 
shrub, but in the East attains the size of a 
forest-tree, and often forms a very beautiful 
feature in the landscape. It is much em- 
ployed in the present day by ornamental 
workers in wood. These facts explain the 
only Scripture references to the box -tree. 
[Isa. xli., 19 ; lx.,13.] 

Boy-bishop. From a very early date it 
was the custom in most Catholic countries, 
and also in England, to elect on St. Nicholas's 
Day, December 6th, a boy-bishop from the 
cathedral choir or grammar-school. His au- 
thority lasted until Holy Innocents' Day, 
December 28th. During that time the boy- 
bishop, arrayed in Episcopal vestments, and 
attended by subordinates in priestly dress, 
went about with songs and dances from 
house to house blessing the people, who, 
Bishop Hall says, " stood grinning in the 
way to expect that ridiculous benediction." 
The boy-bishop exacted implicit obedience 
from his fellows, who with him took pos- 
session of the church, and performed all the 
ceremonies and services except the mass. In 
some places the boy-bishop had the power 
of disposing of such prebends as fell vacant 
during this term of mock episcopacy, and if 
he died while holding the office, the funeral 
honors of a bishop and a monument were 
granted him. Not only did the populace 
countenance this frolic, but Edward L, when 
on his way to Scotland in 1299, permitted 
the vespers to be said before him by a boy- 
bishop, and gave to him and to his followers 
a present. Some rude and even indecent 
dramatic exhibitions are said to have been 
an accompaniment to this show. The cus- 
tom was abolished by a j>roclamation of 
Henry VIII., dated July 22, 1542. It was re- 
stored by Queen Mary in 1554, and again 
abolished by Elizabeth. 

Boyle Lectures. By the will of Hon. 
Robert Boyle, in 1691, provision was made 
for an annual course of eight sermons '' prov- 
ing the Christian religion against Atheists, 
Deists, Pagans, Jews, and Mohammedans, not 
descending to any controversies among Chris- 
tians themselves." These sermons, which in- 



1 Phil, ii., 10. 



elude some important works on the evidences 
of Christianity, have been published in vol- 
umes, and are known, from their founder, as 
the Boyle Lectures. 

Bozrah (fortress, sheep-fold). 1. A city 
of Edom, first mentioned as the residence 
of one of the early kings. We find it again 
in connection with Edom. It is the modern 
el-Busaireh, a small place with about fifty 
houses, but with ruins around indicating the 
site of a large city. It stands on a height 
to the south-east of the Dead Sea, about 
half-way between that sea and Petra. [Gen. 
xxxvi., 33; 1 Chron. i., 44; Isa. xxxiv., 6; 
Ixiii., 1 ; Jer. xlix., 13, 22 ; Amos i., 12 ; JVlic. 
ii., 12.] 

2. Atown of this name is mentioned among 
the cities of the plain country of Moab. It 
is not likely to be the Edomitish Bozrah, 
but it is not noticed in Scripture elsewhere. 
Some believe it to be the modern Busrah, 
which has still a very imposing appearance 
at a distance ; but other authorities are not 
satisfied with this identification. [Jer. xlviii., 
24.] 

Brahm. The name given by the Brah- 
mans of India to the '' Self-existent," or the 
iuAasible, eternal Spirit, who, according to 
Brahmanical theology, is tlie primary source 
of all being. He is not an object of wor- 
ship in the common acceptation of the term, 
but the devout Brahmans meditate upon his 
unspeakable attributes with profound rever- 
ence and awe. See Brahmanism. 

Brahma, sometimes written Brnhma, a 
Hindoo deity, regarded as the creator of the 
universe, and forming, with Vishnu the pre- 
server, and Siva the destroyer, the divine 
Triad, consisting of the three principal gods 
of the Brahmanical system of faith. The at- 
tempt to define these three deities and their 
relations either to each other or to the hu- 
man race, is subject to the difficulty referred 
to in the article on Brahmanism, that all the 
theology of the Hindoos is vague and unde- 
finable. In general, Brahma may be said to 
represent the creator. He is represented as 
the first being produced by or rather from 
the self- existent Brahm, and in time pro- 
duced the heavens and the earth, then wind, 
then the elements, then various deities, sages, 
etc. These were not, however, creations, but 
emanations. They came from him, having 
always existed, though before unperceived. 
From his mouth came the priestly caste, from 
his arms the military caste, from his breast 
the caste of merchants and capitalists, from 
his foot the servile caste. As the work of 
creation is now over, there is very little call 
for Brahma in Hindoo theology, and he has 
in consequence no temples or rites exclusive- 
ly dedicated to him. See Brahmanism. 

Brahmanism, or Brahminism.. The pre- 
vailing religion of Hiudoostan, hence some- 
times called Hindooism. Its adherents are 
estimated to number from one hundred and 



BEAHMANISM 



131 



BRAHMANISM 



twenty to one hundred and fifty millions. 
Their chief deity is Brahm; their priests 
Brahmans ; hence the name Brahmanism. 
In treating of this religion ^ we shall consid- 
er — I. Its age; II. Its theological or philo- 
sophical character ; III. Its rites and cere- 
monies ; and IV. Its civil and social charac- 
ter. 

I. Age of Brahmanism. — Some Oriental 
scholars have endeavored to trace Brahman- 
ism back to the days of Moses, and some skep- 
tical writers to show that in the Brahman- 
ical sacred books certain truths revealed in 
the O. T. were also contained at as early or 
an earlier period. The ablest Sanscrit schol- 
ars do not confirm these opinions. Accord- 
ing to Niebuhr, Hindoo civilization is of a 
comparatively recent period, dating not long 
before the conquests of Alexander the Great, 
327-323 B.C. According to Max Muller, the 
oldest Hindoo literature is not more remote 
than 1200 B.C., i. e., about the time of the 
Judges. In fact, their literature affords very 
imperfect material for arriving at any con- 
clusion concerning its true date, for it con- 
tains neither history, annals, nor chronolo- 
gy. It is poetry, metaphysics, meditation, 
abstract speculation, which neither gives 
dates nor depends for its interpretation upon 
them. One significant fact indicates, how- 
ever, that the age of Brahmanism has been 
rather over-estimated than under-estimated ; 
it is clearly not the primitive religion of the 
country, nor are the Hindoos the aborigines 
of Hindoostan. Primitive inhabitants are 
still to be found in the hill country, beyond 
the borders of the cultivated plains. These 
hill and forest tribes are diminutive in stat- 
ure, with small eyes and flat noses. They 
have evidently been compelled to take ref- 
uge in the woods and fastnesses from the in- 
cursions of the Hindoos or Aryans. In the 
Vedas, all who withstood the march of the 
men of Aryan are termed Dasyus, and the 
descriptions there afforded of their character 
answer remarkably to that of the Bhils, who 
are the most numerous and important of all 
the aboriginal tribes. Their religious rites 
are not only different from, but flatly opposed 
to those of the Hindoos. They recognize no 
caste, and have no idols. Their widows mar- 
ry usually a younger brother of the deceased 
husband; they feed on all flesh, including 
the sacred cow of the Hindoos ; they drink 
to excess, and accompany every religions rite 
with drinking ; they employ sacrifice ; they 
bury instead of biu'ning their dead ; they 
have no literature ; and their form of govern- 
ment is patriarchal — the oldest known form 
of government. In all these respects they 
are directly opposed to the Hindoos. In ad- 
dition to the aborigines who inhabit North- 
ern India, such as the Bhils, the Mirs, the 
Khulis, the Khonds, there has always been a 
large body of Nishadas or non-Aryan tribes 
in the southern part of the peninsula. Their 



religion is a system of demonolatry, or the 
worship of evil spirits by means of bloody 
sacrifices and frantic dances. The existence 
of these primitive inhabitants with their old- 
er type of religion, together with the refer- 
ence to them in the Brahmanical books, ef- 
fectually disproves the immense and fabu- 
lous antiquity sometimes attributed to the 
Hindoo literature. 

II. TJieological Character of Brahmanism. — 
In the attempt to define the theological char- 
acter of Brahmanism, we are met in the out- 
set with two difficulties, which are nearly if 
not quite insuperable. The first grows out 
of the fact, presently to be more fully seen, 
that there is no unity, no true coherence in 
Brahmanism. Its literature extends over a 
long period. Its early theology is quite dif- 
ferent from that of a later date. It is not a 
system, but a medley, which we have to in- 
terpret. The other and more serious diffi- 
culty is due to the fact that Brahmanical 
philosophy is not a philosophy, but a dream. 
The very nature of the Hindoo mind appears 
to be different from that of the Anglo-Saxon. 
The Anglo-Saxon expects of theology or phi- 
losophy a carefully organized system, with 
logical relations and connections. The Hin- 
doo not only has nothing of the sort, he ap- 
pears not to desire it. His god is an ab- 
straction, his heaven is absorption, his con- 
ception of piety mystical meditation, and his 
theology a curious dream, with neither be- 
ginning, object, nor sequence. This combined 
difficulty is well illustrated by James Free- 
man Clarke, who gives in a single paragraph 
a better idea of Brahmanism than any we 
have elsewhere met with, because a clearer 
idea of its extraordinary confusion both of 
doctrine and practice. 

" The Hindoos have sacred books of great 
antiquity, and a rich literature extending 
back twenty or thirty centimes ; yet no his- 
tory, no chronology, no annals. They have 
a philosophy as acute, profound, and spirit- 
ual, as any in the world, which is yet har- 
moniously associated with the coarsest su- 
perstitions. With a belief so abstract that 
it almost escapes the grasp of the most spec- 
ulative intellect, is joined the notion that a 
sin can be atoned for by bathing in the Gan- 
ges or repeating a text of the Veda. With 
an ideal pantheism resembling that of Hegel, 
is united the opinion that Brahma and Siva 
can be driven from the throne of the uni- 
verse by any one who will sacrifice a suffi- 
cient number of wild horses. To abstract 
one's self from matter, to renounce all the 
gratification of the senses, to macerate the 
body, is thought the true road to felicity ; 
and nowhere in the world are luxury, licen- 
tiousness, and the gratification of the appe- 
tites carried so far. Every civil right and 
privilege of ruler and subject is fixed in a 
code of laws and a body of jurisprudence, 
older far than the Christian era, and the ob- 



BRAHMAmSM 



132 



BRAHMANISM 



ject of universal reverence ; but the applica- 
tion of these laws rests (says Rhode) on the 
arbitrary decisions of the priests, and their 
execution on the will of the sovereign. The 
constitution of India is, therefore, like a 
house without a foundation and without a 
roof. It is a principle of Hindoo religion not 
to kill a worm, not even to tread on a blade 
of grass, for fear of injuring life; but the 
torments, cruelties, and bloodshed inflicted 
by Indian tyrants would shock a Nero or a 
Borgia. Half the best-informed writers on 
India will tell you that the Brahmauical re- 
ligion is pure monotheism ; the other half as 
confidently assert that they worship a mill- 
ion gods. Some teach us that the Hindoos 
are spiritualists and pantheists ; others, that 
their idolatry is more gross than that of any 
other living people." 

A great many attempts have been made 
to educe order and system out of this confu- 
sion, but without success. We do not be- 
lieve that it is possible to transmute this 
Oriental chaos into a western system of well- 
ordered thought. We shall not attempt it. 
We shall only endeavor to give our readers 
some idea of its general character, by the ex- 
hibition of some fragments. In endeavoring 
to do this, we can discriminate in a general 
way between ancient and modern Brahman- 
ism, only guarding our readers against fall- 
ing into the natural error of supposing that 
there is any well-defined boundary betw^een 
them. 

1. The more ancient form of Brahmanism 
rested upon four sacred books, termed the 
Rig-V6da, the Yajur-Veda, the S^ma-Y^da, 
and the Atharva-V6da. The four V^das were 
formerly supposed to be of equal antiqui- 
ty ; but it is now ascertained that while the 
hymns of which Rig-V^da consists rank " as 
among the oldest extant records of the an- 
cient world," the S^ma-V^da merely gives 
extracts from these hymns arranged for wor- 
ship, the Yajur-V6da contains hymns of later 
date, mixed with repetitions of the early 
sjjecimens, and the Atharva-V^da is a much 
later compilation, consisting of formularies 
required on certain rare occasions. The Rig- 
V^da, which is the earliest of these collec- 
tions of sacred hymns, is believed to have 
been composed B.C. 1200. It contains 1017 
mantras or prayers, about one-half of which 
are addressed to Indra, the god of light, or 
Hindoo Jupiter, or Agni, the god of fire, or 
rather, perhaps, fire itself, viewed partly as 
a vivifying principle of vegetation, and part- 
ly as a destructive agent. The next divini- 
ty, which, in the view of some Orientarlists, 
completes the triad of the Vedaic system, is 
Varuna, the god of water. Thus the Hindoo 
religion of this early period seems to have 
been a system of worship addressed to natu- 
ral phenomena, the light, the fire, the water, 
and must therefore have partaken of a pan- 
theistic character. The elements were dei- 



I fied, and the very sacrifices offered were con- 
I verted into gods. Thus the hymns compris- 
j ing one entire section of the Rig-Veda are 
j addressed to Soma, the milky juice of the 
j moon-plant, which was a libation offered to 
the gods, and without a draught of which 
I even they could not be immortal. There 
are passages in these ancient hymns which 
appear to indicate belief in one Supreme Be- 
ing, and it is sometimes said that the earli- 
est religion of the Hindoos was monotheis- 
j tic. It appears more accurate, however, to 
I say that their religion was a rhapsody of 
I meditation and devotion, in which the ques- 
[ tion of one god or many never fairly arose. 
The language in which the V6das are writ- 
ten is the Sanscrit, which the Hindoos seri- 
ously believe to be the language of the gods, 
and to have been communicated to men by 
a voice from heaven. But the Shastras, or 
sacred writings of the Hindoos, are not lim- 
ited to the four V^das. Besides these, there 
are four Ujm-Vedas, or sub - Scriptures ; six 
Ved-augas, or bodies of learning; and four 
Up-au(jas, or appended bodies of learning, 
forming in all an immense mass of secular 
and sacred lore, such as any single individ- 
ual would in vain attempt to master. 

2. Subsequent to the Vedas, and differing 
materially from them, comes a sacred book 
known as the Laws or Institutes of Manu. 
Manu is the son of Brahma, and his Insti- 
tutes constitute the authoritative law-book 
of the Hindoo Brahmans. This work sus- 
tains the laws of caste and the authority 
of the priesthood, represents Brama as the 
! Supreme Deity, and self-sacrifice as the su- 
! preme duty, and affords elaborate ritual- 
I istic and ceremonial rules of the most mi- 
i nute and exacting character. It forbids the 
drinking of intoxicating liquor, and discloses 
I the doctrine of transmigration of souls ; but 
i it says nothing of widow-burning, which is 
of a yet later date. To this later date are 
' said to belong the popular religious books 
of the Hindoos, the two great epics, the Ra- 
i mayana and the Mahabharata. Still later 
come the Piiranas and Tantras, which are 
regarded as marking the period of the de- 
cline of the Hindoo religion. Few Hindoos 
now read the Vedas. In theory their relig- 
ion rests upon the laws of Manu ; in fact, 
the popular creed rests upon the great epics 
and the Puranas. 

j At the foundation of the complicated sys- 
tem of Hindoo! sm in its present form lies 
i the doctrine of the existence of one great 
universal, self-existing Spirit, who is denom- 
inated Brahm (q. v.). It is one grand pe- 
culiarity of this the Supreme God of India, 
that while all natural attributes are ascribed 
to him in infinite perfection, he is not al- 
leged to possess a single moral attribute. 
And even his natural attributes, though they 
may be temporarily exercised, are speedily 



recalled and re-absorbed into his mysterious . 



BRAHJ^IANISM 



133 



BRAHMANISM 



essence. Hence, throughout all India, there 
are neither temples, nor sacred rites, nor acts 
of worship in honor of Brahm. The excuse 
given for this strange state of matters is, 
that " the representing the Supreme Being 
by images, or the honoring him by the insti- 
tution of sacred rites and the erection of 
temples, must be perfectly incompatible with 
every conceivable notion of an all-pervading, 
immaterial, incorporeal spirit." In the creed 
of the Hindoos, Brahm alone exists ; all else 
is illusory. Every object in the universe, 
nay, the soul of man himself, is nothing more 
than an illusory manifestation of the essence 
of Brahm. But, in order to put forth his 
energy, Brahm was compelled to assume a 
form^ or the appearance of a form. Under 
this assumed personal form he drew forth, in 
some ineffable manner, from his own imper- 
sonal essence, three distinct beings or hypos- 
tases, which became invested with corporeal 
forms. This is the celebrated Hindoo Triad 
— Brahma, Vishnu, and Shiva. To these three 
beings were intrusted the arrangement and 
government of the universe after Brahm had 
relapsed into his proper state of profound 
sleep and unconsciousness. James F. Clarke 
has suggested, and the suggestion is not an 
unreasonable one, that this triad really grew 
out of an attempt to combine in one the 
three forms of religion — the worship of Siva, 
or Shiva, the stern god of "Western India ; 
of Vishnu, or Vischnu, the friendly deity of 
the Valley of the Ganges ; and Brahma, the 
natural product in imagination of the im- 
personal Brahm. This ox)inion receives con- 
firmation in the fact that images of a three- 
faced god (as though the three had been 
somehow joined together) are still common in 
Brahmanical worship. Neither of these gods, 
however, it is to be borne in mind, appears 
in the Vedas except Vishnu, who is spoken 
of, only in a poetic way, for the sun. These 
three are by no means, however, the only 
gods of Hindooism. On the contrary, its de- 
ities are almost numberless. Hence the im- 
mense variety of sects in India, each deriv- 
ing its denomination from the name of its 
favorite deity. The worship of these three 
deities, especially of the two latter, is, how- 
ever, the most important, if not m a practi- 
cal, at least in a philosophical point of view. 
To enter into a detailed account of the elab- 
orate polytheism of India would carry us far 
beyond our limits. For a further account 
of these three deities and their resx)ective 
forms of worship, the reader is referred to 
the articles Brahma, Vishxu, and Siva. 

The second peculiar feature in the theol- 
ogy of the Hindoos is their faith respecting 
the future life. This is embraced in two ar- 
ticles of belief — metempsychosis and absorp- 
tion. They hold that every human soul, in 
order to expiate its guilt, passes through 
millions and millions of different bodily 
forms throughout the whole duration of the 



present universe ; though the superior gods 
are not subject to these numberless changes, 
but enjoy the highest happiness attainable, 
apart from absorption, through the whole of 
Brahma's life. It is the earnest desire, ac- 
cordingly, of every Hindoo that he may rise 
a grade higher in the next birth, and thus 
attain one step in advance toward ultimate 
deliverance. A higher species of future bliss 
set before the devotee of Brahmanism is the 
enjoyment of carnal delights in the heaven 
of one or other of the superior gods. But 
the last and highest kind of future bliss con- 
sists in the absorption of the soul into the 
essence of Brahm. This is the consumma- 
tion of felicity, for the soul once absorbed 
is not liable to any further transmigration. 
But while there is thus a graduated scale of 
future rewards for the righteous, there is 
also a graduated scale of future punishments 
for the wicked. Thus an individual may, by 
his evil deeds in this life, incur a degraded 
position in the next birth, or, if more wick- 
ed, he may be sent down to one or other 
of innumerable hells, to re-appear, however, 
on earth in mineral, animal, and vegetable 
forms, before he rises to the human ; or, if a 
peculiarly heinous transgressor, he may be 
consigned to perdition until the dissolution 
of all things. 

This doctrine of the future life gives rise 
to the peculiar system of religious rites and 
observances which characterize Buddhism ; 
for to attain each of the three distinct kinds 
of future bliss, and escape the three distinct 
kinds of future punishment, there are three 
distinct paths marked out in the sacred 
books of the Hindoos. To secure advance 
in the next birth, all the necessary duties 
peculiar to caste must be carefully dis- 
charged, and the ordinary practices and cer- 
emonies of religion must be diligently ob- 
served. To obtain an entrance into the 
paradise of one of the superior gods, there 
must be the performance of some extraordi- 
nary services to the deities, or some acts of 
extraordinary merit. But to render a man 
worthy of absorption into Brahm, he must 
adopt peculiar austerity in his mode of life ; 
he must apply himself sedulously to divine 
knowledge ; and, above all, he must give 
himself up to pure and intense meditation 
on the Eternal Spirit. It is in the power of 
the three higher castes to reach any one of 
the kinds of bliss set before the Hindoo ; 
but the Sudra must limit his ambition to 
either of the inferior kinds of bliss, and 
when he has attained this primary object 
in a future birth, he may then aspire to the 
highest beatitude — absorption in Brahm. 
This leads us to speak of — 

III. The Rites and Ceremonies of Brahman- 
ism. — The ordinary course of worship among 
the Hindoos consists in walking around the 
temple as often as the worshiper pleases, 
keeping the right hand toward it. The 



BEAHMA^ISM 



134 



BEAHMANISM 



worshiper then enters the vestibule, and if a 
bell is suspended there, as is commonly the 
case, he strikes two or three times upon it. 
He then advances to the threshold of the 
shrine, presents his oifering, which the ofift- 
ciating Brahman receives, mutters inaudibly 
a short prayer, accompanied with prostra- 
tion, or simply with the act of lifting the 
hands to the forehead, and then departs. 
There is nothing like a religious service, and 
the hurried manner in which the whole is 
performed, the quick succession of worship- 
ers, the gloomy aspect of the shrine, and 
the scattering about of water, oil, and faded 
flowers, inspire any thing but feelings of 
reverence and devotion. 

Besides these more common forms of re- 
ligious homage and rites of worship, there 
are other acts which, according to the relig- 
ion of the Hindoo, possess such extraordi- 
nary merit as to entitle the performer to an 
entrance into one or other of the heavens of 
the gods. Such are fastings, frequent, long- 
continued, and accompanied by various med- 
itative exercises ; the presenting of gifts to 
the Brahmans, and the honoring of Brah- 
mans with feasts ; readings and recitations 
of portions of the Mahabharata and other 
Shastras on auspicious days, and rehearsals 
for weeks or months together of those le- 
gends which embody the histories of their 
gods, accompanied with dancings and wav- 
iugs of bushes, and the jingling of rings and 
the noises of instrumental music ; the dig- 
ging of public wells, to quench the thirst of 
mankind ; the building of public ghats or 
flights of steps along the banks of rivers, to 
assist the faithful in their ablutions ; the 
planting and consecrating of trees or groves, 
to furnish refreshment to holy pilgrims ; the 
repairing of old temples or the erecting of 
new, in honor of the gods ; long and ardu- 
ous pilgrimages to the confluence of sacred 
streams. Besides these, and others too tedi- 
ous to be recounted, must be specially noted 
the manifold forms of self-murder. Certain 
modes of voluntary religious suicide some 
of the Shastras distinctly recommend, an- 
nexing thereto promises of a heavenly rec- 
ompense. To the modes thus divinely ap- 
pointed, the fervent but blind and perverse 
zeal of deluded votaries has not been slow 
in adding many more to testify the intensity 
of their devotion. Hence it is that numbers 
annually throw themselves over precipices 
and are dashed to pieces, or cast themselves 
into sacred rivers and are drowned, or bury 
themselves alive in graves which may have 
been dug by their nearest kindred. All 
these and other modes of self-murder are 
practiced with the distinct expectation of 
earning an entrance into heaven.^ 

This system is admirably adapted to sus- 
tain the power of the priesthood, all of whom 



1 See JuGGFRNAUT ; also FuNEEAL KiTES, foi' an ac- 
count of the Hindoo Suttee. 



are taken from the Brahmans (q. v.), who 
constitute the highest caste. An elaborate 
system of meaningless prayers and painful 
penances takes the place of true devotion and 
genuine penitence. Prayer, however prompt- 
ed, if assiduously repeated, compels the atten- 
tion and answer of the gods, and by a prop- 
er performance of prayer, penance, and sac- 
rifice, the soul may even become superior to 
the gods themselves ; in a word, as a system 
of priestcraft, Hindooism and the corrupt 
forms of Roman Catholicism have much in 
common, though the priesthood of India is 
as much worse than that of Europe, and 
their system as much more despotic^ as their 
people are more ignorant and superstitious. 

IV. The Civil and Social Character of Brah- 
manism is one of a rigorous and exclusive 
system of Caste (q. v.). The injustice of this 
system, as well as the errors of Brahmanical 
doctrine, and the despotism of the Brahman- 
ical priesthood, gave rise, in the seventh cen- 
tury before Christ, to Buddhism (q. v.), which 
was a protest against the corrupt religion of 
the age, and which has been well called the 
Protestantism of India. 

During the last half century much has 
been done to ameliorate the condition of the 
Hindoos. Missions have been established 
throughout almost every part of India. The 
Suttee has been generally abolished. Infant- 
icide has been very extensively suppressed. 
The law which declares that a native shall 
forfeit his paternal inheritance by becoming 
a Christian has been abrogated. Caste, the 
greatest obstacle to the spread of Christian- 
ity in India, has been modified. The mar- 
riage of Hindoo widows has been sanctioned. 
In the coui"ts the practice of swearing is in 
some places changed, the Bible being substi- 
tuted for the water of the Ganges, or the 
witnesses are only required to make a decla- 
ration that they speak the truth. Above all, 
the preaching of the Gospel extensively, both 
by European and native missionaries, and 
the establishment of schools for the instruc- 
,tion of the young in general knowledge and 
the elements of pure Christianity, have done 
much to undermine the gigantic fabric of 
HindoQism and prepare for its final over- 
throw. All witnesses combine to testify, that 
as in Europe the power of Romanism as a 
system is yielding to the development of 
free thought and the growth of liberty in 
both Church and State, so in India the power 
of the priesthood is already broken. Brah- 
manism retains its power only over the low- 
er and most ignorant classes. A movement 
within the nation is going on, of which Ba- 
boo Chunder Sen may be regarded as a 
leader, to overthrow the entire system, and 
substitute a pure Deism in its place. In 
Northern India Mohammedanism is making 
enormous strides, substituting certainly a 
X)urer faith, but perhaps no better morals. 
At i)resent it is impossible to say what revo- 



BRAHMA^^S 



135 



BRAZEN SERPENT 



lution the next quarter of a century will 
briug about in India. Nothing is certain but 
that the whole country is passing through 
a transition. Old things are passing away. 
But whether the result will be, as some hope, 
that on the ruins of Brahmanism the pure 
faith of the Gospel of Jesus Christ will be 
erected, or whether, as some fear, the nation, 
reacting against the religion of their con- 
querors, will take up with that of Moham- 
med, or whether, turning from the extreme 
of superstition to the extreme of infidelity, it 
will pass through a period of general doubt 
and disbelief before emerging into the clear 
light of Christianity, the best advised con- 
cerning the present condition of the Indian 
races confess themselves unable to predict. 

Brahmans, or Brahmins. In the Hindoo 
system, accounted the highest and noblest 
caste in the scale of human existence, the 
nearest in kindred and in likeness to Brahma 
himself, and deriving their name from him, 
as being his visible representatives in human 
form. They have been constituted the sole 
depositaries, the sole interpreters, the sole 
teachers of the V^das, or sacred books of the 
Hindoos ; and in emblem of this, the Brah- 
mans are said to have sprung from the mouth 
of Brahma. They are not all priests, but all 
priests are taken from them. For any man of 
another caste to marry a Brahman woman is 
strictly forbidden, and the children of such a 
marriage are regarded as irredeemably base. 
Their power is well - nigh absolute ; or, to 
speak more accurately, it was so before mod- 
ern civilization and contact with other na- 
tions had weakened it. The Brahman, wheth- 
er ignorant or wise, is an object of adoration, 
and secures the respect even of the gods. 
His property is exempt from even royal de- 
crees, and his power and authority superior 
to that of any prince or potentate. It is only 
through the benevolence of the Brahmans 
that other mortals enjoy life. The doctrine 
of metempsychosis adds to their power over 
an ignorant and superstitious people. For 
neglecting the smallest duties or ceremonies 
enjoined by the priest, the unhappy offeiider 
may be condemned to long periods of transmi- 
gration — the Hindoo purgatory — before at- 
taining absorption — the Hindoo heaven. In 
a word, of all priestly orders, the Brahman- 
ical is probably the most absolute and des- 
potic the world has ever seen, as it is built 
upon a system the most superstitious. See 
Brahmajstism; Caste. 

Brass. In many places in the O. T. the 
correct translation of the word neclwsheth, so 
frequently translated " brass," would proba- 
bly be copper, although it may sometimes 
possibly mean bronze, which is a composi- 
tion of copper and tin, while brass is copper 
and zinc. The " fine brass " in Rev. i., 15, is 
probably burnished brass, glowing, as in a 
furnace ; though some suppose it to have 
been orichalcum, which was so rare as to be 



more valuable than gold. The word is oft- 
en used metaphorically, implying hardness, 
strength, roughness, and the like. By an- 
other application of the figure, brass is used 
for stubbornness, and perhaps impudence. 
See Copper. [Dent, xxviii., 23 ; Job vi., 12 ; 
Jer. i., 18 ; vi., 28 ; Zech. vi., 1 ; Isa. xlviii., 4.] 
Brazen Sea, or Molten Sea. A large 
brazen^ laver which Solomon made for the 
use of the priests in the temple. It was to 
supply the place of the " laver " of the tab- 
ernacle. It was about nine feet in height, 
eighteen in diameter, and fifty -five in cir- 
cumference ; the thickness of the metal be- 




Brazen Sea. 

ing one hand - breadth. The brim was of 
lily- work, ornamented with flowers like lil- 
ies ; and just underneath was a double bor- 
der of knops, said to be shaped like gourds. 
The whole was placed upon twelve oxen, 
representing the twelve tribes, standing with 
their faces outward. This great basin con- 
tained 2000 or 3000 (the number varies, per- 
haps owing to a copyist's error) baths, i e., * 
15,000 or 22,500 gallons. It was set at the 
south-east corner of the court of the priests. 
It was not for them to bathe in, but contain- 
ed water for their ablutions. Ahaz removed 
the oxen from under the sea, and fixed it 
upon a stone pavement : it was finally bro- 
ken up by the Chaldeans, and carried in 
pieces to Babylon.^ Some difficulty has been 
expressed in regard to the capacity of this 
sea ; and it has been calculated that if hem- 
ispherical it could not hold so much water 
as is stated. But we do not know its exact 
shape ; it perhaps bulged out below the brim. 
[1 Kings vii., 23-26 ; 2 Chron. iv., 2-5.] 

Brazen Serpent In Numb, xxi., 1-9, is 
given the account of the healing of the chil- 
dren of Israel from the bite of the fiery ser- 
pents, by the elevation of a brazen serpent. 
This divinely - appointed symbol seems to 
have been preserved as an object of venera- 
tion, and carried with the Israelites into the 
land of Canaan. Here in the subsequent de- 
generacy of the nation it became an object 
of idolatrous worship, and in the reforma- 
tion instituted under Hezekiah^ (q. v.), B.C. 
721, it was destroyed. He called it con- 
temptuously Nehushtan, i. e., "that thing of 



1 See CoppEB.— 2 2 Kiugs xvi., 17 ; xxv., 13. 
Kings xviii., 4. 



BEEAD 



136 



BEEAD 



h'ass.^' The idolatry which Hezekiah destroy- 
ed Eome has reinstated. Notwithstanding 
the emphatic declaration that Hezekiah broke 
the serpent in pieces, the church at Milan 
has boasted for years of possessing it, and 
credulous guides still point it out to tourists. 
That the brazen serpent stood, even among 
the Jews, for an emblem of a spiritual deliv- 
erance seems clear, not only from the fact 
that it was worshiped, but also from such 
indirect references as that of Isa. xlv., 22 ; 
and it is emphatically pronounced by Christ 
to be an emblem of himself and his salva- 
tion.^ That Christ should be represented 
by the serpent, the imiversal sjTnbol of evil, 
and the representation of Satan,^ has per- 
plexed some of the commentators. The true 
key to the explanation is afforded by the 
declaration of the Apostle Paul that he was 



! monly speak of a man's " earning his bread," 
i. e., his subsistence.^ 

Bread in its proper sense was generally of 
wheat ; but barley and other species of grain 
were also used, and sometimes there was a 
mixture. It has been said that barley bread 
was eaten only by the very poor, or in time 
of scarcity. To a certain extent this may 
be true: the luxurious Solomon, we read, 
gave barley to his horses. But when we 
tind also that Boaz, a man of wealth, in a 
time of plenty, presented barley to Euth, 
whom he was intending to marry, we can 
not suppose that barley was the food of only 
mean people.'^ 

After the wheat had been ground in the 
mill, the flour was made into dough or paste, 
in a small wooden bowl or trough, called the 
kneading-trough. A leathern bag is now oft- 




Women of Nazareth heating the Oven with dry grass. 



made " in the likeness of sinful flesh. ^ The 
brazen serpent was made in tlie form of the 
fiery serpent, but possessed not its venom. 
It represented to the dying Israelites the 
poison which had gone through their frames, 
and was hung up on the banner-staff as a 
trophy to show them that the poison was 
overcome. So Christ was made in the like- 
ness of sin, though he knew no sin, and was 
hung upon the cross as a trophy — a witness 
that sin was vanquished in his person,'* 

Bread. This word is often used in a com- 
prehensive sense to signify food in general ; 
hence " to eat bread " is to partake of a meal. 
In some respects this wider application of 
the term is familiar to ourselves ; for we com- 



1 John iii., 14, 15.— 2 Gen. iii., 1-15; Rev. xii., 9.— 
3 Rom. viii., S — * Comp. 2 Cor. v., 21, and Col. ii., 13, 
14. 



en «ped for the same purpose by the Bedouin 
Arabs. An ephah, or three measures, is the 
quantity often specified,^ jjrobably enough 
for what we might call a fair family-baking, 
or for the cax)acity of an ordinary oven. 
Leaven was added afterward, and then the 
mass stood to ferment ; consequently, if any 
sudden necessity of removal occurred, cakes 
would be hastily baked, or the dough carried 
off in its unfermented state.^ Women seem 
to have been generally employed in mak- 
ing bread, but men were bakers by trade.^ 
In towns it would seem likely that there 
were public ovens. And it is a custom at 
the present day in the East for bakers by 



1 Gen. iii., 19 : xxviii., 20 ; xliii., 25.-2 K^tJi iii., 15 ; 
comp. i., 6; 1 Kinss iv., 28; Ezeli. iv., 9; John vi., 9. 
—3 Gen. xviii., 6; 'jndg. vi., 19: 1 Sam. i., 24: Matt, 
xiii., 3.3.-4 Exod. xii.^ 8 ; Luke xiii., 21.— ^ 1 Sam, 
viii., 13; Jer. vii., 18; IIos. vii., 4, 6. 



BREAD 



137 



BRETHREN 



trade not only to dispose of the bread they 
haTe themselves prepared, but also to re- 
ceive and bake the dough intrusted to them 
by others. A portion of this is retained 
for their remuneration. These public ovens, 
and such as are in large private houses, re- 
semble those among ourselves. But smaller 
portable ones are common. They are of 
stone, earthenware, or copper, like large jars 
or open at the top, heated inside with wood 
grass.^ Temporary ovens are also construct- 
ed in the manner indicated in the cut on 
p. 136. When the fire has burned out, the 
loaves are placed inside, to be baked. There 
is another mode of baking, common in rural 
districts. A kind of pit is formed in the floor 
of the principal room of a house, a yard 
wide, and four or five feet deep. Its sides 
are lined \\T.th cement ; and, when it has 
been heated by a fire kindled at the bot- 
tom, pieces of dough are placed therein, 
and soon baked there. Sometimes the 
dough is laid on heated stones ; or a fir 
is kindled on a smooth spot, the embers 
afterward raked aside, the dough laid 
down, and the embers heaped over it ; or 
it is placed between layers of dried dung. 
Great care is necessary in turning such 
cakes.^ Sometimes a pan was used, very 
pTobably similar to that now called tajen 
by the Arabs, flat, or slightly convex, 
usually of metal, placed upon a slow fire. 
Thin pieces of dough are soon baked 
upon it. Sometimes a metal plate was 
put over a cavity in which were burn- 
ing embers, and on this the bread was 
baked. By these or the like methods, 
now practiced, the bakings of the bread, 
of which we read in several instances, 
were no doubt customarily performed 
among the ancient inhabitants of Pales- 
tine. The cakes used in the temple-of- 
ferings, whether baked in an oven or on 
a pan, appear to have been prepared with 
oil.^ Oil, too, was occasionally used with 
ordinary bread.* Bread was baked in 
various shapes. The terms loaf cake 
and wafer are generally used in the 
Scriptures very nearly synonymously to 
designate the bread as prepared for the 
oven, whether sweetened (as it some- 
times was with figs, raisins, or honey) 
or not. The cracknel mentioned in 1 Kings 
xiv., 3, was a thin biscuit or cracker. As the 
bread was made in thin cakes, which soon 
became dry and unpalatable, it was usual to 
bake daily. These cakes were not cut with 
a knife, but broken ; hence the expression so 
common in Scripture of ^^ breaking bread" to 
signify taking a repast. The expressions 
''bread of sorrows " and " bread of tears " in- 
dicate sorrow as the portion of every day, as 
one's daily bread; and "bread of wickedness" 



or "of deceit" denotes not only a living ob- 
tained by sin, but that wickedness is as much 
a portion of the man's life as is his daily 
bread. 

Breastplate of the High-priest. A splen- 
did ornament covering the breast of the high- 
priest. It was composed of richly embroid- 
ered cloth, and was made double with a front 
and lining, thus forming a pouch or bag, in 
which, according to the Rabbins, the Urim 
and Thummim (q. v.) were inclosed ; hence it 
was called the Breastplate of Judgment. On 
its front were the twelve precious stones, set 
in four rows, three in a row, thus correspond- 
ing to the twelve tribes, and divided in the 
same manner as were their camps. Each 




1 1 Kinars xvii., 12 ; Isa. xliv., 15 ; Jer. vii., 18 ; Matt, 
vi., 30.— 2 Ezek. iv., 15 ; Hos. vii., 8.-3 Exod. xxix., 2 ; 
Lev. ii., 4, 5 ; vL, 20, 21 ; vii, 9.— * 1 Kings xvii., 12-14. 



Supposed Style of the High-priest's Breastplate. 

stone had the name of one of the children 
of Israel engraved upon it; hence it was 
called the memorial, because it reminded the 
high-priest that he represented the twelve 
tribes. By means of rings, chains, and other 
fastenings of gold or rich embroidery, the 
upper corners of this breastplate were fas- 
tened to the stones upon the shoulders of 
the ephod, from which it was never to be 
loosed, and the two lower corners were at- 
tached to the girdle. [Exod. xxviii., 12-29 ; 
Lev. viii., 8.] 

Brethren. This name employed in the 
early Christian Church as a designation of 



BEETHREN 



138 



BEETHREN 



disciples of Christ before the term Christians 
was employed, has been taken up since by 
different orders as follows : 

1. A sect of German Baptists, more popu- 
larly known as Dunkers or Dunkards, from 
their method of baptism. Their formation 
is involved in some obscurity, from the fact 
that they are not fully agreed among them- 
selves, some being legalists in principle and 
ascetics in practice ; while others maintain 
strongly salvation by grace, and yet others 
are Universalists in doctrine. Their first 
appearance in America was in 1719, when 
about twenty families landed in Philadel- 
phia. Some of the more zealous of them 
formed a church at Germantown, Pennsyl- 
vania, in 1723, under the ministry of Peter 
Becker. Soon after, another church was 
formed at Mill Creek, Lancaster County. To 
this community belonged Conrad Beissel, a 
native of Germany, who, on studying the 
subject of the Sabbath, came to the conclu- 
sion that the seventh day, not the first, ought 
to be observed as sacred to the Lord. In 
1725 he published a tract in support of his 
opinions, which excited no small sensation 
among the Brethren of the Mill Creek Church. 
Beissel thereupon quitted the settlement, and 
retired to a solitary place in the same coun- 
ty, and being joined by a number of the 
brethren who had embraced his opinions, a 
community was formed, which adopted the 
seventh day, or Jewish Sabbath, as their day 
for religious exercises. Hence the sect is 
often termed the German Seventh- day Bap- 
tists. In 1733 a kind of monastic society 
was established by Beissel and his followers, 
who formed a small colony in a sequestered 
district called Ephrata. The members of 
this singular body adopted the dress of White 
Friars, consisting of a long white robe reach- 
ing down to the heels, with a sash or girdle 
round the waist, and a capuche or cowl hang- 
ing down over the neck. All who entered 
the cloister received monastic names, though 
no monastic vows were taken, neither were 
they under a superior, all the brethren and 
sisters being on a perfect equality. Subse- 
quently a secession took place under one 
John Ham, who maintained Universalist 
views, which have been in consequence, but 
erroneously, attributed to the whole sect. 
The orthodox Brethren are found chiefly in 
Pennsylvania, while seceders are scattered 
through the Western States. The former 
acknowledge the Holy Scriptures as the only 
rule of faith and practice, keep the seventh 
day of the week as the Sabbath, and admin- 
ister baptism by trine immersion. While 
the candidate is kneeling in the water, he 
is plunged three times forward under water, 
" in the name of the Father, and of the Son, 
and of the Holy Ghost." The ordinance is 
accompanied with the laying on of hands 
and with prayer while the person is yet in 
the water. None but adults are baptized. 



though children of believing^ parents are re- 
ceived into the church by the laying on of 
hands and prayer, for a blessing upon them 
after the example of Christ.^ The '^ Breth- 
ren " practice the washing of feet before the 
Lord's Supper, which they celebrate in the 
evening, as being the time at which it was 
originally observed. Open communion is 
the rule of the church, no person being re- 
fused admission to the Lord's Supper who 
expresses a desire to partake of it ; a prac- 
tice which they support by appealing to. 1 
Cor. xi., 28. In every thing this sect en- 
deavor to approach as nearly as possible to 
a literal observance of the ordinances of 
Christ, precisely in accordance with the 
time, manner, and circumstantial details of 
their original institution. 

2. Plymouth Brethren. So called by others 
because their first church was in Plymouth, 
England, though they call themselves only 
Brethren. They originated about 1830. Their 
most characteristic doctrine is that the 
church is not a definite ecclesiastical organ- 
ization, but the spiritual union of all who 
believe in Jesus Christ. They disown creeds 
and confessions as a virtual denial of the 
sufficiency of the Holy Scriptures, object to 
any professional order of clergy, hold that 
the practice of the primitive church affords 
a true pattern for the church of to-day, and 
that in its religious meetings any of the 
brethren who feel themselves insi)ired by 
the Spirit of God should speak his truth as 
the Spirit gives him utterance, and that any 
one may administer the ordinances of Bap- 
tism and the Lord's Supper. They object 
to all creeds and sects, and all divisions for 
opinion's sake. They are not Perfectionists, 
though Perfectionism has sometimes been 
charged upon them. They hold, perhaps 
more strongly, certainly in ways which are 
practically peculiar, to the doctrines of spe- 
cial providence, answer to prayer, and the 
indwelling of the Spirit. They maintain, for 
example, that missionary and other religious 
operations should not be sustained by organ- 
izations instituted for the purpose, but that 
those who feel called to become the heralds 
of the Gospel should' go forth to missionary 
work, trusting to the Lord to provide for 
them. The most remarkable illustration of 
their faith in this regard is afforded by the 
history of Mr. Mliller, who founded and suc- 
cessfully maintained a large orphan asylum 
without making any direct application to 
any one for pecuniary aid, depending upon 
prayer alone. Manj" of the Plymouth Breth- 
ren believe in the second advent and per- 
sonal reign of Christ. It is impossible to 
give any accurate estimate of their num- 
bers, since they have no organized exist- 
ence. Many who have imbibed some of 
their views stilLretain membership in church 
orsrauizations. 



1 Mark x., 16. 



BRETHEEN OF THE LORD 



139 



BREVIARY 



3. Brethren of tJie Common Life is a name 
assumed by a religious fraternity in the 14tli 
century, in the Netherlands, devoting itself 
to religious work and inspired by the same 
spirit which later actuated the Reformers. 
Thomas h Kempis was one of the luminaries, 
and became the head of the order. Many 
of the brothers became Protestants. Others 
were absorbed by the Roman orders, and the 
entire fraternity was extinct by the middle 
of the 17th century. 

4. Brethren of the Community. One of the 
•two parties into which the Franciscan order 

of monks was divided in the beginning of 
the 14th century. 

5. Brethren of the Free Spirit, a sect which 
arose in the 13th century, pantheistic in 
doctrine, perfectionists in principle, and en- 
thusiasts in practice, and possibly the same 
as Amah'icians or Almaricians. 

6. Brethren of the Hohj Trinity, also called 
Brethren of the Redemption of Captives, an or- 
der of monks in the 12th century who de- 
A^oted themselves to the redemption of Chris- 
tian captives from the hand of the Moham- 
medans. The name United Brethren is as- 
sumed by the sect more commonly known 
as Moravians (q. v.). 

Brethren of the Lord. There are sev- 
eral references in Scripture to brethren of 
Jesus Christ — nine in the Gospels, one in Acts, 
and one in Corinthians. There is perhaps no 
question which has given rise to greater dis- 
cussion than the proper interpretation of this 
phrase, and it has been pronounced the most 
difficult problem in apostolic history. There 
are three principal interpretations : the^rs^, 
that the term brethren is used in a general 
sense signifying relatives, they being really 
cousins ; second, that tliey were children of 
Joseph by a previous marriage ; and third, 
that they were really the brethren of Jesus. 
Volumes have been written in support of 
these different theories. The latter is reject- 
ed by all Roman Catholic theologians and 
by many Protestants. We think, however, 
that it is the most natural and rational hy- 
pothesis of the three, and best accords with 
the Scripture narrative. In every mention 
of the brethren of the Lord in the Gospels, 
with the exception of those in John, they 
are spoken of in connection with his mother. 
None of them are described as of the num- 
ber of the twelve, and it is distinctly assert- 
ed that they did not believe in Jesus.^ No 
word is anywhere dropped to prevent the in- 
ference that they were his relations in the 
same sense as we know his mother to have 
been ; and his own words distinguishing 
them from his disciples,'^ seem to sanction 
that inference. Neither is there any thing 
to give the impression that Josejih had been 
married before. The belief that Jesus had 
younger brethren and sisters is not, it should 
be added, at all inconsistent with belief 



John vii., 5; comp. Acts i., 14.— ^ Matt, xii., 50. 



in his miraculous conception, nor with any 
Scriptural reverence for his mother. The 
names of the four persons described as the 
brethren of the Lord are Jacob or James, Jo- 
seph or Joses, Simon, and Judas. The direct 
Scriptural references to this subject are the 
following : Matt, xii., 46 ; xiii., 55 ; Mark iiL, 
31 ; vi., 3 ; Luke viii., 19 ; John ii., 12 ; vii,, 3, 
5, 10 ; Acts i., 14 ; 1 Cor. ix., 5. See James. 

Breviary, a daily office or book of Di- 
vine service in the Romish Church, so called 
from being a compilation in an abbreviated 
form, convenient for use, of the various books 
anciently used in the service, as antiphoners, 
jisalters, etc. The work is said to have been 
commenced in the eleventh century by Pope 
Gregory VII. After various revisions, divis- 
ions, and modifications, it was completed sub- 
stantially as it now stands under the pontifi- 
cate of Urban VIII., a.d. 1631. It contains 
prayers, psalms, and hymns for each day of 
the year. Scripture lessons for daily reading, 
with accompanying comments from the fa- 
thers and doctors of the Church, and the le- 
gends of its saints and martyrs. The Bre- 
viary is in Latin, portions of it being some- 
times translated for the use of the unlearned. 
It is necessarily a very bulky volume when 
complete, every saint in the calendar having 
his proper services for the different Canon- 
ical Hours (q. v.). The festivals of the Ro- 
mish Church are divided and subdivided ac- 
cording to their importance, so that there 
are nine classes of services, and so elaborate 
and perplexing are the rubrical directions, 
that it is impossible to form any idea of 
them without consulting the Breviary itself. 
Indeed, there are probably but few of the 
priests who are thoroughly conversant with 
their own ritual. The Romish Church en- 
joins, under pain of excommunication, all 
the ''religious" — i. e., all persons, male or 
female, who have taken vows in any relig- 
ious order — to repeat, either in public or pri- 
vate, the services of the Canonical Hours as 
contained in the Breviary. The omission of 
any one of the eight portions of which that 
service consists is declared to be a mortal 
sin, which, unrepented, would be sufficient to 
exclude from salvation. The person guilty 
of such an omission loses all legal right to 
whatever portion of his clerical emoluments 
is due for the day or days wherein he neg- 
lected that duty, and can not be absolved 
till he has given the forfeited sums to the 
poor. The office of the Romish Church was 
originally so contrived as to divide the psal- 
ter between the seven days of the week. 
Portions of the O. T. Scriptures were also 
read alternatively with extracts from the 
legends of the saints and the works of the 
fathers. But as the calendar became crowd- 
ed with saints, whose festivals take prece- 
dence of the regular Church services, little 
room is left for any thing but a few psalms, 
which are constantly repeated, a very small 



BRICK 



140 



BRICK 



part of the rest of the O. T., and mere frag- 
ments of the Gospels and Epistles. The Bre- 
viary is generally printed in four volumes, 
one for each season of the year. 

Brick. The bricks used in the building 
of the Tower of Babel were burned bricks, 
which were cemented with bitumen. These 
were doubtless much the same as those of 
which the great works and walls of Babylon 
were built, and which were of clay dug out 
of the trench, and burned in kilns. Both 
the "slime" or bitumen, and the clay of 
which the bricks were formed, were abun- 
dant in the Mesopotamian plain. Of such 
bricks abundant specimens remain in the 
ruins of Nineveh and Babylon, which have 
been used as immense quarries from which 



€3d- 






?' ^ 



H^^^^UH^ 







mjm^^^:^ 



^sULM^Mia 



jM^^^m- 



Babylonian Brick. 

succeeding people have obtained building 
material. These Babylonian bricks, or rath- 
er tiles, are twelve or thirteen inches square, 
and three and a half inches thick. Some of 
them are glazed or enameled, and various 
colored patterns of beautiful design are im- 
pressed upon them. Most of those found 
bear the name of Nebuchadnezzar, Inscrip- 
tions are on many of them. Upon such tiles 
the Babylonians recorded their astronomical 
observations. The use of crude brick, baked 
in the sun, was universal in Upper and Lower 
Egypt. These simple materials were partic- 
ularly suited to the climate, and were easily, 
rapidly, and cheaply made. Walls of gar- 
dens, of fortifications, of towns, dwelling- 
houses, and tombs — in short, all but the tem- 
ples themselves were of crude brick ; and so 
great was the demand, that the Egyptian 
Government, observing the profit that would 
accrue from a monopoly of them, undertook 
to supply them by the use of captive labor 
at a lower price than could be afforded by 
those who had recourse solely to free la- 
bor. Thus, besides native laborers, a great 
many captive foreigners were constantly en- 
gaged in the large brick-fields at Thebes 
and other parts of Egypt. These Egyptian 
bricks, stamped with the seal of the king or 



some other privileged person of the time in 
which they were made, are still preserved, and 
as fit for use as when they were first made. 
They are of a large size, varying from fourteen 
and a half to twenty inches in length, six 
and a half to eight and three-fourths inches 
in breadth, and in thickness four and a half 
to seven inches. Great quantities were evi- 
dently made at all times. There is in the 
Necropolis at Western Thebes, in the tomb 
of Rekshara, architect in the reign of Tho- 
thanes III,, a remarkable painting, which 
represents the process of brick -making by 
captives, who are distinguished from the na- 
tives by the color in which they are drawn. 
Watching over the laborers are "task-mas- 
ters," who, armed with sticks, are receiving 
the tale of bricks and urging on the 
work. And though the laborers can 
not be said to be Jews, yet the simi- 
larity of employment illustrates the 
Bible history in a remarkable degree. 
The process of manufacture indi- 
cated by this representation did not 
materially differ from that which is 
still followed in the same country. 
The clay was brought in baskets from 
the Nile, thrown into a heap, thorough- 
ly saturated with water, and worked 
up to a proper temper by the feet of 
the laborers. This labor in such a 
climate must have been very fatig- 
uing and unwholesome, and it conse- 
quently appears to have been shunned 
by the native Egyptians. The clay, 
when tempered, was cut by an instru- 
ment resembling the agricultural hoe, 
and molded in an oblong trough ; the bricks 
were then dried in the sun, and some appear, 
from their color, to have been baked or burn- 
ed, but no trace of this operation has yet been 
discovered in the monuments. It is evident 
that the order of King Pharaoh, that the Is- 
raelites should collect the straw with which 
to compact (not burn) their bricks, did not 
require a physical impossibility, because the 
Egyptian reapers only cut away the tops of 
the grain, leaving the rest to be plucked up 
for other uses. We must remember that the 
tyrannical Pharaoh issued his orders prohib- 
iting the supply of straw about two months 
before the time of harvest. If, therefore, the 
straw had not been usually left standing in 
the fields, he would have shown himself an 
idiot as well as a tyrant ; but the narrative 
shows us that the Israelites found the " stub- 
ble,"^ i. e., the stems of the last year's har- 
vest, standing in the fields. Still the demand 
that they should complete their tale of bricks 
was one that could scarcely be fulfilled, and 
the conduct of Pharaoh on this occasion is a 
perfect specimen of Oriental despotism. 

The Jews preserved the art they learned 
in Egypt, and we find the use of brick-kilns 
mentioned in 2 Sam. xii., 31 ; Jer, xliii,, 9, 



Exod. 



12. 



BRIDLE 



141 



BUDDHISM 



and a complaint by Isaiali that the people 
built altars of brick instead of unhewn stone, 
as directed by the law.^ Brick-making was 
known among the Romans, and the Greeks 
in general preferred brick walls to stone. 

Bridle. In the Bible this word is frequent- 
ly used both in its proper and in its figu- 
rative sense. Assyrian bass-reliefs represent 
bridles ornamented to a high degree. The 
Assyrian sculptures, which throw so impor- 
tant a light on many passages of Scripture, 
contain not only representations of very 
highly ornamented bridles of horses, but 
also representations of captives with bridles 
in the lips. In one subject may be recog- 
nized the fate which befell Zedekiah, king 
of Judah, as recorded in 2 Kings, and which 
seems to have been no uncommon punish- 
ment for the crime of rebellion. The pris- 
oners are all fettered, and have in the lower 
lip a ring, to which is attached a thin cord. 
The restraints of God's providence, as well 
as of law and humanity, are called a bridle, 
and to loose them is to act without regard 
to these principles. [ 1 Kings xx., 32; 2Kings 
xix., 28 ; Job xxx., 11 ; Isa. xxxvii., 29.] 

Brief. Briefs apostolical are pontifical let- 
ters from the Court of Rome, subscribed by 
the secretary of briefs, who is usually a 
bishop or cardinal. They differ in many 
respects from bulls (q. v.). They usually 
refer to temporal matters, and are legibly 
written on fine white skins, in Roman char- 
acters, and with the date and title of the 
pope abbreviated. They may be issued by 
the pope before his coronation. 

Brimstone. The Hebrew word for brim- 
stone properly means resin or pitch, but it 
is also used to signify other combustible sub- 
stances, especially sulphur or brimstone. It 
was employed in the destruction of the cit- 
ies of the plain, the soil of that district 
abounding in sulphur and bituminous mat- 
ter. Hence the use of the term figuratively to 
describe the divine vengeance. See Cities 
OF THE Plain. [Job xviii., 15 ; Psa. xi., 6 ; 
Isa. xxxiv., 9; Ezek. xxxviii., 22; Rev. xix., 
20; XX., 10; xxi., 8.] 

Brother, a term frequently used, like oth- 
ers expressive of relationship (e. g., father, 
son, etc.), in an extended sense. Gesenius 
enumerates the following meanings of the 
word in the Old Testament : 1. A brother lit- 
erally, either by the whole blood or a half- 
brother f 2. A kinsman in any degree f 3. 
One of the same tribe f 4. A fellow-country- 
man, applied also to kindred tribes f 5. An 
ally, spoken of confederate nations, or those 
of the same religion f 6. A friend f 7. Any 
one of the same nature, a fellow - man ;^ 8. 
Metaphorically, as expressing likeness of dis- 
position or habits ; as, " I am a brother to 
jackals," i. e., I cry or howl like them.® 

1 Isa, Ixv., 3 ; Exod. xx., 25.-2 Jud":. viii., 19.— 3 Gen, 
xiv,,16. — *Nunib, viii,,2G.— sGen.xvi.,12.— 8 j(..j,jxvi., 
20.— 7 1 Kings ix., 13.-8 Lev. xix,, 17,— » Job xxx,, 29. 



The usage of the word in the N. T. is 
very similar, including kinsman, country- 
man, one of the same faith, etc. It is em- 
ployed also simply as a term of endearment.^ 
The modern custom among ourselves differs 
but little from that we find in the Scriptures. 
We use the term ''brother " in various senses, 
as indicating different kinds of relationship, 
e. g., a> brother Englishman, a brother clergy- 
man, a brother of the craft, etc. The term 
brother, the common appellation given to 
each other by Christians of the early Church, 
in the Roman Church was applied to nionks, 
and since the thirteenth century to the beg- 
ging monks, in distinction from other orders. 

Buddhism. The religion known as Bud- 
dhism has existed now for 2460 years, and 
may be said to be the most prevalent religion 
in the world. In Hindoostan, the land of its 
birth, it has now little hold, but it bears full 
sway in Ceylon, and over the whole eastern 
peninsula. It shares the allegiance of the 
Chinese with the systems of Confucius and 
Lao-tse, claiming perhaps two-thirds of the 
population. It prevails also in Japan, and 
north of the Himalayas. It is the religion 
of Thibet (where it assumes the form of La- 
maism (q. v.), and of the Mongolian popula- 
tion of Central Asia, and extends to the very 
north of Siberia, and even into Swedish Lap- 
land. Its adherents are estimated at from 
three to four hundred millions — more than 
a third of the human race. In describing 
Buddhism as far as our limited space will 
allow, we shall speak — I. Of its Origin and 
History; II. Of its Theology and Philoso- 
phy ; III. Of its Moral Teachings ; and IV. 
Of its Rites and Ceremonies. 

I. Origin and History of Buddhism. — The 
origin of Buddhism is veiled in no little ob- 
scurity. It may be described in general 
terms as a protest against the errors, super- 
stitions, and despotism of Brahmanism (q. 
v.). The religion of Brahmanism, like that 
of Romanism, is one of religious ritual and 
submission to appointed self-sacrifices. It 
is one, accordingly, of a powerful priesthood. 
The religion of Buddhism in its purer form 
teaches that religious excellence consists in 
the wisdom and personal virtue of its adhe- 
rents. In it, accordingly, caste is, or rath- 
er was, originally, absolutely unknown. Its 
founder was, according to the Buddhist 
books, a certain prince, variously entitled 
Siddhartha, Sakya, Sakyamuni, and Gota- 
ma, though generally known by his acquired 
title of Buddha, or Boodha, the Wise or En- 
lightened. History may almost be said to 
have no existence in the East, and it is not 
in the power of modern scholarship to dis- 
criminate between the true and the false in 
the innumerable legends which are told re- 
specting Buddha. Indeed, it is by no means 
certain, though every way probable, that he 
is an historical personage; many of the Bud- 
1 2 Cor. ii., 13 ; Philem. 20. 



BUDDHISM 



142 



BUDDHISM 




Colossal Gotama near Amarapura, Burmah. 

dbists appear to recognize a number of Bud- 
dhas or sages appearing from time to time on 
the earth, of whom the last and hest known 
is Gotama, the Buddha of history. 

Assuming that the Buddha was a real per- 
son, and that there is a basis of fact under 
the mass of extravagant fable with which 
he is surrounded, the history of Buddhism 
may be thus briefly outlined: The Prince 
Gotama gives early indications of a con- 
templative, ascetic disposition, and his fa- 
ther, fearing lest he should take to a relig- 
ious life, has him early married to a charm- 
ing princess, and surrounded with all the 
splendor and dissipation of a luxurious court. 



existence is the cause of all evil, and that 
ignorance is the ultimate cause of exist- 
ence ; and therefore, with the removal of 
ignorance, existence and all its anxieties 
and miseries would be cut off at their 
source. Having arrived at the knowl- 
edge of the causes of misery, and of the 
means by which these causes are to be 
counteracted, the Buddha was now ready 
to lead others on the road to salvation. 
During the forty years that he preached 
his strange gospel, he appears to have 
traversed a great part of Northern India, 
combating the Brahmans, and everywhere 
|) making numerous converts. The Buddha 
wrote nothing himself, but his chief fol- 
lowers assembled in council immediately 
after his death, and proceeded to reduce 
his teaching to writing. These canonical 
writings are divided into three classes. The 
first class consists of the Soidras, or discourses 
of the Buddha ; the second contains the Vi- 
naya, or discipline ; and the third, the Ahhid- 
harma, or metaphysics. The Buddhist relig- 
ion early manifested a zealous missionary 
spirit, and princes, and even princesses, be- 
came devoted propagandists. The Chinese 
annals speak of a Buddhist missionary as 
early as 217 B.C. The doctrine made such 
progress, that in a.d. 65 it was acknowledged 
by the Chinese emperor as a third state re- 
ligion. In the second century before Christ 
it had already passed the Himalayan Mount- 
ains northward. In the fourth century after 




Section of Buddhist Cave-temple at Karti. From "Ferguson's Hand-book of Architecture. 



Twelve years spent in this environment only 
deepens the conviction that all that life can 
offer is vanity and vexation of spirit. He 
therefore resolves to try whether a life of 
austerity will not lead to peace. He escapes 
from the palace and begins the life of a re- 
ligious mendicant, being now about thirty 
years old. He commencea by studying all 
that the Brahmans can teach him, but finds 
their doctrine unsatisfactory. Six years of 
rigorous asceticism are equally vain. But 
no discouragement or opposition can divert 
him from the search after deliverance. He 
will conquer the secret by sheer force of 
thinking. He arrives at the conclusion that 



Christ, the Buddhist monks in Ceylon num- 
bered fifty or sixty thousand. Its extent is 
indicated too by the immense cave-temples, 
not less than nine hundred of which are still 
extant in India, probably the refuge of the 
Buddhists in some period of religious perse- 
cution suff'ered at the hands of the dominant 
Brahmans. 

II. TJie Theology andPhUosojihy of Buddhism. 
— Perhaps we should say philosophy, rather 
than theology, since the Buddhist system 
contains no doctrine of God. God is not 
known. The Buddhist nations, as a class, 
recognize no beings with greater supernatu- 
ral power than man is supposed capable of 



BUDDHISM 



143 



BUDDHISM 



attaining by virtue, austerity, and wisdom. 
Indeed, the Chinese, Mongols, and Thibetans 
have no word in their language answering 
to our word God, though they pay a certain 
divine honor to Buddha himself. Their wor- 
ship may be termed hero-worship. The fu- 
ture condition of the soul, according to their 
philosophy, depends not upon any divine 
judgment, but upon the blind and remorse- 
less operation of general but inflexible laws. 
That future is pictured as one of successive 
transmigrations. When a man dies, he is 
believed to appear immediately in a new 
shape, according to his merit or demerit, 
from a clod to a divinity. If his demerit 
would not be sufficiently punished by a de- 
graded earthly existence, he will be born in 
some one of the 136 Buddhist hells, situated 
in the interior of the earth. A meritorious 
life, on the other hand, secures the next birth 
either in an exalted and happy position on 



versal spirit, Brahm. Buddha, in his sys- 
tem, provides escape in what he calls Nir- 
vana, the exact nature of which has been 
matter of dispute. According to its etymol- 
ogy, the word means ^^ extinction," "blow- 
ing out," as of a candle ; and most Oriental 
scholars are agreed that in the Buddhist phi- 
losophy it is practically equivalent to anni- 
hilation. 

III. The Moral Teachings of Buddhism. — The 
real power of Buddhism as a religion — that 
which gave it such an immense preponder- 
ance in the East — was its ethical teachings. 
To understand its history we must know 
something of the system to which it was op- 
posed. Especially is a study of Brahmanism 
necessary to an understanding of Buddhism. 
Brahmanism rested upon a priesthood whom 
the people were taught to regard as divinely 
inspired and authorized. Buddha acknowl- 
edged no priests, and provided for none. 




Buddhist Idols. 



earth, or as a blessed spirit, or even divinity, 
in one of the many heavens, in which the 
least duration of life is about ten billions of 
years. But however long this future life, 
whether of misery or of bliss, it has an end, 
and at its close the individual must be born 
again, and may again be either happy or 
miserable ; either a god, or, it may be, the 
vilest inanimate object. The true heaven, 
however, is not a happy existence, but anni- 
hilation, or at least, unconscious existence. 
For it is the assumption of Buddhism as of 
Brahmanism, that human existence is a curse 
rather than a blessing. Misery is not a mere 
taint in it, the removal of which would make 
it happy ; misery is its very essence. Death 
is no escape from this inevitable lot, for death 
is only a passage into some other form of ex- 
istence equally doomed. Brahman philoso- 
phers sought escape from this endless cycle 
of unsatisfying changes, by teaching that 
the individual soul was absorbed in the uni- 



Brahmanism made the future of every soul 
dependent upon the will of an infallible 
priestly caste ; Buddha did not leave it de- 
pendent even upon the will of God, but upon 
inflexible laws. Brahmanism inculcated ex- 
ternal austerities and self-inflicted sufferings ; 
Buddha, temperance, justice, honesty, truth, 
and even the duty of forgiveness of insults 
and of injury. Brahmanism inculcated an 
elaborate system of penances ; Buddha taught 
that repentance, confession, and reformation 
are the only conditions of virtue and of hap- 
piness. Brahmanism rested all religion on 
the authority of a divine caste ; Buddha rec- 
ognized no caste, and appealed only to the 
conscience and reason in each individual 
soul. It was this appeal from a corrupt 
church to the moral nature of the individual 
which gave Buddhism its prestige and pow- 
er, and which in its history made it resem- 
ble the similar movement in Europe in the 
sixteenth century. Only the one reforma- 



BUDDHISM 



144 



BULL, BULLOCK 



tion was based on the Bible, and had there- 
fore certain clear, well-deiined, and perma- 
nent principles, and, above all, was based on 
a devout recognition of the true God, while 
the other was based only on the individual 
conscience and reason, and recognized no 
God; and therefore, though it abides as a 
religion, it has long since lost its moral and 
spiritual power, and degenerated into a mean- 
ingless ritual like that which it was origi- 
nally intended to supplant. Which leads us 
to speak of 

IV. The Bites and Cei^emonies of Buddhism. 
— These are of course different in different 
nations, but in general they may be said to 
be very simple, and yet far from spiritual in 
their character ; how far, is perhaps in noth- 
ing more clearly indicated than in the fact 
that the prayer -mill (q. v.) is a Buddhist 
contrivance. There are no priests or cler- 
gy, properly so called, among the Buddhists. 
The Sramanas or Bikshus (mendicants) are 
simply a religious order — a kind of monks, 
who, in order to the more sx3eedy attainment 
of Nirvana, have entered on a course of great- 
er sanctity and austerity than ordinary men ; 
they have no sacraments to administer or 
rites to perform for the people, for every 
Buddhist is his own priest. The only thing 
like a clerical function they discharge, is to 
read the scriptures, or discourses of the 
Buddha, in stated assemblies of the people 
held for that purpose. The adoration of the 
statues of the Buddha and of his relics is 
the chief external ceremony of the religion. 
This, with prayer and the repetition of sa- 
cred formulas, constitutes the ritual. The 
centres of the worship are the temples con- 
taining statues, and the topes or tumuli erect- 
ed over the relics of the Buddha, or on spots 
consecrated as the scenes of the Buddha's 
acts. The central object in a Buddhist tem- 
ple, corresponding to the altar in a Roman 
Catholic church, is an image of the Buddha, 
or a shrine containing his relics. Here flow- 
ers, fruit, and incense are daily offered, and 
processions are made with singing of hymns. 
Of the relics of the Buddha, the most famous 
are the pretended teeth that are preserved 
with intense veneration in various places. 
Still, though an object of adoration, the 
Buddha is not in theory a god, he is the ideal 
of what any man may become; and the 
avowed object of Buddhist worship is to keep 
this ideal vividly in the minds of the be- 
lievers. This veneration of the memory of 
Buddha is, however, not distinguishable 
among the ignorant from worship of him as 
a present god, though in theory the ritual is 
strictly commemorative, like the garlands laid 
on the tomb of a parent by a reverent child. 
The prayers addressed to Buddha are more 
difficult to reconcile witli the belief in his 
having ceased to exist. It is improbable, in- 
deed, that tlie original scheme of Buddliism 
contemplated either the adoration of the 



statues of the Buddha or the offering of 
prayers to. him after his death. These are 
an after growth — accretions upon the simple 
scheme of Gotama — and in a manner forced 
upon it during its struggle with other relig- 
ions. The thoughtful mind will, however, 
recognize in these prayers an evidence of the 
inherent necessity which every soul recog- 
nizes for itself of some supreme object of 
adoration — some god, in fact. If denied a 
deity by its religious teachers, it will invent 
one for itself. In theory, Buddhism is athe- 
ism. In fact, to the common conception of 
the great mass of its worshipers, Buddha is 
a god, and the hero-worship of its temples a 
debasing idolatry. 

Bull (Papal), a brief or mandate of the 
pope, which derives its name from the seal 
(bulla) of lead, or sometimes of gold, attach- 
ed to it. The lead is stamped on one side 
with heads representing Peter and Paul, and 
on the other with the name of the pope by 
whom the bull is issued, and the year of 
his pontificate in which it appears. If the 
bull refers to a matter of justice, the leaden 
seal is suspended by a hempen cord ; but if 
it refers to a matter of grace, by a silken 
thread. The papal bulls form a yevy large 
and important part of ecclesiastical law in 
use in all Romish countries. Many forged 
bulls having been palmed upon the world, 
it was felt to be necessary that a properly 
accredited collection of genuine bulls should 
be prepared. Three such volumes of De- 
cretals, or papal bulls, prepared under Pope 
Gregory IX., a.d. 1234, Pope Boniface VIII., 
A.D. 1298, and Pope Clement V., a.d. 1308, 
are acknowledged as carrying legal author- 
ity in all popish states, and are called by 
canonists Patrice Obedientice. The last of 
these is known by the name of Clementines. 
The papal bulls issued after the Clemen- 
tines are usually known by the name of Ex- 
travagants, probably because, in their earli- 
est state, they were not digested nor ranged 
with the other papal constitutions, though 
at an after period they were inserted into 
the body of the canon law. 

Bull, Bullock. For a general account of 
the bull, ox, and cow, among the Israelites, 
see Cattle. In this article we propose to 
speak briefly of the worship of the bull. It 
has been generally regarded as an emblem 
of creative power, and bull-worship is a 
very prevalent form of idolatry in many 
parts of the world. Among the Persians 
bulls were anciently consecrated to their 
supreme god Ormuzd, and the horns of the 
bull were viewed in Judea and China as an 
emblem of power. The Moloch of the Am- 
monites is represented with a bull's head, so 
is the Cretan Moloch or Minotaur, while the 
Sicilian god Hebon has the body of a bull. 
The sculptures of ancient Nineveh show 
plainly the practice of bull-Avorship among 
the Assyrians, who had probably derived it 



BURIAL 



145 



BURIAL 



from Egypt. In the latter country, the 
three sacred bulls, Ninevis, Ormphis, and 
Apis, were objects of the highest worship. 
Ninevis, who was worshiped at Heliopolis, 
was black, with bristly hair, and symbolized 
the sun. Ormphis was also black, with 
shaggy, recurved hair, and the supposed em- 
blem of the retroceding sun. Apis was of a 
black color, with the exception of a white 
spot, triangular in shape, upon the forehead ; 
and another, in the form of a half-moon, upon 
the right side, was consecrated to the sun 
and moon. Under these names the Egyp- 
tians worshiped the great bull into w^hich 
the soul of Osiris — the deified founder of 
their country and nation — was supposed to 
have transmigrated. From the worship of 
the sacred bull, the Israelites are generally 
supposed to have derived their worship of 
the calf (q. v.). The Greeks and Romans 
also seem to have sanctioned to some ex- 
tent the adoration of Apis. The Gauls wor- 
shiped a brazen bull, and never was Apis 
regarded in ancient Egypt with more vener- 
ation than is now paid to the bull of Shiva 
in Hindoostan. Besides the beautiful living 
animals, there is in most temples a repre- 
sentation of one or more of the race sculp- 
tured in marble or stone. Very much akin to 
this species of idolatry is cow- worship (q. v.). 
Burial. The most ancient manner of dis- 
posing of the dead was by burying them in 
the earth. This, indeed, is so natural that 
some brutes have been observed to bury 
their dead with wonderful care. It is fit 
that the body formed of the dust at first 
should "return to the earth as it was."^ 
Even some heathen have called burial the 
beiug " hid in our mother's lap," and the 
being " covered with her skirt." To leave 
the dead unburied was regarded by the an- 
cients universally as one of the grossest in- 
sults, and was to the Hebrew a most dread- 
ful thought. Throughout the whole of their 
national history, the people of God observed 
the practice of burial. To inter the remains 
of the departed was a special labor of love, 
and an imperative duty of sons to their par- 
ents, devolving next upon relatives and 
friends. By the ancient Greeks and Romans 
it was considered essential even to the peace 
of the departed spirits. In Oriental coun- 
tries the j)eriod between death and burial 
was much shorter than custom sanctions in 
our country. A long delay in the removal 
of a corpse would have been attended with 
much inconvenience, from the heat of the 
climate generally, and among the Jews in 
particular, from the circumstance that every 
one that came near the chamber was un- 
clean for a week. Interment, therefore, was 
never postponed beyond twenty-four hours 
after death, and generally took place much 
earlier. It is still the practice in the East 
to have the burials soon over. 




Different forms of Mummy-cases. 
1, 2, 4, of wood ; 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, of stone ; 9, of wood, and 
early time— before the ISth dynasty; 10, of burned 
earthenware. 

Coffins. — Persons of distinction were car- 
ried to the grave in coffins. Among the Egyp- 
tians, who invented them, these chests were 
most commonly formed of layers of paste- 
board glued together, but were sometimes 
made of stone, or more rarely, in the case 




Gen. iii., 19; Eccles. xii., 7. 
10 



Ancient Babylonian Coffin. 



of the great, of sycamore-wood. But the 
most common method of carrying a corpse to 
the grave was on a bier or bed, which must 
sometimes have been furnished in a costly 
and elegant style, forming in reality a cata- 
falque. The bier, however, in use among 
the common people was but a plain board, 
supported by two poles, on which lay the 
body concealed from view by only a slight 
coverlet. Thus was the widow's son of Nain 
carried,^ and thus, in the present day, among 
the Jews, Mohammedans, and Christians of 
the East, are the dead borne to their last 
resting-place. In the earlier and simpler 
ages, the nearest relatives performed the of- 
fice of bearers, in which they were assisted by 
the company in succession. In later times, 
however, the Jews left this to others. 

Method of Burial. — Funeral processions 
among the ancient Orientals were often on 
a grand scale, more especially when the de- 
1 Luke vii., 11-16. 



BUEIAL 



146 



BUEIAL 




Ancient Egyptian Bier. 

ceased had been of high rank. A striking 
instance of this is the splendid funeral caval- 
cade of Jacob.^ At the funeral of persons of 
inferior rank, the corpse was followed to the 
grave by the friends of the deceased, and by 
mourners hired for the occasion. Among 
many ancient nations it was customary to 
place gold and silver and other precious and 
useful articles in the grave with the dead 
body. In the same spirit that buries with 
the Indian of to-day his tomahawk and bow 
and arrows, and that buried with the North- 
men their bows and quivers, and whatever 
was dear to them in life ; with the same idea 
of provision for a future state which caused 
the Greeks and Romans to put a piece of 
silver into the dead man's mouth, and to 
place upon his coffin his insignia of rank — 
the insignia of distinguished personages of 
ancient Palestine were placed upon their 
coffins — if a warrior, his armor ; if a prince, 
his crown and sceptre ; if a rabbi, his books. 
Among the modern Jews, when the body is 
carried to the place of interment, the coffin, 
which is of rough boards loosely joined to- 
gether, is opened, and some earth, supposed 
to be from Jerusalem, is placed under the 
head in a small bag, or strewed about the 
body as a preservative. When the coffin is 
placed in the ground, each of the relations 
throw some earth upon it. Prayers are re- 
peated for the dead morning and evening, 
and at the close of these prayers the sons of 
the deceased, or his nearest male relatives, re- 
peat the Kodesh — a prayer which is thought 
to have sufficient efficacy to save the deceased 
from hell. The modern Jews believe that the 
final resurrection will take place in Canaan ; 
therefore, one of the greatest objects of am- 
bition with an Israelite is, that he may draw 
his last breath in Palestine, and it is not un- 
usual for those who can to resort thither in 
their old age, and by dying on the sacred 
soil, spare themselves the long journey after 
death which they imagine they would other- 
wise be compelled to take. 

Among the Mohammedans, the burial al- 
ways takes place upon the day of decease. 



1 Gen. 1., 7-9. 



The funeral procession is headed by 
six or more poor men, generally blind, 
who march slowly along, chanting, 
"There is no God but God, and Mo- 
hammed is his prophet." Then fol- 
low in order the male relatives, with 
two or more Dervishes, and a number 
of boys carrying the Koran, and chant- 
ing parts of a poem concerning the 
events of the judgment-day. Imme- 
diately after follows the bier, carried 
head foremost, and behind it walk the 
wailing women, shrieking loudly. In 
the case of the wealthy, the procession 
is sometimes preceded by several cam- 
els carrying provisions, to be distrib- 
uted at the tomb to the poor. The 
body is buried with the face turned toward 
Mecca, and not unfrequently a jug of water is 
left on the top of the grave. It is a part of 
the Moslem's creed that the soul remains with 
the body the first night after burial, and that 
two angels are sent by God to visit and ex- 
amine it, and perhaps, if the examination is 
unsatisfactory, torture the body. Therefore 
they hire a fackee to sit before the tomb 
and perform the office of instructor of the 
dead. He repeats, gently, such sentences as 
the following : "Answer the angels, ' God is 
my Lord in truth ;' " " ' Mohammed is the. 
Apostle of God with veracity.' " At the end 
of the first night after burial, the soul is be- 
lieved to depart either to the place of resi- 
dence of good souls until the last day, or to 
the prison appointed for wicked souls. 

It is the peculiarity of Eastern funerals 
that meditation and plaintive psalmody is 
more abundant than the other services. 
Touching addresses are given as if from the 
dead to his surviving relatives. The custom 
is very prevalent among Christians of the 
Greek Church of putting into the hands of 
the corpse at burial a written form of abso- 
lution, which is understood to be a discharge 
in full from all its sins. Chinese funerals 
are very peculiar. The corpse, inclosed in 
an air-tight coffin, is kej)t for seven weeks 
in the house, and every fourth day of that 
time is devoted to special funeral ceremonies. 
Food is offered the dead body, the essence of 
which it is supposed to eat, and prayers are 
put up for the happiness of the spirit by 
the Buddhist and Ta-oist priests. The Jap- 
anese either burn or bury the corpse, accord- 
ing to the wish expressed previously by the 
deceased. The body is dressed exactly as in 
life, except that the sash is tied not in a bow, 
but strongly fastened with two knots, to in- 
dicate that it is never more to be loosed. 
The body is then covered with a piece of 
linen folded in a peculiar manner, and placed 
on a mat in the middle of the hall, with its 
head toward the north. Food is offered to 
it, and all the family lament. After forty- 
eight hours, the body is placed on its knees 
in a tub-shaped coffin, which is inclosed in a 



BURIAL 



147 



BURIAL 



rectangular box or bier, with a roof-shaped 
top, aud called a quan. This is borne to the 
grave in a procession, with flags, lanterns, 
and the like. Such are a few specimens of 
the funeral ceremonies of modern heathen- 
dom. 

Among the ancient pagans, the Greeks be- 
lieved that a soul could not enter Elysium 
until the body was buried ; and, accordingly, 
any individual who found a dead body ly- 
ing unburied considered it a sacred duty to 
throw earth upon it. The sooner any one 
could make arrangements for burying his 
dead, so much the greater honor was he con- 
sidered as paying them. In some places the 
funeral took place the day after the decease, 
but the most general custom was that decreed 
by the laws of Solon, to bury before sunrise 
on the morning of the third day. Burning 
and burying the dead seem to have prevailed 
alike during the early period of Grecian his- 
tory. If the body was not burned, it was 
placed in a coffin of baked clay or earthen- 
ware, and borne to the place of interment 
without the town. At the close of the funer- 
al ceremony, a feast was held at the house 
of the nearest relative, and on the second 
day a sacrifice was offered to the dead. The 
ancient Romans, though they also burned, 
buried their dead even in the earliest times. 
At one period all funerals took place at 
night, but afterward this custom was fol- 
lowed only in case of the poor. The inter- 
ment usually took place on the eighth day 
after death. In the case of the wealthy, the 
funeral procession was arranged by an indi- 
vidual selected for that purpose. In front 
marched musicians of different kinds, play- 
ing melancholy strains, and behind these 
followed the mourning women, who sang 
the naeuia or funeral hymn of the deceased. 
Sometimes these were followed by buffoons, 
one of whom imitated the actions, and even 
gestures, of the deceased. The sons of the 
deceased walked in the procession with their 
heads veiled, and the daughters with their 
heads uncovered and their hair disheveled. 
It was an ancient practice to carry the body 
through the Forum, where the funeral train 
halted for a time, and, in the case of men of 
note, an oration was pronounced. At the 
close of this public eulogium, the procession 
moved slowly forward to the place of in- 
terment outside the city. It was usual for 
the family to give a feast in honor of the 
dead, sometimes on the day of the funeral, 
and at other times at the end of the nine 
days' mourning. 

At the first introduction of Christianity, 
burning the dead was common throughout 
the Roman Empire, but the early Christians 
protested against this custom, and manifest- 
ed a decided preference for the Jewish hab- 
it of burial. In times of persecution, they 
were wont to bury their dead by night, and 
with the utmost secrecy; but in times of 



peace, as under Constantino and his sons, 
the funerals of Christians took place by 
day, and with no small pomp and ceremo- 
ny. Under Julian the Apostate, burying 
by night was restored by law. Among the 
primitive Christians, the body was borne on 
a bier in solemn procession to the burial- 
place. Besides the relatives, the friends, and 
the clergy, many spectators joined the pro- 
cession, which was sometimes so thronged 
as to occasion serious accidents, and even 
the loss of life. The nearest relations, or 
persons of rank and distinction, bore the 
bier. Even the bishops and clergy often 
officiated in this capacity- The tolling of 
bells at funerals was introduced in the eighth 
and ninth centuries. Previous to that, trump- 
ets and wooden clappers were used. Palms 
and olive-branches were carried in funeral 
processions for the first time in the fourth 
century. This was in imitation of Christ's 
triumphal entry into Jerusalem. The cy- 
press was rejected because it was a symbol 
of mourning. The carrying of burning lamps 
and tapers was earlier and more general. 
This was a festive representation of the tri- 
umph of the deceased over death, and of his 
union with Christ, as in the festival of the 
Lamb in the Apocalypse. The Christians re- 
pudiated, as savoring of idolatry, the crown- 
ing the corpse and the coffin with garlands, 
but it was their custom to strew flowers upon 
the grave. Psalms and hymns were sung while 
the corpse was kept, and while it was borne 
in procession, and around the grave. These 
anthems were altogether of a joyful charac- 
ter. Funeral prayers constituted an appro- 
X^riate part of the burial service, and funer- 
al orations, commemorative of the deceased, 
were delivered. The sacrament of the Lord's 
Supper was administered at funerals, and oft- 
en at the grave itself. By this rite it was 
intimated that the communion of saints was 
still perpetuated between the living and the 
dead. It was also an honorable testimony 
to the faith of the deceased, and to his con- 
sistent Christian life. The Roman Catholic 
usage of offerings and masses and prayers 
for the dead took its rise from this ancient 
usage of the Church. Some time previous 
to the sixth and seventh centuries, it was 
customary to administer the elements to the 
dead by depositing a portion of them in the 
coffin, but this was speedily abolished. It 
was universally customary with Christians 
to deposit the corpse in the grave facing the 
East, and in the same attitude as at the pres- 
ent day. 

Flace of Burial. — In very early times, the 
dead were buried in caves (q. v.). After- 
ward the more humble classes were laid in 
holes dug in the earth, while the wealthy 
were deposited in subterranean recesses, 
crypts, or caverns, either natural or artificial. 
Numerous sepulchres of this kind still re- 
main in Syria, Palestine, and Egypt. Such 



BURIAL 



148 



BURIAL 



are the tombs of the kings and the tombs of 
the judges north of Jerusalem. The entrance 
into these sepulchres was by a descent over 
a number of steps. Many of them consist- 
ed of two, three, and even seven apartments. 
There were niches in the walls wherein the 
dead bodies were deposited. The most re- 
mote chambers were deeper than the others, 
and approached by a flight of descending 
steps. The portals of these tombs were kept 
carefully closed either by stone doors, or by 
flat stones placed against the mouth. These 
doors, and indeed the whole external surface 
of the sepulchre, unless it was otherwise so 
conspicuous as to be readily discovered and 
known, were painted white or whitewashed, 
on the last month of every year, i. e., the 
month Adar. This was done to warn those 



privileged resting-place. For the first three 
centuries of the Christian era, the place of 
burial, according to both Jewish and Roman 
laws, was without the cities, generally in 
vaults or catacombs (q. v.) made before the 
city gates. The early Christians had at first 
no separate burial-places, but laid their dead 
in the public places of interment. It was not 
until the fourth century that an open space 
around the church was selected by the Chris- 
tians as an appropriate place for burial, first 
of the clergy, afterward of the members of 
the church. The practice of consecrating 
burying-grounds was not introduced before 
the sixth century. The dead began to be 
interred within churches so late as the ninth 
century. Among the early Christians, places 
of interment received the name of cemeteries, 




Tombs of the Judges. 



who came up to the Feast of the Passover 
from approaching them, and thus becoming 
contaminated.^ In Egypt there are still 
found the remains of splendid sepulchres, 
which, when we consider their antiquity, 
their costliness, and the consequent notice 
they attracted, account for the expressions 
in Job iii., 14 , xvii., 1. See Pyramids. 

The family tombs of the Jews were gener- 
ally near their houses, and often in their gar- 
dens. Such was the case with the sepulchre 
belonging to .Joseph of Arimathea, in which 
the body of Jesus was laid. There seems to 
have existed at Jerusalem a separate bury- 
ing-place for the Jewish kings, and no great- 
er dishonor could bo shown to any of their 
monarchs than to exclude him from this 



1 This throws light ou Matt, xxiii., 27, and Acts 
xxiii., 3. 



i. e., sleeping-places, not only from the be- 
lief that the dead rest from their earthly toil 
and sorrow, but also as i^ointing out the 
hope of a future resurrection. The church 
did not approve of separate family sepul- 
chres, but preferred that all the brethren 
should rest together in one common burial- 
ground. In the fourth century there sprang 
up the practice of building oratories or chap- 
els, ciiWed Martyria, Propheteia, Apostoloea, over 
the graves of the apostles, prophets, or mar- 
tyrs, and also in the place where were ceme- 
teries. Accordingly, cemetery came to be 
used for the name of a church, just as the 
ground set apart for burial is called church- 
yard, because usually situated in the vicinity 
of a church. 

Monuments. — The primitive monuments 
were mounds of earth, or heaps of stones upon 



BURIAL 



149 



BURIAL 




Painted Vault. 



tlie grave. Tliese are found all over tlie world 
under various names ; as Mjtoivs, cairns, etc. 
Then there are the rough-hewn memorial 
stones of the Northern hordes, called crom- 
lechs. The tumuli, of Etruria, are of conic- 
al form, surrounded by masonry. Eastern 
tombs, being often excavated in the solid 
rock of hill-sides, have usually entrances or 
porticoes sculptured in the solid stone. Beau- 
tiful specimens are found in Lycia, in Asia 
Minor. The Egyptian tombs are profusely 
decorated with frescoes, aftbrding, indeed, 
a picture history of the people who built 
them. The pyramids (q. v.), along with 
other purposes, were probably designed to 
serve as royal monumental tombs. The an- 
cient Greek and Roman monumental tomb 
usually consisted of a building containing 
a small chamber, in which were deposited 
the urns containing the ashes of the dead. 
When this building was erected in honor 
of those bmied elsewhere, or whose bodies 
could not be found, and was therefore empty, 
it was called a cenotaph. A large number 
of the monuments in Westminster Abbey 
and St. Paul's are cenotaphs. When this 
building was of a large size and expensive, 
it was called a mausoleum, from the mag- 
nificent tomb erected at Halicarnassus to 
Mausolus, king of Caria, by his disconsolate 
widow, Artemisia, 353 B.C. Turkish graves 
are usually covered with large, rounded 
stones, and have at the end tall stones 
which taper downward. The inner surfaces 
of the grave-stones are covered with inscrip- 
tions in high relief, and brightly painted 
and gilded. The Anglo-Saxon tombs were 
very costly and magnificent. After the con- 
quest, the practice of placing stone coffin- 
lids, with or without effigies, under low 
arches, was introduced into England. In 



the thirteenth century the flat grave-stone, 
on a level with the floor, was employed. 
Later, tombstones were raised above the 
ground, and effigies, either in marble or 
metal, frequently stretched upon altar-tombs. 
These were succeeded by erect tombstones, 
having upon them inscriptions containing 
the name, age, and excellencies of the de- 
ceased. The custom of tombstone inscrip- 
tions, or epitaphs, was borrowed by the early 
Christians from the Romans and Grecians. 
They simplified them, however, and told the 
Christian knowledge, life, and rank of the 
deceased, partly by significant symbols, part- 
ly by written signs and expressions. These 
symbols, as they are found in Italy, France, 
and the countries on the Rhine, consist some- 
times of symbols of the Redeemer, sometimes 
of references to the life to come, and. the 
Christian's hope of the same through Christ. 
Very naturally the name of Christ is every- 
where the most prominent, in an endless va- 
riety of forms, and the actions of his life are 
figured in every degree of rudeness of execu- 
tion. But it is remarkable that in perhaps the 
largest collection of Christian inscriptions, 
a collection selected and arranged ^^nder the 
superintendence of the Pope, there are no 
prayers for the dead, no addresses to the 
Virgin Mary, nor to the apostles or earli- 
er saints, and, with the exception of such 
phrases as " eternal sleep," " eternal home," 
no expressions contrary to the plain sense 
of Scripture. There is no suppression of the 
distinguishing feature of the Christian relig- 
ion, as professed by the evangelical sects. 
The good shepherd, bearing on his shoulders 
the recovered sheep, the emblem by which 
many an illiterate believer expressed his 
sense of personal salvation, appears on stones 
innumerable. But most frequently the sim- 



BUENT-OFFERING 



150 



CABALA 



plest form of tlie cross is used to testify to 
the faitli of tlie deceased. Other Christian 
emblems used in inscriptions were the fish, 
(q. v.), fishermen, anchors, ships, doves, olive- 
branches, pitchers, axes, the seven -armed 
candlestick, the lamb, and the balances. 
The peacock is said to have been nsed as an 
emblem of immortality, an idea borrowed 
from the pagans, and the phcenix was adopt- 
ed for the same purpose. From paganism 
also are borrowed the supposed emblems of 
martyrdom, such as a figure praying, a 
crown and palm branch, and the like. 
Sometimes, to designate the death of mar- 
tyrs, there occur vessels of blood, and the 
instruments of death. These early inscrip- 
tions were made upon small j)lain marble 
slabs, which were laid upon the grave or 
put into the coffin. See Funeral Rites; 
Mourning. 

Bumt-oflFering. The name is applied to 
the ofiering which was burned on the altar, 
because it ascended in flame to the Lord. 
The burnt-offering is sometimes called a liol- 
ocaust, from the circumstance that the vic- 
tims were wholly consumed. It differed 
from the trespass and sin offerings, in that 
they were for special sins, which, unatoned 
for, excluded the transgressor from cove- 
nant blessings. But, when the conscience 
was thus purged, then God's servant might 
approach him on the general ground of his 
promise, seeking in such an offering as this 
the large remission, not of this or that speci- 
fied offense, but of all his short-comings, and 
imperfections, and sins. The burnt-offering 
had a peculiarly comprehensive character 
for those who had been brought within the 
bonds of the covenant. It was, therefore, 
the offering of the ancient patriarchs, and 
appears to be the only sacrifice referred to 
throughout the book of Genesis. After- 



ward it became one of the regular classes 
of sacrifice under the Mosaic Law, and its 
ceremonies are given in detail in Lev. i., vi., 
8-13. The entire consuming betokened the 
unlimited self-dedication of the offerer to 
God ; and, as this would express itself in 
the fruits of a holy life and conversation, 
the burnt-offering was accompanied by a 
meat and drink offering. There were, as 
public burnt-offerings — 1st. The daily hurnt- 
offering ; 2d. The Sabhath hurnt-offering ; 3d. 
I The offering at the neiv moon, at the tliree 
1 great festivals, the great Day of Atonement, and 
! the Feast of Trumpets.^ Private burnt-offer- 
I ings were appointed upon certain occasions, 
! but free-will burnt-offerings were offered and 
accepted by God on any solemn occasions. 
] See Sacrifice ; Offerings. [Exod. xxix., 
15-18; Lev. viii., 18,- ix., 12; xii., 6, 8; xiv., 
19 ; XV., 30 ; Numb, vi., vii ; 1 Kings viii., 64.] 
Butter. The word so rendered in our ver- 
sion very frequently means curds, curdled or 
sour milk, or lebben, which has in this state 
an inebriating power.'^ In some places it is 
put for milk in general.^ Butter, indeed, as 
I we understand and use it, is not known in 
, Syria ; it would soon become rancid and unfit 
I for food. But there is a kind of butter known 
I in that country, the churning of which is 
I thus described by Dr. Thomson :* A bottle is 
I made by stripping off entire the skin of a 
j young buffalo. "This is filled with milk, 
] kneaded, wrung, and shaken, till, such as it 
! is, the butter comes. This butter is then 
I taken out, boiled, or melted, and put into 
j bottles made of goats' skins. In winter it 
1 resembles candied honey ; in summer it is 
I mere oil. Probably it is this substance, and 
this mode of churning, that is alluded to 
i in Prov. :xxx., 33 : '' Surely the churning of 
I milk briugeth forth butter, and the wring- 
' ing of the nose bringeth forth blood." 



C. 



Cabala {the received). The Jewish rabbis 
assert that during the forty days which 
Moses spent with God in the mount, Jehovah 
gave him, in addition to the written, a ver- 
bal revelation, in which he promulgated some 
additional doctrines, as that of a future life, 
and some additional duties, as that of prayer 
At the same time he afforded an authorita- 
tive interpretation of all the precepts of 
the written law. This additional revelation 
has been, they say, subsequently handed 
down from father to son. It constitutes the 
traditions of the elders which Christ so 
pointedly condemned.^ Out of it grew, in 
the Middle Ages, a mystical system of in- 
terpretation, according to which every sen- 
tence, word, and letter of the inspired vol- 
ume was supposed to possess a figurative 



1 See Phaeisees ; Talmxtd. 



meaning. This inner or mystical interpreta- 
tion of the law, as well as the oral traditions 
appended to it, or rather the system of theol- 
ogy or philosophy to which, combined, they 
gave rise, is called the Cabala. The caba- 
listic system of interpretation is of three 
kinds : the Gematria, the Notaricon, and the 
Themura. The Gematria consists in taking 
letters as figures, and explaining words by the 
arithmetical value of the letters of which 
they are composed. For instance, the He- 
brew letters of Jabo-ScMoli {SMloli shall 
come) make up the same arithmetical num- 
ber as Messiach (the Messiah) ; from whence 
they conclude that Shiloh signifies the Mes- 



1 Exod. xxix., 38-42 ; Numb, xviii., 3-8 ; xxviii., 9; 
xxix., 39.-2 Gen. xviii., 8 ; Jnd<?. v., 25; 2 Sam. xvii., 
29 ; Isa. vii., 22.-3 Dent, xxxii., 14 ; Job xx., 17 ; xxix., 
6; Psa. Iv., 21 * "Laud aud Book," vol. i., p. 393. 



CABUL 



151 



C^SAEEA PHILIPPI 



siah. The Notaricon consists in taking eacli 
particular letter of a word for an entire dic- 
tion. For example, of Bereschith, which is 
the first word of Genesis, composed of the 
letters BRASCHJT, they make Bara 
— Rakia — Arex — Sch amain — Jam — Teho- 
moth, L e., " He created the firmament, the 
earth, the heavens, the sea, and the deep." 
Sometimes this process is reversed, and one 
word is formed out of the initial letters of 
many : thus, they take the sentence Atah — 
Gibbor — Leholam — ^Adonai (Thou art strong 
forever, O Lord), and, putting the initial let- 
ters together, form the word Agla, which sig- 
nifies either " I will reveal," or, " A drop of 
dew," and is the cabalistic name of God. 
The Thenrtiura consists in changing and trans- 
posing the letters of a word. Thus of the 
word BerescMth (the first of the book of Gen- 
esis) they make A-hetisri, the first of the 
month Tisri, and infer from thence that the 
world was created on the first day of the 
month Tisri, which answers very nearly to 
our September, Certain visionaries among 
the Jews believe that Christ wrought his 
miracles by virtue of the mysteries of the 
Cabala. Some learned men are of opinion 
that Pythagoras and Plato learned the cab- 
alistic art of the Jews in Egypt 5 others, on 
the contrary, say the philosophy of Pythag- 
oras and Plato furnished the Jews with the 
Cabala. 

Cabul (boundary), 1. a place on the border 
of the tribe of Asher,^ now existing in the 
modern town of Kabtll, eight or nine miles 
east of Acre. 

2. A district comprising twenty cities in 
the north of Palestine, presented by Solomon 
to Hiram, king of Tyre.'* The appellation, 
" land of Cabul," given by Hiram, evidently 
was intended to express contempt. 

Caesar. The appellation of a noble Ro- 
man family, the most distinguished of whom, 
Caius Julius CsBsar, obtained supreme power 
as dictator. This power was consolidated 
by his grand-nephew, Caius Octavius (who 
assumed the name or title of Augustus), and 
transmitted it to successors at first of his 
own family. By Caesar in the N. T is al- 
ways understood the Roman emperor as the 
actual sovereign of the country. To him 
tribute was paid ; to him Roman citizens had 
the right of appeal. So far as the historical 
part of the N. T. reaches, the events fall with- 
in the reigns of Augustus, Tiberius, Caligu- 
la, Claudius, and Nero. Caligula is not men- 
tioned at all in Scripture. [Luke ii., 1 ; iii., 
1 ; John xix., 15 ; Acts xi., 28 ; xxv., 11 ; Phil. 
iv.,22.] 

Caesarea, a celebrated city of Palestine 
lying on the Mediterranean sea-coast, on the 
great road from Tyre to Egypt, about sev- 
enty miles north - west of Jerusalem. It is 
usually said that it was first inhabited under 



1 Josh, xix., 27.-2 1 Kings ix., 13. 



however, finding most extensive quarryings 
of the limestone-rock in the neighborhood, 
is persuaded that there must have been an 
important town here at a much earlier date, 
a frontier town probably of the Phcenicians. 
But if so, all memorial of it has perished. 
CsBsarea was built in ten years by Herod the 
Great, who named it in honor of the Emper- 
or Augustus ; it was sometimes called Ca3sa- 
rea Stratonis, or Csesarea Palestinge, to dis- 
tinguish it from Csesarea Philippi. Josephus 
describes it as a magnificent city, and speaks 
of an artificial harbor formed by a noble 
pier or breakwater, with convenient landing 
wharves. But Dr. Thomson is convinced 
that the historian has greatly exaggerated, 
and says that the whole extent of the harbor 
can now be traced, and that such a pier as 
Josephus speaks of was simply impossible 
for want of room. There can, however, be 
no doubt that CaBsarea was large and popu- 
lous, and many of its buildings imposing. 
There ^was a temple, conspicuous from the 
sea, dedicated to Caesar and to Rome, an am- 
phitheatre, and a theatre ; the latter the scene 
of Herod Agrippa's fatal stroke.^ This city 
was the official residence of the kings of 
the Herodian family, and the Roman metrop- 
olis of Judea, where the procurators gener- 
ally lived. It was the military head-quar- 
ters, and was made a Roman colony by Ves- 
pasian, who was first proclaimed emperor 
here. He gave it the jus Italicum, Italian 
privileges. Caesarea is frequently mentioned 
in the apostolic history. Here the door of 
the Gospel was first opened to a Gentile ,• an 
outbreak between the Jews and Greeks here 
was one of the first events in the last Jewish 
war ; here was the scene of Origen's labors ; 
so that it must ever be regarded as a place of 
the highest interest. The site is still called 
Kaisariyeli. [Acts viii., 40 ; ix., 30 ; x., 1, 24 ; 
xi., 11 ; xii., 19 ,• xviii., 22 ; xxi., 8, 16 ; xxiii., 
-23, 33; xxv., 1, 4, 6,13.] 

Caesarea Philippi. About four miles east 
of Dan are still found in the little village of 
Banias the ruins of Caesarea Philippi, which 
took its double name from Philip the Te- 
trarch, who made it the site of his villas and 
palaces, and Augustus Caesar, the great pa- 
tron of the Herodian family, to whom the 
great temple here erected by Herod was ded- 
icated. Though not properly a city of the 
Holy Land, it is intimately connected with 
Jewish history. It is probably the Baal-gad 
under Mount Hermon, which marked the 
northern boundary of Joshua's conquest.^ 
High on the rocky slopes above the town 
still lingers the name of Hazor, in the earli- 
est times the capital of Northern Palestine.' 
Hard by is the castle, famous in the days of 
the crusades as the residence of the chief 
of the Assassins (q. v.), the Old Man of the 
Mountain. Underneath the high red lime- 
stone cliff which overhangs the town burst 
1 Acts xii., 20-23.— 2 Josh, xi., IT.— 3 Josh, xi., 10. 



CAIAPHAS 



152 



CALENDAR 



forth in rivulets, which are just below woven 
together into a single stream, the higher 
source of the Jordan. Here was the sanctu- 
ary of the god Pan, which gave to the town 
its ancient name of Paneas. Hither it was 
that Christ retreated from the Sea of Galilee 
when his sermon at Capernaum produced so 
wide a disaffection that " many of his disci- 
ples went back and walked no more with 
him;" and he "could no more walk in Ju- 
dea because the Jiews sought to kill him ;" 
and even in the coasts of Tyre and Sidon 
could find no rest, because " he could not be 
hid." In this region, possibly in this very 
city, he gave to the Twelve that instruction 
concerning the Church contained in the six- 
teenth to the eighteenth chapters of Mat- 
thew, which marks the transition p^iod be- 
tween his ministry in Galilee and that in 
Judea. And not far from here he commend- 
ed Peter's faith in his famous declaration, 
" upon this rock I will build my church."^ 

Caiaphas {depression). Joseph Caiaphas, 
son-in-law of Annas (q. v.), was appointed 
high-priest by the Roman procurator about 
27 A.D. He held the office during the whole 
administration of Pilate, being deposed 36 or 
37 A.D. Under the Roman Government the 
high-priesthood, originally an office for life, 
was filled by creatures of the Roman court, 
who were appointed or removed at the pleas- 
ure of the Roman governor. In one hundred 
and seven years there were twenty-seven ap- 
pointees. It was perhaps with reference to 
this degeneracy of the office that John de- 
scribes Caiaphas, with delicate sarcasm, as 
high-priest for that year.^ It was Caiaphas 
who counseled the arrest and execution of 
Jesus, and who subsequently presided at his 
trial ; and it was before him that Peter and 
John were carried after the miracle of heal- 
ing at the beautiful gate of the Temple. Of 
his history subsequent to his deposition noth- 
ing is known. At the time of Christ the 
priesthood was generally filled by Sadducees, 
who alone affiliated with the Romans, and 
both Annas and Caiaphas appear to have be- 
longed to this sect, the unbelievers of Pales- 
tine. Both are spoken of as high-priests,^ a 
fact which has given rise to some perplexity. 
The probable explanation is, that while Cai- 
aphas held the office he was really controlled 
by his father-in-law, who had formerly been 
high-priest and seems to have retained the 
title and, in some measure, the power of that 
office, which was held in succession by five 
of his sons. See Annas. [Matt, xxvi., 3, 57 ; 
John xi., 49 ; xviii., 19, 28 ; Acts iv., 6.] 

Cain (possession). The story of Cain's 
murder of his brother Abel, narrated in Gen. 
iv., is given partlj^, perliaps, for the purpose 
of showing the evil effects of sin, and the 
rapidity with which the race degenerated 
after the fall. Of his life and character 



1 Matt, xvi., 18.— 2 John xviii. 
John xviii., 13. 



13.— 3 Luke iii., 2 ; 



nothing more is known than is narrated in 
this passage, and there is nothing except 
some passages in the N. T. to indicate the 
difference between his sacrifice and that of 
his brother. ^ There is some difficulty in de- 
termining what was the " mark set upon 
Cain," but nothing more is necessarily im- 
plied in the original than a miraculous to- 
ken vouchsafed to him, in attestation of Je- 
hovah's promise that no man should kill 
him. See Abel ,• Adam. 

Calah (old age), one of the most ancient 
cities of Assyria, founded by Nimrod. From 
various inscriptions which have been found, 
it appears that Calah lay on the east of the 
Tigris ; it has by some been identified with 
the present Mmroud, by others with Kalah 
Sherghat, on the Tigris, about fifty miles be- 
low its junction with the Zab. [Gen. x., 11.] 

Calamus is believed to be the root of a 
species of reed or flag, and is the same sub- 
stance as that called sweet -cane by the 
prophets Isaiah and Jeremiah,'^ These ref- 
erences indicate that it was not a native of 
Palestine. It was one of the ingredients of 
the holy anointing oil, and is described as 
one of the articles of Tyrian commerce. It 
appears to have been cultivated in the royal 
gardens of Solomon, and the same, or a sim- 
ilar cane, has been found in one of the val- 
leys of the Lebanon. The plant is a jointed 
reed, hollow, except for the sponge-like pith 
common to the canes, and which in this kind 
is very fragrant. The same is the case with 
the root, from which it is supposed was pre- 
pared the drug, or whatever else it might be, 
which was used in incense. [Exod. xxx.^ 23 ; 
Sol. Song iv., 14 ; Ezek. xxvii., 19.] 

Caleb, the son of Jephunneh, brother of 
Kenaz, and a descendant of Judah. AVith 
one man from each of the other tribes, he 
was sent to search out the j)romised land 
when Israel first arrived upon its borders, 
shortly after leaving Mount Sinai. Of all 
the twelve, Caleb and Joshua were the only 
ones who had faith to believe that the Lord 
would enable them to drive out the giants 
which possessed the land, and they alone of 
all the grown men of Israel were permitted 
to enter Canaan. He was one of the princes 
appointed to divide the conquered territory 
among the tribes. Hebron was given to him, 
as a reward for his fidelity. At the age of 
eighty-five he drove out the three sons of 
Anak from his inheritance, which was sub- 
sequently called by his name. He gave his 
daughter Aclisah to Othniel, as a reward for 
his valor in the capture of Debir. It is prob- 
able that Caleb was a foreigner by birth — 
a proselyte incorporated into the tribe of Ju- 
dah. [Numb, xiii., 14 ; xiv., 6-24, 38 ,• xxvi., 
65 ; xxxiv., 19 ; Deut. i., 36 ; Josh. xiv. ; xv., 
13-19 ; xxi., 12 ; 1 Sam., xxx., 14.] 

Calendar, the mode of adjusting the di- 



24 



Heh. xi., 4; 
Jer. vi., 20. 



1 John iii., 12: Jude 11. — ^ iga, xliii. 



CALF 



153 



CALIPH 



visions of tlie civil year to the 
solar year. In Egypt this was 
done by 365 days divided into 
twelvemonths of 30 days each, 
with five supplementary days 
at the end of the year. The 
Jewish year consisted of 
twelve lunar months, a thir- 
teenth being from time to 
time introduced, to accom- 
modate it to the sun and the 
seasons. The Julian Calen- 
dar, which derived its name 
from its inventor, Julius Cse- 
sar, provided for 365 days, 
with a leap-year of 366 days 

every fourth year. . It assumes the real | calf with a graving-tool after he had made it 
length of the year to be 365^ days, while ' a molten calf; i. e., perhaps, he gave to it the 
it is in reality eleven minutes and ten sec- 1 marks of the Egyptian Apis. And when the 
onds less. The difference is so slight that people worshiped it they "offered burnt-of- 
for some time it was scarcely noticed, but ferings, and brought peace-offerings, * * and 




1. Bronze Figure Apis ; 2. The Marks on his Back. 



at length, in the sixteenth century, the sur- 
plus had amounted to ten comj^lete days. 
To remedy the confusion which ensued. Pope 
Gregory XIII. ordained that ten days be 
deducted from the year 1582, by calling 
what would have been the 5th of October 
the 15th; and to avoid future confusion, 
further ordained that every one hundredth 
year should not be counted as a leap-year 
except the four hundredth, beginning with 
2000. In this way the difference between 
the civil and the natural year will not 
amount to a day in 5000 years. Despite 
considerable opposition, chiefly from Prot- 
estant countries, the Gregorian Calendar has 
been now almost universally adopted, ex- 
cept in Russia. In literature, the difference 
between the dates of the Julian and the Gre- 
gorian Calendar is indicated by the words 
Old Style and New Style. The word calendar 
is used in ecclesiastical usage to designate 
the catalogues in which different churches 
preserve the names of the saints and mar- 
tyrs, and from this circumstance, probably, 
came to be used to designate the catalogue 
of the holy days of the Church. See Months. 
Calf. For the term thus rendered in the 
Scriptures, see the article Cattle. The wor- 
ship of this animal by the Israelites in the 
wilderness is generally supposed to have 
been derived from the worship of the sacred 
bull in Egypt. The gold from which the 
calf was made by Aaron was obtained from 
the Israelites in the form of ear-rings, and, 
in reference to this, the observation of Wil- 
kinson is valuable : " The golden ornaments 
found in Egypt consist of rings, bracelets, 
armlets, necklaces, ear-rings, and numerous 
trinkets belonging to the toilet; many of 
these are of the times of Osirtasen I. and 
Thothmes III., contemporaries of Joseph and 
Moses." Rings of gold were so common in 
Egypt that they took, to a certain extent, 
the place of coin, and were used many times 
in trade. Aaron, we are told, fashioned the 



sat down to eat and to drink, and rose up to 
play." This was precisely what took place in 
Egypt on the appearance of the sacred bull ; 
sacrifices were offered in its honor, a feast 
was celebrated, and mirth and revelry pre- 
vailed throughout the land. Following the 
same practice. King Jeroboam, at a much 
later period, constructed golden calves, and 
proclaimed a feast of rejoicing in honor of the 
new gods. It may be observed, besides, that 
Jeroboam did not set up his calves in She- 
chem, the capital of his kingdom; but as 
the Egyptians worshiped one bull at Mem- 
phis, and another at Heliopolis, so he set the 
one calf-god in Bethel, and the other in Dan. 
at the two extremities of his kingdom. Nor 
is it to be forgotten that he came out of 
Egypt to assume the sceptre, having fled 
thither for his life, from the threatening of 
Solomon. Throughout the whole of the sa- 
cred Scriptures this species of idolatry is spo- 
ken of in terms of reproach. The idol-calves 
are termed devils in 2 Chron. xi., 15; and 
Hosea, on account of this idolatrous worship, 
calls Beth-el, which means the house of God, 
by the name of Beth-aven,^ that is, the house 
of vanity or wickedness. 

The passing between the divided parts 
of a calf ^ has reference to an ancient mode 
of ratifying a covenant (q. v.). Again, the 
" calves of lips " is a symbolical expression, 
indicating a sacrifice (as animals are sacri- 
ficed) of praise.^ 

Caliph or Khaliff {successor). The title 
of Mohammed's successors in temporal and 
spiritual power. Thence the historians of 
the Middle Ages designated the Arab Em- 
pire founded hj these princes the Caliphate. 
This empire for two or three centuries ex- 
ceeded even the Roman Empire in extent. 
But by the beginning of the ninth century it 
had suffered nnich from corruption and in- 
ternal disorganization, and in 970 there were 



1 Hos. X., 5, 8.-2 Gen. xv., 9-18.- 
xiii., 15. 



-3 Hos. xi v., 2; Hel). 



CALL, CALLING 



154 



CALVINISTS 



three caliphates — one at Bagdad, one at Cai- 
ro, and one at Cordova. In the eleventh 
century the caliphs of Bagdad were still ac- 
knowledged as the spiritual chiefs of the 
Moslems ; but their temporal power scarcely 
extended beyond the wall s of Bagdad. When 
that city was taken by the Tartars, and the 
Caliphate destroyed (1258), the Mohammed- 
an princes appointed, each in his own do- 
minions, a special officer to discharge the 
spiritual functions of the caliph. The name 
of this officer in Turkey is Mufti, and in Per- 
sia he is called Sadue, being both of them of- 
ficers vested with high spiritual authority. 

Call, Calling. In the Scriptures these 
terms are used, not only to indicate the 
naming of an individual, or the appealing to 
him, but also the appointment or qualifica- 
tion of a person for some work or service.^ 
Hence it has come to have a similar spiritual 
significance, and is used both in the Scrip- 
tures and in theology to indicate the invita- 
tion extended to all men, through the Gospel, 
to repent and accept of Christ, and that more 
special invitation which comes at times by 
the direct influence of the Holy Spirit upon 
the heart,^ and also to indicate the appoint- 
ment to the special work of the ministry. 

Calneli {fort of Anah, a heathen god), one 
of the cities which constituted Nimrod's first 
seat of empire.^ The site is supposed to be 
the same with the modern Niffer. In the 
eighth century B.C. it was taken by one of 
the Assyrian kings, and never recovered its 
prosperity. * It is also called Calno,^ and is 
by some scholars identified with Canneh, of 
which nothing is known except the refer- 
ence to it in Ezekiel xxvii., 23; but as Cal 
neh apx)ears to have been destroyed before 
the time of Ezekiel, this conjecture is im- 
probable. 

Caloyers, a general name for the monks 
of the Greek Church. The name is a corrup 
tion of two Greek words, and signifies " good 
old men." They follow the order of St. Basil, 
and are divided into three ranks. Bishops 
and patriarchs are chosen from among them, 
because they are generally members of the 
most distinguished families of the upper and 
middle classes. They also furnish the only 
learned theologians in Greece at the present 
day. Their monasteries are verj^ numerous. 
The most celebrated in Asia is that of Mount 
Sinai, founded by the Emperor Justinian, and 
endowed with a revenue of 60,000 crowns. 
The Caloyers are obliged to labor for the 
benefit of their monastery as long as they 
continue in it, and their religious services 
occupy an unnaturally large portion of their 
time, beginning at midnight, and continuing 
at intervals until sunset. There are also fe- 
male Caloyers, or Greek nuns, who likewise 
follow the rule of St. Basil. 

Calvary This word occurs but once in 

1 Exod. xxxi., 2.-2 Matt, xxii., 14; Rom. viii., 30; 
Heb. ix., 15.— 3 Gen. x., 10.— ■» Amos vi., 2.-6 Isa. x., 9. 



the Bible. ^ It is there used to indicate the 
place of our Lord's execution. It is a Latin 
form of the same word elsewhere rendered in 
the Hebrew form Golgotha. Both mean skull. 
Some suppose it to be derived from the fact 
that it was the common place of execution, 
and that the skulls of those who were exe- 
cuted lay about. Others suppose that it de- 
rived its name from having been a bare, 
rounded knoll, in form like a skull ; and it 
is this opinion, perhaps, which has given rise 
to the almost universal impression, otherwise 
unsupported, that it was a hill. There is, 
however, no Scripture authority for calling 
it Mount Calvary. The site is unknown. It 
was without the citj^ walls, for Jewish law 
forbade any execution within them ; proba- 
bly near a public lughway near the city, 
and in the immediate vicinity of one of the 
gardens which surrounded Jerusalem.^ From 
being spoken of as '' the place which is called 
Calvary," it would appear to have been a 
well-known spot, and this lends confirma- 
tion to the hypothesis that it was the cus- 
tomary place of execution. This is all that 
is known with certainty respecting the most 
sacred spot upon the globe. Tradition fixes 
the site at a point on the north-western sec- 
tion of the modern city ; but recent research- 
es confirm the opinion entertained by many 
of the best scholars that this site, now oc- 
cupied by the church of the Holy Sepul- 
chre, was within the city walls, in which- 
case, of course, it could not have been Cal- 
vary. Mr. Ferguson supposes, on the other 
hand, that the execution took place upon 
the site now occupied by the Dome of the 
Rock, not far from the ancient Temple — an 
opinion which is not entertained, however, 
by any considerable number of scholars, and 
which recent explorations seem to negative. 
At present we think it safe to say that it 
is impossible to fix on the location with any 
accuracy or confidence ; but it is not impos- 
sible that if the explorations of Jerusalem 
conducted under the Palestine Exploration 
Fund are pushed to their, consummation, 
they may afford some new light upon this 
long-disputed question. See Jerusalem. 

Calviiiists, a name given to those who 
accept, in the main, the theological views of 
John Calvin as substantially in accordance 
with the teachings of the N. T. 

John Calvin was born at Noyon, in Picar- 
dy, France, July 10th, 1509. His father des- 
tined him for the Eoman Catholic Church, 
and his character predestined him both to 
ascetic practices and to severe study. He 
shrank from all the vices of his fellow-stu- 
dents, and by his rigor acquired among them 
the title of " the accusative." His progress 
was so raiiid, that his father determined that 
he should seek preferment by a surer road, 
the law. His consequent legal studies gave 



1 Luke xxiii., 33.-2 Matt, xxvii., CO; Mark xv., 29; 
John xix., IT, 20, 41 ; Heb. xiii., 12. 



CALVINISTS 



155 



CALVINISTS 



a logical training to a mind logical by na- 
ture. His mental disposition, and his com- 
bined theological and legal education, to- 
gether with his intense conscientiousness, 
gave a peculiar tone to his character, and 
afford the key to his logical but severe sys- 
tem of theology. His conscientiousness led 
him, on becoming acquainted with the Re- 
formed faith, to accept it with his whole 
heart, and to devote himself, with character- 
istic energy, first to its study, then to its or- 
ganization and propagation. France became 
unsafe for him. He lied to Switzerland, and 
taking up his abode in Geneva, made that 
his subsequent home, except for three years, 
(a.d. 1538-'41), when he was exiled from the 
city of his adoption by his theological and po- 
litical foes. From the latter date to his death, 
A.D. 1564, he remained at Geneva, where most 
of his theological works were composed. 
While he was severe and rigorous in his in- 
tellectual and his theological character, he 
was unselfish in his life, maintaining the 
greatest simplicity in dress and manners ; 
and he was liberal and humane in sentiment. 
He maintained friendly relations with Socini- 
ans, whose theology he strongly opposed, and 
reluctantly consented to the execution of 
Servetus, whose death the spirit of that age 
demanded as strenuously as the spirit of the 
present age condemns it. Of all Calvin's nu- 
merous works, his " Institutes," composed in 
his youth before leaving France, contains the 
fullest exj)osition of his theological views. 
A large proportion of this work is devoted to 
stating and defining those doctrines which 
are common to all Protestant Christians. 
The views which were peculiar to John Cal- 
viu, except as he borrowed them from Au- 
gustine, and which constitute the peculiar 
features of Calvinism, may be briefly indi- 
cated as follows : 

1. Original Sin. — Man was originally cre- 
ated pure and holy, but, in Adam's sin, fell 
from his first estate. In consequence, there 
appears " an hereditary depravity and cor- 
ruption of our nature, diffused through all 
the parts of the soul, rendering us obnoxious 
to the divine wrath." "This liableness to 
punishment arises not from the delinquency 
of Adam;" we are not "undeservedly loaded 
with the guilt of his sin," but " derive from 
him not only the punishment, but also the 
pollution to which the punishment is justly 
due." Hence, "infants themselves, as they 
bring their condemnation into the world 
with them, are rendered obnoxious to pun- 
ishment by their own sinfulness, not by the 
sinfulness of another." "Their whole na- 
ture is, as it were, a seed of sin, and there- 
fore can not but be odious and abominable 
to God." 

2. Free-Will. — By the fall, man lost the 
divine prerogative of freedom, and "in his 
present state is despoiled of freedom of will 
and subject to a miserable slavery." He is 



now "not possessed of free-will for good 
works unless he be assisted by grace, and 
that special grace, which is bestowed on the 
elect alone in regeneration." It is true, " he 
does evil voluntarily and not by constraint ;" 
but it is not true that "he has the sover- 
eignty over his own mind and will, and is 
able by his innate power to incline himself, 
to whatever he pleases." 

3. Ch'ace. — Whatever good is wrought in 
man, is wrought wholly by the omnipotent 
power of God through Jesus Christ. " The 
Lord both begins and completes the good 
work in us." It is " owing to him that the 
will conceives a love for what is right, that 
it is inclined to desire it, and is excited and 
impelled to endeavor to attain it." " And he 
moves the will, not according to the system 
maintained and believed for many ages, in 
such a manner that it would afterward be 
at our option either to obey the impulse or 
resist it, but by an efficacious influence." It 
is not true that "whom God draws, he draws 
willingly ;" but he gives us " both will and 
power." 

4. Predestination is " the eternal decree of 
God, by which he has determined in him- 
self what he would have become of every 
individual of mankind." " Eternal life is 
fore-ordained for some, and eternal damna- 
tion for others." "By an eternal and im- 
mutable counsel," certain individuals have 
been admitted to salvation "purely on his 
gratuitous mercy, totally irrespective of hu- 
man merit," while to others " the gate of 
life is closed by a just and irreprehensible 
but incomprehensible judgment." The va- 
lidity of election does not depend on man's 
consent. The reprobation of the wicked is 
indeed "justly imputed to the wickedness 
and depravity of their hearts," but "they 
are abandoned to this depravity because they 
have been raised up by a just but inscruta- 
ble judgment of God to display his glory in 
their condemnation." 

5. Perseverance. — The doctrine of the per- 
severance of the saints, i. e., that all the elect 
will certainly be finally saved, follows of 
course. The opposite opinion " arose from 
the supposition that it was at our own op- 
tion to reject or accept the offered grace of 
God. This notion being exploded, the other 
falls of course." 

Such are the peculiar tenets of Calvin as 
we gather them from his " Institutes," stat- 
ing them, as nearly as may be, in his own 
words. It should be remembered, however, 
that though they are the peculiar, they are 
by no means the most important articles of 
his faith. But the others, being held by 
other Protestants who reject these peculiar 
views, it is these alone which have received 
the name of their distinguished advocate. 

Undoubtedly the central doctrine in John 
Calvin's system is the idea of divine sov- 
ereignty. Every thing takes place accord- 



CALVINISTS 



156 



CAMEL 



ing to the divine Avill. The motives and 
reasons of God's choice are hidden from us ; 
none the less it is his choice which determines 
every thing. Man is nothing; his will is 
powerless; his acts are insignificant; he is 
the creature who, whether willingly or not, 
is carrying out the eternal purposes of the 
Omnipotent God. In other words, Calvin 
looked upon life wholly from the divine side, 
and his theology in this respect was one not 
merely of speculation, but of deep, inward 
experience. He found his delight in abso- 
lute submission to a divine Master, whose 
judgment he trusted, though the methods of 
its manifestation were inscrutable. And the 
paradoxes of his theological system, which 
have been a perplexity and a stumbling- 
block to so many, were unmistakably a pos- 
itive source of satisfaction to him. His fol- 
lowers, at least those who bear his name, 
have by no means accepted his theology as 
he taught it ; indeed, of all the Calvinists, 
there are probably comparatively few who 
would accept without material modification 
the "Institutes" as a correct statement of 
faith. According to the modifications thus 
made in the system, Calvinists are divided 
into Stjict Calvmists, Hyper - Calvinists, and 
Moderate Calvinists. 

Strict Calvinists are those who substantial- 
ly accept John Calvin's system as given 
above. They hold, i. e., to the absolute sin- 
fulness of the race, and even of infants be- 
fore they have come to an age of discretion ; 
to the spiritual powerlessness of man in a 
state of nature to do any thing pleasing to 
God ; to the necessity of a special and irre- 
sistible act of grace on God's part in the hu- 
man soul, as a prerequisite to conversion, or 
any acceptable act, as repentance, faith, or 
prayer ; and to absolute and unconditional 
election and reprobation, to which some add 
that, by the atonement, provision has been 
made such as is only adequate for the elect, 
who can by no possibility fail of the salva- 
tion preordained to them. The Hype^^-Cal- 
vinists add some corollaries wfiich Calvin 
himself denied. They maintain that there 
is no real use in employing means for the 
conversion of men ; that Sunday - schools, 
missionary organizations, and similar insti- 
tutions for the propagation of the Gospel 
are not only unnecessary, but are an unwar- 
rantable interference with the prerogative 
of God ; and that the preaching of the Gos- 
pel is not so much for the salvation of men, 
as it is a witness against them in the day of 
judgment. They are, in a word, fatalists 
in doctrine, and often Antinomians in prac- 
tice. The same views are often charged upon 
the Calvinists generally, and upon John Cal- 
vin himself, but unjustly. The Moderate Cal- 
vinists, on the other hand, very greatly mod- 
ify John Calvin's views in the opposite di- 
rection. They hold that man inherits a de- 
praved nature, but declare that all sin con- 



sists in voluntary choice, and, accordingly, 
that the infant, though depraved, i. e., mor- 
ally diseased, can not be called a sinner un- 
til he has chosen the evil rather than the 
good. They hold to a doctrine of free-will, 
though they do not agree in defining it, or 
in determining its limitations. They deny 
that grace is irresistible, and assert that it 
is offered to all men sufificiejitly to enable 
them to repent of their sins and accept the 
Saviour. And while they believe in abso- 
lute and unconditional election, they do not 
accept the converse doctrine of reprobation, 
nor do they agree in considering it inconsist- 
ent with the doctrine of human free-will. 
They generally hold that both doctrines are 
true — the divine sovereignty and the free- 
will of man — but that it is not in the power 
of the human mind to comprehend the rela- 
tion of the two truths to each other, or the 
method of their reconciliation. Indeed, in 
the process of time the gulf which formerly 
separated the Arminians (q. v.) and the Cal- 
vinists has been gradually narrowing, and 
the differences between these two classes of 
theologians is now more in the form of Chris- 
tian experience, from which their doctrines 
respectively spring, in the aspects of truth 
upon which they principally dwell, and in 
the methods of their argumentation, than iu 
the absolute doctrines which they respective- 
ly maintain. The chief difference between 
them in a theological point of view is, that 
while the Calvinists maintain uncondition- 
al decrees, the Arminians maintain that the 
decrees of God are conditional on his fore- 
knowledge of man's choice and character ; 
and while the former maintain that the soul 
once truly united to Christ by faith can nev- 
er be eternally separated from him, the oth- 
er, regarding conversion more as a human 
and less as a divine act, consider that it is 
possible for the Christian to fall away again 
from Christ, and so be finally lost. 

Camel, a well-known, most useful animal, 
frequently mentioned in Scripture as being 
an important portion of Eastern wealth.^ 
Two distinct species of camel are known to 
zoologists ; namely, the Bactrian camel, hav- 
ing two humps, and the common one-humped 
camel, which was used by the Israelites and 
by neighboring nations, both for riding and 
for carrying loads.^ 

The dromedary is simply a lighter and 
more valuable breed of the one-humped cam- 
el of Arabia. The camel's furniture^ was, 
perhaps, a kind of litter or canopied seat ; 
and it is not improbable that the panniers, or 
baskets, which are suspended on both sides 
of the camel, were employed anciently as 
now. The camel has been called by the 
Arabs " the ship of the desert." Its organiza- 
tion is wonderfully adapted to the service it 
has to render to man — just fitted to the arid 



1 Gen. xii., 16; xxxii., 7, 15; 2 Chron. xiv., 15. 
2 Geu. xxiv., 61 ; 2 Kings viii., 9.-3 Gen. xxxi., 34. 



CAMEL 



157 



CANA 




Camel for Baggage. 

deserts over wliicli it travels. The i)ads or 
sole-cushions of the spreading feet, divided 
into two toes, with their expansive elasticity, 
without being externally separated, which 
buoy up, as it were, the whole bulk, from 
sinking in the sand, on which the animal 
advances with silent step ; the nostrils so 
formed that the animal can close them at 
will, so as to exclude the drift-sand and the 
parching simoon ; the beetling brow, and 
long lashes which fringe the upper lid, so as 
to screen the eyes from the glare of the sun ; 
the cleft, prehensile upper lip, and the pow- 
erful incisor upper teeth, for browsing on the 
dry, tough, prickly shrubs of the desert ; the 
hunch, acting as a reservoir of nutriment 
against a time of long abstinence, and the 
assemblage of water-tanks in the stomach — 
these are all proofs of divine design, and pe- 
culiarly adapt it to its work in the desert. 




Inside of a Camel's Foot. A is the cushion on which 
the animal treads, shown as lifted out of its bed. 

The camel is a cold - blooded, heavy, sullen 
animal, seeming to possess enough intellect 
to receive all the education which it needs 
for the service of man, but having a dispo- 
sition peculiarly vindictive and revengeful. 
He has the strongest objection to being la- 
den at all, no matter how light may be the 
burden, and expresses his disapprobation by 
growling, groaning, and attempting to bite. 
He eats whatever he can get, seeming to 
have power to extract nutriment from every 
sort of vegetable substance. The flesh of 
the camel was forbidden as food to the Isra- 
elites : the animal chews the cud, but does 
not divide the hoof; but the milk is consid- 



ered a cooling, nutritious drink, and the dung 
is much used for fuel. The hair is of the 
greatest importance : at the proper season it 
is removed from the animal, and spun by the 
women into strong thread, which is woven 
into tent-cloth, carpets, and some coarse gar- 
ments.^ 

Camisards, the name given to the French 
Protestants in the mountainous district of 
the Cevennes who took up arms in defense 
of their civil and religious liberties in the 
commencement of the eighteenth century. 
The struggle which ensued at that time be- 
tween the Huguenots and their persecutors 
is generally known by the name of the Cam- 
isard war, from the white frocks worn by 
the peasants, who were the chief actors in it. 
Many of the Protestants, both in France and 
other countries, were opposed to this milita- 
ry rising on the part of the Huguenot peas- 
antry. A synod of the Swiss Church made a 
public and solemn remonstrance on the sub- 
ject. But so severe and galling had been 
the persecution to which the Protestants had 
been subjected for many years previous, that 
their long forbearance is more to be admired 
than their ultimate resistance to be blamed. 

The name of Camisards has also been giv- 
en to a number of fanatical enthusiasts who 
arose among the Protestants of Dauphiny to- 
ward the end of the seventeenth century. 
They are said to have made their appearance 
in A.D. 1688, to the amount of five or six hun- 
dred of both sexes, who gave themselves out 
to be prophets inspired, as they declared, by 
the Holy Ghost. The most exaggerated ac- 
counts of these pretended prophets have been 
given by M. Gregoire and other Romish writ- 
ers. Both from the pulpit and the press 
many warnings were given against these un- 
happy fanatics, but they still continued to 
increase in numbers, both in England and in 
Scotland, for several years. Gradually the 
fervor of both leaders and followers died 
away, and the Camisards disappeared. 

Camphire. This word, which occurs only 
in Solomon's Song, is, etymologically, the 
same as camphor, but it does not designate 
the same plant. It is generally believed to 
be the lienna of the Arabs, a shrub rising five 
or six feet high, with fragrant whitish flow- 
ers growing in clusters. The powder of the 
leaves, mixed with water and made into a 
paste, is used by females to stain their nails 
a reddish color. Ladies are fond, too, of jAa- 
cing branches of the sweet-smelling flowers 
of this shrub in their bosom. [Sol. Song i., 
14; iv.,13.] 

Cana (reedy), a village or town of Galilee. 
There is some uncertainty as to the site. 
Tradition fixes it at the modern village of 
Kefr-Kenna, four and a half miles north-west 
of Nazareth, but the better opinion places 
it in the hill country of Galilee, about nine 
miles north of Nazareth, and about six or 



Matt, iii., 4. 



CANAAN 



158 



CANAANITES 



eight hours from Capernaum. It was the 
home of Nathanael, and is notable in N. T. 
history for being the site of two of Christ's 
miracles — the conversion of the water into 
wine, and the healing of the nobleman's 
eon. [John ii., 1-11 ; iv., 46-54 ; xxi., 2.] 

Canaan {merchant f), one of the sons of 
Ham. The curse pronounced upon him by 
Noah has given rise to no little perplexity, 
since it was occasioned by his father's sin, 
. not by his own. The explanation afforded 
by Dr. Bush, in his notes on Gen. ix., 25, 
seems to us a satisfactory one. This is, in 
effect, that Noah xierceived by inspired fore- 
eight the sins and abominations of the aban- 
doned stock of the Canaanites, and that the 
punishments visited upon them were in no 
sense the result of their ancestor's sin, but 
the consequence of their own iniquities. 
His prophecy was subsequently fulfilled: 
first, when the Israelites subjugated Ca- 
naan, and afterward when the scattered 
remnants of those tribes, expelled by Da- 
vid and settled in Africa, fell under the do- 
minion of the Romans, who were the de- 
scendants of Japheth. Thus was fulfilled 
the seemingly contradictory prophecy that 
Canaan should be the servant of both Shem 
and Japheth. See CA2<fAAK[TES. [Gen. ix., 
25-28.] 

Canaan, Canaanites. Canaan {low land) 
was the name given to that portion of Pal- 
estine which lay to the west of the Jordan, 
to distinguish it from Gilead, the name 
given to the high table -land east of the 
Jordan. The territory so called extended 
from the boundary of Syria in the north 
to Gaza in the south, and from the Jordan 
to the Mediterranean. Canaan thus in- 
cluded Philistia and Phoenicia. The name 
occurs on Phoenician coins, and was not 
unknown to the Carthaginians. For an 
account of the geography, etc., of the coun- 
try, see Palestine. 

The term Canaanites in its more restricted 
sense was applied to a leading people among 
the early (though not the original) inhabit- 
ants of Palestine, the low-landers, who dwelt 
by the sea and by the coast of Jordan.^ Still 
the term in its largest sense may be con- 
sidered as comprising the various tribes enu- 
merated as descended from Canaan, the son 
of Ham. These comprised seven distinct 
nations in Canaan — viz., the Hittites, Gir- 
gashites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, 
Hivites, and Jebusites. Beside these seven 
nations, there were several tribes of the Ca- 
naanites who lived beyond the borders of 
the promised land northward. These were 
the Arkites, Sinites, Arvadites, Zeraarites, and 
Hamathites. There were also other tribes of 
Canaanitish origin, chief among whom were 
the Amalekites, Anakites, and the Rephaim 
or "giants." The race was unquestionably 
a very prolific, active, and enterprising one. 
1 Gen. xT7i5-197Numb7xiii., 29; Judg. iv., 2. 




JNJap of Cauaaii, with the Aboriginal Nations. 

They were already extensively-spread abroad 
at the comparatively early period when Abra- 
ham came as a sojourner into this region; 
and at the time of Joshua the land was al- 
ready in a state of general cultivation. In 
the books of Moses we have the most glow- 
ing description of its fertility and resources, 
and the greatest difficulties of the invaders 
arose from the number of its inhabitants, 
and the height to which they had risen in 
the arts of civilized life. The "great Sidon" 
and the "strong city of Tyre" already ex- 
isted, and secular historians represent these 
Canaanite cities on the Phoenician coast as 
in the very dawn of civilization taking the 
lead in commercial enterprise, enriching 
themselves and benefiting others by their 
busy trade and maritime intercourse. Their 
name came to be synonymous with mei'- 
ehant. As the first merchants of the world, 
they must have been, through their com- 
mercial necessities, among the earliest cul- 



CANAANITES 



159 



CANDLE 



tivators of writing ; hence the tradition 
which ascribes both the invention of let- 
ters and their introduction among the lo- 
nians to the Phcenicians. The race so dis- 
tinguished itself for active energy, and took 
so prominent a part in the civil and com- 
mercial history of nations, that it must have 
possessed superior natural qualities in men- 
tal and physical constitution, as well as great 
advantages in local position. Besides being 
enterprising traders, they took an important 
place among the early colonists.^ Cyprus was 
at an early period possessed and colonized by 
them •, their progress westward can be traced 
along the coast of Asia Minor and among the 
islands of the Archipelago ; they had pos- 
sessions in Crete ; colonized the greater part 
of the Cyclades ; left traces of their opera- 
tions in Chios and Samos, Cilicia, Caria, and 
Lydia; had mining settlements along the 
coast of Thrace, the promontories and adja- 
cent isles of Sicily, and held Tartessus — the 
Tarshish of Scripture — and other places in 
the south of Spain for a long time for mining 
and commercial enterprise. Their largest 
colonies were in the north of Africa ; Utica 
— founded more than a thousand years be- 
fore Christ — Hippo, Adrumetum, above all, 
Carthage. A monument found at Tigitina 
has this inscription in Greek: "We are those 
who fled from the presence of Joshua the 
plunderer ;" and it is said that traditions ex- 
ist among the Arabians to the effect that the 
people of Barbary were the descendants of 
these refugees. 

But this commercial and physical superi- 
ority was marred by the incorrigible and 
wide-spread corruption of manners, and the 
foul abominations of idolatry, aggravated 
beyond that of other surrounding nations, 
that drew down upon them the judgment of 
Heaven. Heedless of the fate of Sodom and 
Gomorrah, they became in shameless impuri- 
ty a reproach to humanity, and the Lord ex- 
tirpated them from the land which, after be- 
ing purged of its abominations, was set apart 
as the inheritance of the Lord's covenant 
people. 

Skeptics have raised, and Christian schol- 
ars have felt, the difficulties which attend 
the biblical statement concerning God's di- 
rection for the extermination of the Canaan- 
ites, in the wars which the Israelites carried 
on against them. The difficulty, however, 
appears to be no greater than that which 
attends the solution of the general problem 
of life. It is as difficult to comprehend why 
God should send pestilence and war now 
upon nations, or decree their extermination ; 
and the question is, therefore, really only a 
branch of the much raised and never settled 
problem : Why does God permit sin and suf- 
fering to abound in the world ? If ever there 
were a nation whose iniquities were so great 
as to demand their extermination from the 



1 Geu. i., 18. 



face of the earth, it was these degenerate 
sons of Canaan. 

In Matt. X., 4 ; Mark iii., 18, one of the 
apostles is called a Canaanite. But the true 
reading of the Greek text is Cananite ; either 
an inhabitant of Cana, or, as the word may 
mean, a zealot (q. v.).^ 

Candace {sovereign of slaves ?). References 
in Pliny and Strabo make it clear that this 
is not a personal name, but a general title 
given to the queens of Ethiopia, as Pharaoh 
was to the sovereigns of Egypt. A man of 
authority under one of these queens, called 



an "eunuch" or "chamberlain,' 



^ho had 



the charge of all her treasure," just as the 
chamberlain of London is the city treasurer, 
was met on the road between Jerusalem and 
Gaza by Philip the evangelist, who expound- 
ed- to him the Scripture he was reading. He 
believed in Christ, was baptized, and went 
on his way rejoicing. According to ecclesi- 
astical traditions he subsequently proi^agated 
the Gospel in his own country. [Acts viii., 
26-40.] 

Candle. 1. This word often occurs in our 
version of the Scriptures^ where a lamp is 
probably meant. But candles made of wax 
or tallow, with the pith of a kind of rush for 
a wick, are said to have been generally used 
by the Romans before they were acquainted 
with oil-lamps. In later times these candles 
were found only among the poor, the houses 
of the wealthy being lighted by lamps. 

2. The use of candles in church -worship 
appears to have existed from a very early 
date, although it is said that they have not 
been regarded as independent accessories of 
an altar for more than four centuries, and 
were not placed upon the altar until the 
twelfth century, having been previously ar- 
ranged around it on the floor. The origin 
of the custom is uncertain. Some Roman 
writers attribute it to the references in the 
Book of Revelation, to the candles and gold- 
en candlesticks, or, perhaps, to the previous 
employment in the Temple; while others 
consider that it grew out of the practice of 
the early Christians, who were compelled by 
persecution to hold their religious meetings 
underground. The Roman Catholic divines 
explain the meaning of the candle thus. 
They say that it is lighted to indicate Chris- 
tian joy fulness, to signify the Holy Ghost, 
whose appearance on the Day of Pentecost in 
flames of fire is symbolized by the candle, 
and to teach us that we should let our light 
shine. It is a hotly - disputed question in 
the Episcopal Church whether altar-candles 
should be used or not. 

There are numerous superstitious notions 
and observances connected with candles 
which may perhaps be traced to the once 
prevalent worship of the sun and of fire. In 
Britain, a portion of the tallow rising up 



1 See Luke vi,, 15, where he is distiuenished as "Si- 
mon called Zelotes."— 2 Job xviii., 6; Psa. xviii., 28. 



CANDLEMAS 



160 



CANON 



against the wick of the candle is called a 
winding-sheet, and regarded as a sure omen 
of death in the family. A bright spark of 
the candle denotes that the party direct- 
ly opposite is to receive a letter. Windy 
weather is prophesied from the waving of 
the flame without visible cause, and wet ! 
weather if the wick does not light readi- [ 
ly. Lights appearing to spring up from the 
ground, or issue out of a house, and traverse 
the road or air by invisible agency, the 
superstitious in Wales and elsewhere call ' 
corpse-candles. They are ominous of death, 
and their route indicates the road the corpse 
is to be carried for burial. The size and col- 
or of the light tell whether the fated person 
is young or old. It is or was customary in 
some places to light a candle, previously 
blessed, during the time of a woman's trav- 
ail. Candles were supposed to be efficacious | 
after death as well as before birth, for they 
were placed on the corpse. The object was, 
doubtless, to ward off evil siDirits, who were 
supposed to be always on the alert to injure 
souls on entering and on quitting the world. 
And this custom is scrupulously maintained 
to the present day among Eoman Catholics, 
who have candles blessed for the purpose at 
Candlemas -day, and generally keep one or 
more " blessed candles " in the house, to use 
in case of sickness or death. 

Candlemas, a feast kept in the Eoman 
Catholic Church in remembrance of the pres- 
entation of Christ in the Temple, and the 
purification of the Virgin Mother. It is com- 
memorated with imposing ceremonies, and, 
as kept in Eome, is said to be one of the 
most gorgeous festivals of the year. One of 
the most characteristic features of the day 
is the blessing and distribution of candles, to 
signify that Jesus Christ is the light of the 
world. These candles, which are contribu- 
ted by the congregation and blessed by the 
priest, are used both in the church services 
and for distribution among the people, who 
keep them to burn for the dying and the 
dead. See Caxdle. 

Candlestick. This word in the Bible gen- 
erally refers to the candelabrum, or lamp- 
stand, which Moses was commanded to con- 
struct, according to the pattern shown him, 
for the service of the sanctuary. There are 
two very particular descriptions of it. It 
was made of pure gold, and, with the uten- 
sils belonging to it, required a talent for 
its construction. It was of beaten work, 
wrought, and not cast, and consisted of a 
base, of a straight shaft rising from this base, 
of six arms or branches, which were placed, 
three on each side of the shaft, and of seven 
lamx^s supported on the summits of the cen- 
tral shaft and the six arms — these summits 
being all of equal height, and disposed in a 
single row. In each branch were three 
kinds of ornaments, called by names signi- 
fying bowls or cups, globes, and flowers, so 



arranged that first came a golden cup, above 
which was a globe or knop, and above that a 
flower. The shaft was similarly ornamented ; 
besides which, under each pair of branches, 
was a globe or knop. The height of the can- 
dlestick is said to have been about five feet, 
and the distance between the two exterior 
lamps three and a half feet. It stood on the 
south side of the holy place opposite to the ta- 
ble of shew-bread. Pure olive-oil was burned 
in the lamps ; and it is a question whether 
the lights Avere ever extinguished. The prob- 
ability is that they were, and that the burn- 
ing '^ always " meant always at the appoint- 
ed times.^ 

In Solomon's temple Avere ten candlesticks, 
five put on the right, five on the left of the 
holy place.^ These seem to have been in ad- 
dition to the ancient candlestick made by Mo- 
ses : they were all taken away to Babylon.^ 
In the second temple there was but one, and 
but one was carried away and exhibited in the 
triumphal procession of Titus. It is repre- 
sented in an existing bass-relief on the Arch 
of Titus in Eome. It is said to have been 




The Golden "Candlestick" as it now appears in the 
Arch of Titus. 

taken to Carthage by Genseric, a.d. 455, to 
have been recovered by Belisarius, and ulti- 
mately placed in the Christian Church of 
Jerusalem, a.d. 533. Its subsequent fate is 
unknown. Symbolically, a candlestick sig- 
nifies a church.* [Exod. xxv., 31-40 ; xxvi., 
35 ; xxvii., 20 ; xxxvii., 17-24 ; xL, 24.] 

Canon. This word originally signified a 
measuring rule. It has come to be used, in a 
general sense, for certain ecclesiastical stand- 
ards. Thus, the canon of Scripture (q. v.) is 
the standard by which the place and authori- 
ty of any book claiming to be sacred and in- 
spired is to be measured, or, regarded as a 
collection of the inspii^ed books, is itself the 
standard of faith and morals. Of the various 



1 Exod. xxvii., 20, 21 ; xxx., 7, S ; Lev. xxiv., 2-4; 1 
Sam. iii., 3; 2 Chron. xiii., 11.— ^ 1 Kings vii., 49; 2 
Cliron. iv., 7.-3 1 Kings vii., 40 ; 2 Chron. iv., 7.— 
4 Zech. iv., 2 ; Kev. 1., 12, 20 ; xi., 4. 



CANON 



IGl 



CANON OF SCRIPTURE 



connections in which this word is used, the 
most important are the following : 

1. Canon of the Mass is the fixed and inva- 
riable part of the mass of the Roman Church 
in which consecration is made — the '* very 
sun and heart, as it were, of the Divine sac- 
rifice." It is also sometimes called the Se- 
cret, because it is celebrated in a secret 
voice, lest the Holy Word should become 
common. 

2. Canon Law is a collection of ecclesias- 
tical constitutions for the government and 
regulation of the Romish Church, compiled 
from the opinions of the ancient Latin fa- 
thers, the decrees of general councils and the 
decretals, bulla and epistles of the See of 
Rome. It is divided into different classes 
according to the several eras in wliich its 
different parts appeared, and contains elabo- 
rate rules for the government of the clergy, 
and concerning other matters deemed to be 
within the cognizance of the ecclesiastical 
courts. It still gives ecclesiastical law to 
Roman Catholic Christendom, except where 
its principles have been modified by the con- 
cordats into which popes have entered with 
the civil governments, or where the govern- 
ment itself has more or less thrown off the 
yoke of allegiance to Rome even in ecclesi- 
astical matters, as lately in Italy, Spain, and 
Germany. It never has gained a footing in 
England, and is not recognized by the courts 
of our own country. 

3. The name Canons is given to the con- 
stitution and rules for the government of the 
Church of England, and to those which gov- 
ern the Protestant Episcopal Church of Amer- 
ica. The latter are of two sorts : those of 
the General Convention, which form a uni- 
form code for all dioceses, and those of the 
several dioceses — of force only in their sev- 
eral precincts. 

4. The same name. Canon, is given to cer- 
tain ecclesiastical dignitaries attached to a 
cathedral. They are also called Prebendaries. 
The term was applied in the fourth century 
to cenobites living under a common rule, 
but the office of canon is supposed to have 
been first instituted by Chrodegang, bishop 
of Metz, in 763. The canons formed the 
council of the bishop, and assisted him in the 
government of his diocese. They lived in a 
house called a monastery, slept in a common 
room, ate at the same table, and were origi- 
nally supported out of the episcopal reve- 
nues. Various reforms of canons were made 
during the eleventh and twelfth centuries, 
when many of them emancipated themselves 
from the restrictions of monastic life, and 
lived independent of any rule. Some of these 
reformed canons were called Black Canons, 
from wearing a black cassock ; others, White 
Canons, from wearing a white habit. Secu- 
lar canons still exist in the Anglican Church, 
and their duties — making allowance for the 
difference between the Roman Catholic and 

11 



Protestant religions — are much the same in 
kind as they were before the Reformation. 

Canon of Scripture, that collection of 
holy writings which contains the authori- 
tative rule of the faith and practice of the 
Church. Under this title we give our read- 
ers briefly the reasons for believing the books 
of the O. and N. T., as we have them, to be 
authentic. Their authority is considered un- 
der Inspiration, the accuracy of the text 
under Manuscript, and the general history 
of the origin and preservation of the Bible 
under Bible. 

Old Testament Canon. — It is very evident, 
from the expressions with which we continu- 
ally meet in the N.T.,that a certain body of 
writings was at that time considered to be 
''Scripture." The terms employed — "the 
Scripture," " the Scriptures," '' the Holy Scrip- 
tures," "the Holy Writings," etc. — presup- 
pose this; and sometimes various parts of 
a whole are spoken of — "the law and the 
prophets," "the law of Moses, the prophets, 
and the psalms " — showing the distribution 
of the several writings into well-known 
classes.^ Josephus, who lived at the time 
of the apostles, describes the O. T. Scrip- 
tm-es, which he says contained twenty-two 
books. It is evident that, in this enumera- 
tion, two or more books of the O. T. were 
joined in one ; as Judges with Ruth, 1st with 
2d Samuel, Ist with 2d Kings, 1st with 2d 
Chronicles, Esther with Nehemiah, Jeremiah 
with Lamentations, and the twelve Minor 
Prophets as one book of prophecy. Thus, 
for convenient enumeration, the number of 
books in the O. T. was made to correspond to 
the number of letters (twenty-two) in the 
Hebrew alphabet. Going farther back, we 
find in the Septuagint, or Greek version of 
the Scriptures, which existed long before the 
time of Christ, a further evidence that the 
O. T. Scriptures, to which Christ and the 
apostles so frequently referred, were those 
which we now possess ; and this is still fur- 
ther confirmed by numerous references in the 
apocryphal books, and by some in the O. T. 
itself.^ The best evidence, however, of the 
authenticity of the O. T. Scriptures lies in 
the fact that they are referred to by Christ 
and the apostles as authority ; and that while 
the former denounces the corruptions of the 
Jewish Church, he does not intimate any 
corruption in the sacred writings, but, on the 
contrary, commends them, and refers to them 
in attestation of his claims.^ It is not known 
when the books of the O. T. were gathered 
together and arranged in their present form ; 
but this work is generally attributed to Ezra. 
The Romish Church recognizes, as a part of 
the Bible, certain books which cover a peri- 
od of history between the restoration of the 



iMatt. v., 17; XV., 3-9; Mark xii., '24; Luke xxiv., 2., 
44, 45 : John v„ 39 ; x., 34, 35 ; Kom. iii., 2 ; 2 Tim. iii., 
It; ; 1 Per. i., 10-12 ; 2 Pet. i., 19-21.— 2 Dan. ix., 2 ; Zech. 
vii., 12; Psa. xix.,7-11; cxix.— ^ Luke xvi., 29; Jghn 
v., 39 ; comp. 2 Tim. iii., 16 ; 2 Pet. i., 21. 



CANONICAL HOURS 



162 



CANONIZATION 



Jews to Jerusalem, after the Babylonisli cap- 
tivity, and the birth of Christ ; but these are 
not allowed to be canonical by the Jewish or 
Protestant writers.^ 

New Testament Canon. — From the fifth cen 
tury to the present time, the canon of the N. 
T. has remained unaltered. Its formation, 
which took place before the fifth century, 
was a growth, nor is it possible now to state 
when the various books were collected and 
formally recognized. We possess writings 
of Clement, Ignatius, Polycarp, and others, 
men some of whom had conversed with the 
first disciples, and who lived but a little af- 
ter the apostolic age. Their frequent quota- 
tions demonstrate that already the books of 
the N. T., now generally accepted, were re- 
garded as an authority. To more minds, 
however, the internal evidence of their au- 
thenticity is even stronger than that which 
is afibrded by their external history. Most 
impartial readers will require no better as- 
surance of the divine character of the N. T. 
books than that which is afforded by a sim- 
ple comparison of the canonical and apoc- 
ryphal N. T. See Apocrypha. 

Canonical Hours. In the infancy of the 
Church, the times and forms of devotions 
were authoritatively laid down. A certain 
arrangement of the Psalms was appointed to 
be said in order and within a limited time. 
Founded upon the Jewish morning and even- 
ing sacrifice^ and sustained by the example 
of Daniel, the early fathers recommended 
three times, the fifth, sixth, and ninth hours, 
as especial times of devotion. To these hours 
were added others, till in the fourth century 
seven times of devotion in each day, after 
David's example, were observed, if not by en- 
tire Christendom, certainly by all the clergy 
and religious bodies. To these canonical 
hours the Romish Church still clings. They 
are called Matins, Prime, Terce, Sext, Nones, 
Vespers, and Compline. Matins commence the 
day at midnight, and include two services, 
Nocturns and Lauds. The service consists 
of the Lord's Prayer, the Angelic Salutation, 
the Creed, and several Psalms. The hour for 
Prime is 6 a.m. or thereabout, the hour in 
which our Lord was led before Pilate and ac- 
cused, and in which, after his resurrection, 
he appeared to St. Mary Magdalene ; and the 
service is called Prime, from the Latin Prima, 
" the first hour," because the hours of the 
day were formerly reckoned from 6 a.m. For 
the same reason the 9 o'clock service is call- 
ed Terce, or "third hour;" that at midday, 
Sext, or '' the sixth hour ;" and that at 3 p.m. 
Nones, or " the ninth hour." Vespers is a serv- 
ice for 6 P.M., the hour in which our Lord 
was taken down from the cross, and in which 
also he celebrated the Last Supper. The 
service of evening prayer in the English and 
Episcopal Churches was abridged from Ves- 
pers, and was formerly called Even-song or 
1 See Apocrypha, 



Even -say. Compline is the service which 
completes the daily course of hours; hence 
the name. It belongs to 9 p.m. The service 
begins by asking pardon for whatsoever has 
been done amiss throughout the day, and 
begging God's protection during sleep. Sev- 
eral Psalms were appointed to be said at each 
of the canonical hours; and if the entire 
service should be observed, it would require 
nearly all of the twenty-four hours. 

Canonization, a ceremony in the Romish 
Church by which persons deceased are can- 
onized, or raised to the rank of saints. It fol- 
lows the process of beatification (q. v.). It 
seems to be somewhat analogous to the an- 
cient ceremony called Apotheosis — and was, 
perhaps, derived from it — by which the pa- 
gans converted kings, heroes, and other dis- 
tinguished men into gods. In the early 
Church it was the custom at the dispensa- 
tion of the Lord's Supper to name and pray 
for those who had died as martyrs. Each 
bishop was at first accustomed to declare 
deceased persons to be saints, but the ex- 
clusive exercise of this power was gradual- 
ly assumed by the popes. The earliest pa- 
pal canonization is that of Ulrich, bishop 
of Augsburg, by John XV., in a.d. 995 ; and 
since 1179 the popes have exercised the ex- 
clusive right of canonization. The process 
is carried forward with great deliberation 
before beatification. It must be shown that 
two miracles have been wrought by the can- 
didate ; two more must be proved before 
canonization, and the person must have been 
dead at least fifty years. The pope, on be- 
ing applied to, resumes the case of the be- 
atified person, with the view of testing his 
qualifications for the higher rank which is 
claimed for him. A secret consistory is sum- 
moned, at which the petition in favor of the 
proposed saint is taken into consideration, 
and three cardinals appointed to inquire 
into the matter, who make their report at a 
second private meeting. In the third, Avhich 
is a public consistory, the cardinals pay their 
adoration to the pope. One person, called 
the Advocatus Didboli, or Devil's Advocate, 
says all he can against the person to be can- 
onized, raises doubts as to the miracles said 
to be wrought by him, and exposes any w^ant 
of formality in the procedure ; but no case 
has ever been known in which the Devil's 
Advocate has succeeded. Another advocate 
makes an oration in praise of the candidate, 
in which he largely expatiates on the mira- 
cles said to have been wrought by him. A 
fourth semi-public consistory is now held, at 
which the pope attends in his mitre and 
cope. The votes of the prelates are taken 
for or against the canonization, and as soon 
as it is resolved upon by a plurality of voices, 
the pope announces the day appointed for 
the ceremony. On the canonization day, 
the pope and cardinals are habited in white ; 
St. Peter's Church at Rome is hung with 



CAPERNAUM 



163 



CAPPADOCIA 



ricli tapestry, and is splendidly illuminated 
with wax tapers j a magnificent throne is 
erected for the pope ; and a gorgeous proces- 
sion marches to St. Peter's, with colors flying, 
where the canonization takes place amidst 
intricate and magnificent ceremonies. 

Capernaum, a city of Galilee, mentioned 
only in the N. T., but prominent there by 
reason of its being for a time the home of 
Christ (so far as he can be said to have had 
a home), and the centre of his own and his 
disciples' missionary operations throughout 
Galilee. It was evidently a city of consider- 
able size ; had a synagogue, in which Christ 
frequently taught, a Roman garrison, and a 
customs station.^ It was at Capernaum Je- 
sus called Matthew to become his disciple ; 
near it, apparently, that he called Peter and 



of Capernaum ; Tell being employed to des- 
ignate a deserted site, while Caphar, or Ke- 
fer, signifies village; and this view is con- 
firmed by the latest researches of the Pales- 
tine Exploration Fund, who report the dis- 
covery among the ruins of Tell Hum of a 
Jewish synagogue — not impossibly the very 
one in which Jesus preached. 

Caphtor, the original seat of the Philis- 
tines, who, therefore, are once called Caph- 
torims, as of the same race as the Mizraite 
people of that name. The situation of the 
place is involved in obscurity. The testi- 
mony of classic writers is in favor of the Isl- 
and of Crete. Others identify it with an- 
cient Captos, a few miles north of Thebes, in 
Upper Egypt. [ Jer. xlvii., 4 ; Amos ix., 7 ; 
Deut. ii., 23; Gen. x.,14.] 




^■j^i^j/^j 



Kuins of Capernaum. 



Andrew, and in it he wrought many of his 
most wondrous miracles. It was in con- 
sequence of his sermon in the synagogue at 
Capernaum that he was rejected by the Gali- 
leans.'^ 

The doom which our Lord pronounced 
against Capernaum and the other cities of 
Gennesaret has been remarkably fulfilled. 
Even its site is involved in uncertainty. By 
Dr. Robinson it is placed at Khan el Min- 
yeh,^ but the more x^revalent opinion fixes it 
at Tell Htim. With this the modern name 
agrees which corresponds to the ancient one 



1 Matt, ix., 1, 9 ; Mark i., 21 ; Luke vii., 1, 8 ; v., 2T ; 
John vi., 59.-2 Matt, viii., 5, 14; ix., 1, 9; Mark i.,lG, 
IT, 23; ix., 33; John vi.— 3 See map of Sea of Gennesa- 
ret, art. Gennesaket. 



Cappadocia, the most easterly region of 
Asia Minor, bounded by the lesser Armenia 
on the east, Phrygia and Paphlagonia on the 
west, the Euxine on the north, and separated 
on the south by the chain of Taurus from 
Cilicia. The northern part of this district 
was a distinct satrapy under the Persian 
dominion, and became afterward the in- 
dependent kingdom of Pontus ; the south 
part, also constituted a kingdom, was then 
alone called Cappadocia. In N. T. times, by 
Cappadocia was to be understood a Roman 
province (so made in 17 a.d.), comprising 
also the lesser Armenia. Cappadocia was 
well watered, but was not a particularly 
fruitful country. The high lands were cold, 
and the plains chiefly pasture j but having 



CAPTAIN 



164 



CAPTIVITY 



good grazing land, it was celebrated for its 
breed of horses. The Cappadocians are 
thought to be of Sj^rian origin; they had 
the character of being faithless and indo- 
lent. Cappadocian Jews were at Jerusalem 
on the Day of Pentecost ; and St. Peter di- 
rected his first epistle to the Christians there, 
and in the neighboring regions. [Acts ii., 
9; 1 Pet.i., 1.] 

Captain, the rendering of a Hebrew word 
generally signifying a military officer. There 
were various ranks, from the captains of fif- 
ty to the captain of the host, or commander- 
in-chief. Captains of the guard were great 
functionaries, charged, it would seem, with 
the defense of the royal person, and with the 
execution of sentences j^ronounced by the 
king.^ The officer so called in Acts xxviii., 
16, was probably the commander of the prae- 
torian troops at Rome. There is another 
Hebrew word, translated sometimes " cap- 
tain," as in Josh, x., 24, and sometimes " ru- 
ler," as in Isa. iii., 6, which denotes both a 
military and a civil officer. The captain of 
the Temple, spoken of in Luke xxii., 4, and 
Acts iv., 1 ; v., 24, was not a military man, 
but the chief of the priests and Levites that 
watched in the Temple at night. ^ See Army. 
[1 Sam. xvii., 18 5 2 Sam. xix., 13 ; 2 Kings i., 
9; xi., 15.] 

Captive. Prisoners taken in war were se- 
verely treated in ancient times. They were 
fastened together by ropes round their necks, 
or rings in their lips, and were sometimes 
mutilated, or blinded, or fiayed alive. This 
was done even to women and children. It 
is a remarkable fact that, though the Israel- 
ites dealt in many instances harshly with 
those they captured, yet their conduct stood 
out in contrast to that of heathen nations, 
so that the humanity of even some of their 
worst kings was reckoned upon by their 
conquered enemies. Generally a conquered 
people was reduced to servitude, or trans- 
planted into other countries. [Deut. xxviii., 
68 ; Judg. i., 6, 7 ; 1 Sam. xi., 2 ; 1 Kings xx., 
31-34 ; 2 Kings viii., 12 ; xv., 16 ; xvii., 6, 24 ; 
XXV., 7 ; Psa. cxxxvii., 9.] 

Captivity, This word is frequently used 
in a wide sense for subjection and distress, 
not only by enemies, but through disease, 
destitution, or other kind of trouble.^ In 
its proper sense, it means the being carried 
away by a foreign foe. Snch conquests and 
consequent servitude the Hebrews frequent- 
ly underwent — as by the Moabites, Midian- 
ites, Philistines — from almost the very be- 
ginning of their possession of Palestine ; but 
these were partial and temporary calamities. 
On account of repeated transgressions and 
impenitence, there were severer judgments 
in store for them, as Moses had predicted ;'' 



1 Gen. xxxvii., 3G; 2 Kinj^s xxv., 8; comp. 1 Kinj^s 
ii., 20-34, 40.— 2 Comp. Psa. cxxxiv., 1.— 3 Job xlii., 
10 ; Psa. xiv., 7 ; Jndg. xviii., 30.—* Lev. xxvi., 31-39 ; 
Deut. iv., 25-28; xxviii., C3-6S. 



and to the full were these threatenings ac- 
complished. The Jews are accustomed to 
reckon four great captivities — the Babyloni- 
an, the Median, the Grecian, and the Roman ; 
these four empires ruling over them in turn. 
Understanding, then, by the term captivity 
the deportation of the people from their na- 
tive country, we may gather the following 
notices of them from the Scripture history. 

It is very likely that the Assyrian pow- 
er was early felt in Palestine. Inscriptions 
which have been deciphered go to show that 
the northern kingdom was tributary to the 
Assyrian monarch in the time of Jehu ; but 
it is not till a later period that we have any 
record of the Israelites being carried away 
from their own land. The blow fell first 
upon the ten tribes. There were Assyrian 
invasions, first by Pul, in the reign of Me- 
nehem, and afterward by Tiglath-pileser, in 
the days of Pekah. The northern and 
north-eastern provinces were overrun, and 
their population deported into Assyria. La- 
ter, Shalmaneser twice invaded Israel ; Sa- 
maria was besieged and taken, and the in- 
habitants of the kingdom generally were re- 
moved into Assyria.^ 

The southern kingdom of Judah was not 
left unmolested. In Hezekiah's reign, Sen- 
nacherib seized all the fortified cities, and 
forced the Jewish monarch to pay a large sum 
as the price of sparing Jerusalem. Though 
the Scripture does not state that the Assyri- 
ans then carried off any captives, it is prob- 
able that they did. But the fatal blow su- 
pernaturally inflicted on Sennacherib's army 
checked any further purpose of Judean con- 
quest, and Judah had a respite.^ Manasseh, 
though carried to Babylon, was restored, on 
his repentance, to his throne. But as the 
people generally, in spite of partial reforma- 
tions, continued rebellious against God, they 
were ultimately given up. Nebuchadnezzar 
repeatedly invaded the kingdom, deporting 
each time many of the inhabitants. In the 
third year of Jehoiakim, Daniel and others 
were sent to Babylon. Jehoiachiu's short 
reign was ended by his being carried away 
with a great number of the people. Ezekiel 
went then, and the ancestor of Mordecai. 
There were other deportations when Jerusa- 
lem was burned, at the end of Zedekiah's 
reign ; and the numbers taken at three dif- 
ferent times are afterward given, showing 
that the process of deportation went on as 
opportunity served; but the desolation of 
Jndah was hardly so entire as that of Israel. 
The principal persons were removed ; but 
very many of the inferior classes remained, 
and might have lived peaceablj^ under a 
governor of their own nation, Gedaliah, had 
he not been treacherously murdered. This 
caused a fresh migration into Egypt. Of 



1 2 Kinas XV., 19, 20, 29 ; xvii., 3-23 ; 1 Chron. v., 26. 
See Samaritans; Hosuea ; Shalmaneser. — 2 2 Kings 
xix., 35, 36. 



CAPTIVITY 



165 



CARAITES 



the conditiou of Judali during the years that 
followed till the decree of Cyrus, we have 
no account. The ten tribes, when carried 
away, were strongly leavened with idolatry ; 
and in exile (according to the prediction of 
Moses before referred to) they very proba- 
bly lapsed almost entirely, and mingled with 
their heathen masters. When Judah was af- 
terward deported, the few faithful Israelites 
■would naturally become incorporated with 
them. Hence, perhaps, the difficulty of iden- 
tifying the descendants of Israel.^ 

The Jews seem to have been, on the whole, 
treated with consideration by their captors 
According to their tradition, one of their own 
chiefs held authority over them as '' captain 
of the people," or prince of the captivity.^ 
Be this as it may, they had their elders ; they 
often rose to posts of dignity ; and the gen- 
erality of them were quite able to enjoy do- 
mestic comforts. Still they naturally longed 
for their own land, consecrated by so many 
recollections and hopes, and assured by di- 
vine promise as their lasting inheritance, 
more especially as, though they preserved 
many of their rites, they could not sacrifice 
out of Judea.^ At length deliverance came. 
The decree of Cyrus allowed the return of those 
that chose. The chief of Judah and Benjamin, 
with the Levites, returned 42,360, as they are 
reckoned, besides their servants. The fami- 
lies of about 30,000 of these are specified ; the 
rest were perhaps Israehtes of the ten tribes. 
Another caravan was led by Ezra, Thus the 
cities of Judea were again inhabited by their 
own people."* But the race was not so pure- 
ly Jewish as before. Galilee was also, though 
■with greater intermixture of Gentiles, re-oc- 
cupied by the sons of Jacob ; but Samaria 
remained in the hands of strangers. Many 
Jews, however, chose to continue in Assyria 
and Babylonia ; and colonies of them were 
diffused through various countries. They 
retained their faith, and their tie to their 
own country, which many of them visited 
at the feasts, and they were known after- 
■ward as " the dispersed," or dispersion. The 
fate of the ten tribes is involved in greater 
uncertamty. A multitude of guesses have 
been propounded concerning them. Some 
maintain that the Affghans are descended 
from them ; some fix on the Nestorians ; 
while others have ingeniously argued that 
they are the North American Indians. Wild- 
er conjectures, and such there have been, 
need not be mentioned here. The most rea- 
sonable conjecture is that some returned and 
mixed with the Jews ; some were left in Sa- 
maria ; many remaining in the East, were 
fused with the Jews there, and recognized 
as an integral part of the dispersion ; while 



1 2 Kings xviii., 13-16 ; xix., 3^37 ; xxiv., 8-16 ; xxv., 
8-12 ; 2 Chron. xxxiii., 10-13 ; xxxvi., 9, 10, 17-20 ; Jer. 
xl. ; xli. ; lii., 15, 16, 28-30 ; Esther ii., 5, 6 ; Ezek. i., 1, 
2 : Ban. i., 1.— 2 See Aichmat.otaroii.— ^ Neh. i., 11 ; 
Eslh. viii., 2 ; Psa. cxxxvii. ; Ezek. xx., 1 ; Dan. ii., 48, 
49.—* Ezra i., 1-6 ; ii., 64; vi., 17 ; viii. ; Neh. vii., 60. 



most apostatized, and were swallowed by the 
nations around.^ 

A more fatal captivity yet awaited the 
Jews. They rejected the Messiah, and the 
Eomans came and took away their place and 
nation. At the destruction of Jerusalem 
by Titus, a.d. 70, multitudes perished, and 
many captives were made ; and at a subse- 
quent overthrow by Adrian, a.d. 135, thou- 
sands were sold or transi^orted, besides vast 
numbers that were slain. Since then the 
Jews have been scattered through all lands, 
as we see them to-day — a standing wonder 
to the w^orld, not only in the fact itself, but 
even more in the correspondence of that fact 
to predictions known to have been delivered 
centuries before. 

Capuchins, a religious institution of the 
order of St. Francis. It originated with" 
Matthew Bassi, a minor Observantine friar 
of the Duchy of Spoleto, in Italy, who as- 
serted, in 1525, that he had a diviue call to 
observe a stricter rule of poverty. He re- 
tired, accordingly, to a solitary place, accom- 
panied by twelve other monks, forming, with 
the permission of the pope, Clement VII., a 
new congregation. The rules drawn up for 
their government by Bassi were of the strict- 
est and most austere character, and recom 
mended poverty in the ornaments of their 
Church, and prohibited in them the use of 
gold, silver, and silk ; the pavilions of the al- 
tars wTre to be of stuff, and the chalices of 
tin. The order of Capuchins soon spread all 
over Italy, and was established in France in 
1573, with the consent of Pope Gregory XIII. 
So rapidly has it been diffused over the whole 
world, that it is one of the largest and most 
widely-spread orders, and the most respected 
in the Romish Church. It is said that " the 
Capuchins preserve their reputation in con- 
sequence of their poverty." There is an order 
of Capuchin nuns, as well as monks. These 
were first established at Naples, in 1558, by 
a lady belonging to a noble Spanish family. 
The monastery was put by the pope under 
the government of the Capuchins, and the 
nuns having adopted the dress of that order, 
were called CapucMnes. On account of their 
austerity, they received the name also of 
'' Nuns of the Passion." Monasteries of the 
same kind were formed in various places. 

Caraites {texfuaUsts), a small modern sect 
of the Jews. They are chiefly found in the 
Crimea, Lithuania, and Persia, at Damas- 
cus, Constantinople, and Cairo. The Cara- 
ites themselves claim a very high antiqui- 
ty, alleging that the genuine succession of 
the Jewish Church is to be found only 
with them ; and accordingly they produce 
a long list of doctors, reaching, in an un- 
interrupted series, as far back as Ezra the 
scribe. They differ from the other Jews in 

1 Ezra i.,' 1-6; ii., 64; vi., 17; viii.; Neh. vii., 66; 
Luke ii., 36; John vii., 35; Actts xxvi., 7. But see 
Beni-Iseael. 



CARBONARI 



166 



CARMELITES 



Yarious ceremonies, and in tlie observance 
of tlieir festivals, and are much more strict 
in the observance of the Jewish Sabbath. 
The principal diiference, however, between 
the Caraites and the rest of the Jews is, that 
they adhere closely to the text of the Scrip- 
ture, and reject all paraphrases, additions, 
and glosses of the Rabbis. Travelers tell us 
that they hold the Jewish faith in much 
purity and simplicity, and that their morals 
are unusually blameless. In Poland, the rec- 
ords of the police prove that no Caraite has 
been punished for an offense against the law 
for four centuries ; and in Gallicia, the Gov- 
ernment has exempted them, on account of 
their good conduct, from the imposts levied 
on other Hebrews, conferring on them, at the 
same time, all the privileges enjoyed by their 
Christian fellow-subjects. 

Carbonari (cJiarcoal-men), a modern polit- 
ico-religious sect in Italy, supposed either to 
have originated from the Freemasons, or to 
have been formed in imitation of that insti- 
tution, meeting in secret assemblages, and 
observing certain mystical rites and signs. 
They pretended to derive their first prin- 
ciples from the Scriptures, applying them, 
however, chiefly to political purposes. The 
religious and Protestant character of the or- 
der is expressed in its statutes, which include 
the article, "that every Carbonaro has the 
natural and unalterable right of worship- 
ing God according to his own convictions." 
Various popes have denounced the Carbona- 
ri, fulminating the pains of excommunica- 
tion against all who shall become affiliated 
members of, or who shall not immediately 
withdraw from the association. These se- 
cret societies, however, notwithstanding the 
anathema of the pope, are still in operation 
in various parts of Italy, and exert a pow- 
erful political influence. 

Carbuncle, the rendering in the English 
version of two Hebrew words. It is impos- 
sible to determine with precision what par- 
ticular gem is denoted by the terms. The ety- 
mology of the words indicate that a precious 
stone of a brilliant fiery hue is indicated. 
It was one of the gems in the high-priests' 
breastplate. [Exod. xxviii., 17 ; xxxix., 10 ; 
Ezek. xxviii., 13 ; Isa. liv., 12.] 

Carchemish, a fortified city on the Eu- 
phrates. Isaiah mentions it among the cit- 
ies conquered by the Assyrians. It was ta- 
ken by Pharaoh-Necho about B.C. 608, and re- 
taken by Nebuchadnezzar three years after. 
The locality is now utterly waste. It has 
generally been regarded as identical with 
modern Circesium. [Isa. x.,9; Jer. xlvi., 2.] 

Cardinal, the title of the highest dignita- 
ries in the Romish Church after the pope, 
whose electors and coiTncilors they are ; the 
pope being generally chosen from their num- 
ber. The popes have power to bestow the 
rank of cardinal on any individual of the 
clergy, or even the laity, whom they choose 



to select. This power, however, has often 
been contested, and the right of the cardinal 
to precedence denied by the other ecclesias- 
tics. The body of cardinals is styled the 
Sacred College. Most of the cardinals reside 
in Rome, and either enjoy ecclesiastical ben- 
efices, or are emjfloyed in the administration 
of the Church. When not so provided for, 
they receive an allowance of one hundred 
dollars monthly from the papal treasury. 
Some cardinals belong to monastic orders, 
and reside in their convents even after their 
election. The Council of Cardinals, when as- 
sembled under the presidency of the pope to 
discuss matters of Church and State, is call- 
ed the Consistorium. 

Carmel {vineyard-like garden). 1. Mount 
Carmel, more properly an elevated ridge 
than a mountain, forms one of the most 
striking and attractive features of Palestine. 
It is fully twelve miles long, and on the side 
toward the sea juts out into a bluff, prom- 
ontory, or headland, 1700 feet above the wa- 
ter, the only thing of the kind on the sea- 
coast of Palestine. Toward the south Car- 
mel slopes gradually down into the hills of 
Samaria and the plain of Sharon, w^here stood 




View of Mount Carmel from the Sea. 

the ancient Csesarea. The range is loftier 
toward the north-east, and it is there that 
tradition places the memorable scene of con- 
flict between Elijah and the prophets of 
Baal,^ near a spring which is said to be per- 
ennial. The forests of Carmel have disap- 
peared, as also its vineyards f and the mount- 
ain can only now be characterized as a fine 
pasture-field. The most remarkable thing 
now and for many generations past con- 
nected with Carmel is the convent, the orig- 
inal seat of the barefooted monks, whose es- 
tablishment from the thirteenth century be- 
gan to spread over Europe. The traditions 
of the Latin Church connect this order with 
Elijah, but without any foundation in histo- 
ry. The mountain is now commonly called 
Mar Elyas. 

2. Carmel, a city, was situated in the 
mountain district of Judah, and was the 
residence of the churlish Nabal. The ruins 
of the place still exist, about ten miles from 
Hebron. [1 Sam. xxv., 2.] 

Carmelites, an order of monks established 
in the twelfth century on Mount Carmel, in 

1 1 Kings xvili., 20-40.—'' 2 Kings xix., 23; 2 Chron. 
xxvi., 10. 



CARNIVAL 



167 



CARTHUSIANS 



Palestine. It was founded by Berthold, a Ca- 
labrian, who pretended to have been guided 
by a vision of the prophet Elijah to choose 
this spot as the seat of a tower and small 
churchjWhich he occupied with only ten com- 
panions. From this small beginning arose 
the important order of the Carmelites, which 
by legend is traced back as far as the time 
of Elijah, who they allege was called "bald- 
head" because he had adopted the tonsure. 
In the sixteenth century, St. Theresa, a Span- 
ish lady of noble family, undertook to reform 
the order. She built a small convent at 
Avila, under the name of St. Joseph, and in 
the congregation of nuns which she thus 
formed began those improvements which 
were rapidly adopted by others. Seventeen 
monastic establishments were constituted on 
the same model, and in a.d. 1562 Pius IV. 
confirmed and approved her rule. The Car- 
melites of the ancient observance were called 
the Mitigated, or Moderate; the Reformed, 
or those of the strict observance, were called 
Barefooted Carmelites. Although this order 
has been much divided by dissensions, it is 
one of the most celebrated of the mendicant 
orders in the Romish Church. 

Carnival, a Romish festival, cielebrated at 
Rome and Venice with the most unbounded 
mirth and revelry In the south of Ger- 
many it is called Fasching. The word car- 
nival seems to be derived from the Latin 
words carni and vale, and to signify a fare- 
well to flesh, because at that festival the 
Romanists took leave for a time of meat. The 
Carnival lasts for eight days — from Twelfth- 
day till Lent ; and as the long fast immedi- 
ately follows, it is devoted to all kinds of en- 
joyment, and to such excess of pleasure and 
riot as to resemble, if indeed it is not an imi- 
tation of, the pagan Saturnalia of the ancient 
Romans. Though celebrated elsewhere, it is 
pre-eminently the festival of the two above- 
mentioned cities. At Venice it is conduct- 
ed with peculiar mirth and gayety. Shows, 
masquerades, and theatrical exhibitions of 
various kinds form the leading diversions of 
this festive season. The Carnival at Rome is 
a scene of buffoonery, jollity, extravagance, 
and caricature which has no parallel in the 
world. Real life in all its varieties is deline- 
ated in a most grotesque and entertaining 
way. All the professions are ridiculed ex- 
cept the priesthood ; but no allusion is made 
to monks, nuns, friars, or priests. Every oth- 
er business in life, even the most serious, is 
ludicrously mimicked, even in its commonest 
details. Still it is all done and borne with 
the most invincible good-humor. It is a re- 
markable proof of the strange inconsistency 
which pervades the whole system of Ro- 
manism, that at the very time when the 
madness of the Carnival is at its height, the 
cardinal - vicar issues spiritual invitations 
to the faithful, beseeching them to shun the 
dissipations of the season, and to visit the 



churches and stations where religious serv- 
ices appropriate to the time are being held. 

Carriage. Vehicles to which we apply this 
term were unknown to the ancients ; and this 
word, which occurs but six times in the text 
of our version of the Bible, signifies, for the 
most part, what we now call "baggage." 
See Cart ; Chariot. [ Judg. xviii., 21 ; 1 
Sam. xvii., 22 ; Isa. x., 28 ; xlvi., 1 ; Acts, xxi., 
15. 

Cart. The Hebrew word rendered by our 
translators in some places by " wagon," in 
others by " cart," and in Psalms xlvi., 9, by 
" chariot," denotes any vehicle moving on 
wheels, and generally drawn by cattle, but is 
to be distinguished from the chariot, which 
was drawn by horses. In Ezek. xxiii., 24, 
however, "wagon" is the translation of an- 
other Hebrew word, and must be understood 




An ancieut Ethiopian Princess traveling in a Car 
drawn by Oxen, with a sort of Umbrella, a Driver, 
and a Footman. 

to denote the war chariot. The cart was 
either covered or open, and was used for the 
conveyance of persons, burdens, or produce. 
The load seems to have been made fast by a 
large rope ; hence in Isa. v., 18, a cart-rope is 
made a symbol of strong attachment to sin- 
ful habits of indulgence. At present, be- 
cause there are no roads, wheel carriages 
are all but unknown in Syria, and the only 
carts used in Western Asia have two solid 
wheels of wood. Ancient carts are figured 



@>" ^^ 




Ancient Egyptian Carts: 1, 2, for ordinary purposes; 
3, for conveying a Shrine containing a Mummy. 

in the Egyptian and Assyrian monuments 
with two or four wheels with spokes. Four- 
wheeled carriages are said to have been in- 
vented by the Phrygians, [1 Sam. vi., 7-14 ; 
2 Sam. vi., 3 ; 1 Chron. xiii., 7 ; Isa. xxviii., 
28, Amos ii., 13.] 

Carthusians, a religious order which was 
instituted in the eleventh century. The 
name is derived from Chartreux (CarfMsiwm), 
not far from Grenoble, in France, a valley 



CASLUHIM 



168 



CASTE 



where Bruno, of Cologne, a very learned man, j 
and founder of the order, settled, about a.d. 
1084, with twelve companions, who main- 
tained the utmost simi^licity and austerity, 
and were occupied chiefly in transcribing 
books, particularly the Bible and old theo- 
logical works. The Carthusians are perhaps 
the strictest and the most severe in their 
discipline of all the monastic institutions of 
Rome ; and, in consequence of this, there 
have always been very few nuns in connec- 
tion with the order. Carthusians wear hair- 
cloth next the skin ; they are not permitted 
to eat animal food, must prepare their own 
victuals, and eat alone, not in common. Al- 
most perpetual silence is enforced, and they 
are not allowed to go out of the monastery 
under any pretense whatever. The supe- 
riors of the order never took the name of ab- 
bots, but have always been called priors, 
and the name of their monasteries, Char- 
treuse-houses, havebeen corrupted to charter- 
houses. In France, Italy, Germany, and other 
Roman Catholic countries, notwithstanding 
their vow of poverty, rich Carthusian char- 
ter houses are often found. At an early 
period after the institution of the order 
they passed into England, where the order 
amassed considerable wealth ; but their mon- 
asteries, with their ample revenues, shared 
the fate of the other monastic institutions 
at the period of the. Reformation. 

Casluhim, a Mizraite people or tribe. The 
only clue we have as yet to the position of 
the Casluhim is their place in the list of the 
sons of Mizraim between the Pathrusim and 
the Caphtorira, whence it is probable that 
they were seated in Upper Egypt. [Gen. x., 
14; 1 Chron. i., 12.] 

Cassia. Two Hebrew words are trans- 
lated cassia : one, implying to " split," is a 
name given to the substance in question, be- 
cause its rolls are split : the other has the 
sense of peeling, because the bark is stripped 
oft'. Most probably these two words refer to 
the same thing — the rind or bark of an aro- 
matic plant not so fine or fragrant as cinna- 
mon, but much resembling it. This may be 
the Cinnamomum cassia, a native of India and 
Cliina. Cassia was one of the ingredients in 
the holy anointing-oil. It was used to per- 
fume garments, and it was an article of mer- 
chandise at Tyre. [Exod. xxx., 24; Ezek. 
xxvii., 19; Psa. xlv., 8.] 

Caste. This term is applied primarily to 
distinct classes in India, and, in a secondary 
way, to social distinctions of an exclusive 
character among Western nations. Of caste 
as a modern social distinction in Christen- 
dom, we need only say that it not only re- 
ceives no warrant in the Bible, but is utterly 
opposed alike to the spirit of the New Testa- 
ment and of the Old. It is true that there 
was a priestly class under the Old dispensa- 
tion ; but they were not kept separate from 
the rest of the people^ nor were intermar- 



riages between them and the laity discoun- 
tenanced ; and in the New it is distinctly 
and emphatically declared that in Christ's 
kingdom there is neither distinction of race 
nor sex, but all are one in Christ Jesus. 

Of caste in India, an erroneous impression 
has been sometimes produced by the works 
of those who have studied it only in Hindoo 
literature. Caste according to the laws of 
Mauu, on which it is avowedly founded, and 
caste as it actually exists at the present day 
in India, are two very different things. Ac- 
cording to the laws of Mann, all society is 
to be divided into four classes : 

1. The Brahman^s, or sacerdotal class. Their 
business is reading and teaching the Vedas, 
and the performance of sacrifice for them- 
selves and others. They are the chief of all 
created beings ; the rest of mortals enjoy life 
through them. By their imprecations they 
can destroy kings, with all their troops, and 
elephants, and pomps. Indra, when cursed 
by one of them, was hurled from his own 
heaven, and compelled to animate a cat. 
Hence the Brahman is to be treated Avith 
the most profound respect even by kings. 
His life and person are protected by the se- 
verest laws in this world, and the most tre- 
mendous denunciations for the next. His 
own ofienses are treated with singular leni- 
ty ; all offenses against him, with terrible 
severity. He is forbidden to live by serv- 
ice, but on alms ; and it is incumbent upon 
virtuous men and kings to support him with 
liberality ; and all ceremonies of religion in- 
volve feasts and presents to him. The first 
part of his life is to be devoted to an unre- 
mitting study of the Vedas ; he is to per- 
form servile offices for his preceptor, and beg 
from door to door. In the second quarter, 
he lives with his wife, reads and teaches the 
Vedas, assists at sacrifices, and, " clean and 
decent, his hair and beard clipped, his pas- 
sions subdued, his mantle white, his body 
pure, with a staff and a copy of the Vedas in 
his hand, and bright golden rings in his 
ears," he leads a studious and decorous life. 
The third quarter of his life he must spend 
in the woods as an anchorite, clad in bark, 
without fire, wholly silent, and feeding on 
roots and fruits. The last period he is re- 
leased from external forms and mortifica* 
tions, and is to spend his time meditating on 
the divinity, until at length he quits the 
body, as a bird leaves the branch of a tree, 
at pleasure. 

2. The Eshatrya, or Chuttree, or military 
class, sprang from the arm of Brahma, and 
bear something of a sacred character It 
is stated that the sacerdotal order can not 
prosper without the military, or the military 
without the sacerdotal ; and the prosperity 
of both, as well in this Avorld as in the next, 
is made to depend on their cordial union. 
The Kshatrya are to give alms, to sacrifice, 
to read the* Vedas, and to defend the people. 



CASTE 



169 



CASUISTRY 



Thougli Brahmans are to draw up and inter- 
pret laws, they are carefully excluded from 
administering tliem. The executive govern- 
ment is vested in the Kshatryas alone. 

3. The Vaisija, or Bais, or mercantile class, 
sprang from the thigh or breast of Brahma. 
Their grand duties are to keep cattle, carry 
on trade, lend money on interest, cultivate 
the soil, and turn their attention to every 
description of practical knowledge. They 
are to be perfect men of business. 

4. The Sudras, or Sooders, or so'vile class, 
came from the foot of Brahma. They are to 
serve the three superior classes, more espe- 
cially the Brahmans. Their condition is 
never to be improved; they are not to ac- 
cumulate property, and are unable by any 
means to approach the dignity of the higher 
classes. Utter and entire submissiveness to 
the Brahmans is the spirit of all a Sudra's 
duties, and this is to be enforced by penal- 
ties as severe as they are ridiculous; yet 
withal, the Sudras are not to be slaves. 
Mixture of castes, though not absolutely for- 
bidden, entails disadvantages on the chil- 
dren ; and the oifspring of a Brahmanical 
woman and a Sudra becomes a Chandala, or 
outcast — much below even the Sudra. 

Such is a brief outline of caste, as gathered 
from the code of Manu. But the caste which 
at present exists throughout the greater part 
of India is a very different matter. With 
the exception of the Brahmans, the pure 
castes have disappeared, and out of the in- 
termixture of the others have sprung innu- 
merable classes, many of them unauthorized 
except by the people themselves. So in- 
grained in the whole community is this tend- 
ency to class distinctions, that Mussulmans, 
Jews, Parsees, and Christians fall, in some 
degree, into it ; and even excommunicated 
or outcast Pariahs form castes among them- 
selves. Most of the existing castes partake 
of the nature of associations for mutual sup- 
port or familiar intercourse, and are depend- 
ent upon a man's trade, occupation, or profes- 
sion. Many have had their origin in guilds, 
in schisms from other castes, in the posses- 
sion of a particular sort of property, and sim- 
ilar accidental circumstances. Their names 
are often due to the district in which the 
caste took its rise, to their founder, or to 
their peculiar creed. In the Bengal presi- 
dency there are many hundreds of such 
castes, almost every district containing some 
unknown in those adjacent. Among the low- 
est classes, and especially among the serv- 
ants of the English at Calcutta, it has de- 
generated into a fastidious tenacity of the 
rights and privileges of station. The man 
who sweeps your room will not take an emp- 
ty cup from your hand ; your groom will not 
mow a little grass ; a coolie will carry any 
load, however offensive, upon his head, but 
even in a matter of life and death would 
refuse to carry a man, for that is the busi- 



ness of another caste. Nor does caste at the 
present day tie a man down to follow his fa- 
ther's business except, perhaps, in the case 
of the more sacred functions of the Brah- 
mans. For the rest, Brahmans serve as 
soldiers^ and even cooks. Men of all castes 
have risen to power. Loss of caste may be 
recovered by a frugal repast given to the 
members of the caste ; or the outcast joins 
another caste, among whom he will common- 
ly be received with the heartiness due to a 
new convert. The question how caste is to 
be dealt with in converts to Christianity has 
now been determined by common consent 
of missionaries in India, and it receives no 
recognition by them within the Christian 
Church. An opposite policy in former times, 
founded on the opinion that caste might be 
regarded as merely a civil or social institu- 
tion, and not as a part of the religion of the 
Hindoos, is now believed to have been among 
the principal causes of the comparative de- 
cay of the churches or congregations founded 
during the eighteenth century in the south 
of India. It still continues, however, to give 
serious trouble among the converts, who ar- 
gue that if they mingle with persons of a 
lower caste they will degrade themselves 
and their religion in the eyes of the heathen. 

Castor and Pollux. These, in heathen 
mythology the sons of Jupiter and Leda, 
were regarded as the tutelar deities of sail- 
ors. Ancient ships had at the prow a rep- 
resentation of that from which they took 
their name, and at the stern one of their tu- 
telar deity. These may sometimes have been, 
as would seem in the case of St. Paul's ves- 
sel, the same. [Acts xxviii., 11.] 

Casuistry, that branch of theology and 
morals which professes to deal with very 
delicate moral questions, and which under- 
takes to supply rules and principles of rea- 
soning for resolving the same. Casuistry 
has been and still is studied chiefly by Eo- 
man Catholic theologians ; but at one peri- 
od Protestant divines also paid some atten- 
tion to the perverted science. The Talmud 
contains an enormous accumulation of casu- 
istical questions, and the sphere of Christian 
ethics in the Middle Ages often became a 
mere arena for unprofitable and pernicious 
disputations of this nature. The extent to 
which the casuistical system was carried by 
some of the Jesuit fathers in the Middle Ages 
is illustrated by Pascal's "Provincial Let- 
ters," from whose satire Jesuit casuistry has 
never fully recovered. A single illustration 
may suffice to give the reader an idea of this 
nefarious system. To render evil for evil is 
forbidden by Scripture. But, said the casu- 
ists, we must distinguish between the act 
and the intention. A man may not intend 
to avenge a wrong received, for the sake of 
vengeance, but he may lawfully intend to 
avert infamy, and for that purpose may pun- 
ish, or even slay, the wrong-doer. So, while 



CATACOMBS 



170 



CATACOMBS 



lie may not fight a duel for the purpose of 
killing his adversary, he may accept a chal- 
lenge for the purpose of preserving his hon- 
or, and then, if attacked, may defend himself. 
On similar principles assassination was per- 
mitted, because " by this means we escape 
from exposing our life in the duel, and from 
participating in the sin which our opponent 
would have committed by fighting the duel." 
In a word, there was scarcely any sin which 
the casuists of the Middle Ages did not per- 
mit or justify with some such ingenious but 
baseless pleas as those here hinted at. 

Catacombs, subterraneous chambers and 
passages, excavated generally in easily-work- 
ed rock, and used as places of sepulture. 
They are to be found in almost every coun- 



galleries, very much like those of a mine, 
and about eight feet high by five feet wide, 
expanding at irregular intervals into wide 
and lofty vaulted chambers. The walls of 
both galleries and chambers are pierced with 
several rows of niches which served as graves, 
and were filled with coffins. The entrances 
to these niches were built up with stones, 
on which usually were inscribed the letters 
D.M. — the initials of the Latin phrase signi- 
fying "to the great God" — or in monogram, 
X.P., the first two letters of the Greek name 
of Christ. Other inscriptions and marks of 
ornament are also found, the latter consist- 
ing chiefl^y of palm-branches, or olive-branch- 
es, or the figure of the cross rudely scratched 
on the stone. Art found its way into the 




Ground-plan. 



try in which such soft rock exists. For a 
resting-place for their dead, the early Chris- 
tians, like their Master, were frequently in- 
debted to some kind and compassionate 
stranger, who supplied them with some un- 
occupied ground where they might be safe 
from the indignities of their heathen foes. 
Even in days of outward tranquillity the 
remains of converts to the Christian faith 
were buried in lonely and sequestered spots, 
and by far the greater number of the primi- 
tive Christians were entombed in catacombs 
or underground sepulchres. The most cele- 
brated catacombs in existence, s^nd those 
which pre-eminently bear the name, are on 
the Via Appia, at a short distance from Rome. 
They consist of long, narrow, and tortuous 



catacombs at an early period, and many re- 
mains of frescoes are still found in them. In 
these underground cities of the dead, the 
living also often found refuge. Here they 
were accustomed to conduct their worship, 
as well as bury their departed friends. Here, 
in these dreary crypts, the Christians were 
doomed to dwell, not only for the brief space 
of time when persecution was at its height, 
but for years. In these retreats multitudes 
lived for weeks and months, without seeing 
sun, moon, or stars. The aged and poor were 
maintained by the liberality of those whose 
love for the cause had provided the sanctu- 
ary, or by the contributions of the young and 
vigorous. In these spacious caverns, whoso 
gloom and solitude were but ill relieved by 



CATECHISM 



171 



CATECHmiENS 




Chapel in the Catacombs. 



the glimmer of a hundred tapers, and whose 
walls were lined with immense rows of burial 
jilaces, in which reposed the remains of their 
fathers and brethren who died in the faith, 
they spent their midnight vigils edifying one 
another with the things pertaining to a com- 
mon salvation. Long after their meetings 
had ceased to be clandestine, the cemeteries 
continued to be the favorite resorts of the 
Christians for purposes of worship. 

Catechism. From a Greek word mean- 
ing to resound; hence, to instruct hy ivord of 
mouth. Properly speaking, therefore, cate- 
chism signifies the method of instruction by 
asking questions, receiving answers, and of- 
fering explanations or corrections, and may 
be applied to scientific, or historical, or other 
secular subjects. Usually, however, cate- 
chism signifies a book of Christian instruc- 
tion drawn up in the form of question and an- 
swer, and intended to be employed orally in 
teaching theological doctrines to the young 
or the ignorant. The catechetical mode of 
teaching was employed among the ancient 
heathen philosophers, was the favorite meth- 
od of Socrates, has been employed in the 
Christian churches from the earliest ages, 
and is used in a modified form in almost all 
institutions of learning, and in almost every 
branch of knowledge. Religious catechisms 
have fallen sometimes under unjust oppro- 
briuni. It is, however, because the system 
has not been fairly carried out, the catechet- 
ical method being truly employed only when 
the pupil is stimulated by the question to 
think for himself. Merely to commit to mem- 
ory answers already provided preserves only 
the form, and not the spirit of catechetical 
instruction. Luther, who may be said to be 
the father of modern catechetics, insisted 
strenuously that the learning of the cate- 
chism should not merely include the hearing 
of a recitation from a book, but also an ex- 



planation and an application of its doctrines 
to the hearts of the pupils. 

The following are the principal catechisms : 
1. The Lutheran, prepared by Luther in 1527, 
and still generally employed by the German 
churches; 2. The Geneva Catechism, dra,v,'^nu-p 
by Calvin, 1536-1538 ; 3. The Heidelberg Cate- 
chism, published at Heidelberg in 1562, and 
still recognized as a doctrinal standard by 
the Dutch Reformed Church ; 4. The Church 
of England C«fec/iis«i, embodied in the Book 
of Common Prayer, and du-ected by the ru- 
bric to be systematically taught to the chil- 
dren; 5. The Westminster Assemhly^s Catechism, 
which exists in two forms, as the Shorter and 
the Larger Catechism. The former of these 
is generally accepted in the main as a cor- 
rect statement of doctrine, not only by all 
Presbyterians, but also by the Congrega- 
tionalists ; 6. The Methodist Catechism, which 
exists in three forms — the second and third 
embodying the first, with proofs and illustra- 
tions ; 7. The Tridentine CatecMsm, a Romish 
work prepared in obedience to a decree of 
the Council of Trent, but intended rather as 
a manual for the instruction of pastors than 
for the use of children ; 8. The Cracovian and 
jRacovian Catechisms, which are Polish in tlieir 
origin, and Socinian in doctrine. There are, 
in addition, numberless other catechisms, 
both Protestant and Romish, prepared by 
private individuals, and useful in the vari- 
ous denominations, whose doctrines they em- 
body, but not possessing any distinct author- 
ity as an official declaration of their views. 

Catechumens, a name given in the first 
ages of Christianity to Jews or Gentiles who 
were being prepared to receive baptism. In 
the apostolical churches, when an individual 
professed faith in the Lord Jesus Christ, he 
was immediately baptized. Instruction fol- 
lowed his reception into the Church. So 
long as the Church was feeble and threaten- 



CATENA 



172 CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC CHURCH 



ed with persecution, this fact constituted a 
sufficient protection of its purity ; but when 
Christianity became popular, some greater 
guard was deemed necessary. Persons desir- 
ing to be received for baptism were required 
to undergo a period of probation and instruc- 
tion varying in length from forty days to 
two years. Certain officers of the Church, 
usually presbyters or deacons, were assigned 
to the task of affording the necessary in- 
struction, and were termed catechists. The 
catechumens not being baptized, were not 
permitted to receive, nor, according to some 
authors, so much as to see the consecrated el- 
ements. Before baptizing, they were obliged 
to pass many days in fasting and prayer, 
to submit to repeated examinations, and in 
later times to a kind of exorcism, accom- 
panied by the imposition of hands. There 
were various orders of catechumens, classi- 
fied according to the degree of proficiency 
attained. 

Catena {a chain). By a Catena Patrum is 
meant a series of passages from the writings 
of various fathers, arranged for the eluci- 
dation of some portions of Scripture. They 
seem to have originated in the short scholia, 
or glosses, which it was customary in manu- 
scripts of the Scriptures to introduce in the 
margin. These by degrees were expanded, 
and passages from the homilies or sermons 
of the fathers were added to them. Their 
chief value is in affording some knowledge 
of works of ancient writers otherwise un- 
known to us. 

Cathari or Catharists, a name very gener- 
ally given to various sects which appeared 
in the Church during the Middle Ages, some- 
times assumed in profession of a purity of doc- 
trine and morals superior to that which gener- 
ally prevailed in the Church, sometimes be- 
stowed ironically, in ridicule of such a profes- 
sion. It became a common appellation of sects 
which appeared in Lombardy in the begin- 
ning of the eleventh century, and afterward 
in France and the west of Germany. Hav- 
ing some connection with the Bulgarian Pau- 
licians, these sects were sometimes called Bul- 
garians ; sometimes also Paterenes or Patarines ; 
sometimes Publicans or Popelitans, and, in the 
Low Countries, Piphles. Manichseism, Gnos- 
ticism, and Montanism are ascribed to the 
Cathari ; but there is much reason to think 
that the errors of a few were often indiscrimi- 
nately charged upon all. It appears quite 
certain that the Cathari differed considerably 
among themselves in their doctrines, and in 
the degree of their opposition to the domi- 
nant Church. Some of them advocated and 
practiced a rigid asceticism. There is no good 
evidence that any of them nearly approach- 
ed to the doctrines of the Reformation ; al- 
though, in their rejection of tradition, of the 
authority of Rome, of the worship of saints 
and images, etc., there are notable points of 
agreement with the views of the Reformers. 



Cathedral. This word is derived from the 
Latin word cathedra, meaning chair. In the 
early Christian Church special seats were as- 
signed to the bishops, somewhat similar to 
those occupied by heathen teachers in giv- 
ing their instructions. So when the pope is 
said to speak ex cathedra it is meant that he 
speaks from his chair, i. e., officially. It is 
from this word cathedra that the church edi- 
fice containing the bishop's chair or throne 
derived its name of cathedral. In the En- 
glish Church, the principal officers of the 
cathedral are a bishop, dean, precentor, 
chancellor, treasurer, arch-deacons, canons, 
and vicars. One of the main purposes for 
which cathedrals were founded was to im- 
part Christian instruction especially to those 
who were- under training for holy orders in 
the Church, and almost every cathedral has 
its school. Architecturally, the cathedral 
edifice is ordinarily built in the form of a 
Latin cross. The bishop's throne is placed 
behind the altar. Special services, corona- 
tions, councils, etc., are held in cathedrals. In 
this country there are, in connection with the 
Episcopal Church, but six cathedrals prop- 
erly so called, though many of the bishops 
are accustomed to administer the service reg- 
ularly in a parish church. 

Catholic (universal), a title given to the 
Christian Church to distinguish it from the 
Jewish Church, which was national, and 
so exclusive or partial, while the Christian 
Church includes all nationalities in one 
household of faith. The phrase in the Apos- 
tles' Creed, "I believe in the holy Catholic 
Church," employs the word in this its origi- 
nal significance, and really means simply, I 
believe in the catholicity — i. e., the univer- 
sality — of Christ's invisible Church. A per- 
son is said to be catholic in his sympathies or 
doctrine who is broad-minded, and able to 
embrace all mankind in his heart, shutting 
out none from his good-will because they 
differ from him in doctrine. Certain of the 
epistles in the N. T. are called the catholic 
epistles, to distinguish them from those which 
are addressed to particular churches. Those 
thus entitled are the Epistles of James, the 
two Epistles General of Peter, the first 
Epistle of John, and the Epistle of Jude. 
The term catholic is assumed by the Church 
of Rome, which claims by its title to be the 
one universal Church. The proper title of 
the Church is, however, the Romish Church, 
or the Papal Church — at least no other name 
can properly be given to it except by those 
who believe that it is the only true Church, 
and that all Protestants are schismatics. 
See Roman Catholic Church. 

Catholic Apostolic Church. The name 
assumed by a sect originated in England in 
1829-'30, by Rev. Edward Irving. Its mem- 
bers are hence popularly known as Irviugites. 
The Rev. Edward Irving was born in Scot- 
land, August 15, 1792, and, in 1819, became 



CATTLE 



173 



CAVE 



the assistant of Dr. Chalmers in Glasgow. 
In 1822 he removed to Loudon, where he at 
once achieved an unparalleled popularity as a 
preacher. He became an enthusiastic student 
and expounder of the prophecies, taught the 
second personal advent of Jesus Christ, and 
when, in 1830, certain extraordinary mani- 
festations of prophetic power were reported 
in the West of Scotland, he at once accepted 
them, teaching that the inspired gifts, and 
especially the gift of tongues (q.v.), grant- 
ed to the apostles in the early Church, were 
not exceptional, hut were bestowed upon the 
Church as a permanent element of spiritual 
power. He was tried for heresy, and convict- 
ed; but his congregation adhered to him, and 
from them grew iip the Church which has 
since popularly received his name, though 
with its organization as a denomination he 
had personally very little to do. He was de- 
posed in 1833, and died in December, 1834. 

The Catholic Apostolic Church does not 
differ from other Christian churches in re- 
gard to the common doctrines of the Chris- 
tian religion ; but its adherents hold some 
important doctrines in addition. They main- 
tain the second personal coming of Christ ; 
they regard the spiritual movements above 
referred to, and the phenomena accompany- 
ing them to be a special preparation for that 
coming ; they maintain in the Church four 
ministries, viz. : of the ''Apostles," or ''Angels 
of the Church," rulers who act in the place of 
the Lord in his absence ; of the '•' Prophets," 
who are the special organs through whom 
the Holy Spirit communicates the divine 
will to the Church; of the "Evangelists," 
appointed to carry the gospel to those who 
are without, and of the " pastors," or " shep- 
herds," to feed and care for the flocks. They 
maintain the doctrine of Cousubstantiation 
(q. V.) in respect to the Lord's Supper, which 
is celebrated in the morning of every Lord's 
Day. They also have a somewhat elabo- 
rate ritual, with incense, altar lights, j)riest- 
ly vestments, etc., and the ancient apostolic 
practice of anointing the sick. Auricular 
confession is i)racticed, but not required. Ex- 
temporaneous prayer-meetings are sustained, 
in which the largest liberty is accorded to 
all, including women and children. No sta- 
tistics of the denomination are published. 
Their congregations, which are not numer- 
ous, are to be found chiefly in Great Britain ; 
hut they also exist in France, Switzerland, 
and the United States. 

Cattle. Under this head we may include 
all the domesticated oxen of Scriptirre, wheth- 
er mentioned as bull, cow, ox, calf, or heif- 
er. As was likely to be the case in a land 
where cattle were of such importance — 
often forming the principal wealth of the in- 
habitants, and prominent also in their relig- 
ious rites — many words were in use to distin- 
guish the cattle according to sex, age, and 
number. In the ancient days much more 



care was expended in the nurture of cattle 
than is used now. This was because of 
the necessity that every animal which was 
brought to the altar should be absolutely 
perfect, and also because in those days the 
ox was very generally fatted for the table.^ 
In Palestine, at the present day, the flesh of 
the cattle is, practically, unused for food, that 
of the sheep or goat being always emploj^ed, 
even when a man gives a feast to his friends. 
The custom of keeping calves fatted ready 
for any festive occasion seems to have pre- 
vailed even in the earliest history of the Bi- 
ble, as is shown by the conduct of Abraham, 
who, when he was visited by three heavenly 
guests, " ran unto the herd, and fetched a 
calf, tender and good," and had it killed, and 
di'essed at once. Our Lord alludes to this 
custom in the familiar parable of the prodi- 
gal son.^ But the chief use of the ox was as 
an agricultural laborer. Ploughing was, and 
is, always performed by oxen, and allusions 
to this office are scattered plentifully through 
both the Old and New Testaments. In refer- 
ring to this use, oxen are almost always 
spoken of in connection with the word 
" yoke,"^ the word being employed evidently 
as we use the terms " brace " or " pair." Ex- 
cept a few yoke of oxen which were kept to 
draw carts and act as beasts of burden, the 
cattle were turned loose for a considerable 
portion of the year, and ran about in herds 
from one pasturage to another. Thus they 
regained many of the characteristics of wild 
animals ; to this habit of theirs certain Scrip- 
tural allusions can be traced.* 

In considering the religious uses of the 
cattle, we find, in bold contrast to each oth- 
er, the divine appointment of certain ani- 
mals to be slain as sacrifices, and the wor- 
ship paid to those very cattle by the heathen 
as living emblems of divinity. This false 
worship was learned by the Israelites during 
their long residence in Egypt. In that idol- 
atrous country, the ceremonies in connection 
with the worship of the holy bulls were as 
imposing as outward circumstances could 
make them ; and so deeply did the customs 
of the Egyptian rehgion sink into the hearts 
of the Israelites, as to seem almost ineradi- 
cable.^ 

In two passages of the 0. T. an animal is 
mentioned,^ respecting which there has been 
some perplexity. The Hebrew name has 
been translated " wild ox " in one passage, 
and "wild bull" in the other. From com- 
paring the context of both passages, it seems 
evident that this animal is not an ox or bull, 
but probably one of the larger species of an- 
telope. 

Cave. The chalky limestone of which the 
rocks of Syria and Palestine chiefly consist 



1 1 Kincrs iv., 23 ; Prov. xv., IT; Matt, xxii., 4.-2 Gen. 
xviii., Ti'Luke xv , 93.-3 i Kincs xix., 10; Job i., 3; 
Luke xiv., 19. See Yoke.—* Psa. xxii.. 12 : Joel i., 18. 
—5 See Bdxl; Calf.— « Deut. xiv., 5; Isa. li., 20. 



CEDAR 



174 



CEDAR 



presents, as is the case in all limestone forma- 
tions, a vast number of caverns and natural 
fissures, manj^ of which have also been arti- 
ficially enlarged, and adapted to various pur- 
poses both of shelter and defense. Various 
words are found in Hebrew designating these 
caverns, or dens, or holes, according to one 
or other of the prominent ideas implied, as 
expressing the use, position, mode of con- 
struction, etc. From several of these words 
places or people have taken their names. 
Thus Hauran is cave-land ; and Horites are 
dwellers in caves. 

The Scripture abounds with reference to 
the use of caves as habitations, and even at 
the present day they are so employed. They 
afforded excellent refuge in time of war. 
Hence to enter into the rock, to go into the 
holes of the rocks, and into the caves of the 
earth,"^ would to the Israelites very properly 
and familiarly express terror and consterna- 
tion. Occasionally caves were enlarged and 
fashioned by art, to make them more serv- 
iceable for different uses, as cisterns for wa- 
ter, receptacles where goods might be stored, 
places of confinement or burial, and not un- 
frequently as fortified strongholds; for all 
which purposes we find mention made of 
them. Very many caves are specially named 
ill Scripture, as those of Adullam, Machpelah, 
Engedi, of which notices will be found under 
their respective names. Very little credit, 
however, can be attached to the traditionary 
accounts of many of the caverns which are 
now shown as the places where remarkable 
events occurred, such as that of Mary at Naz- 
areth, or that of the Nativity at Bethlehem. 
The tradition that Jesus was born in a cave 
is not, however, unreasonable, as caves were 
often used as stables. [Gen. xix., 30 ; Judg. 
vi., 2 ; 1 Sam. xiv., 1 ; xxii., 1, 2 ; xxiii., 29 ; 
xxiv., 1 ; Josh, x., 16-18 ; Isa. xxiv., 22 ; Zech. 
ix., 11 ; John xi., .38.] 

Cedar. The Hebrew word erez, invariably 
rendered cedar in our English Bible, stands 
for that tree in most of the passages where 
the word occurs; but that it is used in a 
wider sense to denote other trees of the nat- 
ural order of cone-bearing plants is clear, 
from some Scriptural passages where it oc- 
curs. For instance, the use of cedar for puri- 
fication was first enjoined in the wilderness, 
where the cedar of Lebanon does not occur. 
It has been suggested that some species of 
juniper might be intended — the saviu, or the 
Phoenician juniper — which is abundant in the 
desert. Its wood is aromatic, and was there- 
fore suitable for purifying. In Ezek. xxvii., 
5, erez perhaps denotes some fir ; in all prob- 
ability the Pinus Jmhpensis^ a species of pine 
which grows in Lebanon, and is better fitted 
than the wood of the cedar of Lebanou fin* 
furnishing ship-masts. It is further worth 
notice that, though Solomon asked Hiram 
generally for "cedars," Hiram understood 
1 Isa. ii., 19, 20i 




Cedar of Lebanon. 

the request to include firs ; and that while 
the word cedar is thought sufficient in one 
place to describe the timber wauted, we find 
the more detailed account below specifying 
also fir-trees and algum-trees.' It is there- 
fore very likely that varieties of pine and 
yew may be included under the general term 
erez; though there can be no doubt that by 
this name is more especially denoted the ce- 
dar of Lebanon, as being the firmest and 
grandest of the conifers. 

The great durability of the cedar made it 
fit for beams, boards, pillars, and ceilings, 
and its fragrance fitted it for purifications. 
It was ancientl}^ very abundant in Pales- 
tine, and its wood was used by the early He- 
brew kings, by the Jews of later times, and, 
as we learn from secular histories, for many 
structures in various parts of the East.^ The 
cedar of Lebanon has wide-spreading roots, 
a tapering trunk, and branches thickest and 
longest nearest the ground. The wood is 
formed by the yearly addition of concentric 
rings, and is hardest inside. The tree is an 
evergreen, with long, narrow, and pointed 
leaves. The cones are oblong, and the wood 
highly resinous. It was on the loftier ranges 
of Lebanon that these cedars chiefly flour- 
ished. They are said to be found now only 
in a single locality, though some moderns 
profess to have discovered them elsewhere. 
There is a well-known cedar grove on Mount 
Lebanon which has been visited and described 
by many travelers, who differ exceedingly 
in their estimate of the number of the trees. 



1 1 Kings v., 0, S; 2 Chron. ii., 3-8.— 2 Lev. xiv., 4; 
Numb, xix., 6 ; 2 Sam. v., 11 ; 1 Kings vi., 9, 10, 15 ; vii., 
2; 1 Chron. xiv., 1; 2 Chron. ii., 8; Psa, Ixxx., 10; 
xoii., 12; Isa. xliv., 14; Jer. xxii., 14; Ezek. xxvii., 5; 
xxxi., 3-9 ; Ezra iii., 7. 



CEILING 



175 



CELIBACY 



Some mention seven, others thirteen, intend- 
ing, doubtless, only those whose age and size 
render them biblical, or at least historical. 
It is not easy, however, to draw any such 
line of demarkation. There is a complete 
gradation, from small and comparatively 
young to the very oldest patriarchs of the 
forest. Dr. Thomson counted 443, and this 
can not be far from the true number. 

Ceiling. The Egyptian monuments fur- 
nish us with illustrations of ceilings of el- 
egant patterns painted in rich colors, and 
Scripture indicates that the same care was 
bestowed on these parts of the house by the 
Jews. The ceiling of the Temple and Solo- 
mon's palace is described in 1 Kings vi., 9, 
10, 15 ; vii., 3 ; 2 Chron. iii., 5. Ceilings in 
the East are still profusely ornamented, 
sometimes with curious paneling or inlaid 
work ; and in localities where wood is scarce, 
we are told that they are made of fine plas- 
ter with tasteful moldings, colored and re- 
lieved with gilding. [ Jer. xxii., 14 ; Haggai 
i.,4.] 

Celibacy. Very early in the history of 
mankind we find manifested a spirit which 
sought to secure peculiar sanctity by ab- 
staining from the lawful gratification of the 
senses. To this source undoubtedly must be 
traced the celibacy of the clergy as dogmat- 
ically enforced by the Romish and other 
kindred churches. It is a question among 
Roman Catholic divines whether marriage 
is by holy Scripture forbidden to the clergy, 
or whether it is only of ecclesiastical author- 
ity, and binding on each clergyman in con- 
sequence of the vow to that effect voluntari- 
ly made at his ordination. The more honest 
and able scholars of the Romish Church do not 
assert that marriage of her members is pro- 
hibited by the Bible, but only by the Church : 
1st. Because the priestly office requires the 
most angelical purity and the nu>st snblime 
sanctity, and the Church assumes that, be- 
fore God, the condition of a single life is 
more acceptable than the married state ; 2d. 
Because the Scripture teaches that continence 
is a suitable means of preparation for '' at- 
tending upon the Lord ;" and as the priest is 
always to attend upon t]ie Lord, the Church 
obliges them always to live continently ; 
3d. The priest should be without worldly 
cares and solicitudes, and marriage brings 
such hinderances. His only care should be 
the good of his people, his only solicitude 
the service of the Lord. Admitting that in 
the apostolic age married men were admit- 
ted to the priesthood, Rome explains this 
fact as a concession to the exigency of the 
times, only suffered until the number of the 
faithful had so increased that youth could 
be trained up to the service of the Church. 
Roman Catholics deny that this law induces 
immorality, but claim that the grace of God 
enables those who take the vow of celibacy 
to live in the strictest purity. It allows 



that there have been some, but denies that 
there have been many who have been a scan- 
dal to the clergy, and cries out against the 
injustice of condemning the state because 
some of the priesthood have been recreant 
to their vows. 

This dogma has been productive of much 
dissension within the Romish Church. For 
centuries it was a subject of constant strug- 
gle, until Gregory VII., in a council held at 
Rome, issued a decretal that every layman 
who should receive the communion from the 
hands of a married priest should be excom- 
municated, and that every priest who mar- 
ried or lived in concubinage should be de- 
posed. The decree met with the most vio- 
lent opposition in all countries, but Gregory 
succeeded in carrying it out with the great- 
est rigor ; and though individual instances 
of married priests were still to be found in 
the twelfth and thirteenth centuries, the 
celibacy of the Roman Catholic clergy was 
established, and has since continued both 
in theory and practice. Although after the 
Reformation the question again came up, 
and at the Council of Trent several bishops 
and the Emperor Charles V. favored a re- 
laxation of the rule, it was finally imposed 
on all the clerg}'^ of the Roman Catholic 
Church. Since that time many of the cler- 
gy in different parts of Europe have sought 
to throw off this yoke of bondage, and 
large numbers in France, Germany, and Ita- 
ly have within a few years demanded the 
abolition of celibacy, but thus far their de- 
mands have only resulted in more stringent 
papal decrees. The Greek, Russian, and Ar- 
menian churches, although considering mar- 
riage an evil, have not adopted the law of 
celibacy for all clergy, requiring entire con- 
tinence only of their highest officers. It 
should be added that the marriage of priests 
before ordination is allowed by the Roman 
Catholic Church in the Eastern churches, and 
that by some Romanists the ground is taken 
that celibacy should always be voluntary, 
never imposed by ecclesiastical discipline. 
This is the position of Father Hyacinthe, 
whose recent marriage (1872) has revived 
upon the Continent the discussion of this 
whole subject, and has struck a heavier blow 
against celibacy than any it has received 
since the days of Luther. 

It seems evident to the Protestant that 
the teaching of Scripture is plainly in favor 
of the marriage of clergymen. Under the 
Mosaic law, priests were not only allowed, 
but encouraged to marry. Although in the 
N. T. we find passages in which an unmar- 
ried life, voluntarily assumed, is commended 
under certain circumstances, no passage in 
the N. T. can properly be interpreted into a 
prohibition of the marriage of the clergy un- 
der the Gospel dispensation ; on the contra- 
ry, there are many from which we may infer 
the contrary. One of the twelve, Peter, was 



CELIBACY 



CENSER 



certainly a married man, and it is supposed 
that several of the others were also married. 
Philip, one of the seven deacons, was also a 
married man ; and if our Lord did not re- 
quire celibacy in the first preachers of the 
Gospel, it can not be thought indispensable 
in their successors. Paul says, *' Let every 
man have his own wife," and that marriage is 
" honorable in all," without excepting those 
who are employed in the public offices of 
religion. He expressly says that " a bishop 
must be the husband of one wife ;" and he 
gives the same direction concerning elders, 
priests, and deacons. When Aquila traveled 
about preaching the Gospel, he was not only 
married, but his wife Priscilla accompanied 
him ; and Paul insists that he might have 
claimed the privilege " of carrying about a 
sister or a wife as other apostles did." The 
"forbidding to marry "^ is mentioned as a 
characteristic of the apostasy of the latter 
times. 

An undue regard for virginity and corre- 
sponding depreciation of marriage began to 
appear strongly about the middle of the sec- 
ond century. Few of the so-called fathers 
escaped from extravagant notions and opin- 
ions on this subject. But no enforced celib- 
acy was known in the Church immediately 
following the apostolic age. The first step 
toward the clerical celibacy was taken in 
the disapproval of second marriages. In the 
great council of Nicsea it was proposed to 
enact a law to enforce celibacy, but Paph- 
nutius, an Egyptian bishop, himself unmar- 
ried, resolutely withstood it as an innova- 
tion, declared that marriage is honorable "- in 
all men," and desired that the ancient tra- 
dition of the Church should continue to be 
observed, viz., that those who before ordina- 
tion were unmarried should continue to be 
so ; and the Council of Gangra, held probably 
about 379, anathematizes those who separate 
from the communion of a married priest. 
The evils brought upon the Church by the 
celibacy of the clergy formed one cause of 
the movement toward reform which culmi- 
nated in the 16th century. The leading Re- 
formers declared against the celibacy of the 
clergy as unfounded in Scripture, and con- 
trary to the natural ordinance of God, and 
the spell was finally broken by the marriage 
of Luther with Catharine Bora. His exam- 
ple was soon widely followed, and his writ- 
ings and those of his coadjutors soon put 
an end to celibacy among all the reforming 
clergy. All the modern evangelical denom- 
inations are agreed in rejecting enforced ce- 
libacy as unscriptural and immoral. It is 
believed by the Protestant world that mar- 
riage is ordained of God as a means to man's 
highest happiness and usefulness ; that it is 
not good for him to be alone in his work as 
a minister of the Gospel; that a true wife 



1 Acts xxi., 9; 1 Cor. vil., 2; Heb. xiii., 4; 1 Tim. 
iii., 2; Acts xviii., 2; 1 Cor. ix., 5; 1 Tim. iv., G. 



will find in her husband's parish abundant 
avenues for Christian work which she could 
not do so well in any other position, while 
she will prove to be an efficient co-operator 
in her husband's labors, and will make his 
home an aid and a comfort instead of a care 
and a distraction. More than this, it is well 
said that, besides cramping the energies of 
the individual man, celibacy deprives soci- 
ety of the incalculable advantage which is 
afibrded by the homes of those whose whole 
life is devoted to the service of God and the 
salvation of man. 

Cenchrea, or Cenchreae (millet), the east- 
ern harbor of Corinth, from which it was 
distant about nine miles. St. Paul sailed 
from this port when returning to Jerusalem 
and Antioch from his second missionary jour- 
ney ; and somewhat later we gather that a 
church had been organized there. The mod- 
ern village of Eikries occupies the site of 
Cenchrea, and some remnants of the moles 
are still visible. The millet also, from which 
the name was derived, is said yet to grow 
in the neighborhood. [Acts xviii., 18 ; Rom. 
xvi., 1.] 

Cenobites, a name given to monks who 
lived in communities, as distinguished from 
hermits or anchorets (q. v.), who lived alone. 
The founder of the Cenobite system was Pa- 
chomius, who, in the beginning of the fourth 
century, established a society of monks on 
Tabennse, an island of the Nile, in Upper 
Egypt; and so popular did the new and 
freer mode of ascetic life become, that in the 
first half of the fifth century the Cenobites 
numbered no fewer than fifty thousand. The 
whole association was called a ccenobium — a 
term which afterward came to be applied to 
single cloisters. The entire monkish society 
was distributed, according to the various de- 
grees of progress in the spiritual life, into 
twenty-four classes, each having its own pre- 
siding officer and its particular labors. They 
employed themselves in the ordinary monk- 
ish avocations. At the end of the fourth 
century each cloister possessed a vessel of its 
own, built by the monks themselves. Nu- 
merous similar communities to those estab- 
lished by Pachomius sprung up in all parts 
of Egypt, adopting his rule, imtil it was su- 
perseded by that of Basil, and even after that 
period it was still followed by some monas- 
tic communities ; and in Persia, under sanc- 
tion of Mohammedanism, it still continues to 
exist. See Monachism. 

Censer, a small portable vessel of metal 
fitted to receive burning coals from the al- 
tar, and on which the incense for burning 
was sprinkled. The only distinct precepts 
regarding the use of the censer are found in 
Numb, iv., 14, and Lev. xvi., 12. Neither in 
connection with the erection of the Taberna- 
cle nor with that of the Temple is the least 
idea conveyed of the form and appearance 
of the censers em^doyed. The probability 



CENTURIES OF MAGDEBURG 177 



CHAEDEA 




Egyptian Censers. 

1. Throwing incense on the flame in censer. 2. Balls of 
incense burning in censer ; a a, Boxes for holding in- 
cense. 3, 4. Censers of different forms. 5. Box or cup 
for incense. 6, 7. Head of handle and pan of censers, 
in bronze. 



is that they were some sort of pan or small 
pot, with a handle at one or both sides for 
the purpose of lifting them, rather than the 
vase -like forms with perforated lids now 
used in the Church of Rome.^ These were 
borrowed from the religions of Greece and 
Rome. The incense was carried to the altar 
of the heathen deities in a square box call- 
ed an acerra, from which it was transferred 
to the turihulum, a vessel of bronze, so con- 
structed that it could be swung in the hand 
by chains, and the cover slightly raised, so 
that the odor of the incense might escape. 
From the same source, also, the Roman Cath- 
olic censer derives its modern name of thuri- 
ble. According to Bingham, neither incense 
nor censers were used in the Christian Church 
during the first three centuries. See Estcense. 

Centuries of Magdeburg, a celebrated ec- 
clesiastical history compiled by a society of 
Lutheran divines, and published 1559-1574, 
in thirteen folio volumes, each volume treat- 
ing of one century. Though the first mod- 
ern attempt to illustrate the history of the 
Church, it was written upon a scale which 
has scarcely been exceeded. It brought to 
light a large quantity of unpublished mate- 
rials, and cast the whole subject into a fixed 
and regular form. One of its most remark- 
able features is its elaborate classification. 
This was strictly original, and, with all its 
inconveniences, undoubtedly tended to intro- 
duce scientific arrangement and minute ac- 
curacy into the study of Church history. 

Chain. Chains were anciently used for 
a triple purpose — as badges of office, as or- 
naments, and for confining prisoners. The 
chain with which Joseph was invested, and 
that promised to Daniel,' are instances of 
the first use. A similar badge was worn 
by other ancient nations — the Romans, the 
Britons, the ancient Irish, the noble Persians 
and Gauls, the Celtic tribes, and other Asiat- 
ic and European nations. It often formed 



1 Exod. XXX., 7, 8 ; 2 Chron. iv., 22 ; xxvi., 16, 18, 19 ; 
Luke i., 9.-2 Gen. xlL, 42; Dan. v., 7, 16, 29. 
12 



one of the chief parts of the spoil of the 
victorious army, and soldiers frequently 
received a neck -chain for their valor. 
The principal judge in Egypt also wore 
a chain of gold, to which was attached 
a jeweled image of Truth. Ornamental 
chains were worn both bj^ men and wom- 
en. The neck-chains consisted of pearls, 
pieces of coral, and other trinkets on a 
string. Other chains were worn hanging 
down as far as the waist, and step-chains 
were attached to the ankle-rings, short- 
ening the step, and producing a mincing 
gait. Chains were among the ornaments 
of the high-priest, were employed in the 
construction of idols, and were used even 
in the decoration of animals.^ The chains 
used for the security of prisoners were 
probably fetters upon the ankles connect- 
ed by a chain. Handcuffs were also put 
on captives. It was the Roman custom to 
handcuff a prisoner, attaching him by a 
chain to one or two guards. Hence the 
word is sometimes employed metaphorically 
to express tribulation. [ Judg. xvi., 21 ; 2 
Sam. iii., 34 ; 2 Kings xxv., 7 ; Jer. xxxix., 7 ; 
Lam. iii., 7 ; Acts xii., 6, 7 ; xxi., 33 ; xxviii., 
16,20; 2 Tim. i., 16.] 

Chalcedony, one of the stones described 
as forming the foundation of the New Jeru- 
salem. It is ordinarily understood to be a 
species of agate, milky white or pale yellow, 
often with a wavy internal structure — al- 
though opinions differ as to the exact char- 
acter of the stone called in Scripture chalce- 
dony. [Rev. xxi., 19.] 

Chaldea. This term, which was applied 
originally to but a small district lying al- 
most entirely on the right bank of the Eu- 
phrates, the southern part of Babylonia, 
must, in its wider Scriptural sense, be taken 
to include the alluvial plain watered by the 
rivers Euphrates and Tigris, bounded on the 
east by the last-named stream, but extending 
across the Euphrates westward to Arabia, 
and from the Persian Gulf running north- 
ward to about the 34th degree of latitude, 
where it joined upon Assyria. This region was 
probably 400 miles in length, with an aver- 
age breadth of 100 miles. Lying in the same 
latitude with Central China, Palestine, Geor- 
gia, and Central California, it has a climate 
the warmth of which is equal to that of any 
of those regions. This, together with a soil 
even to-day not less bountiful naturally than 
that on the banks of the Egyptian Nile, nour- 
ished by a complicated system of canals and 
water-courses, which spread like a net-work 
over the face of the country, produced a fer- 
tility which was proverbial. Wheat, barley, 
and other grains grew wild, and, when culti- 
vated, the return to the sower has been as- 
serted to be two hundred or three hundred 
fold. Wheat was indigenous in Chaldea, 



1 Exod. xxviii., 14, 22; xxxix., 15-18 ; Jndg. viii., 21, 
26 ; Prov. i., 9 ; Sol. Song i., 10 ; Isa. iii., 18 ; xl., 19. 



CHALDEA 



178 



CHALDEA 




General Map of the Chaldean and Associated Empii-es. 



CHALDEANS 



179 



CHALDEANS 



and excessively luxuriant ; the Babylonians 
mowed it twice, and then pastured their cat- 
tle on it for awhile to keep down the blade 
and cause it to run to ear. One of the most 
ornamental products of the country was that 
most beautiful of all vegetable forms — the 
date-palm — whose yellow, semi-transparent 
clusters of dates, which the Greeks likened 
to amber, and moderns compare to gold, con- 
trast, both in shape and tint, with the green 
feathery branches beneath which they hang, 
giving a greatly added richness to the land- 
scape. A Persian poem celebrated its three 
hundred and sixty uses. The land was rich 
in corn and wine, delightful in frequent 
palm-groves, rising like islands from a gold- 
en sea of waving corn, teeming with pop- 
ulation. Here were the greatest cities of 
antiquity, the busy hives of men, " Babel, 
and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh."^ But 
now this once fruitful garden is little bet- 
ter than a desolate waste. Large tracts are 
covered by unwholesome marshes, produ- 
cing nothing but enormous reeds, of which 
the nomadic Arabs build their houses ; oth- 
ers lie waste and bare, parched up by the 
fierce heat of the sun, and utterly destitute 
of water. Long lines of mounds, it is true, 
mark the courses of those main arteries 
which formerly diffused life and vegetation 
along their banks ; but their channels are 
now bereft of moisture and choked with drift- 
ed sand : the smaller offshoots are wholly ef- 
faced. "A drought is upon her waters," says 
the prophet ; ^' and they shall be dried up." 
The only remains of that ancient civilization, 
that ''glory of kingdoms," "the praise of the 
whole earth," are the numerous moldering 
heaps of brick and rubbish which overspread 
the surface of the plain. Instead of the lux- 
uriant fields, the groves and gardens, nothing 
now meets the eye but an arid waste. In 
some places sand -drifts accumulate and 
threaten to make the whole region a mere 
portion of the desert. The dense population 
of former times is vanished, and no man 
dwells there. 

Chaldeans, or Chaldees, the inhabitants 
of Chaldea. As to their origin, Professor 
Rawlinson says that a large amount of tradi- 
tion — classical and otherwise — genealogies, 
and other traces support the biblical account 
— the " Book of the Generations of the Sons 
of Noah." " The sons of Ham," we are told, 
"were Cush, and Mizraim, and Phut, and 
Canaan; . . . and Cush begat Nimrod, . . . 
and the beginning of his kingdom was Babel, 
and Erech, and Accad, and Calneh in the 
land of Shinar."^ It is the simplest and best 
interpretation of this passage to understand 
it as asserting that the four races — the Egyp- 
tians, Ethiopians, Libyans, and Canaanites 
— were ethnically connected, being all de- 
scended from Ham ; and that the primitive 
people of Babylon were a subdivision of one 



1 Geu. X., 10.— 2 Gen. x., 10. 



of these races — the Cushites or Ethiopians 
connected in some degree with the Canaan- 
ites, Egyptians, and Libyans, but still more 
closely with the people which dwell upon 
the Upper Nile. Late researches have won- 
derfully confirmed this conclusion. The vo- 
cabulary of the Chaldeans is pronounced to 
be decidedly Cushite or Ethiopian, and the 
primitive race which bore sway in Chaldea 
proper is demonstrated to have belonged to 
this ethnic type, and to have passed from 
the older civilization in the valley of the Nile 
by way of Arabia to the valley of the Eu- 
phrates. Their language shows that very 
early these Cushites became blended in some 
way or other with a Turanian people, and 
these two main constituents with the Semit- 
ic and Arian element, which is believed to 
have existed in the early population, gave 
the Chaldean race a fourfold ethnic divis- 
ion. In the inscriptions the subjects of the 
early kings are continually called " the four 
nations " or " tonguesJ' To this fourfold di- 
vision corresx^oud the four kings of Abra- 
ham's time.^ Thus, like the Romans in an- 
cient, and the English in modern Eiu-ope, 
they were a mixed people, a union of vari- 
ous races, between wliich there was marked 
and violent contrast. Such races are among 
those which play the most distinguished part 
in the world's history, and most vitally affect 
its progress. 

The religion of the Chaldeans or Chaldees 
appears to have been grossly polytheistic. 
To a certain extent it was astral ; the heav- 
ens, the sun, the moon, and the five planets 
were chief objects of worship, yet not as celes- 
tial bodies, but rather as heroes or gods, sin- 
gularly like the classical Apollo and Diana, 
Mars and Venus. But the Chaldeans seem 
to have had correct notions on the subject 
of creation, and traditions of the Flood and 
the Tower of Babel. This people exhibited 
a fertility of invention, a genius and an en- 
ergy which place them high in the scale of 
nations. For the last 3000 years the world 
has been mainly indebted for its advance- 
ment to the Semitic and Indo-European races; 
but it was otherwise in the first ages. Egypt 
and Babylon, Mizraim and Nimrod, both de- 
scendants of Ham, led the way, and acted as 
pioneers of mankind in the various untrod- 
den fields of art, literature, and science. Al- 
phabetic writing, astronomy, history, chronol- 
ogy, architecture, plastic art, sculpture, nav- 
igation, agriculture, textile industry, seem 
all of them to have had their origin in one 
or the other of these two countries. The be- 
ginnings may have often been humble, and 
seemingly rude and homely, but they are wor- 
thier of our admiration than of our ridicule. 
The bold step which the first inventors of 
any art take from the unknown to the known 
is equal to many steps of subsequent prog- 
ress. "The com mencement," says Aristotle, 
1 Gen. xiv. 



CHALICE 



180 



CHAMOIS 



'^ is more than half of the whole ;" and the 
human race, even at the present day, lies un- 
der vast obligations to the genius and indus- 
try of early ages. Chaldea stands forth as 
the great parent and original inventress of 
Asiatic civilization, without a rival to dis- 
pute her claim. The traditional date of the 
founding of the empire by Nimrod is B.C. 
2234. Ur (q. v.) was its primitive capital. 
Its great men were Nimrod, Arioch, and Ched- 
orlaomer. It was destroyed by an Arab 
conquest after it had lasted above seven cen- 
turies. The ancient Chaldeans — the stock 
of Cush — crushed by a race of inferior civ- 
ilization, which have left barely a trace 
of themselves in the country, sank, about 
B.C. 1500, into comparative obscurity. Their 
language fell into disuse, and grew to be a 
learned tongue, studied by the priests and 
the literati, and they became, as a people, 
scarcely distinguishable from the Assyrians. 
After seven centuries and a half of submis- 
sion, the Chaldeans renewed the struggle 
for independence, and in the year B.C. 625 
succeeded in establishing, under Nabopolas- 
sar, a second kingdom — the Chaldeo-Baby- 
lonian empire — which extended widely its 
sway, till ultimately it fell before the arms 
of Cyrus.^ Even then, when the people 
cease to have a separate existence, the name 
remains ; and the appellation Chaldeans was 
in the time of Daniel employed as substan- 
tially synonymous with " magicians, astrolo- 
gers, and sorcerers," and under the Eoman 
Empire given by poets and historians as a 
title of honor to professors of astronomical 
learning. 

Chalice, the cup in which the wine used 
in the Lord's Supper is administered. In the 
early ages of the Church it was generally 
composed of the most simple materials, but 
with increasing riches more costly materials 
came to be employed in the dispensation of 
the Supper, and we find gold and silver cups 
mentioned in the inventory of churches in 
the sixth and seventh centuries. The use of 
the chalice, or communicating in both kinds, 
is by the Church of Rome reserved for the 
officiating priest ; the Romanists do not, how- 
ever, themselves claim that the Bible affords 
any direct authority for this practice. See 
Communion; Lord's Supper. 

Chamberlain. The word so translated in 
the book of Esther properly signifies a eu- 
nuch, and it is sometimes thus rendered in 
the margin. Eunuchs were employed in va- 
rious offices in Oriental courts ; and it may 
be that the word came occasionally to signi- 
fy an officer, without reference to its origi- 
nal meaning. The " chamberlain " of Acts 
xii. 20 corresponds in some degree to a lord 
of the bed-chamber with us ; while Erastus, 
" the chamberlain of the city," referred to in 
Rom. xvi., 23, was the public treasurer. 

Chambers of Imagery is a peculiar ex- 



See Babylon. 



pression of the prophet Ezekiel, and by him 
used only on one occasion, when he is por- 
traying in vivid and striking colors the idol- 
atrous corruptions which had obtained a 
footing in the kingdom of Judah during the 
later stages of its history. The practice of 
painting on chamber- walls objects of wor- 
ship, and even giving elaborate and detailed 
representations of the religious services per- 
formed in honor of them, was apparently of 
Egyptian origin ; it was at least carried to 
its chief perfection there, and there alone 
did the downward tendency of idolatry go 
so far as to consecrate to religious houses 
" creeping things and abominable beasts." 
Such a description, therefore, as that of the 
prophet Ezekiel very fitly served the pur- 
pose of representing the degenerate inhabit- 
ants of Judah and Jerusalem as giviug way 
to an idolatrous siiirit in religion. It is a 
mistake to suppose that the prophetic delin- 
eation was intended to exhibit an actual scene 
taking place in the Temple chambers ; this 
is partly guarded against by the statement 
that what the x>rophet saw was a represen- 
tation of what every man was doing in Ms 
chambers of imagery. The prophet does but 
give a kind of rehearsal of what was daily 
proceeding in the land. The scene which 
passed before his spiritual eye was laid in 
the Temple buildings, because the Temple 
was at once the centre and the image of the 
whole kingdom. [Ezek. viii., 12.] 

Chameleon, one of the animals the flesh 
of which was not to be eaten.^ The original 
word signifies strength, and from the connec- 
tion there is little doubt that some strong 
lizard is meant. The word translated " liz- 
ard " in the same verse is probably a general 
term for the lizard family, of which several 
varieties most liable to be eaten are speci- 
fied. There is no certain means of determin- 
ing which lizard is designated by the word 
which is in our version translated *' chame- 
leon;" but the lizard now known by that 
name seems to claim the Hebrew word with 
good reason, on account of the extraordinary 
power of its grasp. By means of its pecul- 
iarly formed feet and prehensile tail, it is 
able to grasp the branch of a tree so tightly 
that it can scarcely be removed. 

Chamois, an animal the flesh of which 
might be eaten.^ The animal now known as 
the chamois does not inhabit Palestine, nor 
are there any proofs that it ever did so. 
We must therefore look for some other ani- 
mal. The Hebrew name signifies the leaper, 
and therefore we look for a creature conspic- 
uous for its agility. Zoologists have now 
agreed in the opinion that the one in ques- 
tion is the handsome wild sheep of the East, 
an animal which is wonderfnlly active, and 
bounds to an astonishing height. It was 
formerly plentiful in Egypt, and even now is 
found along the Atlas mountain range. 



Lev. xi. 



-2 Deut. xiv., 5. 



CHANCEL 



181 



CHARIOT 



Chancel, that part of the church, in the 
church buildings of the liturgical denomina- 
tions devoted to the altar and reading-desk. 
It is a part of the choir, and sometimes, 
though not always, identical with it. It is 
regarded as the most sacred portion of the 
church, and is separated from the rest by 
a railing. During divine service only the 
clergy are admitted to the chancel, and in 
many cases only the officers of the church 
are allowed to enter it at any time. In it is 
placed the altar, the seats or stalls of the of- 
ficiating clergymen, and the sedilia, or special 
seats, near the altar, for those officiating at 
the communion. Here also in the cathedral 
churches abroad is ordinarily placed the 
bishop's throne. At the upper end of the 
chancel is a semicircular addition to the 
church, known as the apse (q. v.) ; sometimes 
the chancel occupies the apse. The chancel 
also went in ancient times by other names, 
as the bema, the holy, the altar-part, and the 
presbytery. 

Chancellor. This word occurs but once 
in Scripture,^ where it is given as a title to 
the Persian governor in Samaria. Under the 
Eoman empire the cancellarius is supposed 
to have been a notary or scribe deriving his 
title from the cancelU, or railing, behind which 
he sat. From the Eoman empire this office 
and title were introduced into the Church. 
The chancellor of the choir is the dignitary 
in the cathedral who presides over the read- 
ers of the lections in church and the cathe- 
dral schools. The chancellor of the diocese is 
an assistant of the bishop, and the judge of 
his consistorial court. The chancellor of a 
university is the chief officer of a collegiate 
body ; his office is generally honorary, the 
executive duties being performed by a vice- 
chancellor. The Lord High Chancellor of 
England is the presiding judge of the Court 
of Chancery, president of the House of Lords, 
and chief adviser of the sovereign in matters 
of law or conscience. 

Chant, a peculiar kind of sacred music, 
more commonly adapted to the psalms and 
litanies in the service of liturgical churches. 
It differs from other singing in its recitative 
character. The first portion of the verse or 
psalm is recited in one sustained note, while 
the latter portion is adapted to a cadence. 
Ancient chanting was divided into two sorts, 
the Ambrosian, derived from Ambrose of Mi- 
lan, and the Gregorian, originated by Greg- 
ory the Great. The chant is sometimes an- 
tiphonal — ^that is, the minister or choir per- 
form the first part, and the congregation or 
chorus respond with the second part. The 
chanting of the psalms is said to be derived 
from the Jewish Church. See Music. 

Chapel, strictly any building erected for 
divine worship, but ordinarily applied to or- 
atories or private churches, which Constan- 
tine the Great seems to have been the first 



1 Ezra iv., 8, 9, 17. 



to introduce. The term as now employed 
is, however, applied chiefly to the follow- 
ing buildings : domestic chapels, which are not 
infrequently built in Europe by wealthy no- 
blemen for private worship ; college chapels ; 
and chapels of ease, so entitled because they 
are constructed for the accommodation of 
parishioners who may reside at an inconven- 
ient distance from the parish church. In 
England the term is sometimes applied to 
the church edifices of dissenters, and in this 
country to small churches. 

Chaplain, originally a person who per- 
formed divine service in a chapel (q. v.). 
Hence the assistant of a parish priest, the 
private clergyman of a king, nobleman, or a 
wealthy citizen, from which it has come to 
signify a clergyman appointed by the Gov- 
ernment for special service, as in the army 
and navy. In England the queen has 48 
chaplains, four of whom are in attendance 
each month to preach in the chapel, read 
service to the family, and to the queen in 
her private oratory, and say grace in the 
absence of the clerk of the closet. In the 
United States there are annually elected 
chaplains for the Senate and the House of 
Rej)resentatives. 

Chapter, as an ecclesiastical term, the 
name of a corporation of ecclesiastics bound 
by canonical rules, and generally attached 
to a cathedral. The name chapter arose 
from the fact that the first communities of 
canons (q. v.) were called together daily in a 
common hall to hear a chapter of the Bible, or 
of their common rules, read aloud. The hall 
was hence called the chapter or chapter- 
house, and the name finally passed to the 
body of ecclesiastics assembling in it. The 
modern chapter, attached in the Church of 
England to the cathedral, consists of a dean, 
with a certain number of canons or preben- 
daries. They are the council of the bishop, 
assist him with their advice in the affairs of 
religion, as well as in the secular business 
of his see, and constitute the governing body 
of the cathedral. 

Charge, an address delivered by a bishop 
in Episcopal churches at a visitation of the 
clergy belonging to his diocese. It is gen- 
erally considered as merely admonitory, 
though the oaths of the clergy bind them to 
obedience, if the prelate chooses to enforce 
it. In other than Episcopal churches, an ad- 
dress delivered to the minister on the occa- 
sion of his ordination or installation, is call- 
ed a charge to the minister, and an address 
to the people on the same occasion, a charge 
to the people. The appellation ^' pastoral 
charge" is also often used in describing the 
field and functions of a pastor. 

Chariot. Several Hebrew words occur 
which are rendered "chariot" in our ver- 
sion: some may be taken to include the 
horses. Chariots were used both for war 
and on occasions of state, aa well as for ordi- 



■-^ 



CHAKIOT 



182 



CHARITY 




Ancient Egyptian Chariot of War. 

nary conveyance from one place to another.^ 
Chariots, too, were employed in idol-worsMp ; 
for we read that Josiah removed the horses 
and burned the chariots of the sun.'^ The use 
of chariots among the Egyptians, Syrians, 
and Ethiopians for peaceful purposes, is noted 
in several places.^ Besides the war-chariots 
with which the Egyptians pursued the Is- 
raelites, there are references in Scripture to 
the war-chariots of the Canaanites, Philis- 
tines, Syrians, Ethiopians, Assyrians, and 




Ancient Assyrian Chariot for the Chase. 

Persians.* The Israelites had no war-char- 
iots till the time of David ; but Solomon in- 
creased the number of them, and we find 
them afterward in general use.'' They were 
imported from Egypt, and therefore, no doubt, 
resembled those of that country. These con- 



1 1 Sam. viii., 11; 2 Sam. xv., 1; 1 Kings xii., 18; 
xviii., 44, 45; lea. xxii., 18,-2 2 Kings xxiii., 11.— 
3 Gen. xli., 43; xlvi., 29; 1., 9; 2 Kings v., 9; Acts 
viii., 28.— < Josh, xvii., 16, 18; Judges i., 19; iv., 3; 1 
Sara, xiii., 5 ; 2 Sam. x., 18 ; 1 Kings xx., 21 ; xxii., 31 ; 
2 Kings xlx.j 23; 2 Chron. xii., 3; xiv., 9; Isa. xxii., 
6; Ezek. xxiii., 24.— ^ 2 Sam. viii., 4; 1 Kings x., 26; 
2 Kings ix., 16-28; xiii., 7 ; xxiii., 30. 



sisted of an almost semicircular wooden 
frame with straightened sides, resting pos- 
teriorly on the axle of a pair of wheels ; a 
rail of wood or ivory being attached to the 
frame by leathern thongs, and a wooden up- 
right in front. The back of the car was 
open, and the sides were strengthened and 
embellished with leather and metal bind- 
ing ; the floor was of rope net-work, to 
give a springy footing to the occupants. 
On the off-side were the bow-case, some- 
times the quiver and spear-case, crossing 
diagonally ; the last-named inclined back- 
ward. If two warriors were in the char- 
iot, there was a second bow-case. The 
wheels had usually six spokes, fastened to 
the axle by a linch-pin secured by a thong. 
The horses had a breast-band and girths 
attached to the saddle, but were without 
traces. They wore head-furniture, often 
ornamented, with a bearing - rein. The 
driving-reins passed through rings on each 
side of both horses. Two persons general- 
ly were in a chariot; but there was some- 
times a third, holding the umbrella of state. 
The Assyrian war-chariots were nearly sim- 
ilar : sometimes a third horse was attached, 
but in later times this was omitted; the 
chariot was made higher, and the quiver 
placed in front instead of on the side. The 
term chariot is sometimes used for a different 
kind of conveyance altogether, as in Sol. Song 
iii., 9, where it doubtless refers to a palanquin. 
Charity. This word is used to translate, 
in our English version of the Scriptures, the 
Greek word agape, which in some of the old- 
er versions is rendered love. Either transla- 
tion is liable to produce misapprehension. 
The term charity has come to mean, in ordi- 
nary language, either mere almsgiving, or 
mere toleration or forbearance ; and it is 
evident that neither of these ideas fulfills 
the sense of agape as the apostle employs it 
in 1 Cor. xiii. On the other hand, love is so 
often used to signify special forms of affec- 
tion, that it is liable to misapprehension ; for 
while it is true that we are to love all men, 
yet it is certain that the Bible nowhere 
commands us to have toward strangers the 
same kind and quality of love which we 
have toward our own kin. Probably no one 
word would suffice to render the full mean- 
ing of agape, i. e.. Christian charity. Dean 
Stanley thus describes it : " While it retains," 
says he, "the religious element that raised 
the affections of the Hebrew psalmist to the 
presence of God, it agrees with the classical 
and Alexandrian feelings in making it^ chief 
object the welfare of man. It is not relig- 
ion evaporated into benevolence, but benev- 
olence taken up into religion. It is the prac- 
tical exemplification of the two great char- 
acteristics of Christianity, the union of God 
with man, the union of religion with moral- 
ity ; love to man for the sake of love to God ; 
love to God showing itself in love to man." 



CHASIDIM 



183 



CHERUB, CHERUBIM 



Chasidim (saints), a name given among 
the ancient Jews to a sect organized for the 
purpose of opposing Grecian innovations. 
The most rigid observance of rites, ceremo- 
nies, and even acts of asceticism, character- 
ized the sect. They are supposed to have 
originated toward the close of the Babylo- 
nish captivity, to be substantially identical 
with the Assidseans mentioned in the book 
of Maccabees, and the progenitors of the 
Pharisees. The sect was reorganized in the 
eighteenth century by a Polish Jew, named 
Israel Baal Schem, who was credited by his 
followers with the performance of miracles. 
The Chasidivi have separate synagogues, and 
profess, by extraordinary devotional exer- 
cises, accompanied with gymnastic contor- 
tions, to secure perfect union with God. 

Chebar, a river in the '^ land of the Chal- 
deans," on the banks of which a portion of 
the Jewish captives were located, and where 
Ezekiel saw his earlier visions. It is thought 
by some to be the same as that called by the 
Greeks Chaboras, a river of Mesopotamia, 
and the only large river that flows into the 
Euphrates, and identical with the Habor of 
2 Kings xvii., 6, the present name of which 
is Kabur. Others regard it as identical with 
the Nahr Malcha, or royal canal of Nebu- 
chadnezzar, in the cutting of which the ex- 
iles were perhaps employed. [Ezra i., 3; 
Ezek. i., 1, 15, 23.] 

Chedorlaomer {handful of sheaves), a king 
of Elam in the time of Abraham, who seems 
to have formed a league with four other 
chiefs for the purpose of subjugating and 
sjDoiling the tribes in the land of Canaan 
and its neighborhood. In this they met with 
considerable success ; but after taking Sod- 
om and carrying off Lot, the kinsman of 
Abraham, among the captives, they were 
pursued by the Father of the Faithful, and 
defeated with great loss in the northern parts 
of Palestine. He is supposed to be identical 
with Kudar Mapula, of whom mention is 
made in the monumental records of Chaldea, 
and who bears also the significant title of 
Apda Martu, " Ravager of the West ;" but of 
this nothing certain is known. [Gen. xiv., 
1-17.] 

Cheese is mentioned only three times in 
the Bible, and on each occasion under a dif- 
ferent name in the Hebrew. It is difficult 
to decide how far these terms correspond 
with our notion of cheese ; for they simply ex- 
press various degrees of coagulation. There 
is much reason to believe that the cheese 
used by the Jews differed in no respect from 
that still common in the East, which is made 
into small white cakes exceedingly salt. It 
is of a very indifferent quality, is best when 
new and soft, and, as it has no rind, soon be- 
comes hard and dry ; it is then ground, and 
the Arabs eat it mixed with butter. [Job 
X., 10 ; 1 Sam. xvii., 18 ; 2 Sam. xvii., 29.] 

Chemaiim (in blacTc), a word which oc- 



curs only once in our English version of the 
Bible, being elsewhere translated 'idolatrous 
priests," or simply " priests." The former of 
these probably gives the true meaning of the 
word. To this day it is applied by the Jews 
in derision to Christian ministers. [Zeph. 
i., 4 ; 2 Kings xxiii., 5 ; Hos. x., 5.] 

Cherethites and Pelethites, the body- 
guard of King David. Prevailing opinion 
translates their names " executioners and 
couriers." It is plain that they were so em- 
ployed, and were chiefly relied on to perpe- 
trate any summary deed. Some are disposed 
to believe them to be foreign mercenaries^ 
and their Hebrew'names to be foreign Gen- 
tile names used collectively. It is no small 
confirmation of this, that they are spoken of 
in connection with the Gittites in 2 Sam. xv., 
18 ; and in 1 Sam. xxx., 14, the Cherethites, 
which the Septuagint and Syriac render 
Cretans, are mentioned as a nation dwelling 
apparently on the coast, and therefore, prob- 
ably, Philistines, of which name Pelethite 
may be only another form. [2 Sam. viii., 
18 ; XV., 18 ; xx., 7, 23 ; 1 Kings i., 38, 44 ; 1 
Chron. xviii., 17.] 

'Cherith (separation), the name of a brook 
near which Elijah hid himself during a por- 
tion of the three years' drought. The situa- 
tion of the Cherith has been much disputed, 
and is not yet settled; some identifying it 
with the Wady Kelb behind Jericho, others 
placing it east of the Jordan. [1 Kings xvii., 
3-7.] 

Cherub, Cherubim. The symbolical fig- 
ure so called was a composite creature-form 
which finds a parallel in the religious insig- 
nia of Assyria, Egypt, and Persia, e. g., the 
sphinx, the winged bulls, and the lions of 
Nineveh. In such forms every imaginative 
people has sought to embody its notions ei- 
ther of the attributes of divinity, or of the 
vast powers of Nature which transcend those 
of man. Among the Greeks, the dragon, and 
among the Indians, the griffin, were such 
creatures of imagination. In the legends of 
Hercules the bull and the lion constantly 
appear as forms of hostile and evil power ; 
and some Persian sculptures apparently rep- 
resient evil genii under similar forms. The 
Hebrew idea seems to limit the number of 
the cherubim. A pair were placed on the 
mercy-seat of the ark : a pair of colossal size 
overshadowed it in Solomon's Temple, with 
the canopy of their contiguously-extended 
wings. Ezekiel speaks of four, and, similar- 
ly, the apocalyptic " beasts " are four. Those 
on the ark were to be placed, with wings 
stretched forth, one at each end of the mercy- 
seat. They are called the cherubim of glory,^ 
as on them the glory, when visible, rested. 
They were anointed Avith the holy oil, like 
the ark itself, and the other sacred furniture. 
Their wings were to be stretched upward, 
and their faces " toward each other, and to- 
1 Heb. ix., 5. 



CHEST 



184 



CHIMHAM 



ward the mercy - seat." It is remarkable 
that, with such precise directions as to their 
position, attitude, and material, nothing save 
that they were winged is said concerning 
their shape. On the whole, it seems likely 
that the word " cherub " meant not only the 
composite creature-form, of which the man, 
lion, ox, and eagle were the elements, but, 
further, some peculiar and mystical form, 
which Ezekiel, being a priest, would know 
and recognize as '' the face of a cherub,"^ but 
which was kept secret from all others. Such 
probably were those on the ark, which, when 
moved, was always covered, though those on 
the hangings and panels might be of the pop- 
ular device. What this peculiar cherubic 
form was, is perhaps an impenetrable mys- 
tery. [Gen. iii., 24 ; Exod. xxv., 18 ; xxxvii., 
7; Isa.vi.,2-6; Ezek. i. ; x., 1-7.] 

Chest. The term is found in 2 Kings xii., 
9, 10 ; 2 Chron. xxiv., 8, 10, 11, to denote the 
coffer into which contributions were cast for 
the repair of the Temple. It is observable 
that the original word, wherever else it oc- 
curs in the Bible, implies the sacred ark, ex- 
cept in Gen. 1., 26, where it is used for Jo- 
seph's coffin. The chests of rich apparel in 
Ezek. xxvii., 24, are treasure- chests, where 
valuables are stored. 

Chestnut -tree. This word in the Bible 
probably signifies the plane-tree, a native of 
Western Asia. It grows to a large size, with 
a mass of rich foliage. The stem is lofty, 
covered with a smooth bark, which annually 
falls off. The tiowers are small, and come 
out a little before the leaves. [Gen. xxx., 
37; Ezek. xxxi., 8.] 

Children. In our Bible this term is often 
used in a general sense for offspring or de- 
scendants, and where sons would be the more 
exact synonym of the original, e. g., children 
of Abraham, children of Israel. But taking 
the word in its stricter meaning, there are 
certain things worthy of notice respecting 
the position of children among the covenant 
people. The most distinguishing peculiari- 
ty, perhaps, was the close identification of 
children with parents in their covenant 
standing. The ordinance of circumcision, 
which may be called the seal of the covenant, 
was administered to infants of eight days old, 
for the express purpose of connecting par- 
ent and child in the same bond of obligation 
and promise toward God. And it was impos- 
sible that this could be done in a right spirit, 
and with any apprehension of the meaning 
involved in the transaction, without eleva- 
ting and rendering sacred the relation of 
child and parent. Among such a people 
children would rightly come to be regarded 
as God's gifts ; and among them arose the 
saying, "Lo, children are God's heritage." 
Out of this covenant relationship arose the 
solenm mutual responsibilities laid upon 
each. Parents in Israel were under obliga- 



1 Ezek. X., 14. 



tion to rear their children in their own faith, 
and to fit them to become true members of 
the covenant. Hence the many injunctions 
imposed on them in the law to teach their 
children, and to command them to walk in 
the way of the Lord.^ Hence also the kind 
of sacred honor which parents were entitled 
to expect, and children were bound to ren- 
der. This received its highest sanction in 
the fifth commandment. And not only was 
the general law enacted that every one 
should fear his father and his mother, and 
this placed in close connection with the 
command to keep the Sabbaths of the Lord, 
and to worship only him, but there were 
more specific enactments that very severe 
measures should be taken with such children 
as set at naught the honor and restraints of 
parental authority.^ 

Politically too, as well as socially and re- 
ligiously, were children bound up in the 
closest manner with their parents. The in- 
heritance of the parent fell by legal right 
to his offspring, and was divided among his 
sons equally, except that the eldest obtained 
a double portion as his birthright (q. v.). 
If there were no sons, the inheritance de- 
scended to the daughters, who then must not 
marry out of their own tribe. As the pos- 
sessions of the Israelites were thus subject 
to a regular rule of succession, wills were 
not known among them. The connection 
was equally close on the other side, for, in 
cases of extreme poverty, the child might be 
bound for the debt of the parents.^ 

The Hebrew women nursed their own chil- 
dren, unless prevented by some unavoidable 
necessity, and made a public feast at their 
weaning. In their earlier years children of 
both sexes were under the care of the moth- 
er ; after the fifth year the father took the 
boys, while the girls continued with their 
mother till their marriage. It seems that 
in rich families governors or tutors were 
employed for the children at an early age. 
At twelve or thirteen they were considered 
of legal age, admissible to all religious rites, 
and competent to give testimony.* 

It was the earnest desire of every Hebrew 
parent to have offspring. The more children 
— especially male children — a person had 
the more was he honored, it being consider- 
ed as a mark of divine favor. On the con- 
trary, barrenness was considered as the heav- 
iest punishment with which the Lord could 
visit the wife. Among all Eastern nations 
offspring is regarded as a blessing, while the 
absence of it is considered a disgrace. 

Chimham, a follower, and probably a son 
of Barzillai the Gileadite, who returned from 
beyond Jordan with David. David appears 
to have bestowed on him a possession at 



1 Gen. xviii., 19; Deut. vi., T; si., 19. —2 Exod. xxi., 
15, 17; Lev. xix., 3; Dent, xxi., 21; xxvii., 16.— 3 2 
Kings iv., 1 ; Isa. 1., 1 ; Neh. v., 5.—* Numb, xi., 12 ; 2 
Kings X., 1 ; Prov. xxxi., 1 ; John ix., 21. 



CHIOS 



185 



CHRISTIANITY 



Bethlehem, on which, in later times, an inn, 
or Jchan, was standing.^ 

Chios, a beautiful and fertile island in the 
JEgean Sea, between Samos and Lesbos, an- 
ciently celebrated for its wine. It is sepa- 
rated from the main-land by a strait of only 
5 miles wide. The island is 32 miles in 
length, and from 8 to 18 in breadth, and is 
now called Scio. [Acts xx., 15.] 

Chittim, or Kittim, the Kittians ; descend- 
ants of Japheth through Javan, and gener- 
ally believed to be the same with the Cypri- 
ans. Josephus considers Cyprus as the orig- 
inal seat of the Chittim, adducing as evi- 
dence the name of its principal town, Citi- 
um, which was, without doubt, a settlement 
of the Phoenicians. From the town the name 
extended to the whole island of Cyprus, 
which was occupied by Phoenician colonies. 
The name Chittim, which in the first instance 
had applied to Phoenicians only, passed over 
to the islands which they occupied, and to 
the Grecian or Asiatic immigrants, who sub- 
sequently occupied settlements which had 
been Phoenician. Hence it was used by the 
Hebrews as a general name for the islands 
in the jiEgean, and generally for the people 
across the sea. [Gen. x., 4 ; Numb, xxiv., 24 ; 
1 Chron. i., 7 ; Isa. xxiii., 1, 12 ; Jer. ii., 10 ; 
Ezek. xxvii., 6 ; Dan. xi., 30.] 

Chorazin {district of Zin), a. town of Gali- 
lee, mentioned, with Bethsaida and Caper- 
naum, as the scene of some of our Lord's 
mighty works. The site is uncertain, but 
recent researches tend to identify it with 
Kerazeh, two miles north of Tell Hum. This 
is the opinion of Captain Wilson, confirming 
that of Dr. Thomson, and contradicting that 
of Dr. Robinson. [Matt, xi., 21 ; Luke x., 13.] 

Chrism {oil), oil consecrated in the Ro- 
mish and Greek churches by the bishop, and 
used in baptism, confirmation, orders, and 
extreme unction. This chrism is consecrated 
with great ceremony upon Holy Thursday. 
There are two sorts; the one is a composi- 
tion of oil and balsam, made use of in bap- 
tism, confirmation, and ordination ; the oth- 
er is only plain oil, consecrated by the bishop, 
and used for catechumens and extreme unc- 
tion. Chrism has been discontinued in the 
Church of England since the Reformation. 

Chrisoni, or Chrisome, a white garment 
anciently given to the newly-baptized, in to- 
ken of the saints' new robe of righteousness. 
After having been worn seven days in token 
of the seven gifts of the Spirit, it was put 
off in the church baptistery, washed, and left 
there. At the time of the churching of the 
mother, the chrisom was presented by her to 
the priests, to be used for surplices, or cover- 
ings for the chalice, or similar purposes. 

Christ, the Greek word corresponding to 
the Hebrew word Messiah. Both mean the 
Anointed One.^ Jesus Christ is, therefore, 
the same as Jesus the Messiah, or Jesus the 



1 2 Sam. xix., 37-40; Jer. xli., 17.— ^ See Anointing. 



Anointed One.^ The word is applied in the 
O. T. to the chief priest and to the kings ;^ 
but in the N. T. it is applied exclusively to 
Jesus of Nazareth. It is used with the same 
significance prophetically. In the O. T. the 
Hebrew form Messiah is sometimes retained 
in the English version, and sometimes trans- 
lated the Anointed. The Greek form Christ 
belongs only to the N. T.^ For an account of 
the prophesies concerning the life, sufterings, 
and death of Jesus Christ, and for a brief ac- 
count of his earthly life, see under that title. 
For a discussion of his character, see Chris- 

TOLOGY. 

Christian. This name occurs but three 
times in the N. T.,* and is never used by 
Christians of themselves, only as spoken by 
or coming from those without the Church. 
It can not have arisen with the Jews, who 
would not have given a name derived from 
the Messiah to a hated and despised sect. 
By the Jews they were called the " sect of 
the Nazarenes;"^ and Julian, who wished to 
deprive them of a name in which, later, they 
gloried, ordered that they should not be call- 
ed Christians, but Galileans. The presump- 
tion is, that the name Christian, originally 
given to them at Antioch, whose peojile were 
notorious for inventing names of derision, 
was originated by the heathen, and em- 
ployed at first opprobriously, but afterward 
accepted by the disciples themselves, and 
made an honored name. This, the proba- 
ble history of the word, receives an illustra- 
tion from that of the terms Methodists and 
Puritans, both of which were originated as 
terms of reproach, but were accepted and em- 
ployed by those to whom they were applied, 
and so have passed into common language, 
losing the original significance attached to 
them. The general names by which the early 
Christians called themselves were "breth- 
ren," " disciples," " believers," and " saints."® 

Christianity, the system of religious truth 
inculcated by Jesus Christ. Any attempt 
to delineate it would lead us into a field 
which in this volume we avoid — controver- 
sial theology — since it is upon the definition 
of Christianity that the religious denomina- 
tions who claim to represent the system of 
Jesus Christ so widely differ. It is worthy 
of note, however, that, great and important 
as those differences are, the points of agree- 
ment are even greater, and that there are cer- 
tain truths which constitute the foundation- 
stones, so to speak, of the entire edifice, and 
that in respect to them all Christian sects, 
whether Protestant, Greek, or Roman Catho- 
lic, are agreed. The system of Christianity, en- 
tirely denuded of all its controversial aspects, 
includes the following fundamental points : 



1 John i., 42.-2 Lev. iv., 3, 5, 16; 1 Sam. xii., 3, 5; 
xvi., G; 2 Sam. i., 14; Psa. xviii., .50; xxviii., 8; Isa. 
xlv., 1.-3 Psa. ii., 2; comp. Acts iv., 26.—'' Acts xi., 
26; xxvi., 28; 1 Pet. iv., 16.-5 Acts xxiv., 5; comp. 
John i., 46. -« Acts i., 14; ix., 26, 32; xv., 23; Rom. 
XV., 25 ; Col. i., 2. 



CHRISTIANITY 



186 



CHRISTIANITY 



1. That there is one God, infinite in his 
moral perfection, as well as in his power and 
wisdom, who sustains to mankind the rela- 
tion of a father to children. 

2. That the human soul is immortal, and 
that in the future life there is a state both 
of rewards and punishments, which will be 
equitably administered according to the life 
here. 

3. True religion consists in love toward 
God and man ; and all ceremonies and creeds 
are, however important or even essential, 
the instruments for the cultivation of that 
spirit of love. 

4. Man is, in fact, estranged from God, and 
needs not only instruction, but also forgive- 
ness of sins and a moral change of character. 

5. That forgiveness and change is accom- 
plished only through Jesus Christ, who lived, 
taught, and died for the purpose of afford- 
ing it. 

There are probably very few who would 
accept this as a full statement of Christiani- 
ty as a system ; but there are probably very 
few Christian divines who would deny the 
truth of either one of the propositions. The 
controversies that have arisen are chiefly 
concerning some additional questions — e. g., 
the way in which this system is to be pro- 
mulgated for the acceptance of mankind, 
whether by individual effort or by an organ- 
ized church ; and if by an organized church, 
whether there is one such ordained and en- 
dowed by Christ himself, which merits the 
allegiance of all mankind; or concerning the 
proper explanation to be given to some of 
the propositions — e. g., what is the relation 
which Jesus Christ bears to God the Father, 
and how does he afford pardon and redemp- 
tion to the race. There is, however, one 
question underlying the entire system which 
can not be passed by altogether. That ques- 
tion is, whether Christianity is a divine sys- 
tem given by God to men, something supernat- 
ural in its origin and character, or whether 
it is given of God only in the sense in which 
all good gifts — reason, among others — come 
from him. All Christian sects, widely as 
they differ in interpreting the system which 
Jesus Christ taught, agree in regarding it 
as of divine origin, and in this respect radi- 
cally and inherently different from all oth- 
er religious systems ; while the Rationalists^ 
regard it as the product of human thought 
and endeavor, and different from the other 
religions of the world only in being, upon 
the whole, the best. The reasons which have 
led Christian scholars to entertain the first 
of these views are known in religious litera- 
ture as the " Evidences of Christianity," or 
the '' Evidences of Revealed Religion," or 
sometimes simply as the ** Evidences." These 
are generally divided into two classes, as 
the external and the internal " Evidences." 

The external evidences of the divine ori- 



1 See Rationalism. 



gin of Christianity are chiefly two — the ev- 
idence from prophecies, and the evidence from 
miracles. The first was recognized as far 
back as the days of Isaiah.^ The argument 
is briefly this : Foreknowledge belongs only 
to God. When, therefore, events of such a 
character that human foresight could not 
have perceived them, are foretold in minute 
detail, and with accurate precision, this 
foretelling is sufficient evidence of the di- 
vine commission of the prophet. That this 
is the case with the prophecies of the Bible 
is not doubted, except by those who deny 
that the prophecies were written at the time 
they were dated. Indeed, so remarkable is 
the detail and the accuracy with which 
many of these prophecies have been fulfill- 
ed, that skeptics, assuming that there was 
and could be no supernatural foreknowledge 
given to the inspired writers, have argued 
from the very accuracy of the narrative that 
it must have been written at or after the 
time of the events foretold. 

The argument from yniracles is equally sim- 
ple and forcible. The very performance of a 
miracle, i. e., of an act which only divine pow- 
er could perform — such, for example, as the 
raising of the dead — is an invincible evidence 
of the divine authority of him who performs 
it. This position is denied by none. The 
only question between those who accept 
Christianity as a divine system and the infidel 
world is the question, whether the miracles 
recorded in the Bible did actually take place. 
The evidence that we actually have the ac- 
counts of the eye - witnesses of these mira- 
cles has been elsewhere considered f the ar- 
gument for the trustworthiness of their ac- 
counts has never been more succinctly stated 
than by Dr. Paley in his treatise on the "Ev- 
idences of Christianity ;" that trustworthi- 
ness being demonstrated by the fact that 
these eye-Avitnesses passed their lives in suf- 
ferings voluntarily undergone, in attestation 
of the accounts which they delivered, and 
solely in consequence of their belief in those 
accounts. 

The internal evidences of Christianity are 
of several kinds. The character of Jesus as 
we actually find it portrayed in the N. T. is 
neither such as any mere man — least of all 
a man of that age of the world — could have 
possessed, nor such as any mythology would 
have attributed to an imaginary hero. The 
excellence, the perfection, the universal ap- 
plicability, the permanence, and the moral 
power of his teachings are such as negative 
the idea that they are or could be of merely 
human origin. The adaptation of his doc- 
trines to every want of the human soul 
causes their divine nature to be felt even by 
those who are not trained to habits of log- 
ical thought. And, finally, the test which 
Christ himself presented, " By their fruits 



1 Isa. xlviii., 3-8.-2 gge Bible; Canon; Manu- 
6011IPTS. See also Miracles. 



CHRISTIANS 



187 



CHRISTMAS 



ye shall know them," when applied to Chris- 
tianity shows it to be no human product, 
but a divine gift to man. 

For a further presentation of the evidences 
of Christianity, the reader is referred to the 
numerous treatises on this subject, and to 
the titles in this volume : Prophets ; Mir- 
acles ; Jesus ; Christology. For a histo- 
ry of Christianity, see under the titles, which 
treat of different eras and denominations, 
as Roman Catholics ; Protestants ; Wal- 
denses; Huguenots. 

Christians, a name assumed by the follow- 
ers of Alexander Campbell, more popular- 
ly known from that circumstance as Camp- 
bellites. Alexander Campbell was born in 
Antrim County, Ireland, September 12, 1788. 
His father was a clergyman of the Seceders 
(q. v.), and though constitutionally averse 
to polemics, did, on the whole, full justice to 
the severe theology and severe principles of 
his sect. When Alexander was not quite 19 
years of age, his father emigrated to Amer- 
ica. The son did not follow him until some 
years after he had completed his theological 
course at Glasgow. The rigid theology of 
the past was already beginning to give way 
to the more liberal spirit of modern times. 
Lay preaching, tract distribution, Sabbath- 
schools, were just beginning to spring into 
existence. The same influence which help- 
ed to mold the liberal and active spirit of 
Chalmers operated to liberalize the soul of 
young Alexander Campbell. When finally 
he set sail to join his father in America, it 
was with the expectation that his liberality 
would have to overcome the bitter but con- 
scientious opposition of his father. But oth- 
er influences had been meanwhile at work 
upon the father. He had been tried and dis- 
ciplined for the ecclesiastical offense of invit- 
ing members of other Presbyterian churches 
to sit at the same communion-table with him- 
self. Thus, when father and son met, they 
were both ready to unite in a common move- 
ment against the stringency of church creeds, 
and the rigid separation which then existed 
between different evangelical churches. La- 
menting the schisms which rent the Chris- 
tian Church, and the party spirit which ab- 
sorbed and misdirected so much of real, 
though mistaken Christian love, they agreed 
on a platform and a name on which they 
.thought all sects might unite in presenting 
a common front to a common foe. They pro- 
posed, as such a platform, " The Word of God 
without note or comment ;" as such a name, 
the common title of " Christians." At first 
they had no thought of forming a new sect. 
They desired to work with and in the Pres- 
byterian Church. But from the first the 
Presbyterian churches looked with suspicion 
and disfavor on both the leaders and their 
movement, and when, because the Scriptures 
do not expressly command infant baptism, 
they rejected it, and were both immersed, 



and practically required, as the condition 
of church membership, adult immersion, the 
last bond which joined them to the Presby- 
terian Church was severed. In 1815 their 
followers had increased to five or six congre- 
gations. At first they acted in ecclesiastical 
connection with the Baptists ; but their fun- 
damental principle, no creed but the Bible, 
was never satisfactory to the Baptists as a 
class, and in 1827 a decree of excommunica- 
tion pronounced on all followers of Alexan- 
der Campbell by a Virginia association, was 
followed by similar action elsewhere, and 
the Campbellite congregations organized 
separately. 

It is difficult to define the creed of the 
Christians, or Campbellites, except in the 
words of their founder : " Where the Scrip- 
tures speak, we speak ; where the Scriptures 
are silent, we are silent." This itself is hard- 
ly an accurate definition, however, since they 
are close communionists, and close commun- 
ion is acknowledged to be not directly pre- 
scribed in the Scripture, even by those who 
think it is logically deducible therefrom. In 
general, the only terms of admission to the 
Campbellite Church are the acceptance of 
the Bible as a sufficient and infallible rule of 
faith and practice, and immersion. In conse- 
quence, both churches and individuals differ 
very much in faith, some beiug Unitarian in 
doctrine, while others hold fast the substan- 
tial views of the orthodox churches; and 
yet others, carrying the views of Alexander 
Campbell to an extreme which he would 
never have justified, declare that the only 
condition of salvation is to believe in the 
Lord Jesus Christ, i. e., as they explain it — to 
believe that such a person existed and taught 
what is attributed to him in the N. T., and be 
immersed. For the most part, however, we 
believe they may be said to be substantial- 
ly evangelical in sentiment, while in gov- 
ernment they are practically congregational. 
They maintain a large number of educational 
institutions, together with twenty-five peri- 
odicals, namely, nine weeklies, fifteen month- 
lies, and one quarterly. They have represent- 
atives in both England and Canada, but exist 
in the greatest number in the Western and 
South-western States. They are said to have 
in the United States about 5000 churches, and 
500,000 church members. 

Christmas, a festival celebrated in hon- 
or of our Lord's nativity. It begins with 
the Advent, on the last day of November, and 
continues until Epiphany, on the sixth of 
January, but is more particularly observed 
on the twenty-fifth of December. This fes- 
tival seems to have first appeared in the Ro- 
man Church after the middle of the fourth 
century. At a somewhat later period it 
spread into Eastern Asia. It was not re- 
ceived with equal readiness by all the church- 
es. While some affirmed that it had been 
known of old from Thrace to Cadiz, others 



CHEISTMAS 



188 



CHRISTOLOGY 



denounced it as au innovation. The clinrcli- 
es of Jerusalem and Alexandria, rather than 
recognize the new festival, preferred to unite 
the commemoration of Christ's nativity with 
the ancient feast of the Epiphany — a com- 
bination which they attempted to justify by 
quoting Luke iii., 23, from which they infer- 
red that Christ was baptized on his birth- 
day. It was not long, however, before the 
Alexandrian Church observed the feast of 
Christ's nativity as a festival distinct in it- 
self. In some of the Greek churches such 
confusion existed concerning the two festi- 
vals that the name Epiphany, or Theophany, 
was actually given to the feast which others 
termed Christmas. It was not until the sixth 
century that any thing like unanimity pre- 
vailed as to the day to be observed. 

The manner in which this Christmas festi- 
val came to be observed in the Romish Church, 
and through it in the other churches, is as 
follows : Precisely in this season of the year 
a series of heathen festivals occurred, the 
celebration of which was in many ways 
closely interwoven with the whole civil and 
social life of the Romans. Hence the Chris- 
tians were often exposed to be led astray into 
many of the customs and solemnities pecul- 
iar to these festivals. Besides, these festi- 
vals had an import which easily admitted of 
being spiritualized, and, with some slight 
change, transformed into a Christian sense. 
First came the Saturnalia, which represented 
the peaceful times of the Golden Age, and 
abolished for awhile the distinction of ranks, 
the distance between servants and freemen. 
This was very easily transferred to Christi- 
anity, which, through the restoration of the 
fellowship between man and God, intro- 
duced the true Golden Age, and which, teach- 
ing the equality of all men in the sight of 
God, brought the like true liberty to the free- 
man as well as to the slave. Then came the 
custom, peculiar to this season, of making 
presents, afterward transferred to the Christ- 
mas festival. After the Saturnalia came the 
Festival of Infants, at which the children 
were presented with images; just as Christ- 
mas is the true festival of the children. Next 
came a festival still more analogous to Christ- 
mas, that of the shortest day, the winter sol- 
stice, the birthday of the new sun, about to 
return once more toward the earth. In the 
case of this last-named feast, a transition to 
the Christian point of view naturally pre- 
sented itself, where Christ, the sun of the 
spiritual world, was compared with that of 
the material. To this series of pagan festi- 
vals belonging to this season was to be op- 
posed that Christian festival which could be 
so easily connected with the feelings and sen- 
timents that lay at their foundation. Hence 
the celebration of the nativity of Christ was 
transferred to the twenty-iifth of December, 
for the purpose of drawing away the Chris- 
tian people from all participation in the 



heathen festivals, and of gradually drawing 
the pagans themselves from their heathen 
customs to the Christian celebration. 

In the Romish Church Christmas is a very 
high festival. Masses are performed at mid- 
night, at day-break, and in the morning. In 
the Church of Santa Maria Maggiore, at 
Rome, they profess to have the cradle in 
which Christ was placed at his birth ; and on 
the Feast of the Nativity it is brought out 
with great ceremony and placed on the high 
altar, to be worshiped by the faithful. In al- 
most every church of Italy, and sometimes 
even in private houses, there is exhibited on 
Christmas-day, and for eight days after, a 
presessio. The word presessio means a staMe 
or manger, and is now applied to the repre- 
sentation of the nativity, in which men and 
animals are fantastically arranged in the in- 
terior of a room. In many Greek churches 
a similar representation is to be seen on 
Christmas-eve. In the Church of England 
and all Lutheran churches, the Feast of the 
Nativity is observed as a very solemn festi- 
val ; and at the close of divine service, the day 
is looked upon as au occasion of rejoicing and 
congratulation. Among the n on -liturgical 
denominations, the day, though not observed 
by church services, is nevertheless held as a 
happy feast by each family circle. The Pu- 
ritans rejected it, and at one time even for- 
bade its celebration. But their descendants 
keep it as a domestic, if not as a Church 
feast. 

Christology. By this term is meant the 
doctrine held concerning the person and char- 
acter of Jesus Christ. It is sometimes, but 
not accurately, employed also to indicate the 
doctrines held concerning his office and work. 
The latter subject is discussed in this Dic- 
tionary, chiefly under the article Atonement. 
From the earliest ages of the Church the 
character of Christ has been a prominent, 
perhaps the most prominent subject of dis- 
cussion, and not infrequently of controver- 
sy ; and there is hardly any conceivable the- 
ory concerning him which has not found ad- 
vocates at one time or another. The more 
important of the various views of the differ- 
ent sects of the early and Middle Ages are 
set forth in detail under their respective 
titles. In this article we shall only indicate 
the more prominent classes of views, and 
such only as find advocates at the present 
day. 

1. The view has found advocacy among in- 
fidels in the past, that there was no such per- 
son as Jesus Christ ; that the accounts afford- 
ed us of him in the Gospels are fables, which 
possess, possibly, some foundation in fact, 
but which are so far exaggerations, and so 
intermixed with fiction, that if there be any 
foundation for them, nevertheless, the char- 
acter of Jesus Christ as therein portrayed 
must be regarded as a purely fictitious one — 
as much so as the character of Hercules or 



CHRISTOLOGY 



189 



CHRISTOLOGY 



any other of the mythical personages of the 
heathen world. This view has never had 
the endorsement of any respectable authori- 
ty, even among infidels, and is disavowed as 
alike uncritical, unscholarly, and unhistoric- 
al, by the ablest infidels themselves. Even 
those who refuse to acknowledge the credence 
and authenticity of the Gospel narratives, 
and who regard the miracles as mythical ad- 
ditions, admit the substantial truthfulness 
of the great leading facts in Christ's biogra- 
phy as given by the evangelists ; i. e., that 
such a man lived at about the commence- 
ment of the present era ; that he taught in 
Palestine substantially the doctrines imputed 
to him by the evangelists— at least those 
which are imputed to him by Matthew, Mark, 
and Luke ; that he aroused an intense oppo- 
sition to himself and his disciples among the 
Jews ; that finally he was put to death by 
their instigation ; and that at a very early 
day miracles were generally attributed to 
him by all his followers. 

2. On this basis is reared the second doc- 
trine concerning the person of Jesus Christ. 
Of this doctrine Renan may be regarded as 
the most popular and best known, though 
not perhaps the ablest or most scholarly rep- 
resentative. This doctrine is, that Jesus 
Christ was a Jewish Rabbi ; that he possess- 
ed so noble a character that he may, without 
impropriety, be termed the Son of God ; that 
he actually taught the pure and holy pre- 
cepts which ar& found in the pages of the 
first three evangelists ; that this philosophy 
was not, however, a divine revelation to him, 
nor through him to the race, but the product 
of his own thought and study, in part de- 
rived from the philosophy of Egypt and In- 
dia, in part from a fresh and devout study 
of the sacred writings of the Hebrews, and 
in part from his own meditations on the 
teachings of nature and experience. It de- 
nies, however, that he was divine in any 
other sense than that in which every good 
quality may be regarded as divine; in no 
other sense than that in which Socrates, or 
Plato, or Buddha must be regarded as divine 
gifts to the human race. According to this 
theory, the miracles narrated in the Gospels 
were inventions of a later age, and attributed 
to Jesus by his followers for the purpose of 
enhancing his posthumous reputation, and 
increasing his influence among men. Ac- 
cording to Renan, Jesus was himself a party 
to this fraud, employing, at least in the case 
of the resurrection of Lazarus, the supersti- 
tions of his followers to increase his own 
power over them. 

3. The third doctrine of the person of Je- 
sus Christ is, like all compromises, difficult 
of definition. It asserts his pre -existence; 
it asserts his superhuman character; it as- 
serts him to be more than man, more than 
angel, yet less than God ; it declares him to 
be divine, but it interprets this declaration 



to mean that he was intrusted with a divine 
mission, and that in him dwelt, above the 
sons of men, the Spirit of God. This is the 
view held, in various forms, by most of the 
Unitarians (q. v.), at least by all the more 
moderate and conservative among them. 

4. A fourth view is that held almost uni- 
versally by the Christian Church. This view 
is, that Jesus Christ is indeed ^' God manifest 
in the flesh," the " express image of his per- 
son, and the brightness of his glory ;"^ and 
that one express object of his incarnation 
was the exhibition in human life of the di- 
vine character, not only as a perfect model 
and example to us, but also as a perfect man- 
ifestation of the before unknown God. This 
view, however, gives rise to a difficulty which 
has been one of the perplexing problems of 
the Christian Church — that is, how the same 
person can be at once both God and man. 
That Jesus Christ was known among men as 
a man, is as certain as that he is described 
by himself as the " Son of man," and by the 
apostles as the "man Christ Jesus."^ The 
orthodox doctrine of the person of Christ is, 
then, that in him there is a mystic union of 
the human and divine — that he is, in the 
language of the creeds, " perfect man and 
perfect God." Various attempts have been 
made to explain the mystery of this union, 
by declaring the respects in which he is to 
be regarded as one, and those in which he is 
to be regarded as complex in his nature. 
None of these explanations have, however, 
received any general assent, and, like the 
doctrine of the Trinity, the doctrine of the 
God-man is generally accepted as a mystery. 
In its simplest form, as embodied rather in 
the experience than the doctrine of the 
Church, it may be stated thus : Jesus Christ 
is a perfect man. As such, he is our perfect 
model and exemplar. He is perfect God. 
As such, he brings us into living and inti- 
mate communion with a personal God, whose 
heart-life he discloses to us. 

5. This difficulty has led, however, to a 
denial of Christ's double nature, and to the 
assertion that his nature was not complex, 
but simply the divine soul in a human body. 
This doctrine, formerly held by the Monoph- 
ysites (q. v.), and, later, by the Swedenbor- 
gians, has been recently revived by Henry 
Ward Beecher in his " Life of Jesus," who 
thus defines the nature of Christ : " Christ 
was very God ; yet, when clothed with a 
human body, and made subject through that 
body to physical laws, he was then a man, 
of the same moral faculties as a man, of the 
same mental nature, subject to precisely the 
same trials and temptations, only without 
the weakness of sin. A human soul is not 
something other and different from a divine 
soul. It is as like it as the son is like his 



1 1 Tim. iii., 16; Heb. i., 3.-2 Matt, viii., 20; xiii., 
41 ; xvi., 13 ; Mark ii., 10, 28 ; Luke v., 24 ; vii., 34 ; ix., 
58 ; xii., 40 ; xis., 10 ; 1 Tim. ii., 5. 



CHRISTOLOGY 



190 



CHRISTOLOGY 



father. God is father, man is son." For a 
fuller discussion of the doctrine of the two- 
fold nature of Christ, see a work by Dr. Ho- 
vey, entitled " God With Us." 

6. It remains only to speak of the Christol- 
ogy of the Bible. Nowhere does the Bible di- 
rectly teach systematic theology. It rather 
affords the material from which systematic 
theology is composed. The elaborate and 
subtle discussions concerning the person and 
character of Christ belong to a later date; 
and if we were to attempt to deduce a harmo- 
nious theory of Christ's character from the 
teaching of Scripture, we should necessarily 
enter ourselves into the discussion which we 
seek only to describe. Instead of attempting 
this, we shall content ourselves with simply 
giving to the reader a reference to some of 
the principal passages in Scripture, leaving 
him to deduce from them his own conclusions 
as to the lesson which they teach. We find, 
then, in a gleaning of the O. T. proi)hecies 
and the N. T. teachings, the following decla- 
rations concerning Jesus of Nazareth, assum- 
ing, as we do in this article, that he fulfills 
the prophecies of the former book, and an- 
swers to the description therein afforded of 
the promised Messiah. He is there described 
as the Holy One of Israel;^ the one Shep- 
herd f the Beloved f the King of Glory ;* the 
Light of Heaven f greater than Jonah or 
Solomon, greater than the Temple f mighti- 
er than John the Baptist ;^ not only the Son 
of God, but the Only-begotten Son f in the 
form of God, the image of the invisible dei- 
ty,^ and the brightness of his glory j^** the 
power and wisdom of God;" Emmanuel, God 
with us ;^^ the one in whom dwells all the 
fullness of the Godhead bodily ;^^ the creator 
and sustainer of the universe ;^* one with the 
Father ;^^ the blessed and only Potentate, 
King of kings, and Lord of lords ;^^ the Won- 
derful, the Counselor, the Mighty God, the 
Everlasting Father, the Prince of Peace.^''' It 
is declared that he is not of this world, but 
has existed from the beginning,^® sharing the 
Father's glory before the world was, and de- 
scending to the earth from above, to mani- 
fest on earth the eternal life which was with 
the Father.^^ It is declared that he is to 
continue forever, the Alpha and Omega, the 
first and the last,'^" the same yesterday, to- 
day, and forever f^ and is to come at last to 
judge the world, with all his holy an gels. '^^ 
To him is also attributed those qualities 
which belong alone to God. He is declared 
to be the Just and Holy One ;" without sin f^ 
present always with all his people f^ knowing 

1 Isa. xli., 14, 16, 20 ; xliii., 3, 14 ; xlv., 11.— 2 John x., 
14.— 3 Eph. i., 6.—* Psa. xxiv., 7, 9, 10.— & Rev. xxi., 23. 
— « Matt, xii., 6; Luke xi., 31,32.— ■? Mark i., 7; Luke 
iii., 16.-8 John i., 34 ; iii., 18.— » Phil, ii., 6 ; Col. i., 15. 

—10 Heb. i., 3.— 11 1 Cor. i., 24.— 12 Matt, i., 23 is Ool. 

ii., 9.— 1* Col. i., 9-16.— 16 John x., 30; xvii., 11.— is 1 
Tim. vi., 15.-1^ Isa. ix., 6.— 1« John viii., 23 ; Rev. i., 8. 
—19 John viii., 23 ; xvii., 5.— 20 Rev. i., 8, 11 ; xxi., 6 ; 
xxii.,1.3.— 21 Heb.xiii., 8.-22 Matt.xxv., 31, 32.-23 Acts 
iii., 14.— 24 John viii., 46 ; xiv., 30.— 26 Matt, xxviii., 20. 



not only the intents of the heart, but know- 
i ing in very truth all things ;^ and clothed 
with almighty power.^ He is the foundation 
of his Church f the vine on which every be- 
liever is ingrafted, and from which every, 
soul derives its spiritual being.* To him 
was rendered worship while he lived, to him 
are paid in heaven the highest honors saints 
and angels are capable of rendering.^ And 
yet by the side of these clear and unam- 
biguous declarations are others not less 
weighty and significant. He is described 
as the root and offspring of David f made 
like his brethren f a man approved by the 
miracles he wrought f a prophet f a merci- 
ful high-priest;'" the servant of God." It is 
declared that God is the head of Christ ;^^ has 
anointed him,^^ raised him from the dead,^* 
and glorified him,^^ because of his voluntary 
humiliation. It is declared that Christ is 
the one mediator between God and the hu- 
man race.'^ He prays to the Father while he 
lives, acknowledges that he does all things 
by the Father's power, and speaks all things 
by his Father's indwelling ; and he returns 
to his father, who is greater than he, at his 
death, to be finally subject to him at the last, 
when all things shall be subdued to him, 
that God may be all in all.'^ 

Such are some of the most important dec- 
larations of the Scripture concerning the 
character of Jesus Christ. If either class 
of teachings stood alone, it would not be 
difficult to form a consistent, harmonious, 
and complete theory of that character. To 
a very considerable extent they are harmo- 
nized by the declaration of the Apostle Paul, 
in his divinely inspired utterance of that 
which is still the all but universal faith of 
Christendom : " Jesus Christ our Lord was 
made of the seed of David according to the 
flesh, and declared to be the Son of God with 
power, according to the spirit of holiness, by 
the resurrection from the dead."^^ The hum- 
ble student of God's word, willing to take its 
declarations without modification, and to 
confess his own inability to comprehend the 
wondrous character of him whose name is 
above every name, will not find in his prac- 
tical experience that difiiculty in accepting 
Jesus Christ as perfect God and perfect man, 
which the most erudite theologian finds in 
explaining intellectually the doctrine ; he 
will joyfully accept him as his teacher, fol- 
low him as his exemplar, trust in him as his 
Saviour, and pour before him his soul's high- 
est adoration, sure that in honoring him he 
is honoring the Father also, and content to 
leave any fuller knowledge of his ineftable 



1 John xviii., 4; xix., 28.-2 Eph. i., 19.— 3 1 Cor. iii., 
11; Eph. ii., 20.—'* John xv., 5.-5 Matt, xxviii., 17; 
Luke xxiv., 52; Acts vii., 59; Heb. i., 6: Rev. v., 13, 
14.— 8 Rev. xxii., 16.— ^ Heb. ii., 17.— « Acts ii., 22,— 
» Luke xxiv., 19.— i" Heb. ii., 17.—" Isa. Iii., 13.— 12 1 
Cor. xi., 3.-13 Acts x., 38.— i^ Acts xiii., 37.— i^ Acts 
iii., 13.— 1« 1 Tim. ii., 5.— 1^ Mark i., 35; John v., 19, 
22, .30, 36 ; vi., 39. 57 ; viii., 26, 28 ; xiv., 28 ; xvi,, 16, IT ; 
1 Cor. XV., 28.- 1« Rom. i., 3, 4. 



CHRONICLES 



191 



CHRONOLOGY 



character to the day when we shall see him 
as he is, and know him even as we also are 
known. 

Chronicles (the two Books of). Among 
the ancient Jews these formed but one book, 
though they are now divided in Hebrew Bi- 
bles, as well as in our own, into two. They 
were called " The Words of Days," i. e., dia- 
ries or journals. The Septuagint translators 
denominated them Paraleipomena — things 
omitted; and from Jerome we have derived 
the name " Chronicles." They are an abridg- 
ment of the whole of the sacred history, more 
especially tracing the history of the Hebrew 
nation from its origin, and detailing the prin- 
cipal events of the reigns of David, Solomon, 
and the succeeding kings of Judah, down to 
the return from Babylon. The writer goes 
over much of the same ground as the author 
of the books of Kings, with whose work he 
was probably acquainted. He does not, how- 
ever, merely produce a supplement, but works 
out after his own manner an independent nar- 
rative. The constant tradition of the Jews 
is, that these books were for the most part 
compiled by Ezra ; and the internal evidence 
as to the time when they were compiled 
seems to tally remarkahly with this tradi- 
tion. The plan of the book of Chronicles, 
of which the book of Ezra is a continuation, 
becomes apparent when we consider it as 
the compilation of Ezra, or some one near- 
ly contemporary with him. Several serious 
difficulties must have confronted Ezra in 
conducting the return from the Captivity to 
Jerusalem. A yet vital point of the Jewish 
economy required the distribution of the 
lands to the children of their former possess- 
ors according to the genealogies. The main- 
tenance of the Temple-service at Jerusalem 
required not only the establishment of the 
tithes for its support, but the recovery of 
the Levitical genealogies, that it might be 
known to whom and in what proportions al- 
lowances should be paid ; for all the offices 
of the Temple were hereditary, and the pay- 
ment of the tithes, first-fruits, and otlier of- 
ferings was dependent upon the different 
families of Israel being established each in its 
inheritance. Hence, one of the most press- 
ing wants of the Jewish community after 
their return from Babylon would be trusty 
genealogical records. And further, Zerubba- 
bel, and after him Ezra and Nehemiah, had 
not only labored most earnestly to restore 
the Temple and the public worship of God 
therein to its former prosperous condition 
under the kings of Judah, but also, as ap- 
pears clearly from their policy and from the 
language of the contemporary prophets, Hag- 
gai and Zechariah, warmly desired to rein- 
fuse something of national life and spirit 
into the heart of the people, and to make 
them feel that they were still the inherit- 
ors of God's covenanted mercies, the stream 
of which had been but temporarily interrupt- 



ed, not dried up, by the Captivity. Now 
nothing could more effectually aid these pi- 
ous and patriotic designs than setting be- 
fore the people a history of the kingdom of 
David, which should embrace a full account 
of its prosperity, trace the sins which led to 
its overthrow, carry the thread through the 
period of the Captivity, and continue it, as 
it were, unbroken on the other side ; and 
of especial help would be those passages in 
their former history which exhibited their 
greatest and best kings as engaged in build- 
ing or restoring the Temple, reforming all 
corruptions in religion, and zealously regu- 
lating the services of the house of God. 
Since the kingdom of Israel or Samaria had 
utterly and hopelessly passed away, and the 
existing inhabitants were among the bitter- 
est " adversaries of Judah and Benjamin," 
it would naturally engage very little of the 
compiler's attention. These considerations 
explain sufficiently the plan and scope of that 
historical work which consists of the two 
books of Chronicles and the book of Ezra. 
For after having in the first eight chapters 
given the genealogical divisions and settle- 
ments of the various tribes, the compiler 
marks distinctly his own era and purpose 
by informing us in chapter ix., 1-26, of the 
disturbance of those settlements by the Bab- 
ylonish Captivity, and of their partial resto- 
ration on the return from Babylon. That 
this list refers to the families who had re- 
turned from Babylon is clear, not only from 
the context, but from its re-insertion in Neh. 
xi., 3-22, with additional matter in xi.,22-xii,, 
26 — evidently extracted from the public ar- 
chives, and relating to times subsequent to 
the return from Babylon. Having thus 
shown the re-establishment of the returned 
families, each in its own inheritance, ac- 
cording to the houses of their fathers, the 
compiler, carrying out the other part of 
his plan, gives a continuous history of the 
kingdom of Judah from David down to 
his own times. For this history, see Jews, 
and also under the titles of the respective 
kings. 

Chronology. No standard chronological 
era is adopted in our Bible. Those writers 
who are particular in dating events refer to 
late, and in different places to different events. 
Thus we occasionally find the years reckoned 
from the departure of Israel from Egypt, and 
continually from the accession of kings. The 
prophet Ezekiel uses two eras; and some- 
times it would seem that the Jews reckoned 
from the return from Babylon.^ But none 
of these dates were employed as regular 
standards — as the era of the Olympiads, B.C. 
776, was by the Greeks, and that of the foun- 
dation of their city, B.C. 753, was by the Ro- 
mans, or as the year of our own independence 



1 Numb, i., 1; xxxiii., 38; Deut. i., 3; 1 Kings vi., 
1 ; XV., 1, 9, 25, 33 ; 2 Kings xviii., 13 ; Ezek. i., 1, 2 ; viii., 
1; XX., 1; Ezra iii.,8. 



CHRONOLOGY 



192 



CHEONOLOGY 



is to some extent in fixing the dates of events 
in American history. Still less was there 
adopted any standard from Avhich all dates 
miglit be calculated, as by common consent 
of Christendom the birth of Christ has been 
adopted as the hour from which all time 
shall take its measurement. 

In the absence of any such standard, bibli- 
cal chronology is almost wholly a matter of 
calculation where it is not a matter of sur- 
mise ; and biblical scholars are by no means 
agreed in the results attained. The ages of 
the patriarchs afford a basis of chronological 
computations in the patriarchal period. But 
after the settlement of Israel in Canaan, the 
calculations become more intricate, and the 
results more uncertain, since it is frequently 
impossible to tell whether the judges suc- 
ceeded each other, or were contemporaneous 
rulers in different districts. In the times of 
the monarchy dates were more precisely 
given; and after the division of the kingdom, 
the regal chronicle of one is a checl£ to that 
of the other. The apparent discrepancies 
between them have been unduly exaggerated 
by some writers, and various hypotheses have 
been put forth to meet these difficulties. 
Most of the discrepancies may be accounted 
for by the fact that the Hebrew annalists 
reckon in round numbers, not specifying the 
months, in addition to the years, of a king's 
reign ; some of them count fractions of a 
year as an entire year, and others omit such 
fractions altogether. Hence, in computing 
the date of the commencement of each reign, 
without attributing any error to the writers 
■or transcribers, it is necessary to allow for a 
possible variation of something less thaji two 
years in our interpretation of the indefinite 
phraseology of the Hebrew writers. And 
there are few statements in the Hebrew text 
which can not thus be reconciled. 

Accepting the Hebrew text as the basis of 
his chronology. Archbishop Usher places the 
call of Abraham, B.C. 1921 ; the exodus of Is- 
rael from Egypt, B.C. 1491 ; the foundation of 
the Temple, B.C. 1012 ; the taking of Jerusa- 
lem by Nebuchadnezzar, B.C. 588 ; and the 
birth of Christ, B.C. 4, or 4000 years after the 
Creation. But these dates are derived from 
the Hebrew text, and, when collateral testi- 
monies have been considered, other chronol- 
ogers have arrived at different conclusions. 
The Pentateuch exists also in the ancient 



Hebrew characters resembling the Samari- 
tan, of which there is a Samaritan transla- 
tion, and in the Septuagint Greek version, 
which is of great value. And these two, the 
Samaritan Pentateuch and the Septuagint, 
vary from each other and from the Hebrew 
in the numbers they give. The Jewish his- 
torian, Josephus, also differing from the He- 
brew text, agrees nearly with the Septua- 
gint. The Samaritan computation, howev- 
er, can not be relied upon, and the question 
substantially lies between the Hebrew and 
the Septuagint computations. Has the first 
abridged, or has the latter extended the true 
chronology? Great names may be found as 
supporters of each hypothesis. Yet it is 
only with respect to the earlier ages of the 
world that much difference exists among 
chronologeis. And this arises not from the 
untrust worthiness of the Bible record, but 
from the difficulty in rightly interpreting 
that record. 

Upon the data we have considered, three 
principal systems of biblical chronology have 
been founded, which may be termed the 
long system, the short, and the rabbinical. A 
fourth — which, although an offshoot in part 
of the last, can scarcely be termed biblical, 
inasmuch as it depends for the most part 
upon theories not only independent of, but re- 
pugnant to the Bible — ^has for its chief advo- 
cate Baron Bunsen. The principal defenders 
of the long chronology are Jackson, Hales, 
and Des Vignoles. Of the short chronology, 
Usher may be considered as the most able 
supporter. The rabbinical chronology ac- 
cepts the biblical numbers, but makes the 
most arbitrary corrections. For the date of 
the Exodus, it has, however, been virtually 
accepted by Bunsen, Lepsius, and Lord A. 
Hervey. 

The following table exhibits the principal 
dates as taken from Hales, Usher, Bunsen, 
Mr. Poole (who, in his article on chronology 
in Dr. Smith's "Dictionary of the Bible," has 
proceeded by careful comparison of the bib- 
lical with foreign data), and Mr. Palmer's 
learned work, the "Egyptian Chronicles." 
Chronological tables of the Old Testament 
history will be found in the Appendix. The 
dates given in this dictionary are of course 
proximate only, but they embody what are 
believed to be the results of the best Chris- 
tian scholarship. 



COMPARATIVE CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE. 





Hales. 


Poole. 


Palmer. 


U8her. 


Bunsen. 


Creation 


B.O. 

5411 

3155 

20T8 
1048 
1027 
586 


(5421J 

fri 

1.S160) 

20S2 

16.'52 

1010 

586 


B.O. 

5362 

3100 

2084 
1654 
1014 

5ST 


B.O. 

4004 

2348 

1021 
1491 
1012 

588 


B.O. 

(Adam), about 20,000 

(Noah), about 10,000 

1,320 


Flood 


Abrarn leaves Haran 


Exodus 

Foundation of Solomon's Temple 

Destruction of Solomon's Temple. 


1,004 


5SG 





CHRYSOLITE 



193 



CHURCH 



Chrysolite, one of the precious stones 
mentioned as a foundation of the wall of the 
New Jerusalem. It was probably a species 
of topaz, and is described as golden, streak- 
ed with green and white. [Rev. xxi., 20.] 

Chiysoprasus, one of the precious stones 
mentioned in Scripture as a foundation of 
the New Jerusalem. The true ckrysoprase 
is sometimes found in antique Egyptian jew- 
els. It is said to be of a green color, inter- 
spersed with gold. [Rev. xxi., 20.] 

Church. I. Jewish. — The first church was 
the household, the tent was the sanctuary, 
a rude pile of stones was the altar, the father 
was the priest, the family and its retainers 
were the worshiping congregation. For a 
time the oldest son succeeded to the priestly 
office of the father ; but when Moses, under 
the divine guidance, established a church in 
the wilderness, the sons of Aaron were made 
the priests of the nation, a tabernacle for 
public worship took the place of the individ- 
ual tent, and an elaborate ceremonial was or- 
ganized, to be at a later period more perfect- 
ly developed in the Temple-service under Da- 
vid. Four features characterized the Jewish 
Church : the priests, who conducted the sac- 
rificial services, but rarely or never preach- 
ed ; the prophets, who served as the instruct- 
ors of the people, but held no official posi- 
tion in the Church, and were not even or- 
dained ; the Temple, which was the centre 
and heart of the whole Jewish ecclesiastical 
system ; and the Scriptures, which consti- 
tuted the authority to which the prophets 
appealed, and by which their teachings were 
to be tested. The destruction of the Tem- 
ple and the captivity of the Jews under Neb- 
uchadnezzar put an end for a time to the 
ritualistic service of the Church, and gave 
birth to the synagogues (q. v.), which origi- 
nating in a foreign land, where the annual 
visit to the Temple was impossible, were 
subsequently carried into Palestine and es- 
tablished there, becoming centres of worship 
and instruction, subsidiary to, but never sup- 
planting, the Temple itself. The Church 
was, until the time of Christ, a national es- 
tablishment, supported by a tax levied upon 
the people. These various aspects of the 
Jewish Church are more fully discussed 
under the respective titles. Priest ; Proph- 
et ; Bible ; Tabernacle ; Temple ; Music ; 
Synagogue ; Tithes ; and to these articles 
the reader is referred for fuller information. 

II. Christian C/jwrc/j.— Although the O. T. 
is full of the Church of God, the word occurs 
only in the N. T. The Greek term of which 
it is the translation implies generally '^ an 
assembly," civil or religious, and is in some 
cases properly so rendered. In a religious 
sense, it signifies that body of persons whom 
God has gathered to be his servants. It 
is thus applied to Israel, the Lord's peculiar 
people, in Acts vii., 38, and Heb. ii., 12, where 
it corresponds to the ''congregation" so fre- 
13 



quently mentioned in the 0. T. Thus the 
word, in apostolic times, has the general 
meaning of an assemblage or congregation 
of Christians. This meaning has, of course, 
many modifications. It is sometimes a body 
belonging to or meeting in one house ;^ some- 
times the Christians of a city, as Jerusalem, 
where were at one time many thousands that 
believed f sometimes it is employed in a 
larger sense, with no local or territorial des- 
ignation f and it frequently comprises that 
great body of redeemed, the holy catholic 
Church, the universal company, united in one 
living Head, '' the fullness of him that fill- 
eth aU in all."" 

So much is clear ; but the moment we at- 
tempt to go beyond this meaning of the 
word and inquire what was the form of the 
organization, we are met by an almost insu- 
perable difficulty. The most casual reader 
of the N. T. can hardly fail to notice that 
there is no formal statement of that organ- 
ization ; no ecclesiastical constitution ; no 
canons ; no rules of discipline ; not even a 
creed. We are left to conjecture what the or- 
ganization really was, from incidental hints 
and suggestions such as would give but lit- 
tle light even to unprejudiced miuds. Few 
minds, however, are unprejudiced, in ap- 
proaching this subject. Each individual 
looks at the N. T. through a modern atmos- 
phere, and hopes and expects to find in it a 
support for that particular form of church 
order and Christian faith which has become 
endeared to him. Instead of entering into 
the discussions which have abounded on this 
subject, and endeavoring to afford an analy- 
sis of the Church of the N. T., we shall brief- 
ly indicate to our readers the principal opin- 
ions upon the subject. 

There is, in the first place, a fundamental 
difference of opinion respecting the nature 
of the N. T. teaching concerning the Church. 
A large majority of Christian theologians — 
if the Roman Catholic clergy are included — 
are of the opinion that Jesus Christ came 
into the world expressly to found a church, 
that he established one with a definite or- 
ganization, determined its form and func- 
tions, appointed its officers, gave them their 
authority, and directed them to maintain in 
perpetuity the institution he had thus crea- 
ted. This is the theory entertained by all 
Roman Catholics, by most Episcopalians, and 
by many in the other Protestant denomina- 
tions. Those who hold this view consider 
that the N. T. affords an infallible model of 
the true Church, and that what we have to 
do is to ascertain by careful study the na- 
ture of the apostolical Church, and conform 
our own ecclesiastical organizations thereto. 
The other view is, that Christ did not estab- 



1 Rom. xvi., 5; 1 Cor. xvi., 19; Philem. 2.-2 Acts 
XV., 4 ; xviii., 22 ; xxi., 20 ; 2 Thess. i., 1.— ^ Rom. xvi., 
4, 16.— 4 Matt, xvi., 18 ; 1 Cor. xii., 28 ; Gal. i., 13 ; Eph. 
i., 22, 23 ; iii., 10 ; v., 25-30 ; Heb. xii., 23. 



CHURCH 



194 



CHURCH AND STATE 



lisli any churcli organization, that he came 
simply to proclaim certain great truths, and 
by his life and death to set certain moral 
forces in operation;' and that while he in- 
structed his followers to unite in church or- 
ganizations, the better to promulgate his 
teacl^ng, he left it entirely to their discre- 
tioh to frame those organizations according 
to the exigencies of the times in which they 
should live. In other words, they hold that 
there is no one absolute and infallible Church 
model, but that church institutions, like civil 
institutions, must be adapted to the wants of 
the people, and should be and have been left 
flexible, in order that they may be changed 
with the changing demands of different ages 
and countries. This view is held by a large 
number of divines in the Methodist, Presby- 
terian, and Congregational churches. The 
first of these views would have, perhaps, 
more to commend it if it secured any unity 
among those who embraced it. It does not ; 
and those who seek to find in the apostolic 
times a model for the Church of the nine- 
teenth century, differ quite as v^idely as to 
what that model is, as do those who endeav- 
or without a model to conform their ecclesias- 
tical institutions to the wants of the time and 
the community. The views of both schools 
of interpreters may be classified under four 
general heads. Though these would certain- 
ly not include all known forms of Church 
government, they would include the most im- 
portant. These are the Papal, the Episcopal, 
the Presbyterian, and the Congregational. 

According to the Papal theory, Christ not 
only established one church organization, 
but declared all separation from it a schism, 
and in effect a rebellion against himself. He 
appointed one of the apostles, Peter, to act 
as the head of the Church, and, in his official 
capacity as primate, to represent the divine 
authority in perpetuity upon the earth ; he 
endowed the Church with the power of ap- 
pointing from time to time successors to 
Peter ; and he promised to abide with this 
ecclesiastical primate, and so to inspire him, 
that whatever he said officially as pope, by 
virtue of his office, should be infallibly cor- 
rect, to be forever received by all the faith- 
ful as the voice of God himself.^ 

According to the Episcopal theory, the 
true organization of a church is that which 
divides it into dioceses or bishoprics, placing 
each diocese under the charge of an over- 
seer or bishop, who thus preserves the unity 
of the Church, and by his general supervis- 
ion is thought to secure order, and guard 
against error in doctrine and extravagance 
in sentiment. The word episkopos signifies 
overseer, and the Episcopal form of gov- 
ernment is common to the Methodist and 
the Episcopal churches.'' Episcopalians gen- 



1 See Roman Catholics ; Infallibility.— 2 The 
Methodist, bi?hop8, however, have no separate dio- 
ceses. See B16UOP. 



erally regard it as a divinely-appointed or- 
der, and consider that the bishops receive 
their authority, as the Roman Catholics think 
the pope does his, by divine appointment, de- 
rived, through many generations, from Christ 
himself.^ 

In Presbyterianism, that unity of the 
Church which is preserved in the Roman 
Catholic and Episcopal churches by the pope 
and the bishops respectively, is secured by a 
series of representative assemblies, the Syn- 
od, the Presbytery, and the General Assem- 
bly. It is, in other words, a representative 
form of government, though it differs mate- 
rially from that of the United States in that, 
as a general thing, the representatives who 
administer the government of the Church 
are life officers. It is very generally thought 
by Presbyterians that this form of govern- 
ment conforms very nearly to that of the 
ancient Jewish synagogue ; that in many 
cases the Jewish synagogue was converted 
into a Christian church ; and that thus the 
Presbyterian form of government, or some- 
thing very analogous to it, was the form 
most common in apostolic times. 

The fourth form of Church government is 
the Congregational. It is maintained not 
only by the Congregationalists, but also by 
all the Baptists, some of the Methodists, the 
Unitarians and Universalists, and most indi- 
vidual local churches unconnected with any 
ecclesiastical organization. In this form of 
government no attempt is made to secure 
that organic unity Avhich is secured in the 
other forms of government by the pope, the 
bishops, and the presbytery respectively. 
Each church is a separate and independent 
community. The only unity recognized is a 
unity of faith, and love, and Christian fel- 
lowship ; and the government of each church 
is administered by the whole body of believ- 
ers, usually in public meetings gathered for 
the purpose, though sometimes in the larger 
churches through representative committees, 
who, however, are always subject to an an- 
nual election. For further information re- 
specting these forms of Church government, 
see under their respective titles. For an ac- 
count of Church buildings, see Church Edi- 
fices. 

Church and State. The proper relations 
of Church and State have been the subject 
of a great deal of bitter disciission. We shall 
in this article very briefly indicate the three 
principal views imder which the various the- 
ories may not improperly be classified : 

1. The first theory is that which unques- 
tionably was the basis of the Jewish theory. 
In the Jewish nation God was king; Mo- 
ses acted directly under the divine insph-a- 
tion ; the laws and institutions which he 
propounded were of di^ane origin. At a 
later period the judges were supposed to act 
under God's ffuidance, and in manv cases did 



See Apostolic Sucokssion ; Episcopalians. 



CHURCH AND STATE 



195 



CHURCH AND STATE 



so, thoiigli in some they proved recreant and 
unworthy of their trust. When the mon- 
archy was established, God was still " King j 
of kings ;" the Jewish monarchs in theory 
representing him. This fact invested their 
persons with peculiar sacredness ;^ it made 
idolatry a peculiarly heinous crime. During 
all this period, Church and State were in fact 
one. No discrimination was attem^ited be- 
tween them. The religious and the secular 
functions were in some measure divided, but 
the king was as sacred as the priest, and re- 
ligion, true or false, pervaded every depart- 
ment of government, alike under the devout 
David and the apostate Ahab. When the 
period of special inspiration thus vouchsafed 
to the Jewish nation passed away, with it 
passed forever the foundation of this the- 
ory of Church and State. Christ and his 
apostles recognized clearly the distinction 
between the two. Christ, in his action con- 
cerning tribute (q. v.), and in his direction 
to " render therefore unto Csesar the things 
which are Caesar's, and unto God the things 
that are God's ;" and the apostles, especial- 
ly Paul, in their reiterated directions to the 
Christian disciples to obey the Pagan gov- 
ernment of Rome in all things secular, dis- 
tinctly recognize the end of the theocracy.^ 
Nor was it until the eleventh century that 
the Church of Rome, under the leadership 
of Gregory "VII., attempted to reinstate it. 
Claiming for the Church a divine origin and 
a divine inspiration, he claimed for it also 
a pre-eminent jiower over the State. That 
claim the Roman Catholic Church has ever 
since maintained. It must be conceded to 
be consistent in its claims ; for it asserts, 
first, that the divine inspiration accorded to 
Moses and his successors is still accorded to 
the Papal Church, which is, according to the 
Roman Catholic faith, the representative of 
God upon earth, an infallible and authorita- 
tive lawgiver. Roman Catholicism there- 
fore claims, second, that the State is neces- 
sarily subordinate to the Church, as the na- 
tions of the earth to the laws of God him- 
self. It asserted, therefore, in the height of 
its power, the right to appoint and to de- 
throne kings, to release citizens from their 
allegiance, to sit supreme as arbiter among 
the nations of the earth. Though powerless 
to exert this authority, it still claims it.^ 

2. The second theory grew in part out of 
the religious Reformation, in part out of the 
act of Henry VIII., in throwing off the papal 
yoke in England. This theory assumes that 
the State is under obligation to support the 
Church. This assumption is based upon the 
admitted fact that the foundations of civil 
society rest upon religious truth ; that with- 
out the inculcation of allegiance to God and 
obedience to hiS law, allegiance to the State 
and obedience to its laws can not long be 



1 1 Sam. xxiv., 6.-2 Matt, xviii., 24-27; xxii., lT-21 
Rom. xiii., 1-7 ; 1 Pet. ii., 13, 14.— 3 See Inteepict. 



maintained; in other words, that atheism 
and irreligion disorganize society — a fact 
sufficiently proved by history in the French 
Revolution ; by the fact also that, in bar- 
baric tribes, the lack of any stable and well- 
ordered government is just in the propor- 
tion of the lack of any pure religion. Since 
the State is dependent upon religion, it is 
assumed that it must support a church to 
inculcate religion. This theory is hedged 
about with many and serious practical diffi- 
culties. The established Church must have 
some creed, and those who dissent from it 
are yet compelled to give it their unwilling 
support, since it is maintained by taxation. 
The relations between Church and State are 
difficult of adjustment. In general terms, 
the Church may be said to be supreme in 
spiritual, the State in secular matters ; but 
in an established Church the spiritual and 
the secular almost necessarily are inextrica- 
bly intermixed. If the Church does some- 
thing to improve the religious tone and char- 
acter of the State, the State does much to 
lower the religious tone and character of the 
Church. Its property is liable to fall into 
the hands of irreligious or indifferent per- 
sons, and even its ecclesiastical offices to 
be usurped by those who desire them only 
for the profit and honor they bring, not for 
the opportunity they afford for doing good.^ 
This, however, is the theory which underlies 
the Church establishments in England and 
on the Continent. So serious are the diffi- 
culties which it involves, that in Ireland, 
where an immense majority of the people 
are Roman Catholic, the Church has been dis- 
established, and the demand for disestablish- 
ment has already (1872) grown so strong in 
England, that it is generally conceded, even 
by the friends of the Established Church, that 
disestablishment there is only a question of 
time. Indeed, there has already sprung up 
within the Church of England itself a party 
who feel the trammels of the State, and de- 
sire freedom from all political interference, 
even at the expense of losing the doubtful 
advantage of State support. 

3. The third view is that generally en- 
tertained by all Protestants in the United 
States. This view is that the State and 
Church should be entirely distinct from each 
other ; that the Church should be divested 
of all power except such moral power as re- 
spect for its character and its teachings may 
afford, and such as its members voluntarily 
yield to it in entering its organization. Ac- 
cording to this view, the State should nei- 
ther support a church, nor be subject to it ; 
but, confining itself to the secular functions 
of government, should leave the religious 
education of the people wholly to voluntary 
effort, each church being entirely depend- 
ent for support on the free-will offerings of 

1 For some practical illustrations of these difficul. 
ties, see Chuech Rates ; Pateonage ; Simony. 



CHUECH EDIFICES 



196 



CHUECH EDIFICES 



its members. Experieuce tlius far does not 
indicate that the apprehensions were well 
grounded of those who feared that the abo- 
lition of all State support would result in 
the development of irreligion and immo- 
rality among the people. , On the contrary, 
there is probably no country where so much 
is done so effectively as in the United States 
for the inculcation of true religion and sound 
morals. At the same time, there are some 
difficulties which, if not inseparable from, 
are at all events closely connected with this 
theory. So long as the State, in the admin- 
istration of jjunishment, endeavors to reform 
offenders, so long it must choose its instru- 
ments. On what principle the chaplains or 
other officers shall be selected for our State 
prisons, penitentiaries, and reform schools, is 
an exceedingly difficult problem. Still more 
difficult is the problem of common school ed- 
ucation.^ Still, this theory is gaining ad- 
herents even in Europe, and now numbers 
among them not a few liberal and progress- 
ive persons even in the Eoman Catholic com- 
munion. 

Church Edifices. Until the second cen- 
tury Christians were not permitted to erect 
churches, but were compelled to worship in 
private houses, in the open fields, or, to es- 
cape persecution, in the Catacombs (q. v.) 
and other concealed places. But on the sus- 
pension of persecution, a.d. 202, they began 
to build churches, which were erected in 
great magnificence under Constantine, a.d. 
300, and Justinian, a.d. 565. In the fifteenth 
and sixteenth centuries, church building was 
carried to such an extent as to become a 
permanent source of corruption because of 
worldly ambition. 

I. Ancient Churches. — The earliest ground- 
forms were oblong ; sometimes with parallel 
sides, but more frequently in the form of a 
ship. For several centuries after Constan- 
tine the Great, churches were erected in the 
form of a cross. The circular form being 
generally adopted in building heathen tem- 
ples, was sedulously avoided by the Chris- 
tians in building their churches. The church 
was approached through a spacious area, in 
the middle of which was a fountain, in which 
every one, as he entered, washed his hands — 
an act intended for a significant memorial 
of the purity of heart that alone can consti- 
tute an acceptable worshiper. The entrance 
was formed by a longitudinal porch, within 
which kings laid down their crowns, soldiers 
their arms, and magistrates or judges the 
insignia of their office. The interior of the 
building was divided into different compart- 
ments, corresponding to the different class- 
es of hearers that composed the i)rimitive 
church. At the farther end, opposite the 
main entrance, was the pulpit, or elevated 
bench, from which the minister read the 
Scriptures and exhorted the people; and 
^ See SouooLs. 



immediately behind this was the place set 
apart for celebrating the communion, the 
consecrated elements of which were deposit- 
ed on a plain movable table, covered with a 
white cloth. Here and there were niches 
in the walls, sufficiently large to hold one or 
two persons, each of which was furnished 
with a copy of the Scriptures, for the use of 
those who might choose to retire, in the in- 
tervals of public worship, to read and to 
meditate in these little recesses. Besides 
this provision, invaluable in those days when 
books were all in manuscript, and costly in 
price, texts of Scripture appropriate to each 
class of hearers were inscribed on that part 
of the wall that lay nearest the place they 
occupied in the church. Thus, for example, 
over the space assigned to the young wom- 
en, a passage from St. Paul, 1 Cor. vii., 34, 
was engraven in large characters. For the 
benefit of those who were too illiterate to 
profit by such means of Christian instruc- 
tion, the custom was introduced, toward the 
close of the third century, of decorating the 
walls of churches with pictures of the scenes 
and characters of ancient history. 

It does not appear that for the first three 
centuries any particular arrangement was 
adhered to in fitting up the interior of 
churches ; but in the fourth century a defi- 
nite plan came into general use. The body 
of the church was divided into three parts, 
corresponding to the three classes in which 
Christians were arranged — the clergy, the 
believers, and the catechumens. These di- 
visions were : 1. The Bema, answering to the 
modern chancel (q. v.) ; 2. The Naos, or nave, 
which was occupied by the faithful, or lay 
members of the Church ; and, 3. The Narthex 
(q. v.), or ante-temple. Besides these three 
separate divisions of the interior of church- 
es, there were outer buildings of different 
kinds, the most important of which was the 
baptistery (q. v.). Libraries and schools 
were also kept in connection with the church- 
es. Bathing -houses and public rooms for 
rest and refreshment, as well as hospitals 
for the poor and sick, were erected in their 
immediate vicinity. Bells (q. v.) were not 
in use earlier than the fifth or sixth century. 
Organs do not occur as a part of the church 
furniture until the time of Charlemagne. 
The early Christians exercised peculiar care 
in the construction of the doors of their 
churches, from their anxiety to preserve se- 
crecy in celebrating the mysteries of their 
religion. To guard the entrance, a special 
class of men were set apart for the purpose, 
called ostiarii, or door-keepers (q. v.). The 
doors were usually made of the choicest and 
most durable wood, richly ornamented ; some- 
times they were constructed of solid brass or 
bronze. Churches were held in great ven- 
eration among the primitive Christians, and 
it was a very general custom to kiss the 
threshold of the doors and the altars, in 



CHUECH EDIFICES 



197 



CHURCH EDIFICES 



token of reverence. They were sometimes 
used as places of refuge for criminals, and 
were also employed as the safest repository 
for things of value, and as the best security 
in times of calamity and distress. 

II. Modern Churches. — The modern church- 
es of the Episcopal, Roman Catholic, and 
Greek communions are the only ones of 
which we need say any thing in detail. 
Those of other denominations being con- 
structed primarily with reference to the ser- 
mon, which constitutes so large a part of 
their service, consist of an audience -room, 
built oftenest in a plain oblong shape. For- 
merly the pews were square, but they are 
now ordinarily oblong and narrow. Some 
of the more modern churches are built more 
nearly in the form of a square, and some, as 
Spurgeon's in London, have semicircular gal- 
leries. One recent church has in the galler- 
ies square pews for families, which are rent- 
ed, while the pews upon the ground -floor 
are free. Many modern churches have gone 
back to the custom of the Middle Ages, 
though modifying it, to meet the wants of 
modern society; adding to the church not 
only a lecture-room for prayer-meetings and 
week-evening lectures, and a Sabbath-school 
room, but also parlors, a kitchen, and other 
conveniences for social 
gatherings, a library - 
room for the use of the 
congregation, and, in one 
or two cases, sleeping- 
rooms for those who are 
shelterless, and an in- 
firmary for the sick. The 
churches of the liturgical 
denominations are much 
more complicated in 
character. Taking the 
Durham Cathedral of 
England as an illustra- 
tion of the general prin- 
ciples of their structure, 
we may briefly describe 
their component parts as 
follows. The external 
form of the modern as 
of the ancient church is 
the cross. Over the point 
at which the arms inter- 
sect the body of the cross, 
a central tower or spire 
is very frequently erect- 
ed. From this central 
point, the portion of the 
building which runs to 
the great entrance-door 
is called the nave (from 
navis, a ship), while the 
portion which runs to 
the altar, or high-altar, 
if there be several, is 
called the choir, where 
is the chancel (q. v.). 



The two arms of the cross are called the 
transepts, and are usually distinguished as 
the north and south, or the east and west 
transepts. In the larger and more com- 
plete churches, the nave, and frequently 
also the choir, are divided longitudinally 
by two rows of pillars into three portions, 
the portion at each side being generally 
somewhat narrower and less lofty than that 
in the centre. These side portions are call- 
ed the aisles of the nave, or of the choir, 
as the case may be. In some churches the 
aisles are continued along the transepts, thus 
running round the whole church ; in others 
there are double aisles to the nave, or to 
both nave and choir, or even to nave, choir, 
and transept. Behind the choir is situated 
the Lady's Chapel, or Chapel of the Virgin, 
with sometimes a number of altars ; and it 
is not unusual for side chapels to be placed 
at certain distances along the aisles. These 
usually contain the tombs of the founder, 
and of other benefactors to, or dignitaries 
connected with, the church. Vestries for 
the use of the priests and choristers gen- 
erally exist in connection with the choir. 
Along the sides of the choir are ranged richly- 
ornamented seats or stalls, usually of carved 
oak, surmounted with tracery, arches, and 




Plan of Durham Cathedral. 



CHUECH OF GOD 



198 



CILICIA 



pinnacles. Among these seats, in tlie case of 
a Ibisliop's cliurch, the highest and most con- 
spicuous is the so-called cathedra, or throne 
for the bishop, from which the cathedral 
takes its name. The larger English cathe- 
dral and abbey churches have usually a chap- 
ter-house attached to them ; but on the Con- 
tinent chapter -houses are not so common, 
the chapter (q. v.) being usually held in the 
cathedral itself, or in one of the chapels at- 
tached to it. Cloisters (q. v.) are also fre- 
quent ; and not unusually the sides of those 
which are farthest removed from the church 
or chapter-house are inclosed by other build- 
ings connected with the establishment, such 
as a library, and places of residence for some 
of the officials of the cathedral. It is here 
that, in Eomau Catholic churches, the hall, 
dormitories, and kitchens for the monks 
are commonly placed. Beneath the church 
there is frequently a crypt. The Baptis- 
tery (q. V.) is another adjunct to the church, 
though frequently forming a building alto- 
gether detached. Most of the parts of the 
church which we have mentioned may be 
traced on the annexed ground-plan of Dur- 
ham Cathedral ; but it must not be supposed 
that their position is always that which is 
there represented. The position of the nave, 
choir or chancel, aisles, and transepts are 
nearly invariable, but the other portions 
vary, and are rarely alike in two churches. 

Church of God, a denomination of Bap- 
tists organized in 1830, under the leadership 
of one John Winebrenner. Hence its ad- 
herents are popularly known as Winebren- 
nerian Baptists. They hold substantially 
the same views as the Baptists, adding, how- 
ever, that feet-washing is an ordinance of 
perpetual obligation ; that the Lord's Supper 
should be always administered in a sitting 
posture, and in the evening ; that the manu- 
facture and sale of ardent spirits is immoral, 
and that slavery and civil wars are unholy 
and unchristian. Its churches are found 
chiefly in Pennsylvania and the Western 
States. The denomination numbers about 
400 churches, and 30,000 church members. 

Church-rates, an assessment made upon 
the inhabitants of any parish in England for 
meeting the expenses of repairing the parish 
church. The rate must be agreed upon at a 
meeting of the church-wardens and parish- 
ioners, regularly called by public intimation, 
in the church ; and the law provides that " the 
major part of them that appear shall bind 
the parish, or, if none appear, the church- 
wardens alone may make the rate, because 
they, and not the parishioners, are to be cited 
and punished in defect of repairs." A rate 
for repairing the fabric of the church is to be 
charged upon the laud, and not the person ; 
but a rate for providing ornaments is per- 
sonal upon the goods, and not upon the land. 
This system of church-rates, which provides 
for the maintenance and repairing of the 



churches of the Establishment by a tax which 
falls equally upon all the inhabitants of the 
parish, whether members of the Established 
Church or Dissenters, has given rise to great 
dissatisfaction and irritation. In 1859-60 a 
bill for the abolition of church-rates received 
the approval of the Commons, but was re- 
jected by the Peers. 

Church-wardens, officers in the Episco- 
pal Church, whose business it is to look after 
its secular affairs, and who in England act 
as the legal representatives of the parish. 
In the Protestant Episcopal Church of Amer- 
ica their duties in general are to protect the 
church building, to see that worship is duly 
provided for and performed, and to represent 
the body of the parish when occasion may 
require. They are chosen, with the vestry- 
men, " annually, in Easter- week, according to • 
the canons of the various dioceses." Their 
duties are enjoined by diocesan, not by gen- 
eral canons. 

Churching of Women, a form of public 
thanksgiving for women after childbirth, 
used in the Eomish, Greek, and Episcopal 
churches. It is perhaps derived from the 
Jewish rite of purification enjoined in Lev. 
xii. The Eomanists allow, in exceptional 
cases, the churching of women in private 
houses, and the churching of mothers of ille- 
gitimate children ; but among the Episcopa- 
lians the service is always performed in the 
church. 

Chuza, the steward of Herod Antipas. 
His wife Joanna was one of the women who 
ministered to Jesus. It is perhaps from this 
circumstance that he has been conjectured 
to be the officer of the court of Antipas whose 
son Jesus healed by a word at Can a of Gal- 
ilee. The word, in the account of that mir- 
acle, translated nobleman, is rendered in the 
margin courtier, and it is said by the late 
Dean Alford that the etymology of the word 
indicates that he was an officer of Herod An- 
tipas. [Luke viii., 3 ; John iv., 43-54.] 

Cilicia, the most south-easterly province 
of Asia Minor, divided by Mount Amanus 
from Syria, with which it is sometimes coup- 
led. On the west and north it is girdled by 
the chain of Taurus, through passes in which 
it communicates with Isauria, Pisidia, Pam- 
phylia, and Cappadocia ; on the south it is 
washed by the Mediterranean. The eastern 
part was a plain district, well watered, and 
fruitful; the west was rugged, but afford- 
ed pasture for the celebrated Cilician goats. 
The inhabitants are said to have sprung 
from the Syrians and Phoenicians. Cilicia, 
after belonging partially to the Syrian king- 
dom and to Armenia, became in B.C. 63, when 
Pompey had subdued the noted pii"ates, a 
Eoman province, and Cicero was once pro- 
consul of it. The inhabitants of the mount- 
ains, however, long maintained their inde- 
pendence. Tarsus, the capital, was the birth- 
place of the Apostle Paul, Cilicia is fre- 



CINNAMON 



199 



CISTERCIANS 



qiiently mentioned in tlie New Testament. 
[Acts vi., 9; xxi., 39; xxii., 3; xxiii., 34; 
xxvii., 5.] 

Cinnamon, wMch with us is used cliiefly 
by the cook as a condiment, and by the phy- 
sician as a gentle cordial and stimulant, is 
mentioned in the O. T. only as a perfume. It 
IS the bark of a tree of the laurel family, 
found in Sumatra, Borneo, and China, but 
chiefly in the south-west parts of Ceylon. 
When the branches of the tree are three 
years old, and not more than two or three 
inches in diameter, they are cut off and peel- 
ed, and the inner bark, rolled into quills and 
dried in the sun, constitutes cinnamon. It 
was anciently imported into Judea by the 
Phcenicians and Arabians. [Exod. xxx., 23, 
25 ; Prov. vii., 17 ; Sol. Song iv., 14.] 

Circuit. In the Methodist Episcopal Church 
a single church supplied by a pastor is called 
a station; but when one or more appointments 
within a definite territory are united into 
one charge under one or more ministers, it is 
called a " circuit." In America the circuit 
system was universal in the beginning of 
Methodism, and it is still widely in use in 
rural districts, and in the Western States. 

Circumcision. The word denotes simply 
a cutting around, but is used technically of 
that particular cutting off of the foreskin 
in males, which from very early times was 
an established practice among various na- 
tions. The precise region where the prac- 
tice originated, or the grounds which led 
to its adoption, it is not easy to determine. 
From the measure of painfulness and muti- 
lation involved in the operation, it could not 
be otherwise than repugnant to the natu- 
ral feelings ; and it must have been asso- 
ciated with some important considerations 
of a physical or religious character before 
it could have obtained its early and wide- 
spread prevalence. It has been maintain- 
ed with a great degree of confidence that 
the primary ground of its adoption was of 
a physical nature ; that in the places of its 
first rise and most general prevalence, it was 
actually found to be conducive to health, 
and was believed to be productive of fruit- 
fulness, and was hence regarded as a medici- 
nal application. The proof of this, however, 
is very meagre, and far from sufficient to ac- 
count for the prevalence and tenacity of the 
practice as a national custom among even a 
single people, to say nothing of peoples so 
widely removed and so differently circum- 
stanced as the Egyptians, the Ethiopians, the 
Troglodytes, the Caffres of South Africa, and 
islanders of the Pacific Ocean. That the 
Egyptians viewed the practice as having 
some sort of relation to cleanliness, and that 
this might be regarded as one of the reasons 
which led to its observance there, especially 
among the priests, is all that can fairlj^ be 
affirmed on the subject. Whether or not it 
was ever so generally practiced in Egypt as 



to be a national usage. — a question about 
which critics disagree — it appears to have 
been regarded as strictly binding only on the 
priesthood, and those who were initiated into 
the sacred mysteries. In point of fact, there- 
fore, it came to be associated with religion, 
and was recognized as the distinctive badge 
of its more peculiar representatives. Noth- 
ing more than this is needed to explain the 
use made of it in connection with the cove- 
nant made with Abraham by the Lord.' That 
covenant was to constitute those who belong- 
ed to it a chosen people — a people brought 
into such near relationship with Jehovah, 
that they should be called a kingdom of 
priests, and might at once be the subject of 
his distinguishing goodness, and the witness- 
es of his truth and glory. There can be no 
doubt that the better part of the Israelites 
themselves perfectly understood this symbol- 
ical import of the rite of circumcision. They 
knew that it implied purity of heart and con- 
duct, or a call to a holy life, and was no mere 
badge of separation from the other nations 
of the earth, which indeed it could be but 
imperfectly, from its prevalence among sur- 
rounding peoples. Hence the spiritual sig- 
nificance continually attached to it in both 
the O. T. and the N. T.^ 

Jehovah expressly ordained the adminis- 
tration of circumcision on the eighth day. 
In later times, it is expressly noted that the 
naming and the circumcising went together, 
and it was probably so from the first. The 
son of an Israelite was thus constituted a 
member of the covenant at the same time 
that he received his designation as a mem- 
ber of the family. It was indispensable that 
foreigners coming to a knowledge of the 
true God, and seeking to participate in the 
blessing of Abraham, should be circumcised. 
Without this strangers might worship in 
the court of the Gentiles, but could not be 
recognized as members of the covenant. 
Though Mohammed did not enjoin circum- 
cision in the Koran, he was circumcised him- 
self, according to the custom of his country ; 
and circumcision is now as common among 
the Mohammedans as among the Jews. The 
process of restoring a circumcised person to 
his natural condition by a surgical operation 
was sometimes undergone. Some of the Jews 
in the time of Antiochus Epiphanes, wish- 
ing to assimilate themselves to the heathen 
around them, made themselves uncircum- 
cised. Against having recourse to this prac- 
tice, from an excessive anti-Judaistic tend- 
ency, St. Paul cautions the Corinthians.^ 

Cistercians, a monastic order, originated 
in the end of the eleventh century by Rob- 
ert, abbot of Molesme, in Burgundy, and re- 
formed by Bernard of Citeaux or Cistercium, 
in the diocese of Chalons, in France. The 
fame which the reformer acquired for piety 



1 Gen. xvii., 10-14,-2 Exod. vi., 12: Deut. x., 16;- 
Jer. iv., 4; Phil, iii., 3,— 3 1 Cor. vii., 18. 



CISTERN 



200 



CISTERN 



and strictness of discipline, extended itself 
to tlie order which he had reformed, and at 
the death of Bernard, in 1153, no fewer than 
160 Cistercian monasteries had been formed 
in all parts of Europe. The high reputation 
which the order rapidly reached excited the 
envy and jealousy of the older monasteries, 
particularly those of the Cluniac monks (q. 
v.). The two rival fraternities were distin- 
guished by their head-dress, the new order 
wearing a white cowl, and the old a black 
one. Bernard endeavored to bring about a 
good understanding between the two parties. 
But, despite his eiforts, the two orders were 
long engaged in bitter controversies. The 
Cistercian order were regulated by the rule 
of St. Benedict, which they professed rigid- 
ly to observe. Under the pontif- 
icate of Innocent II., their mon- 
asteries became very wealthy, by 
the great donations bestowed upon 
them. At their outset they had 
no possessions, and lived only by 
alms and by the labor of their 
hands ; but as donations poured in 
upon them, the fatal thirst for gold 
was awakened, and their chief ef- 
forts were directed to the amassing 
of wealth. Under the pernicious 
influence of luxurious habits, the 
order gradually lost its reputation. 
The decay of the Cistercians began 
with the rise of the mendicant or- 
ders. The present number of ab- 
beys is very limited. Several oth- 
er monastic organizations, howev- 
er, owe their origin, directly or 
indirectly, to the Cistercians, the 
most austere of which are the Trap- 
Xiists, founded in 1662. 

Under the superintendence of 
the abbot - general of the Cister- 
cians is an order of Cistercian 
nuns. Their habit is white, with 
a black veil, scapular, and girdle. 
They gradually amassed immense 
riches, and numbered as many as 
6000 convents. In Germany, some 
of the abbesses were raised to the 
dignity of princesses of the empire, and re- 
mained so until 1803. Among all their con- 
vents, that of Port Royal, in France, became 
the most celebrated. Only a few convents 
are now left. 

Cistern. The word usually translated 
cistern in Scripture properly signifies a dug 
place or pit ; and, according to the coimec- 
tion, is to be taken in the sense of cistern, 
I)it, prison-house, or sepulchre.^ When the 
reference is to a receptacle for waters, cistern 
is, of course, the proper rendering ; and in 
that case, as the words for cistern and well 
— ver and vor — very nearly correspond, so 
there is often no material difference between 
the things signified by them. For one class 



of cisterns were formed by sinking deep 
shafts through the rock, and then making at 
the bottom a bottle or retort-shaped excava- 
tion, to act as collector for the water that at 
certain seasons bubbled up from below. Oth- 
ers, however, which more commonly and prop- 
erly bore the name of cisterns, were mere res- 
ervou-s in the rock or earth, in which, during 
the rainy season, water was collected and 
kept in store for the season of drought. 
These varied, both in dimensions and in the 
manner in which they were prepared. The 
largest sort of public tank or reservoir was 
called ^^pooV^ (q. v.). Pools and cisterns are 
frequent throughout the whole of Syria and 
Palestine. In Palestine, where summer is 
always more or less a season of drought, it 




Geu. xxxvii., 22 : xli., 14 ; Jer. xxxviii., 



Passage in Wall of Haram Area. 

must, from the earliest times, have been one 
of the chief cares of the inhabitants to pro- 
vide such artificial means of supply, and 
no considerable town not immediately on 
the banks of the Jordan could have thought 
itself safe without them. On the long-for- 
gotten way from Jericho to Bethel cisterns 
of great age are found at regular intervals ; 
and so Avell was Jerusalem provided with 
them, that never, during any of its long and 
terrible sieges, did it suffer from scarcity of 
water. The besiegers often suffered from 
thirst, but never the besieged. This pecul- 
iarity, that procured for Jerusalem the de- 
scription of " a rocky, well-inclosed fortress, 
within well watered, and without wholly 
dry," is explained by the fact that almost ev- 



CITIES 



201 



CITIES OF REFUGE 



ery private house possessed one or more cis- 
terns excavated in the rock on which the 
city is built. These cisterns have usually a 
round opening at the top, and are sometimes 
built up with stone-work above, and furnish- 
ed with a curb, and a wheel for the bucket,* 
so that they have externally much the ap- 
pearance of an ordinary well. The water is 
conducted into them from the roofs of the 
houses during the rainy season, and with 
care remains sweet during the whole summer 
and autumn. In this manner most of the 
larger houses and public buildings are sup- 
plied. In addition to these, the ground with- 
in the area of the Temple is perfectly honey- 
combed with a series of remarkable rock- 
hewn cisterns, in which was stored water 
brought by an aqueduct from Solomon's 
pools near Bethlehem. These immense cis- 
terns appear to have been so connected by 
channels cut in the rock, that when one was 
full the surplus water ran into the next, and 
80 on till the final overflow was carried off 
by a channel into the Kedron. One of these 
cisterns would contain two million gallons, 
and the total number of gallons which could 
be stored probably exceeded ten millions. 
See Pools. 

Cities. Cain, it is said, builded a city.'^ 
This is the first mention of a city in history. 
It is evident, however, that cities existed in 
the days of Abraham, and they were subse- 
quently multiplied, not only by the Israelites 
in Egypt, but by the inhabitants of Canaan.^ 
The remains of some of the ancient cities of 
Bashan still exist to attest their massiveness 
and durability ; and no cities of modern times 
surpass in magnificent splendor some of those 
of the East, Babylon (q. v.), for example. 

Cities differed from villages, in that they 
were walled. Along these walls towers were 
placed at intervals, both for purposes of 
watching and for defense.* A moat or ditch 
without the wall formed an additional de- 
fense, and there was sometimes a great tow- 
er or citadel within the town, which consti- 
tuted a last place of refuge in case of attack. 
Such was the Tower of Antonia (q. v.) at 
Jerusalem. The only entrance to the walled 
city was through the gates (q. v.), which 
were closed at night, and secured with bolts . 
and bars.^ 

A council of elders and a governor of the 
city, answering to the modern common coun- 
cil and mayor, constituted the ordinary form 
of government among the Jews, though in 
the time of Christ their functions were little 
more than nominal, the city being under the 
military law of the Roman Empire. Night 
watchmen answered to the modern police, 
and announced the hours as they passed." 
The only provision for public charity was a 

' Eccles. xii., 6.-2 Gen. iv., IT. — s Qgn, ^ix., 4; 
Exod. i., 11; Numb, xiii., 22; Dent, iii., 5; ix., 1.— 
* 2 Chron. xxxii., 5 ; Neh. iii., 6, 11, 27 ; Jer. xxxi., 3S. 
— s Judg. xvi., 2, 3 ; 1 Sam. xxiii., T; 2 Chrou. xiv., 7; 
Neh. iii.— 6 Isa. Iii., 8 ; Ixii., 6. 



tax levied on all residents and transient 
guests for the succor of the poor. The only 
relief from the darkness with which night 
enveloped the Jewish city was a torch car- 
ried in the hand of the traveler. There was 
no sewerage. Though recent excavations 
seem to indicate that there was abundant 
provision for carrying off the blood, etc., from 
the Temple at Jerusalem, the offal of the city 
was consumed by the fires of Gehenna, which 
burned night and day. The streets were 
narrow, muddy, unpaved lanes, barely wide 
enough to allow two beasts of burden to 
pass one another, and were without side- 
walks or shade-trees. Thanks to Solomon, 
Jerusalem was provided with water, brought 
from a distance in aqueducts, and stored in 
cisterns (q. v.). But more frequently the 
water was brought by hand from neighbor- 
ing wells, or caught in open tanks in the 
rainy season. Outside the city walls the 
wealthier classes had their summer retreats. 
Wide-extended vineyards, orchards, and gar- 
dens supplied the city with fruits and vege- 
tables, and filled the air with the fragrance 
of their blossoms in their season. For thirty 
miles in every direction these gardens sur- 
rounded the city of Damascus. 

In Palestine cities were not merely com- 
mercial centres, they were necessary to the 
protection of the peasant population. The 
presence of Bedouin Arabs in the south, and 
of troops of well-organized brigands among 
the rocky fastnesses of the north, compelled 
the peasantry to gather in towns and vil- 
lages for mutual protection. Those who did 
not do so were compelled in troublous times 
to seek a refuge in the cities,* and the un- 
walled villages depended on the neighboring 
city for defense. Hence the phrase, a " land 
of unwalled villages," indicates a land of 
peace and security.^ 

Cities of Refuge. With a view to abate 
the evils which ensued from the old-estab- 
lished rights of the avenger of blood, and to 
further the prevalence in the nation of a 
mild, gentle, and forgiving spirit, Moses set 
apart six cities as " cities of refuge." There 
were on the eastern side of Jordan three — 
namely, ^'Bezer in the wilderness, in the 
plain country, of the Reubenites, Ramoth in 
Gilead, of the Gadites, and Golan in Bashan, 
of the Manassites ;"^ and on the western side 
three — namely, " Kedesh in Galilee in Mount 
Naphtali, and Shechem in Mount Ephraim, 
and Kirjath-arba, Avhich is Hebron, in the 
mountain of Judah."* If found desirable, 
other cities might be added. The cities of ref- 
uge, six in number, were appointed, to save 
the accidental homicide from the avenger of 
blood.^ They were ranged on either side of 
Jordan, almost in a quincuncial order, and so 



1 Jer. XXXV., 10, 11.— 2 Neh. xi., 25, 27, 30, 31 ; Ezek. 
xxxviii., 11.— 3 Dent, iv., 43.-4 josh, xx., 7.—^ Numb. 
XXXV., (!, 12, 25 ; Josh, xx., 2; xxi., 13, 21, 27, 32, 3S ; 
1 Chrou. vi.,C7. 



CITIES OF REFUGE 



202 



CITIES OF THE PLAIN 



admirably selected that the persecuted man- 
slayer could never be more than six miles 
from the nearest. To any of these cities a 
person who had unintentionally slain any 
one might flee, and if he reached it before he 
■was overtaken by the avenger of blood, he 
was safe within its shelter, provided he did 
not remove more than a thousand yards^ 
from its circuit, nor quit the refuge till the 
decease of the high-priest under whom the 
homicide had taken place. If, however, he 
transgressed these provisions, the avenger 
might lawfully put him to death. In order 
to give the fugitive all possible advantage in 
his flight, it was, according to the Rabbins, the 
business of the Sanhedrim to make the roads 
that led to the cities of refuge convenient, by 
enlarging them and removing every obstruc- 
tion that might hurt his foot or hinder his 
speed. No hillock was left, no river was al- 
lowed over which there was not a bridge, 
and the road was at least two-and-thirty 
cubits broad. At every turning there were 
posts erected, bearing the words " Refuge," 
" Refuge," to guide the unhappy man in his 
flight ; and two students in the law were ap- 
pointed to accompany him, that if the aven- 
ger should overtake him before he reached 
the city, they might attempt to pacify him 
till legal investigation could take place. Be- 
fore, however, the fugitive could avail him- 
self of the shelter conceded by the laws, he 
was to undergo a solemn trial, and make it 
appear to the satisfaction of the magistrates 
of the place where the homicide was commit- 
ted, that it was purely accidental. Should 
he, however, be found to have been guilty of 
murder, he was delivered '' into the hand of 
the avenger of blood, that he might die." 
When once settled in the city of refuge, the 
manslayer had a convenient habitation as- 
signed him gratuitously, and the citizens 
were to teach him some trade whereby he 
might support himself. To render his con- 
finement more easy, the mothers of the high- 
priests used to feed and clothe these unfor- 
tunate fugitives, that they might not be im- 
patient and pray for the death of their sons, 
on whose decease they were restored to their 
liberty and their property. If the slayer 
died while in the city of refuge, his bones 
were delivered to his relations after the 
death of the high-priest, to be buried in the 
sepulchre of his fathers. The privilege of 
asylum was also extended by Moses to the 
"horns of the altar,"'^ where a man might re- 
main unharmed until, if proved iunocent, he 
could be conducted to a city of refuge. And 
from very early times, both among the cho- 
sen people and the nations of the world, there 
has prevailed the custom of fleeing to the al- 
tar in case of personal danger. Twice in the 
history of Judah notorious criminals sought 
for impunity by '^ catching hold of the horns 
of the altar." 



Grecian and Roman antiquity likewise af- 
ford mention of the right of asylum — for in- 
solvent debtors, for slaves who had fled from 
the severity of their masters, and for mur- 
derers ; not only at altars, and temples, and 
sacred places, but also in cities and their vi- 
cinity. Especially famous places of refuge 
were the city of Daphne, near Antioch, and 
the Temple of Diana at Ephesus. But as the 
abuse of the privileges of asylum often in- 
terfered with criminal jurisprudence, it was 
circumscribed by Tiberius throughout the 
Roman Empire. The privilege of asylum 
was retained in the Christian Church, prob- 
ably in imitation of the cities of refuge un- 
der the Old Dispensation. All criminals who 
fled to such asylums were held to be safe, 
and any person violating an asylum was 
punished with excommunication. All Chris- 
tian churches, in the early ages, possessed 
this privilege of affording protection. The 
right was introduced by Constantine, and 
stringently defended by the laws of Justin- 
ian, Gratian, and Theodosius, was recognized 
and confirmed by Charlemagne and his suc- 
cessors, and long prevailed in popish coun- 
tries. The custom has now become extinct, 
or is greatly reformed. The laws of King 
Alfred recognized the right in England ; and 
though the establishment of the Reformation 
under Elizabeth struck a blow at the prac- 
tice, it was not finally suppressed until 1697. 

Cities of the Plain, the cities, of which 
Sodom and Gomorrah were the principal 
ones, destroyed by the Lord because of their 
sins. The account of their destruction is 
given in Gen. xix., 23-28. But on this ac- 
count a great deal of light has been thrown 
by comparatively recent examinations of 
the Salt Sea (q. v.) and its surroundings, a 
portion of which is generally believed to oc- 
cupy the site of these once prosperous cit- 
ies. The destruction was undoubtedly ac- 
complished by a miracle. It is, indeed, one 
of the most notably miraculous events in O. 
T. history. At the same time, the Salt Sea 
and its desolate surroundings remain to at- 
test the truth of the sacred narrative, and to 
illustrate the method in which this wonder 
was wrought; for, as we have elsewhere 
shown, a miracle is not a violation of the 
laws of nature,^ but is wrought often, if not 
always, by a divine use of the laws of na- 
ture — a truth which receives singular illus- 
tration in the history of the Cities of the 
Plain. Without entering here into the dis- 
cussion to which this subject has given rise, 
we give the results of these controversies in 
what appears to us to be the best explana- 
tion of this wonderful history as illustrated 
by the not less wonderful monument it has 
left behind it. In the main we follow in 
this account the theory of Dr. Robinson,^ 



I Numb. XXXV., 5.-2 Exod. xxi., 1-1. 



1 See MiRA.oT,E. — 2 "Researches in the Holy Laud," 
vol. ii., p. GOl-GOS; compare Thomson's "The Laud 
and the Book," vol. ii., p. 45S-4G3. 



CITIES OF THE PLAIN 



203 



CITIZENSHIP 



whose position, it appears to us, has never 
been successfully impugned. 

The Salt Sea consists of two portions, a 
northern and southern, divided hy the long 
peninsula which projects from its eastern 
shore near the southern end.^ The south- 
ern portion is much the smallest, being only 
about fifteen miles long, while the whole 
lake as it now exists is forty -six miles in 
length. It is also comparatively shallow, 
being only thirteen feet deep in winter, and 
late in autumn only three. This plain prob- 
ably constitutes the site of the Cities of the 
Plain.^ The lake itself was one of fresh wa- 
ter, and enhanced not only the beauty of the 
scene, but also the fertility of the soil. For 
there is nothing unreasonable in the surmise 
of Dr. Thomson, " that this southern plain 
on which the cities stood was actually flood- 
ed by fresh water during the rise of the lake, 
just as the Nile floods the land of Egypt ; 
and that when the water subsided the wbole 
plain was sown, just as Egypt was and is. 
There are many examples of this operation 
about smaller lakes and ponds, and places 
thus overflowed are the most productive in 
the country. We have only to suppose that 
the inhabitants knew how to control the 
rising of the lake by embankments, as the 
Egyptians did the Nile, and the whole mys- 
tery about the fertility of this plain is ex- 
plained." In this plain were " slime pits," 
i. e.j wells of bitumen or asphaltum. The 
Hebrew word is the same as that used in 
Gen. xi., 3, in describing the buildings of 
Babylon, which we know were cemented 
with bitumen. This boils up like pitch from 
subterranean fountains at Hit, near Baby- 
lon ; and, according to the Arabs, does so 
also at times from the bottom of the Salt 
Sea. These pits of bitumen were a part of 
the divine preparation for the catastrophe. 
The mountain at the southern extremity of 
the present lake is one solid mass of rock- 
salt, and sufficiently accounts for the excess- 
ire saltness of the sea. The rains of winter 
and the streamlets flowing from it into the 
lake naturally carry into it a sufficiency of 
salt to produce that effect. These facts af- 
ford a basis for the interpretation of the 
Scriptural account of the destruction of the 
Cities of the Plain, which we will let Dr. 
Robinson give in his own words : 

''In view of all these facts, there is but a 
step to the obvious hypothesis, that the fer- 
tile plain is now in part occupied by the 
southern bay, or that portion of the sea ly- 
ing south of the peninsula ; and that by 
some convulsion or catastrophe of nature, 
connected with the miraculous destruction 
of the cities, either the surface of this plain 



1 See Salt Sea.— ^ Mr. Grove, in his article in 
Smith's " Bible Dictionary," Sea (the Salt), pnts 
them at the northern end of the lake, and repudiates 
the idea that they were submerged by water; but we 
think his position not well sustained. Compare Mr. 
Walcott's refutation, in the American edition of Smith. 



was scooped out, or the bottom of the sea 
was heaved up, so as to cause the waters 
to overflow and cover permanently a larger 
tract than formerly. In either case it would 
follow that the sources of bitumen would in 
like manner be covered by the sea, and the 
slimy substance, becoming hardened and fix- 
ed by contact with the waters, might be ex- 
pected occasionally to rise and float upon 
the surface. The ancients describe the mass- 
es of asphaltum as thus rising from the bot- 
tom of the sea apparently in greater abun- 
dance than at the present day; although 
this circumstance, perhaps, may be account- 
ed for by supposing that the bitumen was 
not anciently, as now, eagerly gathered up 
and carried away. The country we know 
is subject to earthquakes, and exhibits also 
frequent traces of volcanic action. It would 
have been no uncommon effect of either of 
these causes to heave up the bottom of the 
ancient lake, and thus produce the phenom- 
enon in question. But the historical account 
of the destruction of the cities implies also 
the agency of fire. ' The Lord rained upon 
Sodom and Gomorrah brimstone and fire from 
the Lord out of heaven ;' and Abraham, too, 
'beheld, and lo, the smoke of the country 
went up as the smoke of a furnace." Per- 
haps both causes were at work, for volcanic 
action and earthquakes go hand in hand; 
and the accompanying electric discharges 
usually cause lightnings to play, and thun- 
ders to roll. In this way we have all the 
phenomena which the most literal interpre- 
tation of the sacred records can demand. 
Further, if we may suppose that, before this 
catastrophe, the bitumen had become accu- 
mulated around the sources, and had per- 
haps formed strata spreading for some dis- 
tance upon the plain ; that possibly these 
strata in some parts extended under the soil, 
and might thus easily approach the vicinity 
of the cities ; if, indeed, we might suppose 
all this, then the kindling of such a mass of 
combustible materials, through volcanic ac- 
tion or by lightning from heaven, would 
cause a conflagration sufficient not only to 
ingulf the cities, but also to destroy the sur- 
face of the plain, so that ' the smoke of the 
country would go up as the smoke of a fur- 
nace ;' and the sea rushing in, would con- 
vert it to a tract of waters. The supposition 
of such an accumulation of bitumen may at 
iirst appear extravagant; but the hypothe- 
sis requires nothing more (and even less) 
than nature herself actually presents to our 
view in the wonderful lake or tract of bitu- 
men found on the island of Trinidad. The 
subsequent barrenness of the remaining por- 
tion of the plain is readily accounted for by 
the presence of such masses of fossil salt, 
which perhaps were brought to light only at 
the same time." 

Citizenship. The use of this term in 



Geu. xix.,24,' 



CLARENDON 



204 



CLERGY 



Scripture has exclusive reference to the 
usages of the Roman Empire. The privi- 
lege of Roman citizenship was originally ac- 
quired in various ways, as by purchase, by 
military services, by favor, or by manumis- 
sion. The foreigner carried away captive 
by Roman arms became a Roman slave ; the 
Roman slave emancipated became a Roman 
citizen; the right once obtained was inher- 
ited by the son. To scourge a citizen, to 
submit him to any personal violence, to bind 
or imprison him without a formal trial, to 
deny him the right of appeal from any mag- 
istrate — under the republic to the people, 
under the empire to the emperor — was an 
unpardonable offense against Roman law. 
Jews were not infrequently Roman citizens. 
Paul possessed by birth these rights of a Ro- 
man citizen, and claimed them upon three 
separate occasions.^ 

Jewish citizenship, in its more extended 
sense, depended on compliance with the terms 
of the covenant. They only were entitled 
to a place in the commonwealth of Israel 
who by circumcision had been received with- 
in the bonds of the covenant, and conformed 
themselves to the rights and obligations it 
imposed. The place thus acquired might be 
forfeited by committing those transgressions 
to which capital penalties were annexed. 
And, when no repentance followed, the guilty 
individuals were, according to the oft-repeat- 
ed formula, cut off from among their people. 
Yet, practically, men commonly were recog- 
nized as members of the Hebrew common- 
wealth, notwithstanding they had broken 
some of its fundamental laws. 

Clarendon (Constitutions of,) sixteen ar- 
ticles drawn up in the Council of Claren- 
don in England, a.d. 1164, with the view of 
more accurately defining the regal power 
in respect to the clergy, and circumscribing 
within narrower limits the prerogatives of 
the bishops and clergy. These constitutions 
were drawn up by the king, Henry II., and 
ratified in a full assembly of the great lords, 
barons, and prelates of the nation. But 
Thomas a Becket, archbishop of Canterbury, 
for a long time refused to subscribe to them, 
and it was not without the greatest reluc- 
tance that he was at length prevailed upon 
to do so. This haughty prelate afterward 
repented of having put his name to the doc- 
ument, and sought, and obtained, absolution 
from the Pope, who, at the same time, dis- 
approved of most of the articles, and pro- 
nounced them null and void. The passing 
of the constitutions of Clarendon is an im- 
portant era in the history of the Church of 
England, inasmuch as it formed one of the 
first attempts made to assert and to establish 
the authority of the State over the Church. 

Class-meetings. In all Methodist church- 
es, each congregation is divided into smaller 
companies, called classes. One of the more 
1 Acts xvL, 37 ; xxii., 25; xxv., 11, 12. 



experienced members is appointed by the 
pastor to be leader of the class. It is his duty, 
first, to see each person in his class once a 
week at least, in order to inquire how their 
souls prosper, to advise, reprove, comfort, or 
exhort, as occasion may require, and to re- 
ceive what they are willing to give toward 
the relief of the preachers, church, and poor ; 
second, to meet the minister and the stew- 
ards of the society once a week, in order to 
inform the minister of any that are sick, or 
of any that walk disorderly and will not be 
reproved, and to pay the stewards what they 
have received of their several classes in the 
week preceding. Among the Methodists the 
class-meeting is held in high esteem, and it 
can not be doubted that it has added much 
to the vigor and efficiency of that church, 
both by furnishing a bond of universal Chris- 
tian communion, and by bringing every mem- 
ber of the church, rich and poor, to contrib- 
ute something to its support. 

Clauda, an island off the south-west coast 
of Crete, under the lee of which the vessel in 
St. Paul's voyage to Italy had to run. It is 
now called Gozzo. [Acts xxvii., 16.] 

Claudius, the son of Nero Drusus, born at 
Lyons B.C. 9 or 10, became fourth Roman em- 
peror on the assassination of Caius Caligula, 
and reigned a.d. 41-54. He was nominated 
to the supreme x>ower mainly through the 
influence of Herod Agrippa the First. He 
was a weak and indolent man, and was poi- 
soned by his fourth wife, Agrippina. Sev- 
eral famines occurred in the reign of Claudi- 
us, one of which extended to Palestine and 
Syria ; and there was an edict of his which, 
in consequence of a tumult, expelled the Jews 
from Rome. This edict is variously assign- 
ed to years between a.d. 49 and 53 [Acts 
xi., 28, 30; xviii., 2.] 

Clement, a Christian, mentioned by St. 
Paul as a fellow-laborer. From the context, 
the non-occurrence of any such name among 
Paul's fellow-travelers, and the fact that the 
other CO -laborers mentioned in connection 
Avith him must have been Philippians, it is 
presumed that Clement must himself have 
been a native of Philippi. He is usually 
identified with Clement, afterward Bishop 
of Rome, and author of an epistle to the Co- 
rinthians. But this is merely conjectural. 
[Phil, iv., 3.] 

Clergy. In the very formation of the 
Christian Church, certain individuals were 
called and set apart in a peculiar manner to 
the work of preaching the Gospel, and appar- 
ently clothed with a quasi authority in the 
work of organizing churches. Very early in 
his ministry, Christ thus called and ordained 
the twelve, and later the seventy, the former 
of whom are throughout the gospels distin- 
guished from the rest of his disciples.^ But 
while this is plain, it is not clear what au- 
thority was intended to be reposed in the 
1 See Apobtles. 



CLERGY 



205 



CLERK 



clergy either as teachers or rulers. The dif- 
ferent opinions upon this subject may, for 
convenience, be classified under three gener- 
al heads. 

1. In the Jewish Church, while no line 
was drawn between the people and the 
prophets, and any one seemed to be author- 
ized to preach the truth who felt himself in- 
spired to do so, the priesthood were a sepa- 
rate class, set apart to their office by solemn 
ceremonies. No one but a priest could enter 
the inner courts of the Temple, or minister 
at the altar. One opinion is, that it was in- 
tended to perpetuate this order in the Chris- 
tian Church, and that the Christian ministry 
are thus, in a sense, the successors, or at least 
that they take the place of the Jewish priest- 
hood. According to this opinion, none but 
the regularly ordained clergy have a right 
to administer the sacraments of the Church, 
or perhaps to preach, in the sense of author- 
itatively proclaiming the divine truth to 
man. That truth, it is believed, has been 
intrusted to a particular order in the Church, 
and those who take it upon themselves to 
perform this function, without first receiv- 
ing authority by receiving ordination, are 
guilty of the sin of Miriam and Aaron.^ This 
is the opinion entertained by most Greek and 
Roman Catholic authorities, and by many 
Anglican divines. 

2. The second opinion is, that the ap- 
pointment of the Jewish priesthood was 
temporary, and intended for the Jews alone; 
that one of the objects of Christ's coming 
was to take away all human mediators be- 
tween the soul and God, and to make all 
Christians priests unto God, and that the 
clergy possess no divine authority or pre- 
rogatives. Nevertheless, it is desirable for 
the order of the Church, and for its efficien- 
cy, that there should be a class whose pro- 
fession it shall be to instruct in religious 
truth, and administer the religious services 
of the sanctuary. Such a class is furnished 
by the clergy, whose privileges and preroga- 
tives are only such as have been conferred 
upon them by the Church for the conven- 
ience of its own administration. This is the 
opinion entertained by most of the Protest- 
ant denominations, except a portion of the 
Episcopalian Church. 

.3. The third opinion is, that there is no 
authority for the perpetuation of any dis- 
tinct order of clergy since the time of Christ, 
but that those only should instruct in relig- 
ious truth who from time to time feel moved 
to do so by divine inspiration, and that the 
sacraments of the Church require no ordain- 
ed officer to administer them. This is the 
view entertained by the Friends, or Quakers, 
and by the Plymouth Brethren. 

As to the orders of clergy, there is also 
a great difference of opinion. The only 
place in the N. T. where any thing like a list 
1 Numb. xii. 



of clerical orders is given is in Ephesians iv., 
11, where Paul says that Christ gave " some 
apostles, and some prophets, and some evan- 
gelists, and some pastors and teachers." The 
apostles (q. V.) were personal witnesses of 
Christ^s life, sufferings, death, and resurrec- 
tion — especially the latter; the prophets 
(q. V.) were inspired teachers of the early 
Church, and are frequently referred to in 
the N. T.^ By evangelists is meant, not the 
writers of the gospels, but itinerant preach- 
ers, usually sent on some special mission ; by 
pastors and teachers, which really indicate 
but one office, are meant such as held a po- 
sition as pastor or shepherd of a particular 
church. But it is clear that these were not 
distinct classes of officers, since all the apos- 
tles were inspired teachers — that is, prophets 
— while some of them were certainly evan- 
gelists, and some of them very possibly pas- 
tors. 

In addition to this list, however, the N. T. 
speaks in certain places of bishops or over- 
seers. It is a question which has never been 
settled, whether these officers were identical 
with the pastors, or whether they were sep- 
arate officers, each one having the charge of 
a certain diocese or district, the churches in 
which it was their duty to oversee. The 
Presbyterians and Congregatioualists hold 
the first of these views. The Episcopalians, 
Methodists, and many among the Lutherans 
hold the other view. See Church ; Bish- 
op ; Episcopalians ; Benefit of Clergy. 

Clerk, an ecclesiastical officer in the 
Church of England, who conducts or leads 
the responses in a congregation, and other- 
wise assists in the services of the Church. In 
cathedrals and collegiate churches, there are 
several of these lay clerks ; in parish church- 
es generally, there is but one who is styled 
the parish clerk. Before the Reformation, 
and for some time after, the parish clerks 
were all clergymen, and the duties which 
they were called upon to discharge included 
the ordinary functions of a curate. At pres- 
ent, in some places, the parish clerk is in 
holy orders, but in such cases he generally 
has a deputy clerk to perform the ordinary 
duties. The general practice, however, is 
for the minister to confer the office upon a 
layman. The regular duties of the parish 
clerk are to lead the responses, to give out 
the ]3salms or hymns which are to be sung 
during service, to announce notices of vestry 
or parish meetings, to attend on the officia- 
ting minister at baptisms, marriages, and fu- 
nerals, and to assist in keeping a careful reg- 
ister of such proceedings. In other ecclesi- 
astical bodies, the duties of a register or sec- 
retary are performed by an officer, who is 
often called the clerk. The same title is 
adopted by several religious orders of the 
Romish Church. 

1 Acts xix., 6 ; xxl., 9 ; Rom. xii., 6 ; 1 Cor. xii., 10 ; 
xiii., 2, 8 ; xiv., 6 ; 1 Thess. v., 20. 



CLOISTER 



208 



CLUNIAC MONKS 



Cloister (inclosure), a covered passage, or 
ambulatory, running round the walls of cer- 
tain portions of monastic and collegiate 
buildings. The cloister usually surrounded 
or ran along three sides of a quadrangular 
area, which was called cloister-garth. The 
roof of the cloister, which was often vault- 
ed, was supported on the side next to the 
quadrangle by pillars and arches, which were 
frequently ornamentally combined like tri- 
folial arches, and, like them, occupied by 
tracery. The upper portions of these arches 
were often glazed, and sometimes latterly 
even the whole arches, so that they became 
a row of windows. Cloisters were used for 
exercise and recreation by the inmates of 
the religious houses, and occasionally, when 
wholly glazed, they had cells or stalls for 
study on the inner side. Many of the larger 
monasteries had more than one cloister ; and 
so characteristic were they of the religious 
houses, that the term cloister came to be 
used in a general sense for the whole estab- 
lishment, which is still the sense of the word 
Moster in German. 

Cloud. The allusion to clouds in Scrip- 
ture, and their peculiar prominence in Ori- 
ental imagery, must be understood with ref- 
erence to the climate, where, from the be- 
ginning of May to the end of September, 
clouds so seldom appear, and rains so seldom 
fall, as to be considered phenomena.^ As in 
such climates clouds refreshingly veil the 
oppressive glories of the sun, they often sym- 
bolize the divine presence or power, as indi- 
cating the splendor — insupportable to man 
— of that glory which they wholly or par- 
tially conceal. Being the least substantial 
of material things, they suggest most easily 
spiritual being. Thus the visible sign of the 
presence of Jehovah with Israel was a col- 
umn of cloud, resting when they were to re- 
main in their encampment, moving on when 
they were to march ; a cloud by day, lumi- 
nous by night. A like symbol of the divine 
presence was in the sanctuary.^ As in that 
climate clouds are almost always the sure 
harbingers of rain, the " cloud without rain " 
becomes a proverb for the man who promises 
but never performs. The appearance of 
clouds sweeping across a clear sky suggests 
them as the symbol of armies and multi- 
tudes upon a plain. They are emblems of 
transitoriness, and of whatever intercepts 
divine favor or human supplication, and are 
alluded to figuratively in many other pas- 
sages whose purport is too obvious to meet 
explanation. [Prov. xvi., 15; Isa. xviii., 4; 
XXV., 5; Ezek. xxx., 18; xxxviii., 9; Hosea 
vi.,4; Jude 12.] 

Cluniac Monks, a congregation of Bene- 
dictine monks which arose in the tenth cen- 
tury. The rule of St. Benedict had been so 



1 1 Sam. xii., 17, 18 ; 1 Kiiici! xviii., 44.-2 Exod. xiii., 
21, 22; xvi., 10 ; Numb, x., 11, 12, 34; Psa. xviii., 11, 12, 
aud elsewhere. See Siieciiinah. 



far departed from by many monks of the 
Latin Church, that a reform in this respect 
seemed to be imperatively called for. Odo, 
a French nobleman, abbot of Cluny or Clug- 
ni, in France, took occasion not only to re- 
store the original strictness of the Benedic- 
tine rule, but also to impose additional rites 
and obligations. Attaching a high value to 
the moral power of Christianity, he sought 
to infuse into the monks under his care a 
greater regard to the real spirit of the Chris- 
tian system than to its mere external forms. 
The mode of living Avhich Odo prescribed to 
the Benedictine monks procured for its au- 
thor great fame and popularity, and at length 
the salutary regulations were adopted by 
numerous monasteries throughout Europe, 
which united in a kind of association under 
the Abbot of Cluny. Thus was formed that 
congeries of associations which, under the 
name of Cluniacensians, rapidly rose into 
wealth, fame, and power. Under the imme- 
diate successors of Odo, the order continued 
to flourish, but in course of time the original 
strictness of discipline became gradually re- 
laxed, and its popularity in consequence de- 
clined. In the twelfth century, Peter Mau- 
ritius, one of the most distinguished men of 
the Church, was appointed abbot of Cluny. 
He infused new life and vigor into the Clunia- 
censian order, and under him it took a differ- 
ent direction from that in which it had orig- 
inated. The monastery, before consecrated 
alone to rigid asceticism, t)ecame a seat also of 
the arts and sciences. He taught that "God 
accepts no sacrifices which are offered to him 
contrary to his own appointed order." He 
held up the example of Christ, who came to 
give his life for the salvation of the world, 
but refused to end it by a suicidal act, there- 
by teaching that we are not to push the mor- 
tification of the body to self-destruction. 

About this time, a new order, the Cister- 
cians (q. v.), attracted so much notice in 
consequence of the strict discipline enforced 
by Bernard of Clairvaux, that the envy of 
the older monkish societies was naturally 
excited. The Cluniacensians and the Cis- 
tercians became hostile. Bernard exhorted 
both parties to mutual forbearance and love. 
But it was unavailing. The Cluniacensians 
accused the Cistercians of too great austeri- 
ty ; the Cistercians, on the other hand, taxed 
the Cluniacensians with having abandoned 
their former sanctity aud regular discipline. 
To this contest was added another. In a.d. 
1132, Innocent II. exempted the Cistercians 
from the payment of tithes on their lands ; 
and as many of these lands had paid tithes 
to the Cluniacensians, that order was offend- 
ed both with the Cistercians and the pon- 
tiff himself. Although this dispute termina- 
ted in some kind of adjustment in a.d. 1155, 
the rivalry was not abated. Soon after the 
order began to decline, especially in conse- 
quence of the rise of the mendicant orders, 



CNIDUS 



207 



COLORS 



and of the immense riches of the congrega- 
tion. Several abbots endeavored to restore 
a strict discipline and inspire the monks with 
greater interest in literary pursuits ; but all 
these eiforts led to no permanent improve- 
ment. Gradually the abbey fell under the 
rule of the French, and was several times 
devastated during the civil wars in France. 
Cluny lost many of its convents in conse- 
quence of the Reformation, and, as a monas- 
tic institution, was only a wreck when the 
French Constituent Assembly suppressed all 
the convents. The last abbot of Cluny died 
in 1800, and the property of the convent was 
confiscated, and the church sold to the town. 
Only a few ruins are left. 

Cnidus, a peninsula at the entrance of the 
JEgean Sea, between the islands of Cos and 
Rhodes, having a lofty promontory and two 
harbors. It was passed by Paul on his voy- 
age to Italy. [Acts xxvii., 7.] 

Coal. In our Bible this word represents 
no less than five different Hebrew words, but 
is usually the translation of one or two, of 
which the most frequently used signifies a 
live ember, as distinguished from the second, 
which means fuel not yet lighted. The sub- 
stance indicated in every case is doubtless 
charcoal, although antlu-acite or bituminous 
coal has been found in Palestine in modern 
times. The word is sometimes employed fig- 
uratively, as, for the last hope or remnant of 
a family, for severe punishments, for burn- 
ing remorse and shame, and for lightnings. 
[2 Sam. xiv. , 7 ; Psa. xviii., 12, 13 ; cxL, 10 ; 
Prov. XXV., 22. 

Cock, the ordinary domestic bird, men- 
tioned in the Bible, with one exception, only 
in connection with Peter's denial of Christ. 
The time of cock-crowing was regarded as 
three o'clock in the morning, and this fact 
is considered to fix the time of the commence- 
ment of Christ's formal trial before the San- 
hedrim at four. It is asserted that the cock 
was not allowed to be kept in Jerusalem ; but 
even if this were the case, his crowing could 
easily be heard from the adjacent gardens. 
The domestic cock and hen were early known 
to the ancient Greeks and Romans ; and as no 
mention of them is found in the O. T., and no 
figures of them occur in the Egyptian mon- 
uments, it is thought that they came into Ju- 
dea with the Romans, who, as is well known, 
prized these birds, both as articles of food 
and for cock-fighting. [Matt, xxvi., 34, 74, 
75 ; Mark xiii., 35 ; xiv., 30, 68, 72 ; Luke 
xxii., 34, 60, 61 ; John xiii., 38 ; xviii., 27.] 

Collects, certain brief and comprehensive 
prayers, which are found in all known litur- 
gies, especially in the Anglican and Romish 
churches. Whether these prayers were so 
called because they were used in the public 
congregation or collection of the people, be- 
cause many petitions are thus collected in a 
brief summary, or because they comprehend 
objects of prayer collected out of the epis- 



tles and gospels, is doubtful. But the origin 
of the term is of great antiquity. The col- 
lects still used by the Church of England 
formed part of the devotional offices of the 
Church before the Reformation. They con- 
sist usually of two parts, an humble acknowl-- 
edgment of the perfection and goodness of 
God, and a petition for some benefits from 
him. As corrupt doctrines crept into the 
Church, ancient collects were altered or re- 
placed by those which better suited the new 
beliefs and practices. At the time of the Ref- 
ormation, and at the restoration of Charles 
II., revisions were made with the intention 
to retain only such as had been preserved in 
j)urity and simi^licity, and it is believed by 
members of the English Church that they 
now correspond with the best and most an- 
cient liturgies as used by the Church in its 
primitive and purest times. 

College. The word so rendered in 2 Kings 
xxii., 14 ; 2 Chron. xxxiv., 22, may perhaps 
mean the school of the prophets, which would 
indicate that Huldah occupied an official po- 
sition there. But the marginal reading is, '4n 
the second part," i. e., in the lower city ; and 
this reading seems to be adopted by the best 
scholars. In its Roman signification, a col- 
lege signified any association of persons for 
any specific purpose. It has hence passed 
into ecclesiastical literature — the College of 
Cardinals, the College of Bishops, etc., indi- 
cating an association of three or more of 
these officials for some ecclesiastical act. In 
scholastic language, the term college signi- 
fies an endowed institution for the promo- 
tion of learning. In England, a college is 
always a part of a university. In Scotland 
and in America, no distinction between the 
two is maintained. 

Colony. A Roman colony was, as it were, 
a portion of Rome transplanted to a foreign 
province. The colonists were veteran soldiers 
and freedmen, who, as Roman citizens, were 
enrolled in one of the tribes, and retained 
their privilege of voting at Rome. The Ro- 
man law was in force in the colony, which 
had its own senate and magistrates, being 
exempt from the authority of the governor 
of the province. [Acts xvi., 12.] 

Colors. A variety of colors, both natural 
and artificial, are mentioned in Scripture. 
Frequently they have a symbolical meaning. 
, They have been thus used symbolically by 
I almost every nation, and they have espe- 
cially held a prominent place in ritualistic 
churches, the colors of the priestly vestments 
and church decorations varying according to 
the ecclesiastical season. Four colors, white, 
blue, purple, and scarlet, have been regarded 
as especially sacred from their having been 
selected by God in the decoration of the tab- 
ernacle.^ These colors are said to have had 
' a mystical application, representing the sea, 

the air, fire, and the earth ; but it is more 

I 1 1 1 . 

I 1 Exod. xxvi., 1, 31, 36 ; xxvii., 16. 



COLORS 



203 



COLOSSIANS 



probable that they were diosen for tbeir 
costliness and beauty. 

White is used almost everywhere in the 
Bible as the symbol of purity ; thus angels 
and gloriiied saints are represented as clothed 
.in white raiment ; it signifies also conquest 
and joy.^ In art, white is employed in rep- 
resentations of the Saviour after his resur- 
rection ; in the Assumption, it is worn by the 
Virgin ; as the emblem of chastity, by wom- 
en ; to indicate humility, by the rich ; and 
by the judge, as the symbol of integrity. It 
is represented sometimes by silver or the dia- 
mond, and its sentiment is purity, virginity, 
innocence, faith, joy, and light. 

^^we, occasionally translated "violet" in 
the Bible, must have been of a deep dark 
blue. The dye of this color was procured 
from a shell -fish found on the Phoenician 
coast. The loops of the curtains of the tab- 
ernacle were blue, as also were portions of 
the high-priest's vestments.^ In sacred art, 
it signifies heaven, heavenly love, truth, con- 
stancy, and fidelity ; thus Christ and the Vir- 
gin Mary are represented as wearing the blue 
mantle ; St. John, a blue tunic. 

Purple was also obtained from a shell-fish 
found in the Mediterranean Sea. The col- 
oring matter was extracted from a single 
vessel in the fish, each yielding such a small 
quantity that it was very rare, and of great 
value. Purple robes were worn by sover- 
eigns and great men, and were and have 
continued to be a mark of pre-eminence and 
wealth.^ 

Scarlet and crimson seem to be used in 
Scripture to designate the same color. The 
scarlet dye was procured from the female of 
an ilex; it resembles the cochineal, and is 
common in several Eastern countries. Scar- 
let robes were worn by the wealthy, and by 
the ancient warriors.* Ruby red, which cor- 
responds to the scarlet of Scripture, was 
later employed as the symbol of royalty, fire, 
divine love, the Holy Spirit, creative power, 
and heat. It was also used in an opposite 
sense, to signify blood, war, and hatred. Red 
and black combined were the colors of Satan, 
purgatory, and evil spirits, while red and 
white roses were emblems of love and iuno- 
cence, or love and wisdom. 

Yellow occurs in Scripture only as descrip- 
tive of gold, and of leprous hair, which had 
probably a greenish cast.^ It occurs in art 
as the emblem of the sun, the goodness of 
God, marriage, and fruitfulness. St. Joseph 
and St. Peter wear yellow. This color has 
also a bad signification when it has a dirty, 
dingy hue, such as the usual dress of Judas, 
and then signifies jealousy, inconstancy, and 
deceit. 



1 Zech. vi., 3 ; Acts i., 10 ; Rev. iii., 4 ; vi., 2, 11 ; xix., 
14.— 2 Exod. xxvi., 4; xxviii., 28, 31, 37.-3 Jadg. viii., 
26; Esther viii., 15; Jer. x., 9; Lnke xvi., 19; Rev. 
xvii., 4.— "• 2 Sam. 1., 24 ; Prov. xxxi., 21 ; Jer. iv., 30 ; 
Lam. iv., 5; Nah. ii., 3; Rev. xvii., 4.—^ Lev. xiii., 
30, 32,36; Psa. Ixviii., 13. 



Gi'em, as a color, is used almost exclusive- 
ly of herbs or grass. But it denoted among 
the Hebrews, as it still does with us, any 
thing fresh, flourishing, moist, or unripe. In 
symbolism, the emerald green, the color of 
spring, expressed hope and victory. 

Violet or Amethyst is said to signify passion 
and suffering, or love and truth. Penitents, 
as the Magdalens, wear it. The Madonna 
wears it after the crucifixion, and Christ 
sometimes after the resurrection. 

Chray is the color of penance, mourning, 
humility, or accused innocence. 

Vermilion was used by the Jews in deco- 
rating the beams and panels of houses. This 
pigment was of ochre, and was common 
among the Assyrians for drawing pictures 
on the walls of temples, as testified by the 
late discoveries.^ 

BlacTc had various shades. It was used to 
denote the color of hair, of a tawny complex- 
ion, and also implied the hue produced by 
being scorched or burned, as by the fire or 
the sun's rays. The use of this color in 
mourning garments is mentioned in the Bi- 
ble, though it is by no means probable that 
it was used with the same symbolical mean- 
ing which attaches to it at the present day. 
Combined with white, it is regarded as sig- 
nifying humility, mourning, and purity of 
life ; when placed alone, it is the symbol of 
darkness, wickedness, and death, and belongs 
to Satan. But in pictures of the Tempta- 
tion, Jesus is sometimes represented in black. 

Colosse, a city of Phrygia, in the upper 
part of the basin of the Mseander, on one of 
its affluents named the Lycus. Hierapolis 
and Laodicea were in its immediate neigh- 
borhood. At first a city of considerable con- 
sequence, it fell as these adjoining cities rose 
in importance. Together with these cities, it 
was destroyed by an earthquake in the ninth 
year of Nero, but must have been immediate- 
ly rebuilt, for in his twelfth year it was a 
flourishing place. Its site appears to be at 
some little distance from the modern village 
of Chonas. A Christian church was formed 
here very early, iirobably by Epaphras. The 
majority of commentators believe that Paul 
had not visited it when he wrote the Epistle 
to the Colossians, but he expresses his hope 
of going thither after his release from Rome. 
The worship of angels mentioned by the 
apostle curiously re-appears in Christian 
times in a church erected in honor of the 
archangel Michael.^ See Colossians (the 
Epistle to the). 

Colossians (the Epistle to the). That 
this epistle is a genuine work of Paul was 
never doubted in ancient times, nor, indeed, 
in modern, until a few German critics, unable 
to resist their proneness to skepticism, threw 
out doubts upon the subject. This epistle, 
as well as that to the Ephesians, is charged 



1 Gen. i., 30; Lev. ii., 14; Jndsr. xvi., 7, S; Job xv., 
32 2 Jer. sxii., 14; Ezek. xxiii., 14.— 3 Col. ii., 18. 



COLOSSIANS 



209 



COLOSSIANS 



with containing plirases and ideas derived 
from later heretical philosophers — expres- 
sions and sentiments known to be those of 
Gnosticism and Montanism. But the critics 
have failed to prove that these terms were 
taken by the epistles from the later heresies, 
and not by the later heresies from the epis- 
tles. They seem to forget the real explana- 
tion of the occurrence of such terms in the 
epistle, and subsequently in the vocabulary 
of these heretics, viz., that the sacred writer 
employed them, so to speak, high up the 
stream of their usage, before they became pol- 
luted by heretical misconceptions ; the her- 
etics lower down the same stream, where the 
waters were turbid aud noxious, the inspired 
use of them having tended to impress them 
upon men's minds, so that they were ready 
for the purpose of the heretics when they 
wanted them. And, on the whole, there is 
no reason whatever against following the 
universal view of the Church and pronoun- 
cing Paul to be the author of these epistles, 
to whom this Epistle to the Colossians is 
imputed by the earliest Christian fathers — 
Irenaeus, Clement of Alexandria, Tertullian, 
and Origen. 

It can hardly be questioned that the three 
epistles — to the Colossians, Ephesians, and 
Philemon — were sent at one and the same 
time. The two former are connected as well 
by their great similarity of contents as by 
the fact that Tychicus was the common bear- 
er of both; the two latter, by the common 
mention of Onesimus, as sent to Colosse, and 
the common mention of Epaphras, Marcus, 
Aristarchus, Demas, Lucas, as sending salu- 
tations. In speaking, therefore, of the time 
and place of writing this epistle, we are 
dealing likewise with those others. They 
were all three written by the apostle while 
he was a prisoner; and since the inspired 
history mentions but two occasions on which 
he was for any length of time in bonds — viz., 
at Csesarea, from Pentecost, 58, to the autumn 
of 60, and at Rome from February, 61, to the 
end of the history in Acts, and probably 
longer — at least two years — our choice must 
be made between these two.^ General belief 
from ancient times downward has been in 
favor of the Roman imprisonment, but in 
modern times the other side of the question 
has been taken by some distinguished schol- 
ars in Germany. The question can perhaps 
never be so definitely settled as absolutely 
to preclude the Csesarean hypothesis. But 
the whole weight of probability aud tradi- 
tion is on the Roman side, and we may safe- 
ly assume that the epistles were written 
from Rome, and that probably during the 
period comprised in Acts xxviii., 30, before 
Paul's imprisonment assumed that harsher 
character which seems to be reflected in 
the Epistle to the Philippians.'' This would 



^ Acts 2cxi., 27 ; xxviii., 30 ; Eph. iii., 1 ; iv., 1 ; vi., 20 ; 
PMlem. 9, 10 ; Col. iv., 3.-2 Pliil. i., 20, 21, 30 ; ii., 27. 
14 



bring the time of writing it within the lim- 
its A.D. 61-63, aud we should not, perhaps, 
be far wrong in dating it a.d. 62. 

The object of the Epistle to the Colossians 
is manifest in the epistle itself. Epaphras, 
the founder of the Church — principally of 
Gentiles — at Colosse,^ was at Rome, and had 
communicated to the apostle the unwelcome 
tidings that the faith of the Colossians was 
in danger of being perverted by a system of 
erroneous teaching, which tended to disturb 
their spiritual freedom and peace by ascetic 
regulations, to divide their worship by incul- 
cating reverence to angels, and thus to de- 
tract from the supreme honor of Christ. 
There must have been, also, mingled with 
this Judaistic teaching a portion of the su- 
perstitious tendencies of the Phrygian char- 
acter, and much of that incipient Gnosticism 
which afterward ripened out into so many 
strange forms of heresy. This false teaching 
was yet in its bud. Nowhere in this epistle 
does the apostle charge the false teachers with 
immorality of life, as he does most frequent- 
ly the very similar ones in the pastoral epis- 
tles. Later the bitter fruit began to be 
borne, and the mischief required severer 
treatment. The occasion, then, of the epis- 
tle being the existence and influence of false 
teachers in the Colossian Church, the object 
of the apostle was to set before them their 
real standing in Christ, the majesty of his 
person, and the completeness of his redemp- 
tion ; and to exhort them to conformity with 
their risen Lord, following this out into all 
subordinate duties and occasions of common 
life. The epistle is peculiar in both lan- 
guage and style ; but the peculiarities are 
just such as would arise from dealing with 
a subject requiring new thoughts and words. 
The epistle is controversial, and shows a loft- 
iness and elaboration of style which would 
naturally induce precisely the use of such 
unusual expressions as we find in it. This is 
very evident when we turn to the Epistle to 
the Ephesians, sent at the same time as the 
present letter. We have in both many of the 
same thoughts, uttered in the same words, 
many terms and phrases peculiar to the two 
epistles. For both sprang out of one inspi- 
ration, one frame of mind ; that to the Co- 
lossians first, as the task to be done, the pro- 
test delivered, the caution given ; that to 
the Ephesians, begotten by the other, but 
surpassing it. In writing both, the apostle's 
mind Avas full of the glories of Christ, and 
the consequent glorious privileges of his 
Church. This grand subject, as he looked 
with indignation on the beggarly system of 
meats and drinks, and hallowed days, and 
angelic mediation, to which the Colossians 
were being drawn down, rose before him in 
all its sublimity ; but in writing to them he 



1 Col. i., 7, S; see Alford's Introd., § ii., for discas- 
sion of opposite theory that the Church was founded 
by Paul, which he condemns. 



COMMEECE 



210 



COMMERCE 



was confined to one portion of it, and to set- 
ting forth that one portion controversially. 
While unable to express to the Colossians 
all he would, his thoughts are turned to an- 
other Church, lying also in the way which 
Tychicus and Onesimus would take ; a church 
which he had himself built up, as it were, 
stone by stone, where the same baneful influ- 
ences were felt, and yet so slightly as not to 
call for special treatment. He might pour 
forth to the Ephesians all the fullness of the 
Spirit's revelations and promptings on the 
great subject of the Spouse and Body of 
Christ, without being hampered by the neces- 
sity of limiting his words to the weaknesses 
and incapacities of his hearers. And thus as 
a mere human writer, toiling earnestly and 
conscientiously toward his point, rigidly pares 
off the thoughts and words, however deep 
and beautiful, which spring out of and group 
round his subject, putting them by and stor- 
ing them up for more leisure another day, 
and then, on reviewing them, and again 
awakening the spirit which prompted them, 
unfolds their germs and amplifies their sug- 
gestions, till a work grows beneath his hands 
more stately and more beautiful than its 
predecessor, and carrying deeper conviction 
than it ever wrought, so, in the higher 
realms of the fullness of inspiration, may we 
believe it to have been with our apostle. 
His Epistle to the Colossians is his caution, 
his argument, his protest — is, so to speak, his 
working-day toil, his direct pastoral labor. 
His Epistle to the Ephesians is the flower 
and bloom of his moments during days of 
devotion and rest, when he not so much 
wrought in the Spirit as the Spirit in him. 
So that while. we have in the former a sys- 
tem defined, language elaborated, antithesis, 
and logical power on the surface, we have 
in the latter the free outflowing of the ear- 
nest spirit — to the mere surface-reader, with- 
out system, but to him that delves down 
into it a system far deeper, and more recon- 
dite, and more exquisite, in some respects 
the greatest and most spiritual work of one 
whose very imagination was peopled with 
the things in the heavens, and whose fancy 
was rapt into the visions of God. 

Commerce. We can scarcely conceive of 
any state of society without the demand and 
supply from man to man of what the one 
possessed and the other needed. At a very 
early period, trade in some shape must have 
been carried on to supply the "dwellers in 
cities" with the necessaries of life, and inter- 
tribal trade must have affected to some ex- 
tent even the pastoral nomad races. Though 
carried on at first, no doubt, by barter, the 
precious metals, weighed out and stamped 
into pieces of specific value, soon became a 
convenient medium, and must have stimu- 
lated commerce. Abraham, who was rich 
not only in cattle, but in gold, silver, gold 
and silver plate, and ornaments, paid for the 



cave and field of Machpelah in current mon- 
ey (q. V.) of the merchant.^ The Shechem- 
ites of Jacob's time counted on the advan- 
tages they should gain by an alliance with 
his family for trade, and a little later Joseph 
was sold to a caravan of merchantmen, which 
was conveying from Gilead into Egypt the 
"spicery, and balm, and myrrh" of Arabi- 
an countries. Among other trading nations 
mentioned in Scripture, Egypt thus early 
holds a prominent position, and no doubt 
such famines as that which Joseph predict- 
ed promoted a brisk corn trade, carried on 
chiefly by the nomad races, between Egypt 
and other nations. At the same period, trade 
was carried on between Babylon and the Syr- 
ian cities, but the Hebrews may be said to 
have had no foreign trade until the time of 
Solomon.^ Strict rules for commercial deal- 
ings were laid down by the law, and the 
tribes near to the sea and to the enterpris- 
ing Phoenicians appear to have engaged to 
some extent in maritime affairs; but the spir- 
it of the law was rather in favor of agricul- 
ture and against commerce.^ The treasures 
of David were accumulated rather hy con- 
quest than by traffic. But during the reign 
of Solomon almost the whole commerce of 
the then known world passed into his terri- 
tories. The treaty with Tyre was so close 
as to make Tyre the port of Palestine, Pales- 
tine the granary of Tyre. Tyre furnished 
the ship-builders and mariners ; the fruitful 
plains of Palestine victualed the fleets, and 
supplied the Phcenician manufacturers and 
merchants with all the necessaries of life. 
The first branch of commerce into which this 
treaty admitted the Jews was the traflic of 
the Mediterranean, in every part of which 
sea the Phoenicians had pursued their discov- 
eries, planted colonies, and worked mines. 
This was the trade to Tarshish, so celebrated 
that ships of Tarshish became the common 
name for large merchant vessels. Tarshish, 
probably a name as indefinite as the West 
Indies in early Eurojjean navigation, was 
properly the south of Spain, then rich in 
mines of gold and silver — the Peru of Tyidaii 
adventure. If not at this time, at least not 
much later, the Phoenician navies, passing 
the Straits of Gibraltar, sailed northward 
along the coast of France to the British isles, 
and southward along the African shore, prob- 
ably to the Gold Coast. The second branch 
of commerce was the inland trade with 
Egypt, which was carried on enth-ely by 
the Jews. Egypt supplied vast numbers 
of horses, some of which were re-sold to the 
Syrian and Canaanite princes, and the linen 
yarn, which, according to the description in 
the Proverbs of the prudent housewife, Avas 



1 Gen. xiii., 2; xxiv., 22, 30, 53; xxiii., 16.— » Gen. 
xxxiv., 21 ; xxxvii., 25, 28, 36 ; xli., 56, 5T ; comp, 
xlii., 3; xliii., 11, 12; Nnmb. xxxi., 50; Josh, vii., 21; 
Jndfj;. v., 30; viii., 24.-3 Qen. xlix., 13; Lev. xix., 35, 
.36; XXV. ; Dent, xvii., 16, IT; xxv., 13-16; xxviii., 12; 
xxxiii., 18 ; Judg. v., 17. 



COMMERCE 



211 



COMMUNION 



spun and Avoven by the women in Palestine.^ I 
The third and more important branch was [ 
the maritime trade by the Red Sea, of the ! 
eastern branch of which gulf the Jews had 
akeady been made masters by the conquests 
of David. Solomon built or improved the 
towns and ports of Elath and Eziou-geber, 
whence a fleet manned by Tyrians sailed 
along the eastern coast of Africa for Ophir, 
their East Indies, as Tarshish was their West. 
The whole maritime commerce with East- 
ern Asia, the southern shores of the Arabian 
peninsula, the coasts of the Persian Gulf, and 
without doubt some part of India, entered, 
in the same manner, the Red Sea, and was 
brought to Elath and Ezion - geber.'^ Yet 
even this was scarcely more valuable than 
the inland trade of the Arabian peninsula, 
carried on by the caravans of the native 
tribes. This poured into the dominions of 
Solomon the spices, incense, gold, precious 
stones, valuable woods, particularly the al- 
mug or algum tree (<!• v.), and all the other 
highly prized productions of that country. 
Under the Romans, the Nabathean Arabs car- 
ried on the same traffic, of which their great 
city, Petra, was the inland emporium. A fifth 
line of commerce was that of inland Asia, 
which crossed from Assyria and Babylonia to 
Tyre. To secure this traffic, Solomon sub- 
dued part of the Syrian tribes, and built, as 
stations between the Euphrates and the coast, 
two cities, Tadmor and Baalath, one the cel- 
ebrated Palmyra, the other Baal-bec.^ After 
the conquest of Assyria and the destruction 
of Old Tyre, this line of trade probably found 
its way to Sardis, and contributed to the fab- 
ulous wealth of Crcesus and his Lydian king- 
dom. These were the wide-spread branches 
of commerce which brought to Solomon the 
precious metals and all other valuable com- 
modities in such abundance, that, in the fig- 
urative language of the sacred historian, sil- 
ver was in Jerusalem as stones, and cedar- 
trees as sycamores.* After Solomon's death, 
the maritime trade declined, and an attempt 
made by Jehoshaphat to revive it proved un- 
successful. The Jews, however, did not cease 
to be a commercial people. Foreign com- 
modities found their way in abundance into 
Palestine, so that Jerusalem was regarded 
as a rival of Tyre. The productions of the 
country were exported, and there was a brisk 
inland trade. Wheat, honey, oil, and balm, 
are especially noticed as supplied by Israel 
and Judah to Tyre. During the reigns of 
the Asmonean princes, Joppa, and afterward 
CsBsarea, were busy sea-ports, and in New Tes- 
tament times, as of old. Tyre was dependent 
on Judea for corn.^ The frequent journeys 
of the Hebrews on occasion of their festivals 



1 1 Kings X., 28-29; Prov. xxxi., 19-24.— 2 1 Kings 
ix., 26-28; x., 11, 22; 2 Chron. viii., IT, 18; ix., 10.— 
3 1 Kings ix., 18.— ^^ 1 Kings x,, 23, 27.—^ 1 Kings 
xxii., 48, 49; Ezra iii., 7; Neh. xiii., 15, 16, 20; Prov. 
xxxi., 24 ; Isa. ii., 6, 7 ; Ezek. xxvi., 2 ; xxvii., 17 ; Hos. 
xii., 2; Jonah i., 3, 5; Acts xii., 20. 



must have stimulated business, just as, in 
later times among the Mohammedans, pil- 
grimages to Mecca were taken advantage of 
for trade ; and since the sacrifices required 
victims, we find buyers and sellers intruding 
even into the temple-courts with their sup- 
ply of animals and birds for offerings.^ The 
Jews, in their dispersion, have been always 
noted as a keen, shrewd, trading people. 

Commination, an ancient office in the lit- 
urgy of the Church of England, so entitled 
from the opening exhortation to repentance, 
in which the curses of God against sinners 
are recited. It is left out of the American 
prayer-book, but the three concluding prayers 
of the office were introduced into the serv- 
ice for Ash -Wednesday, immediately after 
the collect for that day. 

Communion, one of the names given to 
the ordinance observed in different forms by 
nearly all Christian sects, in imitation of Je- 
sus Christ, and in remembrance of his Pas- 
sion. It is also called the Lord's Supper, be- 
cause instituted by him; and Eucharist, or 
giving thanks, because the breaking of the 
bread and the passing of the cup is always 
accompanied by a prayer of thanksgiving. 
We give, under the title Lord's Supper, an 
account of the original institution of this 
ordinance. In this article we give the read- 
er a brief statement of the questions which 
have arisen in the Church respecting it. 
Under the titles Transubstantiation and 
CoNSUBSTANTiATiON, we discuss the question 
of the nature of the elements employed, and 
under Mass describe the ceremonies of the 
Roman Catholic Church in connection with 
its celebration. 

The questions respecting the communion 
are naturally divided into four classes: 1. 
What is the meaning of the ordinance ? II. 
By whom may it be administered ? III. To 
whom may it be administered ? IV. In what 
manner should it be administered ? 

I. What is the meaning of the ordinance ? Ac- 
cording to the Roman Catholic Church, there 
is really a new sacrifice for sin at every new 
consecration of the bread and wine by the 
priest. In the act of consecration, the bread 
and wine is, according to their belief, con- 
verted into the " body and blood, and soul and 
divinity of our Lord Jesus Christ." Hence, 
'^ the Holy Eucharist contains Jesus Christ 
himself, the fountain and source of all grace," 
and becomes itself, if worthily received, the 
pre-eminent means of grace, in spiritual in- 
fluence and power far exceeding all oth- 
er means. By partaking of it, spiritual life 
is nourished, as physical life by physical 
food, while, at the same time, it prepares the 
bodies of believers for the resurrection and 
glorification of the last day. According to 
the Lutheran and some Episcopal divines, a 
change takes place in the elements at the 
moment of consecr ation, though it is a spir- 
> John ii., 18-16. ~ 



COMMUNION 



212 



COMMUNION 



itual rather than a physical change. The 
human nature of our Lord is, however, ac- 
cording to this opinion, combined mysteri- 
ously with the bread and wine, and the 
"body of Christ is given, taken, and eaten in 
the supper," but " only after a heavenly and 
spiritual manner." According to the com- 
monly-received theory in the Protestant 
Church, there is no change in the bread and 
wine ; they are only emblems, and the par- 
taking of them is not of itself a means of 
grace. It is only a formal sign and seal of 
the covenant entered into between the soul 
and its Saviour. It depends, therefore, whol- 
ly upon the faith which is exercised in the 
soul itself. This doctrine is embodied in the 
form employed in the Ex)iscopal service when 
the priest administers the elements to the be- 
liever : " Take and eat this in remembrance 
that Christ died for thee, and feed on him 
in thy heart by faith with thanksgiving." 
The same doctrine is expressed in the West- 
minster Confession of Faith, by the declara- 
tion that " worthy receivers do inwardly, by 
faith, really and indeed — yet not carnally or 
corporeally , but spiritually — receive and feed 
upon Christ crucified, and all benefits of his 
death." According, again, to Zuinglius and 
some modern theologians, chiefly in the Con- 
gregational and Unitarian churches, the com- 
munion is purely a memorial service. Its 
whole value consists in its bringing to mind 
the life, sufferings, and death of Jesus Christ, 
and in its power to instigate us to follow his 
example. 

II. The question. By tvhom may the ordinance 
he administered f depends evidently upon the 
meaning attached to it. Those who hold that 
any miraculous or even mysterious change 
takes place in the elements, logically hold 
that they can be consecrated only by a 
priest, in whom has been reposed, through 
the Church, the divine authority to act in 
the place of Jesus Christ in pronouncing the 
benediction necessary to complete the sac- 
rifice, and render the elements fit to fulfill 
their mission of grace. Originally the pas- 
chal supper required no priest to celebrate 
it. The priest was not even required to slay 
the lamb. The ordinance was a family rath- 
er than a church ordinance. Jesus himself 
did not indicate that any priestly authority 
was necessary in the Christian any more 
than in the Jewish festival, nor is there any 
evidence that priestly authority was required 
in the Apostolical Church. On the supposi- 
tion that the service is simply a sacred con- 
firmation of vows entered into by the indi- 
vidual believer, or that it is merely a me- 
morial service, depending for its validity on 
the sincerity and earnestness of his faith, it 
is clear that no priestly authority can be 
regarded as indispensable to its administra- 
tion. Accordingly, among Protestants no 
such authority is generally regarded as in- 
dispensable, though, for reasons of church or- 



der, it is usual to confine the administration 
of the communion to the hands of those who 
have been regularly ordained as ministers 
of the Gospel. 

III. The question, To ivhom may the ordi- 
nance he administered f has given rise to more 
bitter disputes, and is still an open question 
in the Protestant Church. In the Eoman 
Catholic Church the priests alone partake of 
the cup, the laity only eating of the bread ; 
this is termed half communion, or commun- 
ion in one kind. The ground of this dis- 
tinction is not very clearly stated in their 
own treatises. It is justified by the assertion 
that the whole body and divinity of Jesus 
Christ are entire in both bread and wine, 
and that therefore he who partakes of ei- 
ther receives Jesus Christ fully and entirely. 
But, granting this to be true, it is difficult 
to see why there should be any distinction ; 
why the laity should receive only the bread, 
and the priesthood also the wine, unless it 
be to maintain and intensify the difference 
between the priesthood and the laity. It is 
necessary in the Roman Catholic Church to 
confess and do penance before receiving the 
Eucharist, and the Roman Catholic treatises 
contain fearful stories of sudden death inflict- 
ed upon persons who had ventured sacrile- 
giously to partake of the bread before confes- 
sion. It is also required to " be fasting from 
midnight, so as to have taken nothing into 
our stomachs from twelve o'clock at night 
before we receive." In the Protestant Church 
it is generally considered that only those 
should partake of the communion who have 
been baptized and received by public pro- 
fession into the visible Church. Hence, a 
large class of the Baptists, recognizing no 
other baptism than by immersion, refuse 
admission to the communion except to those 
who have been immersed. There is, how- 
ever, a considerable class in the Protestant 
Church who hold that all those who are fol- 
lowers of Jesus Christ are entitled to par- 
take of the communion, whether members of 
the visible Church or not ; and, on the con- 
trary, that those who are not, according to 
their own consciences, living as Christ's fol- 
lowers, have no right to come to his table, 
even though they are professors of religion. 
In many churches, especially among the Con- 
gregational order, the customary invitation 
to the communion is, therefore, not to all 
members of evangelical churches, but to all 
who love the Lord Jesus Christ in sincerity. 
This appears to be the view embodied in the 
Episcopal prayer-book, which extends an in- 
vitation to the communion to those " who do 
truly and earnestly repent you of your sins, 
and are in love and charity with your neigh- 
bors, and intend to lead a new life, follow- 
ing the commands of God, and walking from 
henceforth in his holy ways." Those who 
regard the communion as a means of grace 
do not, of course, exclude from it those who 



COMMUNION OF SAINTS 



213 



CONCUBINE 



are not professed followers of Christ. In the 
Church of Euglaud it is customarily par- 
taken by those who do not profess to have 
any personal experience of religion. The 
doctrine that unconverted persons, if not im- 
moral, may partake of the communion, was 
at one time maintained also in New England, 
and is known in history as the "half-ivay cov- 
enanV^ For his sturdy opposition to this 
doctrine Jonathan Edwards was dismissed 
from his pastorate in Northampton; but 
though apparently vanquished, he was real- 
ly victorious, and the doctrine of the " half- 
way covenant " is no longer known among 
any of the evangelical churches of the Uni- 
ted States. In the early Church, communion 
was administered to children, and this prac- 
tice was defended by Augustine, and is still 
maintained in the Greek Church ; but it is 
almost universally rejected in the Eomish, 
and in all Protestant churches. 

IV. There is no agreement, and yet but 
very little discussion, among the Protestant 
churches as to the method of celebrating the 
communion. The Presbyterian and Congre- 
gational churches usually celebrate it sit- 
ting, the elements being consecrated by the 
minister or ministers, and passed by elders 
or deacons. In the Methodist and Episcopal 
churches the communicants come forward to 
the altar, and, kneeling, receive it directly 
from the hands of the minister. In some 
minor sects it is received at a table, and at 
the close of a supper ; and in one at least it is 
preceded by feet-washing.^ The materials 
ordinarily employed are wheaten bread, and 
wine made from the grape ; certain of the 
ritualists regard the materials as of great im- 
portance. The bread at the original institu- 
tion was doubtless unleavened, and there is 
some reason to believe that the wine was un- 
fermented. The rabbinical rules forbade all 
fermentation in connection with the Pass- 
over.^ A sect of the third century, known 
as the Aquarii, substituted water for wine ; 
and in some modern churches the same 
change is made, on account of the supposed 
evil to the community of encouraging the 
use of wine in any form. In the Greek 
Church the practice is maintained of break- 
ing the consecrated bread into the conse- 
crated wine, and giving to each communi- 
cant the two elements together in a spoon, 
to prevent the possibility of a loss of either 
element. 

Cormnunion of Saints, one of the points 
of the Christian's faith according to the 
Apostles' Creed. The Romish definition is 
the '' union between the Church triumphant 
in heaven, the Church militant on earth, and 
the Church suffering in purgatory." Prot- 
estants define it as the fellowship of Chris- 
tians with the Father and with one another ; 
the latter involving not identity of doctrin- 
al beliefs, nor of religious experience, nor of 



1 See Beethben.— 2 See also Exod. xii., 18-20. 



forms of Church government and worship, 
but a moral and spiritual unity in heart and 
life. Death does not destroy it, for Chris- 
tians have also communion with the holy an- 
gels and the saints in heaven — the former 
of whom are described as ministering spirits, 
the latter as witnesses of the race which their 
earthly companions are running. [Eph. iv., 
1-6; Heb.i.,14; xii., 1.] 

Concord (Form of), in ecclesiastical his- 
tory a standard book among the Lutherans, 
composed at Torgau in 1576, thence called 
the Book of Torgau, and revised at Berg by 
six Lutheran doctors of Germany. This book 
contains, in two parts, a system of doctrine, 
the subscription of which was a condition of 
communion, and a formal and very severe 
condemnation of all who differed from the 
compilers of it. The doctrines to which it 
was the object of this confession to bind the 
churches respected chiefly the majesty and 
omnipresence of Christ's body, and the real 
partaking of his flesh and blood in the Eu- 
charist. The Lutheran Church is said to 
be divided respecting the Form of Concord, 
the High Lutherans insisting upon it, while 
the moderate party do not. 

Concordance, a dictionary or index, in 
which all the important words used in any 
work are arranged alphabetically, with ref- 
erence to the places in which they occur. It 
is generally, however, applied to such an ar- 
rangement of Bible texts, though there are 
concordances of Shakspeare, Tennyson, and 
other writers. Biblical concordances exist 
in the Hebrew, Greek, Latin, and English. 
For scholars, the '^Englishman's Greek" and 
"Hebrew" concordances are very valuable. 
In them the Scripture texts are so arranged 
under the Greek and Hebrew words that ev- 
ery translation of each original word can be 
readily perceived. The best English con- 
cordance is unquestionably that of Alexan- 
der Cruden. 

Concordat, a convention or treaty be- 
tween the Pope of Eome in his spiritual 
character as head of the Eoman Catholic 
Church, and any secular government, with a 
view to arrange ecclesiastical relations. The 
term concordat is never applied to those trea- 
ties into which the pope enters as a tempo- 
ral sovereign. 

Concubine, in a Scriptural sense, denotes 
not a paramour, but a wife of second rank. 
The position thus sustained did not interfere 
with that of the wife, nor did it entail dis- 
grace upon her who sustained it. The con- 
cubine had her own place, her own rights, 
and her own duties. As a general rule, she 
was a slave in the house, and assumed her 
position in obedience to the will of her mas- 
ter or mistress, without any ceremonial. Her 
sons were reputed legitimate, but ranked be- 
low those of the wife, and could inherit from 
their father only by his will.^ To judge 



1 Gen. xxi., 10 ; xxiv. 



XXV., 6. 



CONDUITS 



214 



CONFERENCE 



from tlie conjugal histories of Abraham and 
Jacob, the immediate cause of concubinage 
was the barrenness of the lawful wife, who 
in that case introduced her maid-servant of 
her own accord to her husband, for the sake 
of having children. The natural desire of 
offspring was, in the Jew, consecrated into a 
religious hope, which tended to redeem such 
measures from the debasement into which 
the grosser motives for its adoption might 
have brought it. In process of time, how^ev- 
er, concubinage appears to have degenerated 
into a regular custom among the Jews, and 
the institutions of Moses aimed to prevent 
excess and abuse in that respect by whole- 
some laws and regulations.^ The unfaithful- 
ness of a concubine was regarded as crimi- 
nal, but was not punished as was that of a 
wife.^ Such a case as that mentioned in 
Judges xix., where not only is the owner of 
the concubine called her " husband," but her 
father is called his father-in-law, shows how 
nearly the concubine approached to the wife. 
Though a slave, she could not be sold, but, 
if her master wished to part with her, might 
be sent away free. Hired women were un- 
known among the Hebrews. To guard their 
adult male offspring from debauchery before 
marriage, parents, it appears, used to give 
them a female slave as a concubine. She 
was then considered as one of the children 
of the house, and retained her rights as a 
concubine after the marriage of the son. To 
the Hebrews, who tolerated polygamy, con- 
cubinage did not seem so much at war with 
the interests and preservation of society as 
we know it to be. Christianity restores the 
sacred institution of marriage to its original 
character, and concubinage is ranked with 
fornication and adultery.^ 

Conduits. Conduits are repeatedly men- 
tioned in connection with Jerusalem, which 
appears anciently to have been supplied 
largely with water brought from a distance 
by aqueducts. From the extensive remains 
of cisterns, pools, and aqueducts, little de- 
pendence seems to have been placed on any 
natural spring existing in or near the city. 
"Water was brought into the city by two 
aqueducts, the ^'low level" and the "high 
level ;" the course of the former alone can be 
traced within the walls of the city. It cross- 
es the Valley of Hinnom a little above Birket 
es-Sultan, and, winding round the southern 
slope of the modern Sion, enters the city 
near the Jewish alms-houses ; it then passes 
along the eastern side of the same hill, and 
runs over the causeway and Wilson's Arch to 
the sanctuary. Pipes branching off from the 
main seem to have supplied the numerous 
fountains in the lower part of the city. This 
aqueduct derived its supply from the pools 
of Solomon,^ Ain Etan, and a reservoir in 



1 Exod. xxi., 7-9 ; Deut. xxi., 10-14.— 2 Judjr. xix., 2 ; 
2 Sara, iii., T, 8; Lev. xix., 20.— ^ Matt, xix., 5; 1 Cor. 
vii., 2.-4 Sec Pool. 



Wady Arub, and still carries water as far as 
Bethlehem. Its total length is over forty 
miles — not far short of the aqueduct which 
Josephus tells us w^as made by Pontius Pilate. 
The " high level" aqueduct is one of the most 
remarkable works in Palestine. The water 
was collected in a rock-hewn tunnel four 
miles long, beneath the bed of Wady Byar, a 
valley on the road to Hebron, and thence 
carried by an aqueduct above the head of 
the upper pool of Solomon, where it tapped 
the waters of the Sealed Fountain. From 
this point it wound along the hills above the 
Valley of Urtas to the vicinity of Bethlehem, 
where it crossed the water-shed, and there 
passed over the valley at Rachel's tomb by 
an inverted stone siphon. The tubular por- 
tion is formed by large perforated blocks of 
stone set in a mass of rubble masonry. The 
tube is fifteen inches in diameter, and the 
joints, which appear to have been ground, 
are put together with an extremely hard 
cement. The last trace of this aqueduct is 
seen on the Plain of Rephaim, at which point 
its elevation is sufficient to deliver water at 
the Jaffa Gate, and so supply the upper por- 
tion of the city ; but the point at which it 
entered has never been discovered, unless it 
is connected in some way with an aqueduct 
which was found between the Russian con- 
vent and the north-west corner of the city 
wall. 

Coney. There are four passages of Scrip- 
ture in which the coney is mentioned. There 
is some difficulty in determining what is the 
animal intended, but most scholars are agreed 
that it is not the coney or rabbit. There is 
a little animal, known as the Syrian hyrax, 
w^hich, notwithstanding its small size, be- 
longs to the same class with the rhinoceros 
and hippopotamus. This animal makes its 
home among the hills, inhabiting holes and 
clefts in the rocks, and, from its appearance, 
has been popularly called the rock raWit, 
Avhich may explain why the translators call- 
ed it the coney. It is a watchful little crea- 
ture,^ and usually feeds on the summit of any 
piece of rock near its home, where it may 
watch for the approach of any foe. In these 
respects it answers to the description of its 
habits afforded in Psalms and Proverbs. It 
is true that it does not'^ chew the cud ; but 
as it keeps up a continual movement of the 
jaws like that of ruminant animals, it may 
be that it was considered to chew the cud by 
the Hebrews. 

Conference, a name given to an ecclesias- 
tical assemblage in the Methodist and Con- 
gregational churches. In the latter church 
it consists of representatives, both lay and 
clerical, from a certain number of churches, 
but has no ecclesiastical authority, meeting 
only for friendly consultation. In the Meth- 
odist Church it exists in three forms, as the 

1 Psa. civ., IS; Prov. XXX., 26.— 2 Lev. xi.,5; Deut. 
xiv., T. 



CONFESSION 



215 



CONFIRMATION 



Quarterly, the Annual, and the General Con- 
ference, and possesses certain legislative and 
judicial functions. Meetings of the Roman 
Catholic clergy for the discussion of relig- 
ious ecclesiastical topics sometimes receive 
the same name. See Congregationalists ; 
Methodists. 

Confession. There are certain general 
truths respecting the duty of confession 
concerning which all Christians are agreed. 
These are, that every one is under an obliga- 
tion to confess his sins to God ; that also he 
is, in all ordinary cases, under obligation to 
confess his wrong-doing to any person whom 
he has injured thereby. It is equally certain 
that such confession, to be efficacious, must 
be sincere, must be complete and entire, and 
must be accompanied by a genuine desire 
for, and attempt after reformation, and where 
the sin has inflicted injury upon another, by 
reparation of the injury. But in addition to 
these general truths, plainly taught in the 
Scripture, the Romish Church has added the 
doctrine of auricular or sacramental confes- 
sion — the doctrine that, in order to obtain 
divine pardon and grace, it is also necessary 
for the sinner to confess his sins to a priest, 
and receive his absolution. Apart from those 
passages of Scripture which relate merely to 
the general and admitted duty of confession, 
the Romanists refer to Matt, xviii., 19 ; Mark 
i.,5; Actsxix.,18; and James v., 16, as proof- 
texts. They claim that the practice is not 
only as old as the N. T., but even assert that 
it was maintained under the O. T. dispensa- 
tion. But impartial history does not justify 
this assertion. From a very early period in 
the history of the Church, public and open 
confession was required as a condition pre- 
cedent to partaking the communion, in case 
of gross apostasy or other public sins. For 
this private confession was gradually substi- 
tuted, in order to prevent public scandal. 
But auricular confession, in its present form, 
was not established till the fourth Lateran 
Council, A.D. 1215. Auricular confession is 
now required in all cases of mortal sins, and 
is regarded as essential to absolution and di- 
vine pardon. It is also an essential pre- 
requisite to partaking of the communion. 
Private or auricular confession is also prac- 
ticed in the Greek Church, and is also main- 
tained in some of the Lutheran and Episco- 
pal churches, but not by either of the two 
latter denominations as a necessary duty. 

In some of the United States, the clergy, 
whether Protestant or Roman Catholic, are 
forbidden by statute to disclose information 
afforded in confession or in confidential com- 
munications ; while in other countries, as 
in England and Scotland, it is still an unset- 
tled question how far they are to be regard- 
ed in the light of privileged communications. 

The Roman Catholic practice of auricular 
confession has led to the establishment in 
their churches of the confessional, a conceal- 1 



ed seat in which the priest sits to hear the 
confession. These confessionals resemble 
sentry-boxes, having a door in front for the 
priest to enter by, and an opening on one or 
both sides, like a small window, for the pen- 
itents to speak through. The confessor must 
be an ordained priest, and no penitent can 
confess to any other than his parish priest 
without the consent of the latter, except in 
immediate danger of death. Special con- 
fessors are provided for monks and nuns. 

Confirmation (strengthening), a rite in Epis- 
copal churches whereby one, when arrived at 
years of understanding, takes upon himself 
the vows which had been taken for him at 
his baptism by his godfather and godmother. 
A controversy has been carried on between 
Romish and Protestant writers as to the ori- 
gin of confirmation, the point in dispute be- 
ing whether such a rite existed in the time 
of the apostles, or whether it belongs to a 
later date. The fact is admitted on both 
sides, that imposition of hands was practiced 
by the apostles only upon baptized persons, 
as in the case of the converted Samaritans^ 
and the disciples at Ephesus.^ On examin- 
ing these passages, however, it appears plain 
that, by the laying on of hands, was under- 
stood to be communicated the gift of the 
Holy Ghost. But various cases of baptism 
are recorded in Scripture, such as the bap- 
tism of the three thousand on the Day of 
Pentecost, of Lydia, of the jailer of Philippi, 
and others, in which there is no reference 
to the laying on of hands. As the practice 
can not be traced to N. T. authority, so nei- 
ther do the earliest records of ecclesiastical 
antiquity contain any clear and certain tes- 
timony concerning it. Passages supposed to 
refer to this rite have been pointed out in 
the writings of some of the fathers, but they 
rather relate to the sacrament of baptism. 
Confirmation in connection with baptism 
may be traced to the time of TertulLian, who 
informs us that the ceremonies of unction 
and the imposition of hands followed imme- 
diately after baptism. Numerous references 
to later writers might be made to show the 
connection of baptism and confirmation. The 
baptism of adults being regarded as a solemn 
compact or covenant, confirmation followed 
as the seal by which the contract was rati- 
fied; and hence confirmation was adminis- 
tered, not by the person ofiiciating, but by 
the bishop. Confirmation was often defer- 
red until several years after baptism, espe- 
cially in those dioceses which were seldom 
visited by the bishop. The permanent sep- 
aration of confirmation from baptism is gen- 
erally traced to the thirteenth century. 

Confirmation is a sacrament in the Romish 
and Greek churches. In the Greek Church, 
confirmation is administered at the same 
time with, or as soon as possible after, bap- 
tism, even in the case of infants, it being 
1 Acts viii., 12-17.— 2 Acts xix., 5, 6. 



CONFUCIANISM 



216 



CONFUCIANISM 



considered perilous to die without it ; and in 
the Latin Church, also, it is often adminis- 
tered to young children, the Church of Rome 
not considering a person a " complete Chris- 
tian " till he has partaken of this sacrament. 
To reconcile this opinion with the salvation 
of children who die after baptism, but be- 
fore confirmation, the Church of Rome has 
decided that they are confirmed by death, as 
they can not sin afterward. In the Church 
of England, and in the Protestant Episcopal 
Church, confirmation is a formal rite, admin- 
istered by the bishop. These churches di- 
rect that the child shall be confirmed "so 
soon as he can say the Creed, the Lord's 
Prayer, and the Ten Commandments in the 
vulgar tongue, and is further instructed in 
the Church Catechism set forth for that pur- 
pose." The High and Low Church differ as 
to the significance of confirmation, the latter 
regarding it as being essentially a personal 
renewal of the promises made in the name 
of the subject by others at the baptism, 
while the High-Churchmen look upon it as a 
kind of sacramental rite for conveying the 
strengthening power of the Holy Ghost. 
Some High-Churchmen have therefore main- 
tained that the Roman doctrine of the sac- 
ramental character of confirmation may, in 
some sense, be accepted by the Anglican 
Church. 

Confucianism, one of the three chief re- 
ligions of China ; the two others being Bud- 
dhism (q. v.), and Taoism (q. v.). Of these 
three religions, Confucianism is a philosophy 
rather than a religion. It is, however, the 
sole belief of the educated classes, and is the 
basis of the social and political life of the 
nation. It originated m the sixth century 
before Christ, from the teachings of Confu- 
cius. His own name was Kong, but his dis- 
ciples called him Kong-fu-tse (i e., "Kong, 
the Master or Teacher"), which the Jesuit 
missionaries Latinized into Confucius. His 
mother used to call him Ki6w ("little hil- 
lock"), because he had an unusual elevation 
on the top of his forehead, with which he is 
often represented. His father, Shuh-heang- 
ho, died when Confucius was only three years 
of age ; but he was very carefully brought 
up by his mother, Yan-she, and from his ear- 
liest years displayed an extraordinary love 
of learning and veneration for the ancient 
laws of his country. The prudence, recti- 
tude, and philosophic gravity of his conduct 
while a boy, are also highly extolled by Chi- 
nese writers. At the age of seventeen, he 
was made an inspector of the corn-marts, and 
distinguished himself by his industry and 
energy in repressing fraud and introducing 
order and integrity into the whole business. 
When only nineteen, he married, but di- 
vorced his wife four years after marriage, 
that he might have more time for study and 
the performance of his public duties. Con- 
fucius was next appointed inspector-general 




Traditional Likeness of Confucius. 

of the pastures and flocks ; and the result of 
his judicious measures, we are told, was a 
general improvement in the cultivation of 
the country, and the condition of the people. 
The death of his mother, which happened in 
his twenty-third year, interrupted for a time 
his administrative functions, and gave occa- 
sion to the first solemn and important act of 
Confucius as a moral reformer. According 
to the ancient, but then almost forgotten 
laws of Chiua, children were obliged to re- 
sign all public employments on the death of 
either of their parents ; and Confucius, de- 
sirous of renewing the observance in his na- 
tive land of all the practices of venerable 
antiquity, did not fail to conform to this long- 
neglected enactment. The solemnity and 
splendor of the burial ceremony with which 
he honored the remains of his mother struck 
his fellow - citizens with astonishment, and 
they determined for the future to bury their 
dead with the ancient honors. Confucius 
now came to be looked upon as an author- 
ity in regard to the past, and ventured to 
speak as such. He inculcated the necessity 
of stated acts of homage and respect toward 
the dead, either at the grave or in a part of 
the dwelling-house consecrated for the pur- 
pose. Hence "the hall of ancestors," and 
the anniversary feasts of the dead, which 
now distinguish China as a nation. He shut 
himself up in his house, to pass in solitude 
the three years of mourning for his moth- 
er, the whole of which time he dedicated 
to philosophical study. We are told that 
he reflected deeply on the eternal laws of 
morality, traced them to their source, im- 
bued his mind with a sense of the duties 
which they impose indiscriminately on all 
men, and determined to make them the im- 
mutable rules of all his actions. Henceforth 



CONFUCIANISM 



217 



CONFUCIANISM 



his career is only an illustration of his ethic- 
al system. He commenced to instruct his 
countrymen in the precepts of morality, ex- 
hibiting in his own person all the virtues 
he inculcated. Gradually his disciples in- 
creased, as the practical character of his phi- 
losophy became more apparent. After his 
"years of mourning" and meditation were 
over, he traveled through various states, in 
some of which he was employed as a public 
reformer. On his return to Lu, his reputa- 
tion was very great, not less than five hun- 
dred mandarins being among his followers. 
Generally his disciples were not the young 
and enthusiastic, but men of middle age, so- 
ber, grave, respectable, and occupying im- 
portant public situations. This fact throws 
light both on the character and design of his 
philosophy. 

He divided his scholars into four classes : 
to the first he taught morals ; to the second, 
rhetoric ; to the third, politics ; and to the 
fourth, the perfection of their style in writ- 
ten compositions. While residing at Lu, 
Confucius worked industriously in the revis- 
ion and abridgment of those works which 
constituted the principal monuments of that 
ancient literature about which he was al- 
ways speaking in the language of unbound- 
ed reverence. A change of magistrates, how- 
ever, in the kingdom of Lu induced him to 
recommence his travels. Proceeding first to 
Chen, he was not much appreciated ; thence 
to Tze, where he became one of the king's 
ministers, but was soon dismissed, through 
the intrigues of courtiers. Eeturning to Lu, 
he was appointed " governor of the people." 
His inflexible virtue awed the people into 
morality, and drew from the monarch the 
highest dignities ; but the arrival of a bevy 
of sirens from a neighboring state, hating 
the purity of Lu, suddenly overturned his 
edifice of morality, and Confucius went 
abroad again in search of less vacillating dis- 
ciples. His later wanderings were very un- 
propitious. He was in some instances perse- 
cuted; once imprisoned and nearly starved. 
Finally, hopeless of securing the attention 
of his countrymen while alive, he returned 
to Lu in extreme poverty, and spent his last 
years in the composition of literary works, by 
which he hoped that posterity might be in- 
structed. He died B.C. 479, in the seventieth 
year of his age. Immediately after his death 
he began to be venerated. His family,- which 
has continued to the present day, through 
sixty-seven or sixty-eight generations, in the 
very place where their ancestors lived, is dis- 
tinguished by various honors and privileges, 
being the only example of hereditary aristoc- 
racy in China, while in every city down to 
those of the third order there is a temple to 
his honor. The eighteenth day of the second 
moon is kept sacred by the Chinese, as the an- 
niversary of his death. 

The system of Confucius is, rightly con- 



sidered, the most faithful expression of the 
Chinese mind, although it is not the oldest 
of the extant Chinese religions, nor that 
which can claim the greatest number of ad- 
herents. It ought to be regarded as a system 
of social and political life built upon a slight 
foundation of philosophy, rather than as a 
religion. It contains no trace of a personal 
God. There are, indeed, a number of allu- 
sions to a certain heavenly agency or power, 
Shang-te, whose outward emblem is Tien, or 
the visible firmament ; but, in the opinion of 
the best Chinese scholars, this Shang-te is 
nothing more than a verbal personification 
of "the ever-present Law, and Order, and 
Intelligence which seems to breathe amidst 
the wonderful activities of physical crea- 
tion." Sometimes, indeed, Confucius uses 
language that might seem to imply more 
than this; yet his constant association of 
Shang-te with mountains, rivers, and other 
natural objects, in his inculcations of wor- 
ship, indicates that he did not attribute 
personality to Shang-te more tlian to them. 
More than once his language indicates doubt 
as to the existence of any spmtual being ; and 
he occasionally reprimanded his disciples for 
prying into matters unconnected with their 
duties, and lying far beyond their depth. The 
idea of a creation out of nothing by an infi- 
nite and eternal person is utterly unknown 
to Confucius. He looked on the universe 
rather as a stupendous, self-sustaining mech- 
anism. He thought that all things existed 
from eternity, and were subject to a flux 
and a reflux, in obedience to laws impressed 
upon them by some stern necessity. Thus, 
crushing every spiritual tendency of human 
nature, by repudiating all speculation, and 
well-nigh all philosophic investigation of 
every ^ind, Confucius strove to direct the 
attention of men to the duties of social and 
political life. "I teach you nothing," he 
says, " but what you might learn yourselves, 
viz., the observance of the three fundamental 
laws of relation between sovereign and sub- 
ject, father and child, husband and wife, and 
the five capital virtues — universal charity, 
impartial justice, conformity to ceremonies 
and established usages, rectitude of heart 
and mind, and pure sincerity." This, in fact, 
contains the whole doctrine of Confucius, 
and it was unquestionably suited to the pro- 
saic, practical, and conservative mind of the 
Chinese. First, let every man govern him- 
self according to the sacred maxims ; then 
his family according to the same ; and final- 
ly, let him render to the emperor, who is the 
father of his people, such filial obedience as 
he demands of his own children, and worship 
him with the same veneration as he does his 
own ancestors ; for thus will domestic peace, 
social order, and the safety of the common- 
wealth be preserved. To further this end 
(and in accordance with his belief that by 
instruction in the sacred precepts every thing 



CONFUCIANISM 



218 



CONFUCIANISM 




Worshiping the Ancestral Tablet in its Niche. 



desirable could be accomplished), Confucius 
inculcated the necessity of universal educa- 
tion, and, in consequence, schools are diffused 
throughout the length and breadth of the 
empire, penetrating even to the remotest vil- 
lages, where the maxims of the philoso]3lier 
are taught, whose influence is thus perpetu- 
ated from generation to generation. It was 
by the strict and faithful performance of 
appointed duties, and by the cultivation of 
proper feelings and sentiments, that Confu- 
cius believed wisdom or knowledge could 
alone be obtained. He seems to have enter- 
tained no doubt that the great virtues of 
charity, justice, and sincerity might be de- 
veloped without the help of any spiritual or 
religious faith, by a species of mechanical dis- 
cipline. They were natural to the mind, he 
thought, just as their opposites were unnat- 
ural. 

Confucianism appeals to practical men. 
It lauds the present world ; rather doubts, 
than otherwise, the existence of a future 
one, and calls upon all to cultivate such vir- 
tues as are seemly in citizens — industry, 
modesty, sobriety, gravity, decorum, and 
thoughtfuluess. It also counsels men to 
take part in whatever religious services have 
been established from of old. " There may 
be some meaning in them, and thej^ may af- 
fect your welfare in a way you do not know 
of. As for the genii and spirits, sacrifice to 
them. I have nothing to tell regarding them, 
whether they exist or not ; but their worship 
is part of an august and awful ceremonial, 



which a wise man will not 
neglect nor despise." Confu- 
cianism, almost immediately 
after the death of its author, 
became the religion of the 
state, to which it has proved 
an efficient ally, its theory 
of government being nothing 
less than a paternal despot- 
ism. The entire literary class 
in China are also followers 
of Confucius, and, in fact, for 
many ages the literature of 
China has consisted exclusive- 
ly of commentaries on the five 
canonical books, which Con- 
fucius professed to merely 
abridge, and of four others, 
which were composed partly 
by himself and partly by his 
disciples, and which, together 
with the former, constitute the 
nine Chinese classics. The 
five canonical books are the 
Yih-king — originally a cosmo- 
logical essay, now regarded as 
a treatise on ethics ; the Shu- 
king — a history of the delib- 
erations between the emperors 
Yaou and Shun and other per- 
sonages, called by Confucius 
the Ancient Kings, and for whose max- 
ims and actions he had the highest ven- 
eration; the Shi-king — a book of sacred 
songs, consisting of 311 poems, the best of 
which every well-educated Chinaman gets 
by heart ; the Le-king — the Book of Rites, 
the foundation of Chinese manners, prescrib- 
ing, as it does, the ceremonies to be observed 
in all the relationships of life, and the great 
cause of the uuchangeableness and artificial- 
ity of Chinese habits ; and the Chun-tsien — 
a history by Confucius of his own times, and 
those which immediately preceded him. The 
first of the "Four Books" is the Ta-heo, or 
" Great Study," a political work, in which 
every kind of government from the domestic 
to the imperial is shown to be essentially the 
same, viz., parental; the second is Chuug- 
yuug, a book devoted to teaching men what 
is the golden mean to observe in their con- 
duct; the third is the Tun-yu, containing 
the recorded conversations of Confucius, and 
the best book for obtaining a correct knowl- 
edge of his character ; and the fourth is the 
Hi-tse, written by Meug-tse, or Meucuis, who 
died B.C. 317, and who was by far the great- 
est of the early Confucians. The main ob- 
ject of this work is to inculcate philanthrop- 
ic government. 

In the course of centuries the defects of 
the system of Confucius made themselves 
felt even to the unspiritual Chinese mind ; 
and the necessity of " speaking out far more 
plainly, not on matters of finance, economy, 
and etiquette, but on the natui'e of the world 



CONGREGATION 



219 



CONGREGATIONALISTS 



and its inhabitants, and the true relation of 
the seen and temporal to the absolute and 
the all-embracing, was recognized." The phi- 
losopher who guided this great movement to 
a prosperous close was Tehu, who died a.d. 
1200. He is termed by European scholars 
the Chinese Aristotle, and regarded by all 
the governing class in China as the " prince 
of science." His innumerable works are la- 
boriously studied by the higher literary class, 
and are considered the standard of metaphys- 
ical or religious orthodoxy; but the mass 
never pass beyond the external ethics of 
their master. They have no regular priest- 
hood nor temples ; each family sacrifices to 
the tutelar deities of the household in its 
own dwelling, but the emperor alone is per- 
mitted to sacrifice to the highest Heaven. 
The writings of Confucius are read and ex- 
pounded with great solemnity on the first 
and fifteenth of every month by a mandarin 
in robes of ceremony. 

Congregation. In the Hebrew common- 
wealth as organized by Moses under God's 
direction, there were two representative as- 
semblies. The first of these, the Great Con- 
gregation, constituted the Jewish House of 
Representatives, and reflected the popular 
will. It was the Great Congregation that, 
on the report of the twelve spies, voted not 
to attempt the subjugation of Canaan; the 
Great Congregation before which Joshua was 
inducted into office ; the Great Congregation 
which ratified the selection of Saul as king ; 
and the Great Congregation to which Solo- 
mon submitted his proposition for bringing 
up the ark of the covenant and establishing 
it at Jerusalem.^ This '' Hebrew Commons," 
as it has been called, was variously entitled 
the " Congregation of Israel," the " Congre- 
gation of the Lord," and the '^ Assembly." 
The form of its organization is somewhat 
uncertain. Some scholars are of the opinion 
that every free Israelite had a right to vote 
in it. The better view is, however, we think, 
that it was strictly a representative body, in 
which every tribe and family was represent- 
ed by its chiefs.^ The place of meeting was 
at the door of the tabernacle. Two silver 
trumpets were provided ; the blowing of one 
called together the Council of Seventy,^ the 
blowing of the two called together the Great 
Congregation.'* Objection has sometimes 
been made to the credibility of the Mosaic 
ua^-rative which represents Moses as address- 
ing the children of Israel, since one person 
could not make himself heard by a people 
numbering over two millions. The answer 
to this objection is, that all his communica- 
tions with the people were through the Great 
Congregation. 

The term congregation is also employed, in 
ecclesiastical usage, to indicate — 1. An as- 

1 Numb, xiv.,1-5, 10; xxvii.,18-23; 1 Kings viii., 1-5; 
1 Chron. xiii., 1-8.— ^ Numb, i., 16; Josh, xxiii., 2; 
xxiv., 1.— 3 See Sanhekeim.— * Numb, x., 2-4. 



I semblage of persons for public worship ; 2. 

I An association of Roman Catholic laymen, 
in organization something akin to monastic 

I orders, though under rules somewhat less 
strict ; 3. A committee of Roman Catholic 
ecclesiastics appointed for special purposes, 
as the Congregation of the Inquisition, who ex- ' 
amine into heresies and novel opinions ; the 
Congregation of the Index, which examines 
and passes upon doubtful books ; the Congre- 
gation of Indulgences and Sacred Belies, whose 
office is indicated by their title ; the Congre- 
gation of Sacred Bites ; and the Congregation 
of the Fabric of St. Peter, who, in addition to 
superintending the building and repair of 
that church at Rome, is said to possess the 
peculiar privilege of altering the last wills 
of those who bequeath money to pious uses, 
that they may apply it to the support of the 
fabric of St. Peter. 

Congregationalists, the name of a denom- 
ination of the Christian Church. Strictly 
speaking, Congregationalism is the name of 
a church polity. All who maintain that pol- 
ity or method of church government are, 
therefore, Congregationalists, ^nd in this 
sense the term includes Unitarians, Baptists, 
Campbellites or Christians, and others. More 
commonlj^, however, the name is given only 
to those who are orthodox in faith, as op- 
posed to the Unitarians, and are Pedobap- 
tist in practice, as opposed to the Baptists. 
The name assumed by the same body of 
Christians in England is Independents. 

Church Government. — The fundamental prin- 
ciple of Congregationalism may be said to 
be this — viz. : That any company of persons 
believing themselves to be, and publicly pro- 
fessing to be Christians, associated by volun- 
tary compact on Gospel principles for Chris- 
tian work and worship, constitutes a true 
church. In this respect it difters radically 

I both from Episcopacy and Papacy. The Con- 
gregationalists hold that Christ came upon 
earth, not to establish one divine and author- 
itative church, but to set forth certain great 
truths, andput in operation certain great spir- 
itual forces, by his life and death; and that 
he left his followers to organize in individual 
and local associations, to carry on the work 
which he left them to do. Any such organiza- 
tion, if truly Christian in its spirit, is, accord- 
ing to Congregationalism, a church of Christ. 
Every such organization is absolutely inde- 
pendent of every other. No other body has 
any right to control it. Hence there is not 
one Congregational church, but a great num- 
ber of Congregational churches, each of 

; which is supreme in the right to manage its 
own affairs. Every such church has the 

j right to determine its own creed, to organize 
its own method of worship, to elect and de- 

: pose its own officers, to determine the condi- 

I tion of membership in its own body, and to 
discipline those within its membership who 

I do not walk conformably to its rules. No 



CONGREGATIONALISTS 



220 



CONGREGATIONALISTS 



appeal lies from its decisions to any bishop, 
presbytery, or conference. Of course, in these 
and in all other respects, it is bound to con- 
form to the rules and principles inculcated 
by Jesus Christ ; but it is answerable for 
its conduct alone to him, is to be judged 
alone by him, and is amenable to no other 
spiritual superior whatever. It has the right 
to ordain and induct into office its own cler- 
gymen (though, as we shall presently see, this 
is not ordinarily done), and the minister de- 
rives all his ecclesiastical authority from the 
church which elects him. Ordinarily he is a 
member of the church to which he ministers, 
in which case he is amenable to it in case of 
any departure from faith, or any violence of 
his covenant obligations. 

This ecclesiastical independency, which is 
in theory absolute and untrammeled, is, in 
fact, materially modified by another princi- 
ple, that of the Christian fellowship of the 
churches. For it is no less a principle of 
Congregationalism (and in this respect Con- 
gregationalism differs from independency, 
though not from the principles of the En- 
glish Independents) that fraternal fellowship 
is to be maintained between the individual 
churches, and that when serious difficulties 
arise, or matters of special importance, such 
as the selection or dismissal of a pastor, the 
advice of neighboring churches is to be ta- 
ken. For this purpose what are known as 
Councils are called. The local church selects 
the churches whose advice it desires. It 
sends to them letters inviting their advice. 
These churches send representatives (usual- 
ly the pastor and one or two lay delegates), 
who meet to hear the case and give their 
counsel; hence the name Council given to 
the body. In the case of the installation of 
a pastor, the calling of such a council is con- 
sidered practically necessary ; and, in fact, 
the pastor is examined, the propriety of in- 
stalling him determined, and the services 
conducted by the Council. So in the case 
of the dismissal of a pastor or the organiza- 
tion of a new church. Yet the action of the 
Council is purely advisory, the church is not 
bound by the advice tendered ; if it chooses 
to reject it, the Council has no power to en- 
force its decrees ; in a word, it has no ec- 
clesiastical authority whatever, none other 
than such moral power as the character of 
its members impart to it. In case of a quar- 
rel in a local church, the two parties may 
agree in calling a Council, which is then 
known as a Mutual Council; or in case they 
can not agree to do so, either party may call 
one, which in that case is known as an Ex- 
jparte Council. Mutual Associations, which 
are composed alone of ministers, and Confer- 
ences, which include also lay delegates, are 
also common ; but they possess no ecclesiastic- 
al authority, and are confined to mutual and 
friendly discussions of topics of common in- 
terest. The only business, properly so call- 



ed, brought before them is that of licensing 
candidates for the ministry, and sometimes 
deposing from the ministry recreant clergy- 
men, both of which are done by the Associa- 
tion. But in this latter case the Association 
has no power to prevent a deposed minister 
from continuing his ministry. Its action 
only amounts to a disavowal of him as a 
Congregational minister. In Connecticut a 
body which difters but little from them is 
known by the name of Consociation. A Na- 
tional Council of Congregational churches, 
to meet once every three years, and embrace 
delegates from every quarter of the United 
States, has been recently organized. It dif- 
fers from the General Assembly of the Presby- 
terian Church, and the General Convention 
of the Episcopal Church, and other similar 
bodies, in that it is simply advisory, having 
no legislative or judicial power whatsoever. 
In case any church refuses to follow the ad- 
vice of a Council called to consider any ques- 
tion to be submitted to it, or abandons the 
orthodox faith, or walks in a disorderly man- 
ner, the only remedy of the other churches 
is to withdraw fellowship from it. By this 
action they disavow its course and are no 
longer responsible for its conduct ; but they 
have no x^ower to interfere otherwise with its 
liberty. Members uniting with one church 
are regarded as having become members of 
Christ's visible Church on earth, and so as 
being in connection with all its branches ; 
but on leaving one church to go into anoth- 
er neighborhood, the member is expected to 
obtain letters of dismission and recommen- 
dation to some church at his new home. If 
the old church declines unjustly to give him 
a letter, or unjustly disciplines him, he has 
no appeal to any superior body. He has, 
however, this means of redress ; that if he 
can satisfy any other church that he has 
been unjustly treated, it may receive him 
without letters, and despite the action of his 
old church. In one such case, where a num- 
ber of members thought themselves unjustly 
treated, and the church refused to join in 
calling a Mutual Council, an Ex-parte Coun- 
cil was called which, without directly in- 
terfering with the liberty of the individual 
church, gave the outcast members letters 
of recommendation and approval, on which 
they joined other churches in the vicinity. 

In the government of the individual church 
the same radical principle of individual lib- 
erty is carried out. If it be once conceded 
that the Church of Christ truly consists of 
any body of Christians organized for Chris- 
tian work, and imbued with a Christian 
spirit, the authority in ecclesiastical mat- 
ters, it is clear, is derived from the entire 
body of church members, not imparted to 
them by any ecclesiastical authority. And 
this is the doctrine of Congregationalism, 
viz., that every member of the church has 
equal essential rights, powers, and privileges 



CONGREGATIONALISTS 



221 



CONGREGATIONALISTS 



with every other, and the membership, by 
majority vote, have the right and duty of 
choosing all necessary officers, of admitting, 
dismissuig, and disciplining their own mem- 
bers, and of transacting all other business 
appropriate to a Christian church. In the 
transaction of its business, this principle is 
ordinarily rigidly adhered to. There is no 
representative body answering to the Session 
of a Presbyterian church. In the New En- 
gland churches, as originally constituted, a 
Conference meeting was held at stated inter- 
vals, usually the week before communion, at 
which the business of the church was trans- 
acted. Formerly, all candidates for admis- 
sion were examined before the Conference, 
and this practice is still maintained in many 
churches, especially in the countrj^ In oth- 
ers, an Examining Committee is appointed, 
who examine and report on candidates for 
admission to the church, but their report has 
to be brought before the church, and voted 
on by the entire body. In many churches 
there is also a standing committee elected j 
annually, which transacts business of minor i 
importance. But its action is always sub- 
ject to the revision of the church, and it is ' 
necessary to submit its action in all impor- j 
tant matters to the church for its confirma- 
tion. It is, in other words, the servant, not j 
the ruler, of the church. The same may be j 
said of all its officers, the minister having no j 
other authority than such as his wisdom and j 
personal influence secures to bim. In eccle- 
siastical action, he is simply a voter like any 
of the humblest of his congregation. In a 
word, the Congregational Church is a sim- 
ple Christian democracy. Its government 
is popular, but not representative. At the 
same time it should be said (since the term 
Congregationalism sometimes misleads), that 
it is not all the members of the congregation, 
but only the members of the church, i. e., of 
the spiritual body, who possess the right of 
suffrage. Whether women and persons un- 
der age possess that right, is a mooted ques- j 
tion, on which there is no common agree- 
ment. In some churches the women both 
vote and are office-holders ; in others, they 
are excluded from all participation in the 
business affairs of the church. We believe 
there are no recognized orthodox Congrega- , 
tional churches in which women are pastors. 

The only officers recognized among Con- 
gregation alists are pastors and deacons, 
though, in addition, evangelists are some- 
times ordained as preachers of the Gospel 
without a local charge. It is customary to 
require a preacher to receive a license before 
preaching from some Association. The dea- | 
cons (q. V.) are sometimes elected for life, 
sometimes only for a term of years. I 

Creed. — It is difficult, if not impossible, 
to define the creed, or to describe the rites 
and ceremonies of such a body, or rather such 
a number of bodies, as make up the Congre- 



gationalists. There have been from time to 
time declarations put forth by Associations 
and Councils of their faith, but these are of 
course not binding upon the churches, and 
in practice each church has its own creed. 
Some are elaborate and explicit, some are 
very brief and simple ; in one or two cases, 
the only condition of membership is the ac- 
ceptance of the Apostles' Creed and evidence 
of piety. Some of the churches are Armin- 
ian, others Calvinistic, or hyper-Calvinistic. 
Some maintain infant baptism, others baptize 
both infants and adults, and both by sprink- 
ling and by immersion. As we have said, the 
Baptist, the Unitarian, and the Universalist 
churches, are substantially Congregational, 
though bearing a different name. In gen- 
eral terms, however, we may say that the 
creed of the majority of the orthodox Con- 
gregationalists is that of a moderate Calvin- 
ism. Its rites and ceremonies are usually 
of the simplest character, consisting of ex- 
tempore prayers, the singing of hymns, and 
reading of Scripture, and the preaching of 
a sermon. The communion is received by 
the church members sitting in the pews, the 
elements being passed to the membership by 
the deacons, after they have been consecrated 
by the minister. In theory, there is nothing 
to prevent a layman from preaching, or even 
administering the sacraments. But in fact 
lay-preaching is not common, and the sac- 
raments are always administered by an or- 
dained clergyman. In some of the church- 
es a ritual has been organized, though in all, 
or nearly all, it is of an exceedingly simple 
character. 

History. — It is claimed for Congregation- 
alism, as for all forms of church government, 
by their respective adherents, that it is form- 
ed upon the apostolical pattern, i. e., that the 
apostolical churches were substantially in- 
dependent of each other, and democratic in 
their internal organization. The Congrega- 
tionalists also claim that churches free from 
Papal and Episcopal authority have existed 
from the apostolic days to the present time, 
and refer to the Waldenses (q. v.) and oth- 
er similar Christian bodies, in attestation of 
this belief. As a denomination, however, the 
Congregationalists may be said to have ta- 
ken their rise in the period of the Reforma- 
tion. Milton is claimed as '^ the modern dis- 
coverer of Congregational dissent;" but the 
founder of Congregationalism as a denomina- 
tion may more properly be said to be Robert 
Brown. He lived in the sixteenth century, 
maintained the absolute independence of the 
local church, denied all priestly or ministe- 
rial authority, and insisted on the entire sep- 
aration of church and state, but did not pro- 
vide for any mutual fellowship between dif- 
ferent churches. His followers were called, 
after his name, Brownists. Persecuted in En- 
gland, he fled with his disciples to Holland, 
where he founded a church. He finally died 



CONGREGATIONALISTS 



222 



CONSCIENCE 



in England, in jail, whither he had been car- 
ried for an alleged assault upon a x>arish con- 
stable. From the Browuist churches, which 
grew up from this beginning in England and 
Holland, came, at the beginning of the sev- 
enteenth century, the emigration of Puritan 
Congregationalists to New England, whence 
Congregationalism has spread throughout 
the United States, chieflj^, however, by emi- 
gration from New England, and chiefly there- 
fore in the North-western States. A centu- 
ry later, the same conclusions were reached 
independently by the Rev. John Glas, in Scot- 
land, who withdrew from the Presbyterian 
Church, maintaining the absolute independ- 
ence of the local church. His followers were 
known first as Glasites, but subsequently 
as Sandemanians (q. v.). Churches founded 
on somewhat similar principles have been 
since organized in France and in Switzer- 
land. In England, their numbers were great- 
ly increased at the time of the wide-spread 
revivals in that country under the minis- 
try of Whitefield and the Wesley s, and they 
now constitute the largest dissenting body 
in Great Britain except the Wesleyan Meth- 
odists. In 1870, their churches in England 
and Wales were estimated at 2896, with an 
average attendance of over three-quarters 
of a million. In this country, the total num- 
ber of churches reported is 3159, with a mem- 
bership of 300,000, and 3000 ministers, of 
whom about 2000 are pastors and foreign 
missionaries. 

Church Work. — The churches, being discon- 
nected, do not and can not, in the nature 
of the case, support ecclesiastical boards for 
missionary and other purposes. They do 
all their work, except such as comes within 
the province of the local church, by volun- 
tary societies. The American Board of Com- 
missioners for Foreign Missions devotes it- 
self exclusively to the propagation of the 
Gospel in foreign lands, and, until lately, 
only in heathen lands. But, by the recent 
action of the Board, it has been resolved to 
undertake evangelization also in papal coun- 
tries. The Home Missionary Society devotes 
itself exclusively to the evangelization of our 
own country. The American Missionary Asso- 
ciation was originally organized by those who 
thought the home and foreign societies were 
too conservative on the slavery question. It 
now devotes itself chiefly to the support of 
missions in Africa, and to schools and church- 
es among the freed negroes and the Chinese 
in America. These societies are all undenom- 
inational in form, and have hitherto been as- 
sisted by others than the Congregationalists. 
But a few years since the New-School Pres- 
byterians, who had before united with the 
Congregationalists in home missionary work, 
withdrew, and, since the union of the Old 
and New-School Presbyterians in one Chnrch, 
both have united to carry on all missionary 
work, both at home and abroad, through 



their denominational boards. The American 
Congregational Union is chiefly devoted to 
aiding feeble churches in the erection of 
church buildings. The Congregational Pub- 
lishing Society is devoted to the publishing 
chiefly of denominational, though not neces- 
sarily controversial literature. For general 
religious literature the churches depend 
chieflj'^ upon the trade, or upon the undenom- 
inational tract societies. The American Con- 
gregational Association has collected a Congre- 
gational library, and is preparing to erect a 
Congregational house in Boston. The de- 
nomination also supports an educational so- 
ciety, and co-operates with other denomina- 
tions in the Sabbath -school Union in Sab- 
bath-school work outside the local churches. 

Conscience (from the two Latin words 
con and scire, to be conscious to one's self) is 
our moral judgment, approving or disap- 
proving, of our acts or mental states and ex- 
ercises. In this sense it is nearly synony- 
mous with the ''moral sense," and is so used 
by many writers. But different writers do 
not at all agree in their definitions of the 
act or faculty indicated by the word. In 
general, the philosophers may be said to be 
divided into two schools. One school re- 
gards conscience as a faculty radically dif- 
ferent from any other in the mind, and pos- 
sessing the power of intuitively discrimi- 
nating between right and wrong — a facul- 
ty whose judgments are immediate and in- 
stantaneous — a faculty which belongs to all 
mankind, and serves as the interpreter of 
the divine law to those who have not the 
clearer revelation of the Bible to guide them. 
In the judgment of this school of philosophy, 
it may be said to resemble somewhat the 
tastes which at once and immediately recog- 
nize the ditference between things beautiful 
and things repulsive. At the same time it is 
conceded by those who hold this view, that 
conscience is fallible, and is capable of being 
greatly deteriorated by sin, and greatly de- 
veloped and improved by education. The 
other school regard the moral sense as not a 
simple faculty, but complex, composed of two 
elements, an impulse and a judgment. Con- 
science, strictly speaking, they regard as 
simply the impulse existing in every mind to 
do that which is right, and to avoid that 
which is wrong. But, according to this the- 
ory, the decision of what is right and what 
wrong is arrived at by the judgment, and 
upon a consideration of the real or imaginary 
etfects of the act. W^e shall not enter here 
into the arguments by which the advocates 
of these two theories sustain their views, but 
refer the reader to the treatises on moral 
philosophy for such discussion. 

The authority of conscience has also given 
rise to a great deal of discussion. Concern- 
ing this there may be said, in general terms, 
to be two principal views. One is, that con- 
science, though not an infallible, is always a 



CONSECRATION 



223 



CONVENTICLE 



safe guide — that is, if' any man follows re- 
ally the dictates of liis conscience, and does 
what he really believes to he right because 
he thinks it is right, to him it is right. In 
the words of one of the ablest advocates of 
this view, President Fairchild, of Oberlin 
College, " The intuitive perception of men 
forever contradicts the doctrine that there is 
sin, blameworthiness, in an honest, consci- 
entious error." There may, it is conceded, 
have been sin in allowing the conscience to 
become an ignorant and imperfect guide, but 
there is never sin in implicitly following its 
genuine convictions. The other view is, 
that the conscience is neither infallible nor 
safe, but must be tested by a higher law 
than that which it aifords, and that every 
man is bound at his peril not only to follow 
his conscience, but to see to it that his con- 
science is rightly informed. This view is 
thus expressed by Dr. Alexander : " He who 
is under fundamental error is in a sad dilem- 
ma. Do what he will, he sins. If he diso- 
beys conscience, he knowingly sins, doing 
what he believes to be wrong, even though 
ifc should turn out to be right. And if he 
obey conscience, performing an act which is 
in itself wrong, he sins : because he complies 
not with the law under which he is placed." 
See Moral Science. 

Consecration, a ceremony of dedicating 
persons or things to the service of God. It 
is especially applied to the setting apart of 
bishops for their office, to the dedication of 
church edifices to the worship of God, and to 
the solemn prayer which is pronounced over 
the bread and wine in the administration of 
the communion. It is also used in a theo- 
logical sense, to signify the act of the indi- 
vidual soul in giving itself wholly and imre- 
servedly to the service of God. Ecclesias- 
tical consecration is of a very ancient origin, 
having been practiced in the Church certain- 
ly from the days of Moses. See article en- 
titled Ordination. [Exod. xii., 15; xiii., 2; 
Numb, iii., 12.] 

Consistory, the name of an ecclesiastic- 
al court. 1. In the Romish Church, the Col- 
lege of Cardinals, before whom judicial cases 
are pleaded, and many affairs of importance, 
such as the election of bishops and arch- 
bishops, are transacted. 2. In the Reformed 
churches of the Continent, the Consistory is 
composed of a board of clerical and lay offi- 
cers, and has charge of the administration 
of ecclesiastical affairs. 3. In the Reformed 
[German and Dutch] churches, the name Con- 
sistory is given to a body answering to the Ses- 
sion of the Presbyterian Church, comprising 
the minister or ministers and elders. It has 
the charge of all that relates to public wor- 
ship. Christian instruction, and the superin- 
tendence of the members of the congrega- 
tion. See Reformed Church. 

Consociation, an ecclesiastical body, 
which some Congregational churches have 



substituted for Councils. It is usually com- 
posed of the pastor, and one delegate froiu 
each of the Congregational churches of 
the district represented. It differs from a 
Council in having a permanent organization, 
and it is also regarded by many as possessing 
a certain ecclesiastical authority, while the 
authority of Councils in the Congregational 
system is merely moral. 

Consubstantiation (union of substance), 
the doctrine that the glorified body of Christ 
is mysteriously present in the bread and the 
wine of the Eucharist after the consecra- 
tion. It was maintained by Luther, and is 
still maintained in a modified form by some 
of the High-Church party in the Church of 
England. It differs from transubstantiation 
(q. v.), w^hich teaches that the bread and 
wine is changed into the body and blood of 
our Lord, and from the ordinary doctrine of 
the Reformed churches, which is, that the 
bread and wine are simple emblems. See 
Communion. 

Contrition. Roman Catholic divines dis- 
tinguish between two kinds of sorrow for 
sin, which they entitle respectively contri- 
tion and attrition. Contrition is perfect re- 
pentance, founded on true love of God for 
himself alone — such as the sorrow of the wom- 
an of whom Christ said, "Her sins, which are 
many, are forgiven, for she loved much."^ 
Attrition is that sorrow for sin which arises 
in whole or in part from " a fear of losing 
heaven, or of being condemned to hell." Per- 
fect contrition, according to Roman Catholic 
theology, as it arises from a perfect love of 
God for himself alone, is so pleasing in his 
sight, that the moment a person has it God 
is reconciled to him, and forgives his sins ; 
but "such contrition does not free a person 
from having recourse to the sacrament of 
penance when it can be had ; the command 
of receiving that sacrament being laid upon 
all without exception." Attrition, on the oth- 
er hand, in no case, they say, obtains of it- 
self the remission of sin, but only discloses 
the soul for receiving that grace by means 
of the sacrament of penance. 

Convent, a monastic institution for either 
men or women. In connection with the con- 
vents for women are generally schools for the 
education of girls, which are carried on un- 
der the direction of the Sisters of Charity, 
who are themselves under the conventual 
rules. The term is popularly applied to in- 
stitutions for women alone, but the proper 
name for such institutions as distinguished 
from monasteries is nunneries. See Mona- 
chism; Monastery; Nun. 

Conventicle, a private assembly or meet- 
ing for religious purposes. It is used by 
some ancient Christian writers to signify 
Church. It was first applied as a term of 
reproach to the assemblies held by the fol- 
lowers of Wycliffe in England, and afterward 
1 Luke vii., 47. 



CONVENTION (GENERAL) 



224 



COPPER 



to the meetings of the Non-conformists gen- 
erally. By an act which passed the Parlia- 
ment of England in 1663, any meeting for re- 
ligious worship in a private house, at which 
five persons beside the family were present, 
was declared a conventicle, and every person 
above sixteen years of age who was present 
was pronounced liable to a fine or imprison- 
ment, and, for the third offense, transporta- 
tion for life. The same act was also carried 
through the Scottish Parliament by a large 
majority. It is known in history as the 
Conventicle Act. 

Convention (General), an assembly of 
clerical and lay deputies belonging to the 
Protestant Episcopal Church of America, 
which meets regularly for the discussion of 
its ecclesiastical concerns. Besides the Gen- 
eral Convention, every state or diocese has a 
convention of its own, to regulate its local 
concerns. The General Convention is com- 
posed of two houses, an upper or House of 
Bishops, and a lower or House of Clerical 
and Lay Deputies. The House of Bishops 
has a right to originate measures for the 
concurrence of the House of Delegates, com- 
posed of clergy and laity ; and when any 
jDroposed act passes the House of Delegates it 
is transmitted to the House of Bishops, who 
have a negative on the same. The Church 
is governed by canons (q. v.), framed by this 
assembly, and by diocesan canons, establish- 
ed by the Diocesan Convention. The latter 
are subordinate to the former. The trien- 
nial meetings of the General Convention are 
usually held in one of the larger cities of the 
Union. The House of Bi shops sits with closed 
doors, and is presided over by the senior bish- 
op. The House of Clerical and Lay Depu- 
ties is composed of an equal number of pres- 
byters, or pastors, and lay delegates from aU 
the dioceses. This house holds its delibera- 
tions in open church, the public being freely 
admitted. The concurrence of both houses 
is necessary to the enactment of a law. The 
vote is counted by dioceses. See Episcopa- 
lians. 

Convocation, an assembly of the bish- 
ops and clergy of the Church of England, to 
consult upon matters ecclesiastical. It con- 
sists of two separate houses : the upper house, 
composed of the archbishops and bishops; 
and the lower house, in which all the other 
clergy are represented by their deputies. 
This body grew out of the councils held in 
ancient times, and prior to the Reformation 
exercised great powers. Since that time, by 
act of Parliament, the Convocation can be 
assembled only by the king's writ ; when as- 
sembled, it can not make new canons with- 
out a royal license, and these can not be pub- 
lished or take effect until confirmed by the 
sovereign; nor, lastly, can it enact any canon 
which is against the law or customs of the 
land, or the king's prerogative, even should 
the king himself consent. Since 1717 it has 



ceased to possess any real power. Bothhouses 
meet at the commencement of each session 
of Parliament ; but the royal license being 
withheld, their meetings are little more than 
a form. Attempts have been made lately by 
the High-Church party in England to revive 
Convocations, but hitherto without effect. 

Cooking. The culinary art among the 
Hebrews was probably simple, and similar 
to that among the Egyptians. Our chief 
knowledge of their culinary processes is de- 
rived from their monuments. Females, gen- 
erally speaking, were the cooks ; and those 
at the head of a household, or of high rank, 
did not disdain so to employ themselves. 
Men also prepared food, and there were pro- 
fessional cooks. Meat did not form an arti- 
cle of ordinary diet, and few animals were 
slaughtered except on occasions of hospitali- 
ty and festivity. On the arrival of a guest, 
the animal was killed, and its blood poured 
out. It was then flayed, and, if roasted, 
roasted whole over the fire or in an oven. 
Boiling, however, was the more usual meth- 
od of cooking. The mode of boiling may be 
gathered from Ezek. xxiv., 3-6, 10 ; Mic. iii., 
3. When sufficiently cooked, the flesh and 
the broth were served separately. Meat was 
sometimes highly seasoned. Vegetables seem 
to have been made into pottage, and fish to 
have been broiled. Various culinary uten- 
sils, as pots and pans, are mentioned in Scrip- 
ture. See Utexsils. [Gen. xviii., 6-8; xxv., 
29 ; xxvii., 4, 7, 14 ; Exod. xii., 8, 9, 46 ; Lev. 
vii., 26 ; Judges vi., 19 ; 1 Sam. viii., 13 ; ix., 
23, 24 ; xxviu., 24 ; 2 Sam. xiii., 7-9 ; 2 Kings 
iv., 38; Isa. xliv.,16; Luke xv., 23; xxiv., 42.] 

Coos or Cos, a small island in the Mgean 
Sea off the coast of Caria, the birthplace of 
Hippocrates, with a chief town of the same 
name, in which was a famous temple of ^s- 
culapius. The island was celebrated for its 
wines, beautiful stuffs, and ointments. St. 
Paul passed a night here, on his voyage from 
Miletus to Judea.^ Its modern name is 
Stanchio. 

Copper. This word occurs in our version 
only in Ezra viii., 27, where copper bright- 
ly polished, or possibly combined with some 
more precious metal, is meant, there being 
an alloy much esteemed among the Persians 
of gold and other metals. The same He- 
brew word, nechSshefh, is elsewhere trans- 
lated " brass." The use of copper was early 
known. It was found in Palestine, and in- 
struments and utensils of all kinds were 
made of it, as many of the vessels for the 
tabernacle and the Temple.^ The mirrors 
of the women were of copper, polished ; and 
of these, voluntarily offered, the laver was 
formed. So fetters were of copper ; also ar- 
mor, helmets, shields, spear-heads.^ It would 



1 Acts xxi., 1.— 2 Gen. iv., 22; Exod. xxvii., 11, 17; 
Lev. vi., 28 ; Nnmb. xvi., 39 ; 2 Chroii. iv., 16.— 3 Exod. 
xxxviii.,8; Judges xvi., 21; 1 Sam. xvii., 6, 6, 88; 2 
Sara, xxi., 16. 



COPTS 



225 



CORIXTH 



seem that some mode -vras knoTvn of temper- 
ing and hardening copper, or an alloy might 
have been used. In some cases, no doubt, 
bronze is intended. Hiram is described as 
very skillful in working this metal. And 
though, as already observed, it was found in 
Palestine, yet it was brought to Tyre from 
Javan, Tubal, and Meshech — probably the 
mountainous regions between the Black and 
Caspian seas. See Brass. [1 Mngs vii., 14 ; 
Ezek. xxvii., 13.] 

Copts. The Monophysite, or Jacobite 
Christians of Egypt, who have been for elev- 
en centuries in possession of the patriarchal 
chair of Alexandria, and the dominant sect 
among the Chi'istians of that region, are call- 
ed Copts. They were placed in possession 
of the Egyptian churches on the irruption 
of the Saracens in the seventh century, and 
their numbers are now perhaps about one 
hundred thousand. They have three litur- 
gies, and their service is very much crowded 
with ceremonies. The Coptic tongue, in 
which their worship is conducted, is to them 
a dead language, and not even understood 
by many of their priests. Their habits of 
life are ascetic, and they have many monas- 
teries. At the head of the clergy stands the 
patriarch of Alexandria, who resides, howev- 
er, at Cairo. 

Coral is mentioned in two passages of 
Scripture^ in connection with valuable mer- 
chandise. It abounds in the Red Sea, and 
thence probably it was carried to the mar- 
kets of Tyre. It was often elaborately carved, 
and was held in high esteem. 

Corban, an offering to God of any sort, 
bloody or bloodless, but particularly in ful- 
fillment of a vow. To the rules laid down in 
Lev. xxvii. and Numb. xxx. concerning vows, 
the rabbins added the teaching that a man 
might interdict himself by vow, not only 
from using for himself, but from giving to 
another, or receiving from him, some par- 
ticular object, whether food or any thing 
else. The thing thus interdicted was con- 
sidered as corban. A person might thus re- 
lease himself from any inconvenient obliga- 
tion under plea of corban — a practice which 
our Lord reprehended, as annulling the spir- 
it of the law. [Matt, xv., 5 ; Mark vii., 11.] 

Cord. Cords, or ropes, among the Jews, 
were of various materials ; the strongest 
were probably made of strips of camel's 
hide, as are those still used by the Bedouins. 
The finer soii;s were made of flax, and prob- 
ably of reeds and rushes. In the N. T. the 
term is applied to the whip which our Sav- 
iour made, and to the ropes of a ship.^ The 
cords of which the former was made are said 
by Alford to have probably been the rush- 
es strewed on the floor for the cattle to lie 
upon. Cords or lines were used for measur- 
ing : hence to " cast a cord by lot"^ is to allot 

1 Job xxviii., 18; Ezek. xxvii., 16.— ^ Isa. xix., 9; 
John ii., 15 ; Acts xxvii., 32.-3 ^[[^^ a^^ 5^ 

15 



an inheritance ; and sometimes "a line" sig- 
nifies an inheritance, as in Psa. xvi., 6. An- 
imals were led by cords, and prisoners bound 
with them: therefore, to "loose the cord" is 
to cast off restraint; while "cords of love" 
may refer to the soft bands or leading- 
strings used for children. [Job xxx., 11; 
Hos. xi., 4.] 

Coriander. The manna was likened to 
coriander-seed in both color and form. This 
plant is very widely diifused. It is akin to 
parsley in family characteristics, with a 
round tall stalk, flowers small and white, and 
leaves much divided and smooth. The seeds 
are globular, of a gray color, and, from their 
aromatic nature, are used for culiuary pur- 
poses. [Exod. xvi., 31 ; Numb, xi., 7.] 

Corintli. This city is alike remarkable 
for its distinctive geographical position, its 
eminence in Greek and Roman history, and 
its close connection with the early spread of 
Christianity. It was the capital of a small 
district called Isthmus, a "bridge of the sea," 
which joins the ancient Peloponnesus, the 
modern Morea, to the northern portion of 
Greece. So markedis this " bridge of the sea," 
that its name Isthmus has been given to every 
narrow neck of land between two seas. This 
isthmus was the centre of the activity of the 
Greek race in general, and has the closest 
connection with all their most important 
movements, both military and commercial. 
The only line of march for an invading or 
retreating army, this strip of land three and 
a half miles wide has been of great military 
importance, and has been several times forti- 
fied from sea to sea. But its most consl)icu- 
ous military defense, and the most promi- 
nent feature in its scenery, is the Acrocorin- 
thus, or citadel of Corinth, a vast rock, which 
rises abruptly to the height of two thousand 
feet above the level of the sea, and the sum- 
mit of which is so extensive that it once 
contained a whole town, which had several 
mosques. Yet, notwithstanding its colossal 
dimensions, its sides are so precipitous that 
a few soldiers are enough to guard it. The 
view from its top reaches across the sea on 
the east to the Acropolis of Athens — forty- 
five miles — and beyond to the mountains of 
Attica and Bceotia. Beyond the western sea, 
which flows in from the Adriatic, are the 
large masses of the mountains of North-east- 
ern Greece, with Parnassus towering above 
Delphi. Immediately beneath is the narrow 
plain and the city of Corinth, on a small ta- 
ble-land of no great elevation, connected 
with the northern base of the Acrocorinthus. 
At the edge of the lower level are the har- 
bors which made Corinth the emporium of 
the richest trade of the East and the AYest. 
The circumnavigation of the Morea was dan- 
gerous, and this narrow and level isthmus, 
across which vessels could be dragged from 
gulf to gulf, was of inestimable value to the 
early traders of the Levant. It is this situ- 



CORINTH 



226 



CORINTH 




ation of Corinth that is the secret of its his- 
tory. Its common title in the poets is " the 
city of the two seas." It is represented alle- 
gorically in art. as a female figure upon a rock 
between two other figures, each of whom 
bears a rudder — the symbol of navigation and 
trade. It is the same image which takes an- 
other form, in the words of the rhetorician, 
who said that it was "the prow and the 
stern of Greece." 

The public and foreign policy of Corinth 
appears to have been generally remarkable 



for honor and justice. The 
numerous colonies which 
she sent forth gave her 
points of attachment in 
many parts, and the good- 
will which, as a mercantile 
state she carefully main- 
tained, made her a valua- 
ble link between the va- 
rious Greek tribes. When 
the Achaean league was ral- 
lying the chief powers of 
Southern Greece, Corinth 
became its military centre, 
and received a fatal blow 
when L. Mummius, by or- 
der of the Roman Senate, 
barbarously destroyed the 
beautiful town, B.C. 146. 
As the territory was given 
over to the Sicyonians, we 
must infer that the whole 
population was sold into 
slavery. The Corinth of 
which we read in the N.T. 
was quite a new city, having been rebuilt as 
a Roman colony, and peopled with freedmen 
from Rome by the dictator Caesar a little 
before his assassination. The new city was 
hardly less distinguished than the old, and it 
acquired a fresh importance as the metropo- 
lis of the Roman province of Achaia. In it 
re-appeared, no doubt, the same shamefully 
licentious worship of Venus for which the 
older city had been celebrated. All these 
points are indirectly illustrated by passages 
in the two epistles to the Corinthians. 




Coriuth Restored, as viewed from the Acrocorinthus. 



CORINTHIANS (EPISTLES TO THE) 227 CORINTHIANS (EPISTLES TO THE) 



The Corintliian Churcli is remarkable in 
the epistles of the Apostle Paul for the va- 
riety of its spiritual gifts, which seem for the 
time to have eclipsed, or superseded, the of- 
fice of the elder or bishop, which in most 
churches became so prominent from the be- 
ginning. Very soon, however, this peculiar- 
ity was lost, and the bishops of Corinth took 
a place co-ordinate to those of other capital 
cities. Corinth is still an episcopal see. The 
city has now shrunk to a wretched village, 
on the old site, and bearing the old name, 
which, however, is corrupted into Gortho. 
The Posidonium, or sanctuary of Neptune, 
the scene of the Isthmian games, from which 
St. Paul borrows some of his most striking im- 
agery in 1 Corinthians and other epistles, was 
a short distance to the north-east of Corinth, 
at the narrowest part of the isthmus, near 
the harbor of Schcenus, now Kalamdki, on 
the Saronic Gulf. The exact site of the tem- 
ple is doubtful ; but to the south are the re- 
mains of the stadium, where the foot-races 
were run ; to the east are those of the thea- 
tre, which was probably the scene of the pu- 
gilistic contests ; and abundant on the shore 
are the small green pine-trees which gave the 
fading wreath to the victors in the games. 

Corinthians (Epistles to the). The two 
epistles written by the great apostle of the 
Gentiles to the Church at Corinth have, be- 
sides those features which are common to all 
the Pauline epistles, a special interest of 
their own. They are, in one word, the his- 
torical epistles. The First Epistle to the Co- 
rinthians gives a clearer insight than any 
other portion of the N. T. into the institu- 
tions, feelings, and opinions of the Church 
of the earlier period of the Apostolic Age. 
The second epistle is equally important in 
relation to the history of the apostle himself. 
No other portions of the N. T. throw an equal 
amount of light at once on his personal char- 
acter and feelings, and on the facts of his 
life. 

The genuineness of these epistles has nev- 
er been disputed; and as the internal evi- 
dence is a sufficient guaranty of that genu- 
ineness, without any external support, it is 
needless to say more upon this subject than 
to point out the great interest attaching to 
two absolutely undisputed documents of such 
importance to the history of the period. In 
a degenerate state of society, such as that 
w^hich existed in the capital of Greece in 
Paul's time, the appearance of a man thor- 
oughly convinced of the truth of his belief, 
and philosophizing from facts with a sagac- 
ity and penetration which even the most 
worldly-minded could not gainsay, must 
have produced a remarkable effect. Yet 
though there were probably converts from 
the wealthier classes, the chief impression 
Avas produced upon the lower orders of socie- 
ty ; " not many mighty, not many noble, not 
many wise," but slaves and artisans formed 



the class from which the Christian society 
at Corinth was mainly drawn. Through all 
these converts ran the same electric shock ; 
they became a distinct body, and exhibited 
the most remarkable outward proof of the 
reality of their conversion ; not, indeed, in 
altered lives, for in this respect they were oft- 
en greatly deficient, but by the sudden dis- 
plaj^ of gifts of all kinds which they either 
had not possessed before, or had possessed 
only in a much lower degree. They looked 
to the apostle with a veneration which must 
have been long unknown to any Grecian 
heart. No other Christian teacher had as 
yet interfered with his paramount claim 
over them ; he was " their father," and by 
his precepts tbey endeavored to regulate the 
whole course of their lives.^ It was after 
eighteen months' residence among such fol- 
lowers that the apostle took his departure 
from the port of Cenchrese for Ephesus (q. v.), 
and this great city now became his home 
even more than Corinth liad been before. 
Here he spent three years in active, earnest 
work. Toward the end of this period he re- 
ceived accounts which greatly agitated him. 
The Corinthian Church, like most of the 
early Christian societies, combined two dis- 
tinct elements ; first, that consisting of Jews 
or proselytes, formed from the class w^hicli 
the apostle had originally addressed, and 
therefore exercising considerable influence 
over the whole body of which it was the 
nucleus ; second, the mass of Gentile con- 
verts, which sprang up during the latter 
stages of the apostle's preaching, and which 
at Corinth must have greatly outnumbered 
the others.^ While Paul remained at Cor- 
inth, the jealousy between these two sec- 
tions had lain dormant ; but when he was 
gone, their animosities, encouraged no doubt 
by the factious spirit so inveterate in the 
Greek race, broke forth, and the Christian 
community was divided into various parties, 
formed by the various crossings of these two 
main divisions. The Gentile party was in 
the ascendant, but the Jewish party had 
gained sufficient ground to call themselves 
by a distinct name, and to impugn Paul's au- 
thority.^ The name of the great Alexandrian 
teacher, Apollos, became a rallying cry for 
another section of the Church, probably that 
which hung half-way between the extremes. 
To the evils of this party spirit was added 
the tendency of the Gentile faction to carry 
their views of freedom to the extreme of li- 
cense. The profligacy which openly dis- 
graced the heathen population of Corinth 
was not only practiced, but openly avowed 
by some of the advocates of Christian liberty. 
The disputes were carried to such a pitch, 
and the boundaries between the heathen and 
Christian parts of the communities so little 
regarded, that lawsuits between Christians 



1 1 Cor. iv., 14, 15 ; x., 1. 
1-5 ; 2 Cor. x.-xii. 



1 Cor. xii., 2.— a 1 Cor. ix., 



CORINTHIANS (EPISTLES TO THE) 228 CORINTHIANS (EPISTLES TO THE) 



were brougtit into the Creek and Roman 
courts of justice. The sacriticial feasts were 
attended without scruple, even when held in 
the colonnades of the temples. Christian 
women threw off the head-dress which the 
customs of the East and of Greece required. 
The most solemn ordinance of Christian 
brotherhood was turned into the careless 
festivity" of a Grecian banquet. Even the 
better points of their character, which had 
formed the basis of the apostle's commenda- 
tions, and of their own advance in Christian 
knowledge and power, had been pushed to 
excess. An overweening consciousness of 
the position which they held in the Chris- 
tian world as the most highly favored of all 
the Gentile churches, not only induced them 
to' look down with contempt on all other 
Christian bodies, but also extinguished that 
light of Christian love which ought to be 
the characteristic of every Christian society.^ 
This congregation, in which the apostle had 
labored with unusual exertions, and appar- 
ently with unusual success, was torn bj'' fac- 
tions and marred by extravagances which 
threatened not only to bring disgrace upon 
the Christian name, but even to break up the 
foundations of Christian society. 

It may be easily conceived that, under 
such circumstances, Paul would seize the 
first opportunity for the expression of his 
own wounded feelings, and of his sense of 
the sin of his converts. Such an oppor- 
tunity presented itself in the arrival at Eph- 
esus of three trustworthy members of the 
Corinthian Church — Fortunatus, Achaicus, 
and Stephanus — bearing from that portion 
of their body which reverenced the apostle's 
authority an epistle asking for a solution 
of various questions which their disputes 
had suggested, and containing assurances of 
their general adherence to his precepts.'^ A 
reply to these questions required a detailed 
letter from himself, and afforded an occasion 
for the outpouring of his thoughts. The 
feelings of Luther on hearing of the insurrec- 
tion of the peasants of Suabia, or the enor- 
mities of the Anabaptists of Munster, afford 
a faint image of the apostle's* position in 
dealing with the first great moral degenera- 
cy of the Gentile churches. This reply was 
sent from Ephesus, or from the neighborhood 
of Ephesus, at the close of the three years 
spent there by the apostle, but whether be- 
fore or after the tumult of Demetrius is un- 
certain. It appears to have been written in 
the spring, as Pentecost is spoken of as not far 
distant ; and if so, the allusions it contains to 
the Jewish Passover become more appropri- 
ate. The precise date after the Christian era 
can only be fixed by a general chronology of 
the Acts. For practical purposes, however, 
it is sufficient to say that it must have been 
twenty or thirty years after Paul's conver- 



11 Cor. v.,1; vi.,1,10; viii., 4-13; x., 14-33; xi., 2- 
34.— 2 1 Cor. vii.,1; viii., 1 ; xi.,2; xii.,1; xvi.,17. 



sion, and in the early part of the reign of Nero.^ 
With the exception of a few lines at the last, 
it was written not by the apostle's own hand, 
but by an amanuensis ; not in his own name 
alone, but in that of Sosthenes also — wheth- 
er the successor of Crispus, as president of 
the Corinthian synagogue,^ or another of the 
same name, can not be determined. It opens 
with that union of courtesy and sagacity 
which forms so characteristic a feature in 
all Paul's addresses, and expresses strong 
thankfulness and hope, excited by all that 
was really encouraging in the rapid progress 
of the Corinthian Church. The preface is im- 
mediately succeeded by the statement of his 
complaints against the Church (i,, lO-vi.,20) : 
first, he mentions the most obvious evil of 
the factions ; then, after a short explanation 
of the motives of the epistle, of the mission 
of Timothy, and of his delay in coming to 
Corinth, the case of the incestuous marriage. 
Having thus dismissed the immediate ground 
for censure, he proceeds (vii., 1-xiv., 40) to 
answer in detail the questions contained in 
their letter on the subjects of marriage, of 
the sacrificial feasts, and of spiritual gifts. 
It is in the discussion of this last question 
that the apostle bursts forth into that fer- 
vent description of Christian love which, as 
it meets all the difficulties and complaints 
throughout the epistle, must be regarded as 
the climax and turning-point of the whole 
(chap. xiii.). The discussion of the subject 
of the future resurrection (chap, xv.) has all 
the completeness of a distinct composition. 
With this the epistle, properly speaking, ter- 
minated. The closing words relate mainly 
to matters more or less personal and secular, 
and the epistle is concluded with the usual 
calmness and gentleness of the apostle's part- 
ing salutations. 

Common opinion makes Stephanus, Fortu- 
natus, and Achaicus the bearers of this epis- 
tle. But of this we can not be certain. It 
was perhaps carried by the little band of 
Christians who were collecting contributions 
for the Christian poor in Judea, and whom 
Titus begged to be allowed to accompany 
from Ephesus to Corinth.^ If not conveyed, 
it was at least immediately followed by Titus. 
To him the apostle intrusted the duty both 
of enforcing its commands, and of communi- 
cating to him its results, while he himself, 
after a stay of some weeks at Ephesus, was 
to advance by easy stages through Macedo- 
nia to Corinth. All along this journey he 
was "troubled on every side," fearful lest his 
influence in his favorite church should be ex- 
tinguished by his own act in his own epistle. 
Anxiously he awaited the return of his faith- 
ful friend. At last the long-expected day 
came; Titus arrived with tidings of the gen- 
eral acquiescence of the Corinthian Church 

1 1 Cor. v., 7, 8 ; XV., 20, 32 ; xvi., 5, S, 19, 21 ; com p. 
Acts xviii., 24, 26 ; xix., 10 ; xx., 1-31.— ^ Acts xviii., IT. 
—3 1 Cor. xvi., 1-6 ; 2 Cor. viii., 17-24 ; xii., IS. 



CORINTHIANS (EPISTLES TO THE) 229 



CORN 



in the apostle's injimction. Mingled, how- 
ever, with this good news, were other tidings 
of the claims of the now powerful Judaiziug 
party, who openly assailed the apostle's char- 
acter, claimed almost despotic dominion over 
their followers, and insisted on their purely 
Jewish origin, their peculiar connection with 
Christ, their apostolical privileges, and their 
commendatory letters.^ These two subjects 
must have been the chief topics of Titus's 
communication. The first and prominent 
feeling awakened in Paul's mind was one of 
overwhelming thankfulness for the relief 
from the anxiety which, up to that moment, 
he had felt for the effects of his epistle ; 
next, indignation at the insinuations of his 
adversaries. To give vent to the double 
tide of emotion thus rising within him was 
the main purpose of his second epistle. A 
third subject of less importance, but which 
gave him a direct occasion for writing, was 
the necessity for hastening the contributions 
by the Corinthians to the Christian poor in 
Judea. 

As in occasion, so also in style, the con- 
trast between the first and second epistles is 
very great. The first is one of the most, the 
second one of the least systematic of any of 
the apostle's writings. In point of arrange- 
ment, the three objects of the epistle are kept 
distinct. But so vehement were the feelings 
under which he wrote, that the thankful ex- 
pression of the first part is darkened by the 
indignation of the third ; and the directions 
about the contribution are colored by the re- 
flections both of his joy and of his grief. And 
in all the three portions, though in them- 
selves strictly personal, the apostle is borne 
away into the higher regions in which he 
habitually lived ; so that this epistle be- 
comes the most striking instance of what is 
the case more or less with all his writings, 
a new philosophy of life poured forth, not 
through systematic treatises, but through 
occasional bursts of human feeling. The 
very stages of his journey are impressed upon 
it; the troubles at Ephesus, the repose at 
Troas,the anxieties and consolations of Mac- 
edonia, the prospect of returning to Corinth. 
Through this labyrinth of conflicting emo- 
tions it is not necessary here to follow the 
apostle. The epistle itself is the best guide. 

It seems, at the outset at least, to be writ- 
ten by an amanuensis, probably the youth- 
ful disciple Timothy, whose name, in the 
opening of the epistle, fills the place which, 
in its predecessor, had been occupied by that 
of Sosthenes. It was borne by Titus, whose 
reception at Corinth, in connection with the 
first epistle, had been so enthusiastic that he 
was intrusted with this second epistle also, 
and sent, in company with two others spe- 
cially appointed, to urge upon the Corinthi- 
ans the necessity of promptness in their con- 



1 2 Cor. i., 12, 17, 24; li., 1-, iii., 1 ; v., 12, 16; x., 1, 7, 
12, 18 ; xi., 5, 13, 20, 22, 23 ; xii., 21 ; xiiL, |, 



tributions for Judea. Of the effect of this 
epistle nothing is known. The two epistles 
of Clement to Corinth, the second of them of 
more than doubtful authority, are the only 
records of the Corinthian Church for the 
next three centuries. In the first of these, 
factions are described as still raging, but the 
authority of the apostle is recognized, and 
there is no further trace of the Judaizing 
party. Traces of it are found, however, in 
other of the apostolic churches. 

Cormorant, in the authorized version of 
the Scriptures, occurs four times, and repre- 
sents two Hebrew words, one of which (in 
Isa. xxxiv., 11 ; Zeph. ii., 14) should have 
been rendered pelican (q. v.). The Hebrew 
word properly rendered cormorant occurs in 
two parallel passages, viz.> Lev. xi., 17; Deut. 
xiv., 17, in a list of prohibited meats, and 
from the context evidently means a bird, 
the identification of which has caused some 
difficulty. The Hebrew word is derived 
from a root, which signifies ''hurling," or 
" casting down," and we may therefore pre- 
sume that the bird is one which plunges or 
sweeps down upon its prey. Though there 
is some difficulty in identifying this bird, 
it is probable that the common cormorant is 
the one intended. It is a large bii'd, which 
subsists upon fish, and always takes its prey 
by darting down upon it from a height, often 
diving deep into the water to secure it. Ow- 
ing to its size and peculiar habits, it is a very 
conspicuous bird, and therefore likely to be 
selected by name by the ancient lawgiver. 
Although its flesh has a fishy flavor, not very 
agreeable, the young birds can be rendered 
tolerably palatable, and are often eaten. See 
Pelicaj^. 

Corn. The Hebrew word which is com- 
monly translated "corn" is very comprehen- 
sive, and probably includes not only all the 
proper corn grains, but also various kinds of 
pulse and seeds of plants which we never com- 
prehend under the name of " corn," or even 
of grain. It may be taken to represent all 
the commodities which we describe by the 
different words, corn, grain, seeds, peas, 
beans. The principal kinds of corn grown 
were wheat, barley, millet, and a grain with 
regard to which our translators seem in doubt, 
for they render its Hebrew name by "■ rye" in 
Exod. ix., 32 ; Isa. xxviii,, 25, and by " fitch- 
es" in Ezek. iv.,9. It was probably spelt. 
Some are inclined to believe that maize or 
Indian corn was cultivated by the Hebrews. 
Recent discoveries indicate that it was known 
to the Egyptians, and nothing would be 
more natural than its early introduction into 
Palestine. The different products coming 
under the denomination of corn are noticed 
under their respective names : their culture, 
under Agriculture ; their preparation, un- 
der Bread ; Food ; Mill. [Gen. xxvii., 28- 
37 ; Numb, xviii., 27 ; Deut. xxviii., 51 ; Lam. 
ii., 12. j 



CORNELIUS 



230 



COVENANT 



Cornelius, a centurion of the Italian band 
at Csesarea, of whom nothing is known but 
the account given in Acts x. He had aban- 
doned polytheism, and was a worshiper of 
the true God. Whether a proselyte (q. v.) 
of the gate is uncertain. The Bible narra- 
tive justifies the inference that the subject 
of his prayers was that he might be guided 
into truth, and in this respect, doubtless, he 
was a tj^pe of not a few in heathen lands 
who, dissatisfied with their own worship, 
were seeking, though blindly, a better way. 
There has been found a difficulty by some in 
the fact that his works were received as well- 
pleasing to God before he had faith in Christ. 
The answer is, that it was not possible for 
Cornelius to pray without faith. " This 
faith," says Dean Alford, " was all that he 
could then attain to, and brought forth its 
fruits abundantly in his life ; one of which 
fruits, and the best of them, was the earnest 
seeking by prayer for a better and more per- 
fect faith." 

Corner -Stone, a stone of special impor- 
tance in binding together the two sides of a 
building. In the structures of Nineveh, the 
corner is sometimes formed of a single an- 
gular stone. Figuratively, the term was ap- 
plied to the principal persons in a country, 
just as we say the " pillars " of the church 
or state, and is especially significant in the 
references to Christ as the corner-stone of 
his Church, on whom all believers should be 
built, Jews and Gentiles, compacted into one 
holy temple to God's eternal glory. [Isa. 
xxviii., 16; Matt, xxi., 42; Acts iv., 11 ; 1 Pet. 
ii.,6.] 

Coronation, the religious rite by which a 
sovereign prince is consecrated to his office, 
and in which also the queen-consort in Chris- 
tian countries is usually associated with her 
husband, not for the sake of the office, but for 
that of honor. By ancient custom, the coro- 
nation of the sovereign of England belongs 
to the Archbishop of Canterbury, and that 
of the queen-consort to the Archbishop of 
York. The place is Westminster Abbey. The 
coronation service in England is a form of 
immemorial prescription, substantially the 
same as that used at the inauguration of 
Christian monarchs in Saxon times. It is pe- 
culiarly valuable, as recording certain high 
religious and political principles, which must 
be considered as receiving the full sanction 
of the Church and nation. There is an ac- 
knowledgment of the sovereignty of Christ 
over the whole world, and the derivation of 
all kingly power from him ; and it is official- 
ly declared that Christian sovereigns, like 
the Jewish kings of old, are consecrated to 
the fullness of their office by the religious 
rite of unction, and that their function is not 
merely secular. 

Corporal, the name given in ecclesiastical 
usage, in ritualistic churches, to the linen 
cloth which is spread over the consecrated 



bread after the communion. It is supposed 
to represent the fine linen in which the body 
of our Saviour was wrapped in by Joseph of 
Arimathea. 

Corpus Christi {hody of Christ), Festival 
of, a feast held in the Romish Church on the 
Thursday after Trinity Sunday, in which the 
consecrated wafer is carried about in pro- 
cession in all popish countries, for the adora- 
tion of the multitude. This festival was es- 
tablished, A.D. 1264, by Pope Urban IV., and 
afterward confirmed, a.d. 1311, by Clement V. 
Covenant. The Hebrew word thus trans- 
lated means primarily '* a cutting," with ref- 
erence to the custom, in the ratification of a 
covenant, of cutting in two the animal sac- 
rificed, and passing between the parts.^ The 
corresponding word in the N. T. is frequent- 
ly, though not uniformly, translated testa- 
ment. In its biblical meaning of an agree- 
ment between two parties, the word is used 
only, by way of accommodation, of a cove- 
nant between God and man. Strictly speak- 
ing, such a covenant is quite unconditional, 
and amounts merely to a promise or act of 
favor, since man is not in the position of an 
independent covenanting party. Such cov- 
enants, however, in accordance with the bib- 
lical representation of God's dealings with 
! man, were confirmed by oaths, in conformity 
to human custom, and accompanied by some 
sign and seal.^ The word covenant is prop- 
erly applied to a solemn compact or agree- 
ment, either between tribes, nations, or in- 
dividuals, by which each party bound him- 
self to fulfill certain conditions, and was as- 
sured of receiving certain advantages. In 
making such a covenant, God was solemnly 
invoked as a witness, oaths were sworn, gifts 
were made, and a pillar or heap of stones 
erected as a sign. Abraham, Isaac, and Ja- 
cob, to mention no others, sealed their cove- 
nants on various occasions by eating. This, 
j which at first may have been merely a friend- 
I ly repast, came, from association, to be re- 
{ garded as a necessary finale and seal of the 
transaction, and then to be the principal for- 
mula of the covenant itself.^ To this day, 
among Eastern tribes, the mere eating with 
I a man constitutes a certain claim to his good 
I offices ; and a very interesting thought with 
' regard to the last supper of our Lord is 
. brought out in the following description by 
Dr. Thomson of a covenant among the mod- 
ern Arabs.* "After some time the sheik 
: came out of the harem, or female department, 
! with some fresh-baked bread, and a plate of 
1 dibs (a kind of grape molavsses), and, taking 
his seat by my side, he broke off" a bit of 
bread, dipped it in the dibs, and gave it to 
me to eat ; and, in like manner, he required 
all my companions to partake, and even had 

1 Gen. XV.; Jer. xxxiv., IS, 19.— ^ Gen. ix. ; xvii. ; 
Exod. xxxi., 1(5, 17 ; Deut. iv., 31 ; xxix., 21 ; Psa. 
Ixxxix., .S, 28; Jer. xxxiii., 20 ; Gal. iii., 15 sq.— 3 Gen. 
xxi., 27-32 : xxxi., 44-54 ; Josh, ix., 6-15; 1 Sam. xi., 1. 
— ■* "Laud and Book," vol. ii., pp. 41, 42. 



COVENANT, COVENANTERS 231 



COW-WORSHIP 



the muleteers called in to eat of it. After 
this, all those about the tent tasted of it. 
This was the ceremony, and he explained its 
significance somewhat in this fashion : ' We 
are now brethren. There is bread and salt 
between us ; we are brothers and allies. You 
are at liberty to travel among us wherever 
you please, and, so far as my power extends, 
I am to aid, befriend, and succor you, even to 
the loss of my own life.' The eating of this 
bread was the sign and seal of the covenant 
of brotherhood ; and they tell us that this 
bread will never leave the heart of a true and 
loyal Bedawy ; and, of course, the covenant, 
of which it is the symbol, can never be for- 
gotten or renounced. They often upbraid 
the civilized Frank because he does not keep 
bread and salt — is not faithful to the cove- 
nant of brotherhood ; and I have even heard 
them assert bluntly that we have no bread 
and salt. They tell us that this custom has 
come down to them from the remotest antiq- 
uity; and, in reflecting upon this very strik- 
ing incident, I have thought it not impossible 
that the apostles, who were plain fishermen, 
born and bred on this very shore, had been 
familiar with this custom, and fully appre- 
ciated its significance ; and that our blesvsed 
Lord appropriated, expanded, and infinite- 
ly ennobled it in the bread of the Eucha- 
ristic Supper. The points of resemblance are 
many, extremely significant, and impressive. 
In both, the element and the act are almost 
identical; the bread in both is the symbol 
of a covenant ; the act of eating is the seal 
of the covenant. In both it is a covenant 
of brotherhood, introducing the participants 
into that near and sacred relationship. The 
covenant is perpetual ; the bread never leaves 
the loyal heart. In both it supposes the ten- 
derest affection, and guarantees protection 
and succor even unto death." 

Covenant, Covenanters. The name of 
covenant is given to certain formal agree- 
ments drawn up and subscribed in Scottish 
history for the maintenance of the Presbyte- 
rian religion in Scotland. Of these, the two 
principal ones are the National Covenant, and 
the Solemn League and Covenant. 

The National Covenant was a bond of union 
drawn up at Edinburgh, in 1638, by the lead- 
ing Presbyterian ministers, and subscribed 
by vast numbers of persons of all ranks of 
life, agreeing to sustain at all hazards the 
Confession of Faith subscribed by James VI. 
in his youth. The proximate cause of this 
extraordinary manifestation of feeling was 
the attempt of Charles I. to enforce Episco- 
pacy and the use of the Service -Book on 
Scotland. The subscribing of the National 
Covenant began on the 28th of February, 
1638, in the Greyfriars' Churcli and church- 
yard, at Edinburgh. Numerous copies were 
also circulated throughout the country for 
signature. The General Assembly, which 
met at Glasgow, November 21, 1638, ratified 



the National Covenant and the Confession 
of Faith, which it embraced, and deposed the 
whole of the hierarchy which had been es- 
tablished by Charles I. 

The Solemn League and Covenant was a doc- 
ument of date four to five years later than 
the National Covenant. Fearing the success 
of Charles I. in the civil war into which he 
had entered with the English Parliament, the 
Scottish Estates entered into what was called 
a solemn league and covenant with Parlia- 
ment. One of the provisions of the bond of 
agreement was, that the Scotch should send 
an army into England against the king, 
which they did in January, 1644. The Sol- 
emn League and Covenant was subscribed 
by many of all ranks in Scotland and En- 
gland, including the Assembly of Divines at 
Westminster, was ratified by the General As- 
sembly at Edinburgh, August 17, 1643, and the 
Scottish Parliament, July 15, 1644, and was 
subsequently subscribed by Charles II. The 
National Covenant refers to the Presbyterian 
polity within Scotland alone, but the Solemn 
League and Covenant is much more com- 
prehensive. Those who subscribe it pledge 
themselves to endeavor to bring about a uni- 
formity in religion and church discipline in 
the three kingdoms, and to attempt the ex- 
tirpation of popery, prelacy, superstition, 
heresy, schism, profaneness, and whatsoever 
shall be found to be contrary to sound doc- 
trine and the power of godliness. 

The Solemn League and Covenant was sign- 
ed very reluctantly by Charles II., 1650. 
Eleven years later, a majority in the House 
of Commons ordered it to be burned by the 
common hangman (May 17, 1661). In the 
same year the Scottish Parliament renounced 
the covenant, and declared the king supreme. 
Those who refused to abjure the covenant 
were regarded as rebels, and were obliged to 
betake themselves to the desert moors and 
mountains of their native country, where 
they were hunted like wild beasts, till the 
establishment of freedom of conscience by 
the Revolution of 1688. The two covenants 
were then set aside, and can not be said to 
have now any practical effect in any part of 
the United Kingdom. Certain Scottish and 
Irish Dissenters, however, still profess at- 
tachment to the covenants, and on particu- 
lar occasions renew their subscription of 
them. This is the case with the Cameronians, 
so called from their founder, John Cameron. 

Co-w-Worship. The great utility of the 
cow, as afibrding valuable nourishment to 
man, has caused the choice of that animal by 
many heathen nations as a fit emblem of the 
earth. In Egypt, Syria, and Greece, Isis, the 
Egyptian goddess, is represented as bearing 
the head of a cow,Astarte,the Syrian goddess, 
as wearing the horns of a cow, and the Gre- 
cian Juno as having a cow's eyes. The same 
idea pervades most of the old religions and 
mythologies. Among the Hindoos the cow 



CRANE 



232 



CREATION 



is held in the greatest veneration, but par- 
ticularly the species called the Brahman or 
sacred cow, and by many families a cow is 
kept for the mere purpose of worship. 

Crane. The crane is mentioned in two 
passages of Scripture ; one referring to its 
voice, and the other to its migratory instinct.^ 
It is rather remarkable that in both these 
cases the word "crane" is used in connection 
with the swallow, or rather the swift, and 
that in both instances the names of the birds 
have been interchanged by the translators. 
There can be little doubt that the crane is 
intended by the Hebrew word which is in 
our version rendered " swallow." The crane 
is very prominent in both the characteristics 
to which the Scriptures refer. It performs 
its annual migrations in company, vast flocks 
of many thousand individuals passing like 
clouds at an immense height, whence their 
trumpet-like cry is audible for a great dis- 
tance, and attracts the ear, if not the eye, to 
them. The voice of the crane is owing to a pe- 
culiar structure of the windpipe, which is ex- 
ceedingly long, and instead of going straight 
to the lungs, winds about the breast-bone, 
forming a trumpet, in construction not unlike 
some of the wind instruments used in an or- 
chestra. 

Creation. We have in the first chapter 
of Genesis an account of the creation of the 
world. How this account was conveyed to 
Moses, whether by direct revelation, or by 
traditions from his ancestors, is considered 
elsewhere.'* Here it is necessary only to 
state to the reader the difficulties which have 
been felt in interpreting his record, and the 
various interpretations which have been of- 
fered. According to the Mosaic history, the 
first state of the world was a chaotic one. 
"The world was without form, and void; and 
darkness was upon the face of the deep." In 
six successive "days" God called one phase 
of life into being after the other, until the 
whole work ended with the creation of man. 
The geological evidences, however, show 
very conclusively, to all those who accept 
their testimony, that the world was not made 
in a brief period of time, but was the pro- 
duction of successive ages of long duration ; 
and that so far from its being true that 
it is but about six thousand years old, al- 
though that may limit the age of the human 
race, the world itself has existed from a pe- 
riod very remote, almost inconceivably re- 
mote. It is this supposed conflict between 
the teaching of science and the Bible which 
has given rise to the different interpretations 
of the latter, of which the following are the 
chief: 

I. Some writers insist on giving to the first 
chapter in Genesis the apparent meaning 
which belongs to it as it stands in our En- 
glish version. They insist that the term day 
signifies a period of twenty-four hours, and 
^ Isa. xxxviii., 14; Jer. viii., 7.— " See Genesis. 



that the natural meaning of the sacred text 
is that God created the world in six natural 
days. They claim that the teaching of the 
Bible and that of the scientific schools are 
irreconcilably at variance, and they reject 
either science or the Bible, according as they 
are more scientifically or more religiously in- 
clined. This view is taken by a good many 
scientific men, by some rationalistic divines, 
who deny the inspiration and authority of 
the Bible, and by some orthodox writers 
(though by very few), who deny the truth- 
fulness of the testimony of the rocks. The 
latter assert that the existence of animal and 
vegetable remains in the rocks (where ap- 
parently they could have become imbedded 
only by the course of long ages) proves noth- 
ing, since -an Almighty God could create 
rocks with animal and vegetable remains al- 
ready imbedded in them. They forget, how- 
ever, as it appears to us, that the question is 
not what God can do, but what he is actual- 
ly accustomed to do. 

II. The second hypothesis regards the ac- 
count in the first chapter of Genesis as a po- 
etic description of the Creation ; not as an 
authoritative account of the facts in detail 
of the Creation, but rather as a sacred poem, 
which employs the language of imagination 
for the purpose of communicating certain 
great religious truths respecting the Crea- 
tion and the Creator. 

III. A third hypothesis, and that which we 
think is now most generally accepted in the 
Evangelical Church, occupies a position mid- 
way between these two. This hypothesis 
maintains that science is not a subject of di- 
vine revelation; that Scripture reveals only 
moral and religious truths ; and that we 
have therefore no right to expect any thing 
more of the biblical account of the Creation 
than a statement of the popular scientific 
hypothesis tff Moses's day, employed, howev- 
er, to illustrate certain great and fundameut- 
al religious truths. These religious truths 
which Genesis teaches are not in any way 
impaired, but rather confirmed by science ; 
such, for example, as that the world is not 
eternal, but was created ; that it was called 
into being by a personal God; and that its 
destinies are presided over, not by inexora- 
ble and impersonal laws, nor by a multitude 
of diverse and contending deities, but by 
one infinite and perfect mind. At the same 
time, those who hold this view insist that the 
conformity of the biblical teaching to that 
of modern science is one of the wonderful 
confirmations of its truth. They assert that 
if the Bible and science are properly inter- 
preted, each will be found to confirm the 
other, and maintain that the apparent vari- 
ance between them is a variance only be- 
tween erroneous interpretations of the Bible 
and erroneous scientific hypothesis. Thus 
it is very clear that the Hebrew word trans- 
lated "day" does not always mean a period 



CREATIONISM 



233 



CEEED 



of twenty-four lioiirs, and is not so employ- 
ed always in our English Bible. It is true 
that the sacred narrative seems to define the 
word by declaring that the evening and the 
morning were the first day, but even this 
declaration must have a somewhat peculiar 
meaning attached to it, since the sun was 
not created till the fourth day. It must be 
admitted that there are some poin ts of seem- 
ing antagonism between Scripture and sci- 
ence, and other points which are obscure ; but 
nevertheless the general testimony of sci- 
ence confirms Scripture ; geology supports 
and sustains in the main the account of the 
Creation as given in Genesis. Thus Rev. E. 
Harold Browne, D.D., in the ^' Speaker's Com- 
mentary," says : '^ In the present condition of 
geological science, and with the great obscu- 
rity of the record of Creation in this chapter, 
it may be wise not to attempt an accurate 
comparison of the one with the other. Some 
few points, however, seem clearly to come 
out. In Genesis, first of all, creation is spo- 
ken of as ' in the beginning,' a period of in- 
definite, possibly of remote distance in the 
past ; secondly, the progress of the prepara- 
tion of the earth's surface is described as 
gradually advancing from the rocks to the 
vegetable world, and the less perfectly or- 
ganized animal creation, then gradually 
mounting up through birds and mammals 
till it culminates in man. This is the course 
of creation, as popularly described in Gene- 
sis, and the rocks give their testimony, at 
least in the general, to the same order and 
progress. The chief difference, if any, of the 
two witnesses would seem to be, that the 
rocks speak of (1) marine plants, (2) marine 
animals, (3) land plants, (4) land animals in 
their successive developments ; whereas Mo- 
ses speaks of (1) plants, (2) marine animals, 
(3) land animals : a difference not amounting 
to divergence. As physiology must have been 
nearly, and geology wholly unknown to the 
Semitic nations of antiquity, such a general 
correspondence of sacred history with mod- 
ern science is surely more striking and im- 
portant than any apparent difference in de- 
tails." This third view is the one we accept, 
i. e., we think that science confirms at every 
point the great religious teaching of the first 
chapter of Genesis, by which alone the inspi- 
ration and authority of the Bible are to be 
tested, and that even in minor scientific de- 
tails that account receives a wonderful gen- 
eral confirmation from recent scientific dis- 
covery, and that, as science is better under- 
stood, and the Bible is more impartially read 
in the light of science, the seeming discrep- 
ancies will disappear, and the confirmations 
already afforded will become stronger and 
more numerous. 

Creationism. By creationism is meant 
the theory that God immediately and direct- 
ly creates a new soul in every instance that 
a new individual of the human species is 



born. It is opposed to traducianism — the 
theory that in the beginning God created 
the race by a single act, calling all mankind 
into being in the first pair, and giving to 
them and their descendants the power to re- 
produce both soul and body by, and in ac- 
cordance with, natural laws. The question 
between the two theories is chiefly important 
on account of its bearing on the question of 
original sin (q. v.). 

Credence. A table, shelf, or recess in the 
wall, used in the Greek and Roman churches, 
and sometimes in the more ritualistic English 
churches, for holding eucharistic bread some 
time previous to its consecration in the com- 
munion service. Some of these tables are 
very beautiful ; in some churches there are 




Credence-table. 

more than one for holding the various sacred 
vessels, and vestments, and the ewer -basin 
and water for washing the celebrant's fin- 
gers. At mass, the sacristan (q. v.), dressed 
in a surplice, attends at this table. 

Creed. This word is derived from the 
Latin c7^edo, I believe, the first word natural- 
ly used in the articles of belief of any church. 
It is ordinarily regarded as synonymous with 
confession of faith, though there may be said 
to be at least this theoretical difference be- 
tween them, that the creed simply gives ex- 
pression to a belief, while the confession of 
faith gives expression rather to a religious 
experience. This divstiuction is more theoret- 
ical than practical, the confession of faith 
being, in fact, ordinarily only a creed, i. e., 
only a statement of belief. In respect to the 
use of creeds, against which much has been 
said, two remarks may be worthy of note. 
The first is that there is no creed in the Bi- 
ble, and no evidence that the acceptance of 
any definite and explicit creed, any further 
than it was involved in belief in and accept- 
ance of Jesus Christ as a personal Saviour, 
was required as a condition of admittance to 
the early Church. This fact may be regard- 
ed as a sufficient indication that the accept- 
ance of any particular creed can not be es- 
sential to Christian character ; and, in fact, 
few churches regard it as an essential pre- 



CREED 



234 



CREED 



requisite to Churcli membership. The creeds 
of the Church — as, for example, in the Epis- 
copal, Presbyterian, and Methodist commun- 
ions — are declarations of the principles which 
constitute, so to speak, the platform of the 
Church, i. e., the doctrines which it proposes 
to t«ach, rather than a summary of the con- 
ditions precedent of Christian fellowship. It 
is not, therefore, regarded as necessary for 
every communicant in the Episcopal Church 
to accept the Thirty -nine Articles, or for 
those in the Presbyterian Church to accept 
the Westminster Assembly's Confession of 
Faith. These are binding only on the clergy. 
The second remark is, that in maintaining a 
creed (if it be interpreted only as a declara- 
tion of principles to be taught), the Church 
acts in conformity with the recognized prin- 
ciples of human nature in all organizations. 
Some common agreement as to the work to 
be done, the methods to be pursued, and the 
principles to be inculcated, is essential to the 
vigor and efficiency of any human organiza- 
tion. The Church really has a creed no more 
than every temperance, philanthropic, and 
political society. The creed is not the gate to 
the kingdom of heaven, it is only the platform 
on which a number of Christians find them- 
selves best able to carry on Christian work, 
general acceptance of which they deem nec- 
essary to the highest efficiency of their church 
organization. It must, indeed, be confessed 
that creeds have not always occupied this 
subordinate position in the estimation of 
the Church ; but this is their practical po- 
sition in the great majority of Protestant 
evangelical churches of to-day. 

In our accounts of the different denomina- 
tions, we describe their principal doctrines. 
It is only necessary here to speak very brief- 
ly of some of the principal creeds or confes- 
sions of faith, without discussing or describ- 
ing their theological character. 

The Apostles^ Creed is the most ancient sys- 
tematic statement of doctrine in the Chris- 
tian Church. It is certainly as old as the 
third century, and may be believed to em- 
body very nearly the simple faith of the 
apostolic era, or of that which immediately 
succeeded it ; but there is no reason to be- 
lieve that it was composed or used by the 
apostles. The next oldest doctrinal state- 
ment is the Nicene Creed. It was first pro- 
pounded by the Council of Nice, summoned 
by Constantine in 325, with a view of set- 
tling the dispute between the Arians and 
the Trinitarians concerning the character of 
Christ.^ It was finally completed in its pres- 
ent form, in 381, by the second (Ecumen- 
ical Council of Constantinople. It gives a 
much more distinct and emphatic expres- 
sion to the doctrine of the divinity of Christ 
than the Apostles' Creed. Next in time 
comes t\\e, Athanasian Creed, so called because 
for a long time it was erroneously attrib- 
» See Aeians ; Unitarians ; Trinitaeians. 



uted to Athanasius. In this the doctrine 
of the Trinity is yet more explicitly stated, 
and in terms which would now hardly be 
adopted or even accepted by most Trinita- 
rians. All these creeds are still authorita- 
tive symbols in the Church of England, but 
the Athanasian Creed is not adopted by the 
Protestant Episcopal Church of this country. 
The growth of theological thought is illus- 
trated by comparing these creeds with each 
other. The declaration of the Apostles' 
Creed concerning Christ comprises only a 
statement of belief in the Scriptural narra- 
tive concerning him : ^' I believe in Jesus 
Christ, his only Son, our Lord, who was con- 
ceived by the Holy Ghost ; horn of the Vir- 
gin Mary ; suffered under Pontius Pilate ; 
was crucified, dead, and buried." The Ni- 
cene Creed adds a more dogmatic statement 
concerning his divinity : " I believe in one 
Lord Jesus Christ, the only-begotten Son of 
God, begotten of his Father before all worlds ; 
God of God, Light of Light, very God of very 
God, begotten, not made, being of one sub- 
stance with the Father ; by whom all things 
were made." The Athanasian Creed adds a 
yet more dogmatic and, it must be confess- 
ed, perplexing definition of the doctrine of 
the Trinity : '' There is one person of the 
Father, another of the Son, and another of 
the Holy Ghost. But the Godhead of the 
Father, of the Son, and of the Holy Ghost is 
all one ; the glory equal, the majesty co-eter- 
nal. Such as the Father is, such is the Son, 
and such is the Holy Ghost. The Father un- 
create, the Son uncreate, and the Holy Ghost 
uncreate. The Father incomprehensible, the 
Son incompreheusible,and the Holy Ghost in- 
comprehensible. The Father eternal, the Son 
eternal, and the Holy Ghost eternal. And yet 
they are not three Eternals, but one Eternal. 
As, also, there are not three Incompreheusi- 
bles, nor three Uncreated, but one Uncre- 
ated, and one lucomiirehensible. So like- 
wise the Father is almighty, the Son al- 
mighty, and the Holy Ghost almighty. And 
yet there are not three Almighties, but one 
Almighty. So the Father is God, the Son is 
God, and the Holy Ghost is God. And yet 
there are not three Gods, but one God. So, 
likewise, the Father is Lord, the Son Lord, 
and the Holy Ghost Lord. And yet not three 
Lords, but one Lord. For like as we are 
compelled by the Cliristian verity to ac- 
knowledge every person by himself to be 
God and Lord, so are we forbidden by the 
Catholic religion to say there be three Gods 
and three Lords." 

Next in order of theological and historical 
importance to these creeds are certain con- 
fessions which embody the faith of particu- 
lar denominations. The Canons and Decrees 
of the Council of Trent are the authoritative 
declarations of the faith of the Roman Cath- 
olic Church. This council was called into 
existence by the dangers threatened to the 



CREED 



235 



CRETE 



Papacy by the Reformation, and by the hon- 
est desire of some sincere Romanists to se- 
cure reformation in the Church. Its decrees 
comprise the Nicene Creed and twelve sup- 
plementary ai'ticles, most of which treat of 
the subjects of controversy between the Ro- 
manists and the Reformers. A summary of 
these decrees is embodied in what is known 
as the Creed of Pius IV., which forms one of 
the authorized standards of the Church of 
Rome; was prepared by Pope Pius IV. imme- 
diately after the rising of the Council of 
Trent, and is understood to embody in sub- 
stance the decisions of that council. This 
creed bears date November, 1564, and was no 
sooner issued than it was immediately re- 
ceived throughout the Romish Church ; and 
since that time it has been always considered 
as an accurate summary of their faith.^ The 
Augsburg Confession was drawn up by certain 
of the Reformers at Augsburg in 1530, the 
chief of whom was Melancthon. It comprises 
twenty-eight articles. Luther was not at the 
time present at Augsburg, being then under 
the ban of the empire, but his advice was 
had recourse to in its composition. It is 
still the formal creed of most of the Luther- 
an churches, though it is probably an inade- 
quate statement of their modern views, and 
several branches of the Lutheran Church do 
not accept it as authoritative or obligatory. 
The Heidelherg Catechism, sometimes called the 
Palatinate Catechism, from the territory (the 
Palatine) of the Prince Frederick III., under 
whose auspices it was prepared, was drawn 
up in 1562, under the auspices of the prince, 
for the purpose of putting an end to religious 
disjjutes in his territory, which were tierce 
between the Lutherans and Calvinists. It 
is strongly Calvinistic, though reticent on 
the subject of predestination. It is still 
the authoritative symbol of the Reformed 
Church, both Dutch and German. The West- 
minster Assembhfs Confession of Faith, was 
drawn up by a convocation of divines and 
laymen, who assembled at Westminster, En- 
gland, by direction of Parliament, July 1, 
1643, and remained in session till February 
22, 1649. The chief object of this convoca- 
tion, one of the fruits of the revolution which 
deposed and beheaded Charles I., and which 
undertook to establish the Presbyterian in 
place of the Episcopal Church, were, first, a 
Directory for Public Worship ; second, a Con- 
fession of Faith ; third, a Shorter; and fourth, 
a Larger Catechism. The Confession of Faith 
and Catechism are still the standards of the 
English and Irish Presbyterian churches, and, 
with slight modifications, of the Presbyteriau 
Church in the United States ; and they are 
also recognized by many, probably by the 
majority of Congregational divines, as sub- 
stantially an accurate statement of Chris- 
tian doctrine. They are Calvinistic in char- 



1 See Roman Catholic Chukoh, under which title 
this creed is given in full. 



acter, but their interpretation has given rise 
to bitter and prolonged controversies; and 
though these are now amicably adjusted, 
and the New School and Old School Pres- 
byterian churches, which divided partly on 
this question of interpretation, are united in 
one body, the questions have never been set- 
tled, but are rather left unsettled and insolu- 
ble by mutual consent. The Thirty-nine Ar- 
ticles of the Church of England embody the 
faith of the Episcopal Church both in En- 
gland and America. They were originally 
forty-two in number, and were first drawn 
up in the reign of Edward VI., a.d. 1552. 
Cranmer had a large, perhaps the largest, 
share in their composition. They were re- 
vised under Elizabeth, first in 1562, under the 
supervision of Archbishop Parker, and again, 
and finally, in 1604. To a considerable extent 
they are drawn from the Augsburg Confes- 
sion. On the points at issue between the 
Arminians and the Calvinists they are not, 
and do not undertake to be explicit ; but in 
condemning the errors of the Church of 
Rome, and maintaining the essential doc- 
trines of the Reformation, they are very clear.' 
From them are drawn the articles of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, which are twen- 
ty-five in number. The Savoy Confession of 
Faith, was drawn up at a conference of Con- 
gregational churches, held in 1658, at the Sa- 
voy, in the Strand, London. It was subse- 
quently, in 1680, approved by a conference 
in Boston, and may be regarded as being as 
nearly an authoritative declaration of the 
faith of the Congregationalists as their inde- 
pendent system will permit. It does not dif- 
fer widely from that of the Westminster As- 
sembly. There are other creeds and confes- 
sions of faith, of which the most important 
are the Helvetic, a Calvinistic symbol, drawn 
up in Switzerland in 1675, and the Decrees of 
the Synod of Dort, an extreme Calvinistic sym- 
bol, drawn up by divines of Holland in con- 
vention in 1618, in opposition to the views 
of Arminius and his followers. 

Crescent, the sign of the Mohammedans, 
by which they distinguish themselves from 
Christians, or followers of the cross. Some 
Mohammedan doctors allege that the crescent 
was adopted as a distinctive mark by the 
Moslems, in consequence of the hegira, or 
flight, of Mohammed from Mecca to Medina 
having taken place at the time of the new 
moon, when it appears in the form of a cres- 
cent. Other writers, however, allege that 
the use of the crescent arose from the cir- 
cumstance that the ancient Arabians wor- 
shiped the moon. 

Crete, a large island in the Mediterranean, 
bold and mountainous, but. with fruitful val- 
leys, and anciently celebrated for its one hun- 
dred cities. It is about 150 miles in length, 
and of variable breadth. The climate is 
mild and delightful. Many Jews settled in 



1 See Epiboopai.ians. 



CEOSIER 



23G 



CROSS 




Crosiers, 



Crete, some of whom are mentioned as be- 
ing- in Jerusalem on the Day of Pentecost. 
Paul touched at it on his journey to Rome, 
and remonstrated with the master of the 
vessel against leaving the island. He sub- 
sequently left Titus there, " to set in order 
the things that were wanting." Among the 
Greeks the Cretans were famous for deceit 
and falsehood. [Acts ii., 11^5 xxvii., 12, 13, 
21; Titusi.,5, 12, 13.] 

Crosier, properly an archbishop's staff, 
terminating at the top in a floriated cross. 

It is sometimes improperly 

applied to the bishop's staff, 
which terminates in a crook. 
The crosier, in the Romish 
Church and Church of En- 
gland, is borne before the 
archbishop or bishop in cer- 
tain special ceremonies. Its 
origin is supposed to be the 
shepherd's crook, or perhaps 
only the staff, which from 
earliest times has been a 
symbol of authority. 

Cross. The cross in its simplest shape 
consists of two pieces of wood, one standing 
erect, the other crossing it at right angles. 
Its use as an instrument of punishment was 
probably suggested by the form so often ta- 
ken by branches of trees, which seem to have 
been the first crosses that were employed. 
Among the Scythians, Persians, Carthagini- 
ans, Greeks, Romans, and ancient Germans, 
traces are found of the cross as an instru- 
ment of punishment, and the sign of the 
cross is found as a holy symbol among sev- 
eral nations. There are five principal forms 
of the cross : 1. A simple stake, without the 
cross-piece — this was probably the original 
of the others ; 2. St. Andrew's cross, made in 
theformof an X ; 3. St. Anthony's cross, made 
in the form of a T ,• 4. The Greek cross, con- 
sisting of two pieces of wood of equal length 
crossing each other at right angles ; 5. The 
Latin cross, the same, except that the up- 
right beam is longer than the transverse 
one. It was the latter form of the cross 
which was employed in the crucifixion of 
our Lord. Other forms have been invented, 
differing chiefly in a certain measure of or- 
nament, such as the double and triple crosses 
borne by the ecclesiastics in Roman Catholic 
processions. In these there are two or three 
cross-pieces instead of one. In the ordinary 
cross, a piece of wood projected out from the 
central stem on which the body of the suffer- 
er rested, to prevent the weight of the body 
from tearing away the hands. Whether there 
was also a support to the feet is doubtful. An 
inscrij)tion, similar to the one over the head 
of Christ, was usually attached to the cross, 
describing the crime for which the sufferer 
was condemned. He was sometimes bound, 
sometimes nailed to the cross.^ 



1 See Cbdoifixion. 



The cross was used before the crucifixion 
by our Lord as a symbol of pain and suffer- 
ing, and after his death became a general 
symbol both for his atonement and for the 
Christian life.^ As early as the fourth cen- 
tury — possibly earlier — it was represented 
in ecclesiastical art. Such rejjresentations 
are found in the catacombs. Constantine 
asserted that he owed his conversion to the 
miraculous appearance of a cross in the sky, 
and thereafter he employed it as the stand- 
ard of the Roman Empire. Thence it was 
introduced into all Europe. Crosses were 
embroidered on the priests' dresses, erected 
over churches and chapels, in private houses, 
and by the road-side. They were used also 
as a signature, and still are so employed by 
certain Roman Catholic ecclesiastics in sign- 
ing important documents. Hence, too, arose 
the peculiar mark in the form of an X, usu- 
ally affixed to legal documents by those un- 
able to write. The making the sign of the 
cross by drawing an imaginary cross in the 
air, or on the breast or forehead, is an ancient 
practice, and is still maintained in the Greek 
and Romish Church. Its use in baptism is 
optional in the Episcopal Church. 

The story of the discovery of the true 
cross affords a curious illustration of the 
character of the Roman Catholic legends. 
This discovery is celebrated to the present 
day in that Church by the feast of the In- 
vention of the Cross. According to this 
legend, Helena, mother of Constantine the 
Great, when seveuty-nine years of age, was 
induced by the warmth of her piety to visit 
the Holy Land. Calvary was discovered; 
and, being explored, three crosses were found, 
and the title which that of Jesus bore was 
found lying apart by itself. In order to de- 
termine which was Christ's cross, sick per- 
sons were brought forward and touched by 
each cross separately. One only wrought 
the desired cure, and was accordingly ac- 
knowledged to be the true cross. Relics 
from it were subsequently given, or rather 
sold, to such an extent that wood enough 
was furnished to supply many crosses. The 
incredulous were, however, re-assured by the 
declaration that the cross was miraculously 
multiplied like the loaves and fishes; so that 
while many times the original were taken 
away, still the true cross remained entire. 
Eusebius is silent concerning this alleged 
discovery of the cross, and no credit is at- 
tributed to the tradition hj Protestant his- 
torians. But it is commemorated in the Rom- 
ish Church by an annual festival held on the 
third of May, called the Festival of the In- 
vention of the Cross. This festival was in- 
stituted in the sixth century, by Pope Greg- 
ory the Great. Another festival in honor of 
the cross is observed by both the Greek and 
Roman churches on the fourteenth of Sep- 



1 Matt, xvi., 24; 1 Cor. i„ 18; Gal. vi., 14; Eph. ii., 
16; Phil, iii., 18 ; Heb. xii., 2. 



CROWN 



237 



CRUCIFIXION 



tember. It was instituted by the Greek em- 
peror Heraclius, a.d. 631, after having con- 
quered the Persians and recovered from them 
the supposed real cross, which it vras said 
their kiug had carried off fourteen years be- 
fore. The Greek Church calls this festival 
Manifestation of the Cross, which, as well as 
the name given to it by the Romish Church, 
Exaltation of the Cross, is derived from the 
circumstance that the cross, when brought 
back from Persia, was exalted, or set up, in 
the great church at Constantinople, in order 
to show it to the people. 

Cro'wn, an ornament employed from the 
earliest ages to indicate royalty. It was 
probably first suggested by the natural cus- 
tom of encircling the head with flowers and 
leaves, in token of joy and triumph. Among 
the Greeks and Romans crowns were worn 
on festival occasions, and also given as re- 
wards, or in token of triumph or victory, 
and were worn by those in authority. Thus 
they came to be used by ecclesiastical dig- 
nitaries. The Jews claim that three crowns 
were given to them — the crown of the law, 
the crown of priesthood, and the royal crown. 




Ancient Crowns, 

1, of Nineveh ; 2, Sardanapalus III. ; 3, Sennacherib 

4, Tigraues ; 5, Roman Civic ; C, Persepolitan. 

That crowns were worn by Jewish women is 
not certain, although that they wore some or- 
nament which might be so called is probable.^ 
Several other crowns may be mentioned, 
among which are the sacerdotal crown, worn 
by the priests among ancient Romans when 
engaged in offering sacrifice ; the crown, gen- 
erally made of parsley, with which the dead 
were crowned among the Greeks and Ro- 
mans; and the natal crown, suspended at the 
threshold of a house in which a child was 
born ; also the ecclesiastical crown, or mitre 
(q. v.), of priests and bishops, and the tia7'a 
(q. v.), or triple crown, of the pope, which is 
considered to be the symbol of his temporal 
authority. 

Crucifix, a representation of Christ on the 
cross, executed in wood, ivory, metal, or oth- 
1 See Head-dbess. 



er hard material. Among the many sym- 
bols employed by the early Christians to rep- 
resent Christ was the lamb. Early in the 
sixth century it is represented as carrying a 
triumphant cross ;^ then it is placed upon the 
cross ; and finally the body of Christ takes 
the place of the lamb, and the crucifixion is 
portrayed. Sometimes other figures are also 
represented, such as John and the Virgin 
Mary ; sometimes the spiritual truths of the 
cross are symbolized, as the redemption of 
man from sin through the atonement, by 
the representation of a man rising from the 
ground at the foot of the cross, while a hand 
is stretched out from the clouds toward him. 
Since the seventh and eighth centuries, the 
crucifix has been very freely used in the Ro- 
man Catholic Church. One is uniformly 
placed in each church over the high altar. 
They are placed also at the doors of churches 
and chapels, and are constantly employed in 
private, both by ecclesiastics and laymen, "to 
keep the sufferings and death of Christ, and 
the fact of the atonement, ever before the 
mind of believers." Protestants generally 
regard the use of crucifixes as being in con- 
travention of the spirit, if not of the letter, 
pf the second commandment. 

Crucifixion. Of all the cruel punish- 
ments of a barbaric age, crucifixion was 
the most barbarous. It possessed a bad 
pre-eminence of cruelty in an age when 
fashionable audiences crowded the vast 
amphitheatre to applaud the fearful hor- 
rors of gladiatorial combats, and fair wom- 
en gave the death-signal, and feasted their 
sanguinary eyes on the ebbing life of the 
defeated. It was in this age that Cicero 
called crucifixion a punishment most in- 
human and shocking, and wrote of it that 
it should be removed from the eyes, and 
the ears, and the every thought of men. 
Too horrible for a Roman citizen, no free- 
I man might be subjected to it. It was 
reserved, with rare exceptions, for slaves 
; and foreigners. Upon this Gentile cruelty 
the Jew looked with special horror. The 
cross, like the eagle, w^as a sign of degra- 
dation. Its infliction by the Romans was 
a badge of Israel's servitude. The ancient 
law of Moses affixed a peculiar curse to it. 
To crucify even a corpse was to submit it to 
the greatest possible indignity. Thus the 
agony of pain was intensified by the agony 
of a peculiar shame. 

The physical anguish of the cross was that 
of a lingering death. The victim's life was 
wrested from him in a fierce but predeter- 
mined battle that lasted always many hours, 
often several days. Every moment of this 
hopeless contest added new agony to an an- 
guish at first almost unendurable. The form 
of the Latin cross (q. v.) is as familiar as it 
is sacred to all Christendom. The sufferer 
was usually bound upon it as it lay upon the 



See Agnus Dei. 



CRUCIFIXION 



238 



CRUCIFIXION 



ground. The Lands and feet were then firm- 
ly nailed to the wood. Lest this fastening 
should prove too frail, a transverse piece of 
wood between the thighs afforded an addi- 
tional support. The cross was then elevated, 
with the sufferer upon it, and fastened firmly 
in the ground. In this act the body was ter- 
ribly wrenched. The concussion often dis- 
located the limbs. Then, hanging between 
heaven and earth, the victim was left to die. 
The hot rays of an Oriental sun beat down 
upon his naked body and unsheltered head. 
The ragged edges of his undressed wounds 
festered and inflamed. From these wounds 
shooting pains ran along in accelerating 
waves of increasing anguish. Every attempt 
to secure any relief from the unnaturally 
constrained position increased the torment. 
The blood, impeded in its circulation, flow- 
ed in slackened and laborious currents. An 
increasing fever consumed the body with in- 
ternal fires ; the head throbbed with anguish ; 
the parched lips burned with a raging thirst. 
As death drew nigh, insects swarmed upon 
the body, and birds of prey commenced to 
feast upon it before life was yet extinct. Yet 
no vital organ was directly touched, and the 
stubborn life surrendered to its invincible 
foe only after a long and protracted siege. 
Even the pitiless, stolid Roman endured not 
long the sight of sufferings at once so pro- 
tracted and so intense. For death, if not 
hastened by other means, did not usually 
take place for four or five days. Rarely, 
however, was the criminal suffered to die by 
the mere infliction of the cross. A thrust 
with the spear, or a blow with the club, at 
length put an end to tortures which wearied 
even the patience of spectators. Crucifixion 
was not, however, uncommon in an age when 
no discrimination was made between punish- 
ment and revenge, and when ingenuity was 
exhausted in the endeavor to intensify the 
sufferings of those condemned for crime, or 
even captured in war. At the time of the 
siege of Jerusalem hundreds of Jews were 
crucified together, and left to hang in sight 
of the city walls. 

The crucifixion of Christ was accompanied 
by some circumstances which may properly 
be explained here. The history of the cruci- 
fixion is given by the four evangelists ; and 
for a connected account of the event the 
reader is referred to the various lives of 
Christ.^ It was customary to write an in- 
scription describing the crime for which the 
sufferer was condemned. This was borne 
before the prisoner on his way to the execu- 
tion. It was subsequently nailed to the cross. 
The inscription in the case of Christ was writ- 
ten in the official language of the court, 
Latin ; the popular language of the Gentiles, 
Greek ; and that of the Jews, Hebrew or 
Aramaic. The evangelists report this in- 
scription in substance the same, but verbal- 

1 See Abbott's "Jesus of Nazareth," ch. xxxiv. 



ly different. Possibly the three inscriptions 
did differ verbally; more probably the sa- 
cred writers did not study verbal accuracy.^ 
The criminal was usually required to carry 
his own cross. In the case of Christ, on 
reaching the city gates, it was taken from him 
and imposed on a Jewish pilgrim from Afri- 
ca coming in. The reason of the change is 
not stated. The presumption is that Christ, 
wearied with his vigils, his want of food, and 
his loss of blood, was no longer able to bear 
the burden.^ It is said that certain women 
followed Christ lamenting him, and the orig- 
inal indicates that their lamentations were 
loud and ostentatious. Since they were res- 
idents of Jerusalem, it is not probable that 
they were disciples of Christ. It may be rea- 
sonably supposed that, seeing the inscription 
" Jesus of Nazareth, king of the Jews," and 
knowing little or nothing of the trial, which 
had taken place secretly by night, they la- 
mented what they regarded as a new Gentile 
indignity put upon their nation. Christ's 
remonstrance indicates that tears of pity 
over the sufferings of the man Christ Jesus 
are a poor substitute for tears of genuine re- 
pentance, in view of our sins, which have cru- 
cified him.^ It appears from rabbinical writ- 
ings that an assembly of women was form- 
ed at Jerusalem, to alleviate the sufferings 
of those condemned to die. They accompa- 
nied the accused to the place of execution, 
and administered a drink of acid wine min- 
gled with myrrh, which acted as an ano- 
dyne. This probably explains the reference 
to the drink of wine and myrrh, described in 
Mark as vinegar and gall, which, before he 
was nailed to the cross, was offered to Christ, 
perhaps by the daughters of Jerusalem who 
had bewailed his death. There is no good 
reason to believe that the drink was offered 
more than once, or in a spirit of scoffing. 
The vinegar probably stands for sour wine, 
and the gall for any bitter drink, in this case 
myrrh. He declined it, determined that all 
his powers should be alert at the last mo- 
ment.* The soldiers are said to have parted 
his garments among them, casting lots for 
his coat. This was the outer tunic, a seam- 
less robe, woven probably of woolen, and ap- 
parently of fine texture, and not impossibly 
the work of some of the Galilean women, who 
are said to have ministered to Jesus in his 
earlier history. The dice were a common 
gambling instrument of the lower classes of 
the Romans. One of the soldiers produced 
these dice, and they gambled for the tunic. 
The clothes of the condemned were one of 
the perquisites of the soldiers on such occa- 
sions.^ Of the two thieves who were cruci- 
fied with Christ nothing positive is known. 
The original indicates that they were brig- 



1 Miitt. xxvii., 37; Mark xv., 26; Luke xxiii., 3S; 
John xix., 19.— 2 Matt, xxvii , 31, 32 ; Mark xv., 20, 21 ; 
Luke xxiii., 20.-3 Hike xxiii., 28-31.— ^ Matt, xxvii., 
34 : Mark xv., 23.-5 Matt, xxvii., 35, 36; Mark xv., 24; 
Luke xxiii., 34; John xix., 23, 24. 



i 



CRUCIFIXION 



239 



CRUSADE 



ands, and it is probable that they belonged 
to one of those bands of Galilean zealots who 
made a pretended patriotism a cover for 
murder and pillage. It is probable that the 
priests, in their accusation before Pilate, had 
endeavored to implicate Jesus with this 
band, and that the declaration of the peni- 
tent thief, " this man hath done nothing 
amiss," was a sort of personal testimony that 
he was innocent of all participation with 
them.^ The drink offered by one of the sol- 
diers to Christ, as he hung on the cross, is not 
to be confounded with the anodyne proffered 
and refused before. This vinegar, or sour 
w^ine, was the common drink of the Roman 
soldiers.-* Various attempts have been made 
to explain the supernatural darkness which 
accompanied the closing hours of the cruci- 
fixion. • Such a darkness, preternatural and 
peculiarly oppressive, often precedes earth- 
quakes. And as an earthquake followed al- 
most immediately the death of Christ, there 
is reason to suppose that this darkness was 
of that character. It could not have been 
due to an eclipse, for it was full moon at the 
time. The early fathers appeal to the testi- 
mony of profane writers for the truth of the 
account of this supernatural darkness.^ 

The physical cause of Christ's death has 
given rise to some conjecture and discus- 
sion. It has been maiutained with ability by 
Dr. Stroud, in his treatise on the " Physical 
Cause of Christ's Death," that it was not pro- 
duced directly by the infliction of the cross, 
but that Christ died literally of a broken 
heart. This opinion is now very widely en- 
tertained. It is embodied in both Abbott's 
and Hanna's "Life of Christ," and is appar- 
ently indorsed in " M'Clintock and Strong's 
Cyclopaedia." The reasons for this opinion 
can only be very briefly stated here. Cruci- 
fixion produced a very lingering death. No 
vital organ was directly affected. The vic- 
tim rarely died in less than twenty-four 
hours. Instances are recorded of his linger- 
ing a full week. It was customary to dis- 
patch the condemned, after a few hours of 
torture, by speedier means. This was done in 
the case of the thieves. Pilate was surprised 
at the intelligence that Jesus was already 
dead. The guard seems to have shared that 
surprise. Up to the last moment there was 
no sign of weakness, no decay of power or 
vitality. Jesus conversed with the thief, 
and spoke to his friends. His last cry was 
not that of exhausted nature. He cried with 
a loud— literally, great, i. e., strong — voice. 
His death was instant. There was in it 
something remarkable, something which at- 
tracted the attention of the centurion and 
his band. It followed immediately after the 
cry, " My God ! my God ! why hast thou for- 
saken me ?" This agony succeeded that of 
Gethsemane (q. v.). In that midnight strug- 



1 Comp. Luke xxiii., 5, with xxiii., 39-43. — 2 John 
xix., 2S, 29.-3 Matt, xxvii., 45, 51. 



gle, the heart and blood-vessels were affect- 
ed. The palpitation of the heart was so in- 
tense as to cause bloody sweat — a phenome- 
non rare, but not unknown, and produced by 
intense mental excitement. The heart would 
probably have been weakened by such an 
experience. . A repetition of the agony then 
endured might truly rupture the membrane 
of the heart. Such an experience has been 
known to produce such a result. If it did, 
death would instantly ensue. The blood 
would flow into the pericardium — an outer 
sac in which the heart is inclosed. There it 
would be liable to separate very rapidly into 
clots of extravasated blood and water. That 
this was the case is indicated by the event 
which followed his death. 

When the soldier thrust the spear into 
Jesus's side, it was probably with a double 
purpose : to ascertain whether Jesus was 
dead ; to insure his death if he were not. 
For this purpose he would aim at the heart. 
The spear would pierce, of course, the left, 
not the right side, as portrayed in nearly all 
art representations of the crucifixion. The 
water, followed and accompanied by the 
clots of blood, would flow from the wound. 
It is difficult to account for this phenom- 
enon, not only recorded by John,^ but evi- 
dently regarded by him of considerable im- 
portance, except upon the hypothesis of a 
broken heart, or of some previous organic 
disease. 

For a consideration of the place of Christ's 
crucifixion, see Calvary; for its religious 
significance and effect, see Atonement. 

Crusade, a holy war. The term is par- 
ticularly applied to the wars of the eleventh 
and twelfth centuries. They were eight in 
number, besides the " Children's Crusade." 
The first of these was undertaken to vindi- 
cate the right of Christian pilgrims to visit 
the Holy Sepulchre. Every one who em- 
barked in this enterprise wore as a badge 
the sign of a cross; hence the name from 
the Latin crux — a cross. The Arabs, who 
conquered Palestine in the seventh century, 
had allowed the pilgrims to build a church 
and a hospital in Jerusalem ; but in 1064 the 
Turks took the city, and so persecuted and 
maltreated the pilgrims that it roused a spir- 
it of indignation throughout the Christian 
world. Peter the Hermit, a returned pil- 
grim, traveled through Europe bareheaded 
and barefooted, and with fiery zeal exhorted 
kings and princes to join against the Turk. 
Yielding to his persuasions. Pope Urban II. 
summoned two councils, one at Placentia, 
the other at Clermont (a.d. 1095), for the 
purpose of raising an army. 

The First Crusade (1096) was headed by 
Peter the Hermit. His army, which was a 
disorderly and anarchic multitude, was met 
on the plain of Nicsea by Solyman, the Turk- 
ish sultan of Iconium, and entirely cut to 
» John xix., 34, 35. 



CEUSADE 



240 



CRUSADE 



pieces. Meanwhile a new host appeared — 
the real Crusaders — comprising the gentry, 
the yeomanry, and the serfs of feudal Eu- 
rope, led by several distinguished princes 
and nobles. By them the Turks were twice 
defeated, and the Crusaders now advanced 
to Jerusalem. After a siege of six weeks, 
they made themselves masters of the holy 
city, putting to death without mercy its Mo- 
hammedan and Jewish Inhabitants. God- 
frey of Bouillon, one of the commanders of 
the crusading army, was proclaimed king of 
Jerusalem ; but was, however, soon afterward 
superseded by the pope's legate. Bohemond, 
another leader, became prince of Antioch. 
For nearly fifty years the three principali- 
ties or kingdoms of the East — Edessa, Anti- 
och, and Jerusalem — greatly increased in 
size, power, and wealth. At Jerusalem were 
founded the two famous orders of the Knights 
Hospitallers of St. John and the Knights 
Templars. 

Second Crusade (1146). The Emir of 
Mosul conquered Edessa, and his son Nou- 
reddin advanced to destroy Syria and Pales- 
tine. Europe once more trembled with ex- 
citement. An army of two hundred thou- 
sand men set out, led by Hugh, brother of 
Philip I., of France, but was either destroyed 
by the enemy, or else perished by the treach- 
ery of the Greek emperor. Through the ex- 
ertions of the famous St. Bernard, abbot of 
Clairvaux, another army was raised, which, 
however, was totally defeated and dispersed 
by the Turks ; while its commanders, Louis 
VII. of France, and Conrad III. of Germany, 
were compelled to return humbled and dis- 
graced. Saladin, nephew of the Sultan of 
Egypt, pushed forward his army to the walls 
of the Holy City, besieged it, and took its 
monarch prisoner. 

The Third Crusade (1189) was led by 
Frederick Barbarossa, emperor of Germany, 
Philippe Auguste, king of France, and Rich- 
ard Cceur-de-Lion, king of England. The 
Emperor of Germany soon sickened and died, 
and his army dwindled away. The other two 
armies, the English and French, after a siege 
of twenty-three months, took Acre ; but the 
two sovereigns having quarreled, Philip Au- 
gustus returned to his country, while Rich- 
ard, after accomplishing prodigies of valor, 
which excited the admiration of the Sara- 
cens, concluded a treaty with Saladin, by 
which the pilgrims were at liberty to visit 
Jerusalem without paying the usual taxes. 

The object of the Fourth Crusade (1195) 
was not so much the deliverance of the Holy 
Land as the destruction of the Empire of 
the East. It was fitted out by Henry VI., 
emperor of Germany, and was attended with 
some success ; but after taking several towns 
the emperor died, and the army returned to 
Germany. 

The Fifth Crusade (1202) assembled at 
Venice ; but how entirely secular crusading 



had become will be seen from the fact that 
the army never went to Palestine, but pre- 
ferred to take the Byzantine Empire. The 
leader of these pseudo-crusaders, Baldwin, 
count of Flanders, was placed on the throne 
of the East, where he and his successors 
maintained themselves for fifty-six years. 

The Sixth Crusade (1228) was command- 
ed by Frederick II., emperor of Germany. 
It terminated in a treaty with the Sultan 
of Egypt, by which Palestine was ceded to 
Frederick. Soon after the Tartars, under 
Genghis Khan, poured down from the north, 
massacred Turks, Jews, and Christians, over- 
ran Judea, and compelled the Christians to 
surrender Jerusalem into their hands. 

The Seventh Crusade (1249) was pro- 
moted and headed by Louis IX. of France. 
It was utterly defeated by the Sultan of 
Egypt, and the king was taken prisoner. 
By the payment of a large ransom, he obtain- 
ed his liberty and returned to Europe. On 
account of all he had done and suffered, he 
was regarded as a sort of martyr, and called 
St. Louis, by which name he is known in his- 
tory. 

The Eighth Crusade (1270) was also pri- 
marily undertaken by St. Louis ; but he hav- 
ing died at Tunis on his way to Palestine, 
Prince Edward of England (Edward I.), 
who had originally intended to place him- 
self under the command of St. Louis, march- 
ed direct for Palestine. Nothing of conse- 
quence, however, was accomplished, and Ed- 
ward returned to England, the last of the 
Crusaders. Acre, Antioch, and Tripoli still 
continued in the possession of the Christians ; 
but the Templars and other military knights 
who were left to defend them were soon glad 
to quit the country, and Palestine remained 
in the undisturbed possession of the Sara- 
cens. 

Children's Crusade (1212). A few years 
after the army of the fifth crusade, led by 
Baldwin, count of Flanders, had settled 
down to ignoble ease at Constantinople, the 
pure and earnest desire to rescue the Holy 
Sepulchre entered the hearts of the children, 
twenty thousand of whom, led by Nicholas, 
a mere lad, started from Germany, while five 
thousand went from France, under the guid- 
ance of Stephen of Cloyes, a shepherd-boy. 
In their simple faith they believed that the 
Lord would provide a pathway for them 
through the Mediterranean Sea, and they 
sang songs of peace that they were going, 
not to slaughter the Mohammedans, but to 
convert them. This was the hope that stay- 
ed the German band as they crossed the 
Alps, and saw hundreds die of fatigue and 
cold. Of the twenty thousand; only seven 
thousand entered Genoa. There they waited 
in vain for the sea to open, and thence jour- 
neyed on to Rome to seek aid of Innocent 
HI., who commanded them to return to their 
homes. The childi^en from France sought 



CRYSTAL 



241 



CULDEES 



tlie port of Marseilles, wliere tliey too ex- 
pected to see a miracle wrought in their be- 
half, and were disappointed. Two Marseilles 
merchants, apparently touched by their dis- 
appointment, said that for the cause of Christ, 
but not for money, they would provide some 
ships, and in the month of August, 1212, nearly 
five thousand of these children sailed away, 
not to be heard from again for eighteen 
years. Then it was ascertained that the 
kind-hearted merchants were slave-dealers, 
and had sold the children to the Saracens. 
Two ships, however, were wrecked on the 
Island of San Pietro, where, some time after- 
ward, Pope Gregory IX. erected a memorial 
church, called the '^ Church of the New Inno- 
cents." 

Crystal. This word, in the English ver- 
sion of the Scriptures, represents two Hebrew 
words. The first occurs only in Job xxviii., 
17, where glass may be intended. It is said 
that the Egyptians had the secret of intro- 
ducing gold between two surfaces of glass, 
and the text in Job contains, perhaps, a ref- 
erence to some such work of art. The other 
Hebrew word is ordinarily translated " ice," 
or "frost," but in Ezek. i., 22, is rendered 
'' crystal." The ancients supposed rock-crys- 
tal to be merely ice congealed by intense cold. 
This, and the similarity in appearance be- 
tween ice and rock-crystal, probably caused 
the same term to be used to express the two 
substances. The reference in Rev. iv., 6 ; 
xxii., 1, is probably to rock-crystal. 

Cuckoo. The word, which in our transla- 
tion is rendered " cuckoo," occurs in a list of 
unclean birds, found in two parallel passa- 
ges.^ As to the precise bird which is signi- 
fied, we can only conjecture. The etymolo- 
gy of the word gives us but little assistance, 
the word being derived from a root that sig- 
nifies leanness or slenderness, and hence giv- 
ing very slight clue on which to base an in- 
terpretation. Our translators, perhaps, ren- 
dered it " cuckoo," because several species of 
that well-known bird are found in the Holy 
Land, and, from their size and peculiar cry, 
are prominent. Many commentators believe 
that some species of sea-gull is meant, or, at 
all events, some marine bird. 

Cucumber. The cucumbers for which the 
Israelites longed after their departure from 
Egypt are supposed to be a variety of the 
common melon. It was once cultivated in 
England, and called " the round-leaved Egyp- 
tian melon." Egypt produces excellent cu- 
cumbers, melons, etc., and a superior varie- 
ty grows in the fertile earth around Cairo, 
which, with more common sorts, are now 
found in great quantities in Palestine. As 
in the East generally, it is an important arti- 
cle of food for the lower class of people, espe- 
cially during the hot months. They eat rind 
and all. The '' lodge in a garden of cucum- 
bers"* is a rude temporary shelter, erected 



» Lev. xi., 16 ; Deat. xiv., 15.— « Isa. i., 8. 
16 



in the open grounds where vines, cucumbers, 
gourds, etc., are grown, in which some lonely 
man or boy is set to watch, either to guard 
the plants from robbers, or to scare away the 
foxes and jackals from the vines. After the 
season is past, and there is no further use for 
the watcher, the frail shelter is left to de- 
struction, and the dismantled field and the 
ruined lodge is a picture of desolation. 

Culdees. The members of a very ancient 
religious fraternity in Scotland, whose prin- 
cipal seat was lona, one of the western isl- 
lands. The origin of the Culdee fraterni- 
ty is in all probability due to Columba, an 
eminent Christian missionary who came over 
from Ireland about the middle of the sixth 
century, for the purpose of proclaiming the 
pure doctrines of the Gospel in Scotland. 
Columba planted his establishment on the 
Island of loua, west of Mull, midway be- 
tween the territories of the Picts and the 
Caledonians. From thence went the mis- 
sionaries of a pure Gospel throughout the 
whole of the northern districts of Scotland, 
where the rulers, the priests, and the people 
were alike opposed to Christianity. The 
singular purity of Columba's Christian char- 
acter formed a most impressive commentary 
upon the doctrines which he preached. He 
not only taught, but he lived Christianity, 
and thus commended the truth to the hearts 
and consciences of many ; and multitudes 
both of the Picts and Caledonians openly 
embraced the religion of Christ. 

From this parent institution of the Cul- 
dees at lona were modeled, it is said, no few- 
er than three hundred societies, over which 
Columba maintained order and discipline, 
extending to each of them the most anxious 
and careful superintendence. These insti- 
tutions partook more of the character of re- 
ligious seminaries than of monastic institu- 
tions. The careful training of the young 
was kept mainly in view, and Columba was 
very strict in examining into the character 
and habits, the talents and acquirements of 
those who looked forward to the sacred pro- 
fession. He labored in Scotland for upward 
of thirty years, and after his death a band 
of faithful and holy men maintained the 
truth of God amidst corruptions in doctrine 
and practice of the Church of Rome. The 
Culdees were the lights of Scotland in a dark 
and superstitious age. They were united in 
one common brotherhood, not, however, for 
the purpose of yielding obedience to a mo- 
nastic rule, but that they might go forth pro- 
claiming the Gospel of Christ, animated by 
one common spirit, and prompted by one 
common aim. The Culdee recluses were not 
pledged to celibacy; many of them were mar- 
ried ; many of them were succeeded in office 
by their own sons ; they were not dedicated 
for life to their calling, but were free at any 
time to change it for another. Their fami- 
lies did not live within the sacred inclosure, 



CULDEES 



242 



CUNEIFOEM 



but the husbands, their work within being 
done, passed out to spend the rest of their 
time with their families. To have done such 
a work as this in less than half a century 
implies apostolic activity, purity, and faith. 
Traces of the schools and churches they es- 
tablished are found all over Scotland. Their 
freedom from Romish asceticism was due, at 
least in part, to the doctrines of these men. 
They had no dogma of purgatory, no saint 
worship, no works of supererogation, no au- 
ricular confession, or penance, or absolution ; 
no mass, no transubstantiation, no " chrism " 
in baptism, no priesthood, and no bishops. 
They knew nothing of any authoritative 
rule except the Holy Scriptures. The ques- 
tion has often been discussed, but never real- 
ly settled, what precise mode of ecclesiastic- 
al government prevailed among the Culdees. 
Both the Episcopalians and the Presbyteri- 
ans claim them as supporting their respect- 
ive systems. For centuries the Culdees con- 
tinued to maintain their ground in Scotland, 
despite the efforts put forth to exter- 
minate them ; and not contented with 
diffusing the light of the Gospel 
throughout their own land, we find 
them, in the beginning of the seventh 
century, dispatching a mission into 
England, where their success soon 
awakened the jealousy of the Eomish 
Church. Vigorous efforts were put 
forth to bring them under subjection 
to the See of Rome ; but rather than 
surrender their independence, almost 
all the Culdee clergy in England re- 
signed their livings and returned to 
Scotland, although some were com- 
mitted to the flames. Not contented 
with banishing the Culdees from En- 
gland, the Romish Church pursued 
them into Scotland. The Culdees, for a 
long period, had influence enough there 
to prevent the acknowledgment of the au- 
thority of Rome. But their struggles against 
the oppression and their protest against the 
errors of Rome became more and more fee- 
ble, until about the close of the thirteenth 
and the beginning of the fourteenth centu- 
ries the Culdees as a body cease to be men- 
tioned in the pages of history ; though there 
were, doubtless, a goodly number of faithful 
men in Scotland, even then, who professed 
the doctrines of the Culdees without their 
name, and who were ready, when occasion 
offered, to testify for the truth. And when 
the Reformation came, the spirit which had 
animated these early missionaries of the faith 
revived, and a noble band of heroes and 
martyrs arose, avowing the same Scriptural 
principles which Columba and his disciples 
had held, and protesting like them against 
the errors of the Churcli of Rome. It is, in- 
deed, not too much to say that the strength 
and vigor of the Reformation in Scotland, 
where the papal i^ower received its first and 



most decisive check, may be traced not in- 
directly to the faith, the doctrines, and the 
spirit of the ancient Culdees, handed down 
as a goodly inheritance to their descendants. 

Cummin, an annual plant, cultivated for 
its aromatic seeds, which are used as a con- 
diment. It was threshed with a rod — a 
13ractice still continued in Malta. See A:sr- 
ISE. [Isa. xxviii., 25, 27 ; Matt, xxiii., 23.] 

Cuneiform, Cuneatic {wedge - shaped, ar- 
row-headed), are terms for a certain form of 
writing, of which the component parts may 
be said to resemble either a wedge, the barb 
of an arrow, or a nail. It was used for mon- 
umental records, and was neither hewn, or 
carved in rocks and sculptures, or impressed 
on tiles and bricks. The first date that can 
be assigned to this species of writing is about 
B.C. 2000, and it seems to have died out short- 
ly before or after the reign of Alexander the 
Great. It appears to have been employ- 
ed first in Assyria and Media, and to have 
thence spread over the whole of that vast 









tm 




Cuneiform Characters. 

portion of Asia which formed the Persian 
monarchy under the Achsemenidse.^ For 
nearly 2000 years after its extinction its very 
existence was forgotten. In 1782, Michaux, 
a French botanist, sent an entire altar, found 
at Bagdad, to Paris, covered with inscrip- 
tions, and bearing a large wedge — evidently 
an object of worship — on its top. The ma- 
terials for the investigation of the subject 
have been rapidly accumulating since. The 
inscriptions are mostly found in three paral- 
lel columns or tablets, and are believed to 
be translations of each other in different al- 
phabets and languages, called respectively 
Persian, Median, and Assyrian — the Achae- 
menian kings being obliged to make their 
decrees intelligible to the three principal na- 
tions under their sway. As to the origin 
of the character nothing certain is known. 
It is not unlikely, however, that it was hie- 



1 A line of Persian kings, named, from their found- 
er, Achsemenes, who is supposed to have been the 
great-grandfather of Cyrus the Great. 



CUP-BEAEER 



243 



CYNICS 



roglyphic. To the religious student cunei- 
form writing is imi)ortaut on account of the 
light which it throws on ancient history, 
and the aid it incidentally gives in the in- 
terpretation of the sacred Scriptures. 

Cup-bearer, an officer of high dignity at 
Eastern courts, to which frequent reference 
is made in Scripture. It was not only an 
honorable appointment, but must have been 
a source of great emolument, for Nehemiah 
was evidently a man of wealth. Some cu- 
rious particulars are given by Xenophon of 
the way in which a Median cup-bearer per- 




Ancient Cup-bearer, with Fan. 

formed his office. The cup was washed in 
the king's presence, and when filled, after 
the officer had tasted a little of the wine, 
which ho poured into his left hand, was pre- 
sented on three fingers. So no modern East- 
ern attendant ever grasps any vessel he of- 
fers to his master, but places it on his left 
hand, and steadies it with his right. 

Curate, literally one who has the cure, 
i. e., care of souls. It is, however, generally 
used to denote the humblest degree in the 
Church of England. A curate in this sense 
is a minister employed by the incumbent of 
a church (rector or vicar), either as assistant 
to him in the same church, or else in a chap- 
el of ease within the parish, belonging to the 
mother church. In general, the salaries of 
curates, certainly the hardest worked, and 
not the least devoted of the English clergy, 
are shamefully small. They are ordinarily 
subject to the will of the bishops, having no 
other security in office than such as is afford- 
ed by public opinion. All curates, however, 
are not in this insecure position, there being 
a number of what are called perpetual curates, 
who can not be dismissed at the pleasure of 
the patron, but are as much incumbents as 
any other beneficed clergymen. 

Cure (care), the care of souls ; a term used 
in the Church of England to denote the spir- 
itual charge of a parish, and sometimes used 



for the parish itself. From this word comes 
the term curate (q. v.). 

Cush, the name of a son of Ham, appar- 
ently the eldest, and also of a territory or ter- 
ritories occupied by his descendants. Cusli 
as a country is almost always translated in 
the English Bible by the Greek word Ethio- 
pia, and appears to Ibe African in all passages 
except Gen. ii., 13. We may thus distinguish 
a primeval and a post-diluvian Cush. The 
former was encompassed by Gihou, the sec- 
ond river of Paradise : it would seem, there- 
fofe, to have been somewhere to the north- 
ward of Assyria. It is possible that the Af- 
rican Cush was named from this elder coun- 
try. In the ancient Egyptian inscriptions, 
Ethiopia above Egypt is termed Keesh or 
Kesh, and this territory probably perfectly 
corresponds to the African Cush of the Bible. 
For a description of it, see Ethiopia. 

Cuth or Cuthah, a province in the Assyr- 
ian Empire, from which Shalmaneser trans- 
ported colonists into Samaria.^ The precise 
region is unknown. Josephus considers it a 
region of inner Persia. The number of im- 
migrants must have been very considerable, 
for the Samaritans were afterward called 
Cuthern by the Talmudical writers. 

Cuttings [in the Flesh]. The prohibi- 
tion against marks or cuttings in the liesh 
for the dead must be taken in connection 
with the parallel passages in which shaving 
the head, with the same view, is forbidden."^ 
The ground of the prohibition will be found 
in the superstitious or inhuman practices 
prevailing among heathen nations. The 
priests of Baal cut themselves with knives, 
to propitiate the god " after their manner." 
The prohibition, therefore, is directed against 
practices prevailing not among the Egyp- 
tians, whom the Israelites were leaving, but 
among the Syrians, to whom they were about 
to become neighbors. Another usage, con- 
templated more remotely by the prohibition, 
is that of printing marks or tattooing, to 
indicate allegiance to a deity, in the same 
manner as soldiers and slaves bore tattooed 
marks to indicate their allegiance. This is 
evidentl}^ alluded to in Revelation and Eze- 
kiel, and perhaps by Isaiah and Zechariah.^ 

Cynics (dog), a school of ancient philoso- 
phy among the Greeks, founded about B.C. 
380. The characteristic principle held by 
the Cynics was, that virtue consisted of a 
proud independence of all outward things. 
Diogenes was a fit representative of this 
principle. Wordly pleasures and honors of 
every kind were utterly despised, and even 
the ordinary civilities of life were set at 
naught. The views inculcated by this school 
were a caricature of the ethical opinions of 
Socrates, who taught that the end of man 
was to live virtuously. 



1 2 Kinsjs xvii., 24, 30.— 2 Lev. xix., 28 : xxi., .' 
xiv., 1.— 3 Isa. xliv., 5 ; Ezek. ix., 4 ; Zech. xiii., 
vii., 3; xiii., IG; xvli., 5; six., 20. 



.,5; Dont. 
(>; Rev. 



CYPRESS 



244 



CYRUS 



Cypress. This word occurs only in Isa. 
xliv., 14. What tree is intended is not 
known. Some have identified it with the 
ilex, a species of oak ; others with the ever- 
green cypress, a tree common in the lower 
levels of Syria. The fine-grained, fragrant 
wood of the latter, with its beautifnl red 
color, was highly prized from the earliest 
period, and justly famed for its durability. 
It has been very generally supposed that the 
gopher wood of which Noah's ark was con- 
structed^ was cypress; and the length of 
time that the ark was in building, and the 
durability of the timber, are in favor of the 
supposition. Others, however, suppose that 
the trees of gopher are any trees of the res- 
inous kind, such as pine, fir, and the like. 

Cyprus (fair), a large island in the Med- 
iterranean, about sixty miles from the coasts 
of Syria and Asia jVIinor. The soil is fertile ; 
and although not extensively cultivated, cot- 
ton, wine, and various fruits are produced. 
Copper and other minerals are found in the 
island. After belonging to Egypt, Persia, 
and Greece, it became a Roman possession 
B.C. 58, and was united to Cilicia. Cyprus 
is very frequently mentioned in Scripture. 
Jews settled there at an early period ; Bar- 
nabas was a native of Cyprus ; men of Cy- 
prus and Cyrene are mentioned as preach- 
ing the Gospel at Antioch ; the first mis- 
sionary journey of Paul and Barnabas com- 
menced with Cyprus ; and thither Barnabas 
went again with Mark. There are also oth- 
er references to the island. [Acts iv., 36 ; 
xi., 19, 20; xiii., 4-12; xv., 39; xxi., 3, 16; 
xxvii., 4.] 

Cyrene, a Libyan city, founded by a col- 
ony of Greeks from Thera, an island in the 
JEgean, about B.C. 632. It probably took its 
name from a fountain, Cyre, near. Cyrene 
stood on table-land, 1800 feet above the lev- 
el of the sea, in a beautiful and fertile re- 
gion^ It was the capital of a district call- 
ed Cyrenaica. After the death of Alexander 
the Great, it was a dependency of Egypt, and 
began to be frequented by the Jews, to whom 
special privileges were granted. Cyrene was 
bequeathed to the Romans by Apion, son of 
Ptolemy Physcon, and was, some years after, 
B.C. 75, rednced to the form of a province, and 
subsequently united with Crete. Simon, who 
was compelled to bear our Saviour's cross, 
was a Cyrenian ; so were some of the first 
Christian teachers. Cyrenian Jews were so 
immerous in Jerusalem as to have a syna- 
gogue of their own in that city. [Matt. 
xxvii., 32 ; Mark xv., 21 ; Luke xxiii., 26 ; 
Acts ii., 10 ; vi., 9 ; xi., 20 ; xiii., 1.] 

Cyrenius {who governs), the Scriptural 
name of a Roman governor of Syria, Piib- 
lius Sulpicius Quirinus. Luke tells us that 
about the time of Christ's birth a decree 
went out from Cresar Augustus that all the 
world should be taxed, i. e., enrolled ;^ and 



Gen. vi., 14.— = See Taxes. 



that this taxing or enrollment was first 
made when Cyrenius was governor of Syria. 
Secular history, however, indicates that Qui- 
rinus's presidency of Syria began ten years 
after, and that the taxation referred to took 
place under Sentius Saturntnus ; and Luke 
himself seems to indicate a later time for 
the taxation. It is this circumstance alone 
which gives to the Bible student any special 
interest in Cyrenius. Skeptical critics have 
regarded it as a strong indication of the un- 
historical character of the Gospel of Luke. 
Many explanations have been afforded, of 
which we think the best two are the fol- 
lowing : 1. That the enrollment was com- 
menced under Sentius Saturninus, but was 
not completed until the governorship of Cy- 
renius. According to this interpretation, 
Luke's narrative might be paraphrased thus : 
There went out a decree from Caesar Augus- 
tus that all the world should be enrolled. 
The enrolling to which we refer is that which 
was completed under Cyrenius. 2. The oth- 
er explanation is, that Cyrenius was a second 
time governor of Syria. In favor of this lat- 
er supposition, we have the thrice-repeated 
assertion of Justin Martyr, that Quirinus was 
president at the time in question, and the 
interesting fact recently brought to light 
that Cilicia, when separated from Cyprus, 
was united to Syria, so that Quirinus, as 
governor of the first -mentioned province, 
was really also governor of the last mention 
ed, whether in any kind of association with 
Saturninus or otherwise, can hardly be as- 
certained ; and that his subsequent more 
special connection with Syria led his ear- 
lier and apparently brief connection to be 
thus accurately noticed. This last view, 
to say the least, deserves great considera- 
tion, and has been adopted by many able 
scholars. 

Cyrus (tlie sun), the founder of the Persian 
Empire. The accounts of historians vary as 
to his early history. It is certain that dur- 
ing his youth Cyrus lived as a sort of hos- 
tage at the court of Astyages, to whom his 
father, Cambyses, king of Persia (q. v.), was 
subject. While at court he saw that the 
strength of the Medes was undermined by 
luxury, and conceived the idea of makhig 
Persia independent. This was probably all 
he at first contemplated in the revolt to 
which he incited his countrymen ; but the 
repeated defeats of the Median monarch, 
and his capture at the second battle of Pa- 
sargadae, B.C. 558, opened the way to greater 
changes, and Cyrus pushed his own country 
into the imperial position from which he 
had dislodged the Medes. By a rapid series 
of conquests, between B.C. 558 and B.C. 538, 
he extended his already wide-reaching sway 
over Lydia, the remote East, and Babylon. 
He was killed about B.C. 529, while attempt- 
ing further conquest. Cyrus was succeeded 
in his dominions by his son Cambyses. A 



DAGON 



245 



DALMANUTHA 




Tomb of Cyrus. 



tomb said to be his is still shown at Pasar- 
gadae, the modern Murg-Auh. 

Cyrus's conquest of Babylon was the death- 
blow to the old Semitic idol -worship, and 
resulted in the advance of its direct oppo- 
site — pure spiritual Monotheism. The same 
blow that laid the Babylonian religion in 
the dust struck oif the fetters from Judaism. 
Cyrus was the " shepherd " of the Lord, the 
''anointed" one, whom Isaiah by name pre- 
dicts to be the restorer of the people of Je- 
hovah to the land from whence light was to 
break forth for the illumination of all na- 
tions. According to Josephus, the prophe- 



cies of Isaiah respecting Cyrus were shown 
to that king, and were the immediate occa- 
sion of his issuing the decree for the restora- 
tion of the Jews. It is certain that his de- 
cree, as recorded in Ezra i., 2-4, not merely 
refers to the later chapters of Isaiah, but act- 
ually incorporates much of their language. 
The edict of Cyrus for the rebuilding of the 
Temple was the source and authorization of 
other edicts of Persian kings in favor of the 
Jews,* and inaugurated a new era in Jewish 
history — that from which Judaism as it ex- 
isted in the time of Christ may be said to 
have sprung. 



D. 



Dagon, a god of the Philistines, and also 
worshiped by the Assyrians, under the name 
of Cannes. The source from which the word 
Dagon was derived has given rise to much 
discussion. The derivation from dag (fish), 
and on or aon (idol), i. e., fish-god, is the most 
probable. It seems, 
from the description 
in Scripture,* that the 
form of Dagon was of 
this sort, human only 
in the upper part, 
but different, proba- 
bly fish -like, in the 
lower. The descrip- 
tion is: "When they 
arose early on the 
morrow morning, be- 
hold, Dagon was fall- 
en upon his face to the ground before the 
ark of the Lord ; and the head of Dagon and 
both the palms of his hands were cut off upon 
the threshold ; only Dagon was left on him ;" 
that, namely, which made him the idol he 
was, and gave him the fish-like appearance. 
The Assyrian sculptures give us a represen- 
tation of the Dagon of the Philistines which 
exactly corresponds with this description. 




Representation of a Fish 
god. — From the Assyr 
ian Monuments at Khor 
sabad. 



1 1 Sam. v., 4. 



An important temple was dedicated to him 
at Gaza, which was afterward destroyed by 
Samson.^ There was another temple at Ash- 
dod or Azotus,^ where the Philistines depos- 
ited the ark of God after they had defeated 
the Israelites at Eben-ezer ;* they also cut oft" 
Saul's head after his death at Gilboa, and 





Fish-god on Gems in British Museum. 



fastened it up in this temple,^ which was 
finally burned by Jonathan, the brother of 
Judas Maccabeus, about B.C. 148. There was 
a city in Judah called Beth-dagon, and an- 
other on the frontiers of Asher. [Josh, xv., 
41; xix.,27.] 

Dalmanutha. What in Mark viii., 10, are 
called " the parts of Dalmanutha," appear in 
Matt. XV., 39, under the name of the " coasts 
of Magdala." Dalmanutha was probably a 
village on the western shore of the lake 



1 Ezra v., 17; vi., 1-12.— 2 Jndg. xvi., 21, 23.-3 1 Sam. 
„ 2-T; 1 Chron. x., 10.— * 1 Sam. iv., 10, 11 ; v., 1, 2. 
-6 1 Sam. xxxi., 4, S ; 1 Chron. x., 1, 4, 6, 10. 



DALMATIA 



246 



DAMASCUS 



Genesareth, either the same with Magdala, 
or in the same neighborhood. But no cer- 
tain information has reached us regarding it. 
See Magdai^. 

Dalmatia, a part of the Eoman province 
of Illyricum, on the east coast of the Adriat- 
ic Sea, to the south of Liburnia. Its chief 
towns were Salona, Epidaurus, and Lissus. 
St. Paul speaks of Titus going thither. [2 
Tim. iv., 10.] 

Damascus, one of the most ancient cities 
in the world, and formerly the capital of the 
kingdom of Syria. It occupies perhaps the 
most beautiful site in all Western Asia. At 
the eastern base of Anti-Libanus lies a vast 
plain of great fertility watered by the rivers 
Barada and Awaj, the ancient Abana and 
Pharpar of Scripture. It owes all its ad- 



mentioned in the New Testament.^ It is 
about a mile in length, and runs through 
the city nearly in the direction of from east 
to west. The manufactures of the place are 
still of some imx)ortance, though its once fa- 
mous sword-blades exist no more, and its 
fabrics, named damasks, have lost their an- 
cient renown. The population of Damas- 
cus, with its suburbs, is estimated at one 
hundred and fifty thousand, consisting of 
Moslems, Christians, and Jews. 

The notices that occur in Scripture of Da- 
mascus reach back to the time of Abraham.'^ 
Its origin is lost in antiquity, though, accord- 
ing to Jewish tradition, it was built by Uz, 
great-grandson of Noah. How it flourished 
during the generations that followed the 
time of Abraham, we know not. After the 




Damascus from the West. 



vg,ntage8 to these rivers. Without them it 
would be an arid desert ; with them it has 
been made a paradise. In the centre of this 
vast plain, in the midst of dense masses of 
foliage, striking out its white arms of streets 
hither and thither, and its glistening mina- 
rets above the trees which embosom them, 
rises the city of Damascus. The more no- 
ticeable public buildings are the eastern gate, 
which exhibits some remains of Roman ar- 
chitecture, the castle, which in its foundation 
dates from the Roman period, and, above all, 
the great mosque of the Omniades. There 
are upward of eighty smaller mosques scat- 
tered through the city. The x^rincipal street, 
a long, wide thoroughfare leading from one 
of the gates to the castle or palace of the 
Pasha, is regarded by the Christian popula- 
tion as '^ the street which is called Straight/' 



lapse of nearly a thousand years, it appears 
as an important Syrian city in the time of 
David. In Solomon's time, and under Re- 
zon, it became the seat of the Syrian king- 
dom,' and one of the most formidable rivals 
of Israel. The two Benhadads waged long 
and bloody wars with the contemporaneous 
kings of Israel,* and when Hazael seized 
the throne of Damascus, the kingdom of Is- 
rael fared still worse. At length the rising 
monarchy of Assyria got possession of Da- 
mascus,^ and during the contests for empire 
that succeeded for many centuries, while Da- 
mascus often changed its masters, it nev- 
er became properly the capital of a king- 
dom. In the New Testament history it is 
chieflv celebrated for being the scene of 



1 Acts ix., 11.— 2 Gen. xv., 2.-8 1 Kings xi., 23-25.— 
■* 1 Kings XV., 20.— s 2 Kings xvi., 9; Isa. x., 9. 



DAMASCUS 



247 



DAN 



Paul's residence for a short time after his 
couversiou, and during his first labors in 
the cause of Christ. Tradition still points 
to that part of the city wall by which he 
made his escape. The houses of Damascus 
are many of them built on the wall ; and 
from one of the overhanging windows the 
apostle was let down, either in a basket such 
as was used among the ancients for market 
purposes, or as a fish-basket, or, more proba- 
bly, in a basket or net woven of rope. The 



fold vicissitudes which passed over the prov- 
inces of Western Asia, till it fell, in 1516, into 
the power of Sultan Selim I. Since then it 
has remained under the sway of Turkey, the 
most populous and flourishing city which 
belongs to Asiatic Turkey. In tenacity of 
existence, and in the power of retaining a 
certain measure of prosperity under all dy- 
nasties, and through the most varied succes- 
sions of fortune, Damascus may be said to 
stand unrivaled in the world's history. 




Wall of Damascus. 



former of these was called in Greek a sporta, 
the term used in Acts ; the other was des- 
ignated by the word sargane, " any thing 
twisted ;" the term used by Paul himself 
in his description of the adventure to the 
Corinthians.^ Damascus once became the 
seat of a Christian bishop, but in process 
of time the Christian influence in the city 
was overshadowed by the Mohammedan. It 
fell, A.D. 635, into the hands of the caliph 
Omar. Subsequently it shared in the mani- 
1 Comp. Acts ix., 25, with 2 Cor. xi., 32. 



Dan (judge), 1. A son of Jacob by his con- 
cubine Bilhah, Eachel's handmaid. Of Dan's 
personal history we know nothing, except 
that he had one son, Hushim or Shuham. 
He shared with his brethren the prophetic 
blessing of Jacob, fulfilled, perhaps, in the 
administration of Samson, and in the craft 
and stratagem which his descendants used 
against their enemies.^ 

2. The Tribe. — At the first census after 



1 On his personal history, see Gen. xxx., 6; xxxv. 
25; xlvi., 23; xlix., 16, IT. 



DAN 



248 



BAN 



quitting Egypt the tribe of Dan numbered 
62,700 males above twenty years of age ; 
and when numbered again on their coming 
to Jordan, they were 64,400.' When the Is- 
raelites had subdued Canaan, and were ap- 
portioning its territory among the tribes, to 
Dan was allotted a pleasant region, narrow 
in extent, but rich and fertile in its general 
character. It was to the west of Benjamin, 
reaching to the Mediterranean, bordered by 
Ephraim on the north, and by Judah on the 
south-east. But this rich district, the corn- 
field and the garden of the whole south of 
Palestine, was too valuable to be given up 
without a struggle by its original possess- 
ors.^ The Danites were involved in a con- 
tinual warfare, often unsuccessfully, with the 
Amorites and the Philistines. Long after 
the partition of the land, all the inherit- 
ance of the Danites had not fallen to them 




Map of the Tribe of Dan. 

among the tribes of Israel.^ These facts ex- 
plain the warlike and independent character 
of the tribe, betokened, in the name of their 
head-quarters, Mahaneh-Dan, " the camp or 
host of Dan" in the complete equipment of 
their 600 warriors " appointed with weap- 
ons of war," and in the lawless freebooting 
sty^e of their behavior to Micah.* Their 
proximity to the powerful Philistines possi- 
bly also fostered in this warlike tribe the pe- 
culiar habit of warfare which characterized 
it. It was distinguished less for bold, de- 
cided, and magnanimous action, than for sly 
and effective ambush. The Danites needed 
the wisdom as well as the venom of the ser- 
pent, to resist the horsemen and chariots of 
their enemy. Such was peculiarly the char- 
acteristic of Samson's victorious energy; and 



1 Exod. i., 4: Numb, i., 3S, 30 ; xsvi., 42, 43 ; Dent, 
xxxiii., 22; 1 Chrrni. ii., 2.-2 Judg. i., 34.-3 judg. i., 
34; xviii., 1.—* Jud<'. xviii. 



the procedure of the tribe with regard to 
the conquest of Laish was much of the same 
description.' Some of the cities of Dan 
seem to have been taken from the territories 
of other tribes — from Judah or from Ephra- 
im. They were not many — in all, but seven- 
teen or eighteen ; and four of them were as- 
signed to the Levites. Several of these cit- 
ies were retained by the Philistines. Hence 
the Danites found their territory too circum- 
scribed. And so they sent out a small party 
to explore, who, wandering to the far north- 
east, fixed upon a spot where they thought 
they could surprise and overcome the care- 
less inhabitants. A large detachment, ac- 
cordingly, marched to Laish, seized it, and 
called it Dan after their ancestor. It was 
a well-planned but wild and lawless foray. 
In the " security " and " quiet " of their rich 
northern possession, the Danites enjoyed the 
leisure and repose which had been de- 
nied them in their original seat. Some 
of the tribe appear to have taken to the 
sea; engaged in fishing, probably, or the 
coasting trade, and perhaps they culti- 
vated the arts. Two at least of the art- 
ists mentioned in the construction of the 
tabernacle and of the temple were con- 
nected with the tribe. There is little 
more to be said. A prince of Dan is 
mentioned in 1 Chron. xxvii., 22 ; but 
from this time forward the name as ap- 
plied to the tribe vanishes ; it is kept 
alive only by the northern city. In the 
genealogies of 1 Chron. ii.-xii., Dan is 
omitted entirely ; in Kev. vii. it is omit- 
ted from the list of those who were sealed 
by the angel.^ 

3. A city — familiar as the most north- 
ern landmark of Palestine, in the com- 
mon expression " from Dan even to Beer- 
sheba." The name of the place was orig- 
inally Laish or Leshem. Its original in- 
habitants lived "after the manner of 
the Zidonians," probably a colony of 
Zidon, though far removed, i. e., engaged in 
commerce, and without defense. It became 
the easy prey of a party of Danites, who 
called it Dan, from the ancestor of their 
tribe. The Danite freebooters brought hith- 
er the images they had stolen from Micah and 
the Levite, who was his priest ; and here for 
a long time this illicit worship continued. 
Subsequently Jeroboam set up one of his 
calves at Dan. The Arabic " Kady " has the 
same meaning as the Hebrew "Dan;" and 
there seems to be no doubt whatever that 
the town of Dan, and, farther back, Laish, 
stood where now is Tell el Kady — the Judges' 
Mound — at the foot of which is the main 
source of the Jordan (q. v.), a noble spring, 
said to be the largest single source in the 
world. [Gen. xiv., 14 ; Deut. xxxiv., 1 ; Josh, 
xix., 47; Judg. xviii. ; 1 Kings, xii., 29, 30.] 



1 Josh, xix., 7; Judff. xviii.— ^ Exod. xxxv., 34; 
Josh, xxi., 23, 24 ; Judg. v., 17 ; xviii. ; 2 Chrou. ii., 14. 



DANCING 



249 



DANCING 



Dancing. At a very early period, dancing 1 
was enlisted into the service of religion 
among the heathen. The dance, enlivened by 
vocal and instrumental music, was a usual 
accompaniment in all the processions and 
festivals of the gods ; and, indeed, so indis- 
pensable was this species of violent merri- 
ment, that no ceremonial was considered duly 
accomplished, no triumph rightly celebrated, 
without the aid of dancing. It formed a 
part of the most ancient popular rites of the 
Egyptians, from whom, in all probability, 
the Israelites derived their sacred dances. 
These were performed on their solemn anni- 
versaries and other occasions of commemo- 
rating some special token of the divine good- 
ness and favor, as a means of expressing in 



David's conduct when, on the return of the 
Ark of God from its long sojourn among 
strangers, he was himself the leader of the 
dance in which the women, with their tim- 
brels, took an important share. ^ This fact 
brings out more markedly the feelings of 
Saul's daughter Michal, who should, in ac- 
cordance with the examples of Miriam and 
others, have herself led the female choir 
forth to meet the ark and her lord, but stays 
with the '' household,"^ and " comes out to 
meet " him with reproaches, perhaps feeling 
that his zeal was a rebuke to her apathy. 

The sacred dance was not confined to the 
worshii)ers of the true God, but was prac- 
ticed also by the heathen, who danced in cir- 
cles round the sacrifices, and threw them- 




Danciug-girls. 



the liveliest manner their joy and thanks- 
giving. Though there are not wanting in- 
stances of men joining in the dance on these 
seasons of religious festivity, yet the He- 
brews seem usually to have left dancing to 
the women, who made it their especial means 
of expressing their feelings. They were ac- 
customed by dancing to welcome their hus- 
bands or friends on their return from battle ; 
and on such occasions, any woman whose 
nearness of kin to the champion of the mo- 
ment gave her a public character among her 
own sex, seems to have felt that it was her 
part to lead such a demonstration of triumph 
or welcome.^ This marks the peculiarity of 



1 Exod. XV., 20 ; Judg. xi., 34. 



selves into the most violent contortions. 
The dithyramb, or old Bacchic song of the 
ancient Greeks, was danced round a blazing 
altar, by a chorus of fifty men or boys. Cir- 
cular dances were performed by the Druids 
in the oak groves and forests of the ancient 
Gauls and Britons, in honor of the sacred 
oak and its indwelling deity. In ancient 
Rome, the priests of Mars received their name 
of Salii from the leaping dance which they 
performed as they carried the sacred shields 
in joyful procession through the city. In 
such respect did the ancient heathens hold 
this sacred employment, that not only did 
they dance round the statues and the altars 



1 2 Sam. vi., 5-22.-2 2 Sam. v., 20. 



DANCING 



250 



DANIEL 



of their gods, but their poets have no hesi- 
tation in making the gods themselves some- 
times engage in the dance. Pan, in partic- 
ular, excels all the gods in dancing. And 
among modern heathens, particularly in sav- 
age tribes, the principal part of divine wor- 
ship consists in dances. Among the Moham- 
medans there is a special class of monks, 
who, from the peculiarity of their mode of 
worship, which consists in rapid circular mo- 
tions, are called Dancing Dervishes ; and the 
North American Indians have a sacred exer- 
cise, which is called the Calumet dance. 

The character of the ancient dance was 
very different from that of ours, as appears 
from the conduct of Miriam, " who took a 
timbrel in her hand, and all the women 
went out after her with timbrels and with 
dauces." Precisely similar is the Oriental 
dance of the present day, which, accompa- 
nied of course with music, is led by the prin- 
cipal person of the company, the rest imi- 
tating the steps. The evolutions, as well as 
the songs, are extemporaneous — not confined 
to a fixed rule, but varied at the pleasure of 
the leading dancer ; and yet they are gener- 
ally executed with so much grace, and the 
time so well kept with the simple notes of 
the music, that the group of attendants show 
wonderful address and propriety in follow- 
ing the variations of the leader's feet. The 
Jewish dance was performed by the sexes 
separately. There is no evidence from sa- 
cred history that the diversion was ever pro- 
miscuously enjoyed, except possibly at the 
erection of the deified calf, when, in imita- 
tion of the Egyptian festival of Apis, all 
classes of the Hebrews intermingled in the 
frantic revelry. In the sacred dances, al- 
though both sexes seem to have frequently 
borne a part in the procession or chorus, 
they remained in distinct and separate com- 
panies.^ 

From being principally reserved for occa- 
sions of worship, dancing came gradually to 
be practiced in common entertainments. In 
early times, indeed, those who perverted the 
exercise from a sacred use to purposes of 
amusement were considered profane and in- 
famous. But, during the classic ages of 
Greece and Rome, society underwent a com- 
plete revolution of sentiment on the subject ; 
and through all the provinces of the Roman 
Empire, it was the favorite pastime resorted 
to to enliven feasts and to celebrate domes- 
tic joy.^ The gay circles of Rome and its 
provinces derived all their entertainment, as 
is done in the East to this day, from the ex- 
hibitions of professional dancers. Under the 
patronage of the emj^erors and of their lux- 
urious tributaries like Herod, the art was 
carried to the utmost perfection, the favorite 
mode being pantomime, which was often of 
the most licentious description. All pro- 



1 Pi^a. Ixviii., 
Luke XV., 25. 



miscuous and immodest dancing of men 
and women together was forbidden among 
the early Christians. Chrysostom declaims 
against promiscuous dancing as one of those 
pomps of Satan which men renounce in their 
baptism. 

Daniel (God is my judge). Nothing is 
known of Daniel's parentage, but he was 
probably of royal or noble descent,^ and 
possessed considerable personal endowments. 
At an early age, when probably not more 
than sixteen or seventeen, Daniel and his 
companions were carried to Babylon, B.C. 
604, and were obliged to enter the service 
of the royal court. Here he received a new 
name, that of Belteshazzar, signifying prince 
or favorite of Bel, as if he were consecrated 
to that god. But another spirit moved in 
the breast of the Jewish captive. He stead- 
ily adhered to the divine requirements when 
exposed to the temptation of partaking of 
unclean food, and a blessing followed his 
obedience.'^ Daniel was early renowned for 
his piety and wisdom. He was privileged 
to enter into the divine secrets, and had re- 
peated occasions of exercising his peculiar 
gift of interpreting dreams. In consequence 
of his success in interpreting Nebuchadnez- 
zar's celebrated dream of the great image, 
he was made ruler of the whole province of 
Babylon. Toward the close of Nebuchadnez- 
zar's reign, he also interpreted another dream 
which foretold the downfall of that king.^ 
After this event, Daniel's merits seem to 
have fallen into neglect ; for on the next oc- 
casion in which he appears — that of Bel- 
shazzar's feast — he was brought to remem- 
brance by the queen as a comparatively un- 
known Jewish captive, who had in the days 
of Nebuchadnezzar been celebrated for his 
wisdom and understanding. He again dis- 
played his wonderful power by reading the 
handwriting on the wall, which had baffled 
the skill of all the magicians ; and his in- 
terpretation foretold the speedy doom of Bel- 
shazzar (q. v.).* On the accession of Darius, 
Daniel was made the first of three presidents, 
and " the king thought to set him over the 
whole realm."^ The honor with which he 
was treated raised the envy and hatred of 
the heathen governors, and by their concert- 
ed plan Daniel was accused of treason, and 
cast into a den of lions. But God shut the 
lions' mouths, and he came up unscathed, 
while those who had sought his destruction 
fell an immediate prey the moment they 
were cast into the den. The recent discov- 
ery of a bass-relief near the tomb of Daniel, 
at Susa, representing a man confined in a 
lion's den, confirms the idea that this was 
not an unusual method of punishment among 
the Babylonians, who employed the lion in 
their sculptures to symbolize the power of 
Babylon. 



i ; Jer. xxxi., 13.— 2 Matt, xiv., C ; 1 Dan. i., 3.-2 Dan. i., S-15.— 3 Dan. ii., 31-45, 4« ; iv., 

24-27.-4 Dan. iv., 10-U; v., 30.— » Dan. vi., 3. 



DANIEL (BOOK OF) 



251 



DANIEL (BOOK OF) 




Antique Figure of a Man iu a Den of Lions. 



Toward the close of Daniel's life, he ut- 
tered the remarkable prophecy of the " sev- 
enty weeks/" which were to terminate in 
the events of the Messiah's work and king- 
dom. This happened about B.C. 536, when 
Daniel was probably eighty-five years old. 
He had the happiness to see his most ardent 
wish accomplished — the restoration of his 
people to their native land — but his advanced 
age would not allow him to be among those 
who returned to Palestine. It is probable 
that he died in Susa, where he received his 
latest visions, as a monument was erected to 
him there. Other traditions state Babylon 
to be the place of his death and burial. See 
Daniel (Book of). [Dan. i., ii., iv., v., vi.] 

Daniel (Book of). The book bearing the 
name of Daniel is in our Bibles placed im- 
mediately after that of Ezekiel, as the fourth 
of the so-called greater prophets. In the 
Jewish canon, it is placed between Esther 
and Nehemiah. Though often keenlj' dis- 
puted, it is now generally allowed that the 
whole book proceeded from one author ; and 
of the genuineness and authenticity of the 
book we have every evidence, both external 
and internal. With regard to the external 
evidence, we have not only the general tes- 
timony of the whole Jewish Church and na- 
tion, which have constantly received this 
book as canonical, but also the jjarticular 
testimony of Josephus, who commends Dan- 
iel as the greatest of prophets ; of the Jew- 
ish Targums and Talmuds, which frequently 
appeal to his authority ; and still more, we 
have its recognition by our Lord and his 
apostles ; and that not only as forming part 
of the Hebrew Scriptures, which were col- 
lectively stamped as the oracles of God, but 
as containing explicit predictions of things 
yet to come. To these testimonies we may 
add that of Ezekiel, a contemporary writer, 
who extols the character of Daniel,^ and also 
that of profane historians, who relate many 
of the same transactions. 

The internal evidence is not less convin- 
cing. The language, partly Hebrew and 
partly Chaldee or Aramaic, and both pre- 
cisely those of the period to which the book 
belongs, is a strong confirmation of its gen- 
uine and truthful character. It is some- 
what difficult to assign a satisfactory rea- 



1 Dan. ix., 25 2 Ezek. xiv., 14, 20; xxviii., 3. 



son for the alternating manner in which the 
two dialects are employed ; first, Hebrew 
to chap, ii., 4 ; Chaldee to the end of chap, 
vii. ; and again Hebrew to the close of the 
book. It would seem that the change was 
commenced at chap, ii., 4, simply from the 
Chaldean wise men being there introduced 
and speaking in that dialect ; and that, from 
the author's familiarity with it, he contin- 
ued for a time to employ it, since, from the 
acquaintance with it possessed by his con- 
temporaries, it was a matter of indifference 
whether he wrote in Chaldee or in Hebrew. 
But however this may be, we can understand 
how Daniel, to whom both Hebrew and Chal- 
dee were familiar, might at different times 
have employed both ; while we can not un- 
derstand or even conceive how any imi- 
tator in the age of the Maccabees or later 
should have so interchanged these dialects. 
Neither the Hebrew nor the Chaldee of this 
book would have been natural to an author 
of such a remote age, who would in all prob- 
ability have written in Greek, and who, if 
he had attempted the older languages, would 
never have thought of employing them as 
they are used iu this book. There is also 
displayed throughout the book a correct ac- 
quaintance with the manners and usages of 
the time, such as could only be obtained by 
a person actually living amidst the affairs, 
and at the period of which it treats. These 
differed in many respects from what prevail- 
ed in the times that followed ; and though 
various attempts have been made to prove 
the author at fault in some of them, they 
have all signally failed. Recent discoveries 
in the department of Assyrian antiquities, 
as well as the notices of ancient writers, 
confirm in all important points the allusions 
in Daniel. 

The book may be divided into three parts, 
which correspond almost with the divisions 
made by the different languages. The first 
chapter forms an introduction ; the next 
six, ii.-vii., give a general view of the pro- 
gressive history of the powers of the world, 
and of the principles of the divine govern- 
ment, as seen in events of the life of Daniel. 
The remainder of the book, viii.-xii., traces 
in minuter detail the fortunes of the people 
of God, as typical of the fortunes of the 
Church in all ages. Its contents partake so 



DANIEL (BOOK OF) 



252 



DARIUS 



nmcli of the peculiar and tlie marvelous, 
that it has not escaped the attack of modern 
rationalistic criticism. The head and front 
of the offense taken at the history and writ- 
ings of Daniel lie, in the extent to which they 
exhibit the supernatural element, first in ac- 
tion, then in prophecy. Now this ground of 
exception should vanish, if it appears that 
the affairs of God's kingdom were at the time 
in such a position as to call for peculiar in- 
terpositions from above, and that those ex- 
hibited in the book of Daniel are precisely 
of the kind which the circumstances of the 
period and the analogy of divine dealings 
might warrant us to expect; and this, in 
point of fact, is the case. 

The era of the Babylonish exile, coupled 
as it was with the downfall of the throne of 
David, and the scattering of the Lord's peo- 
ple by a heathen power, was obviously a very 
singular one in the history of divine dis- 
pensations ; and if not met by extraordina- 
ry manifestations of the power and faithful- 
ness of God, must have proved most disas- 
trous to the interests of truth and righteous- 
ness. The Lord had identified himself for a 
series of ages with the covenant people in 
Canaan, and set up among them a throne and 
kingdom to which he had solemnly prom- 
ised the heritage of the world ; yet now, on 
account of their incorrigible wickedness, he 
seemed to desert them to their heathen foes. 
Only fresh interpositions of power exerted in 
behalf of and through the faithful remnant, 
could suffice either to curb the tyranny of 
Babylon, or to retain faith and hope in any of 
the children of God. The wonders exhibit- 
ed in the history of Daniel are precisely of 
the kind needed in the circumstances, in or- 
der to produce this twofold effect. That 
they did so, is shown by the termination of 
the exile, and especially by the edict of Cyrus. 

Again, the prospective circumstances of 
the Lord's people called for an insight into 
the future. They were not to be entirely 
gathered together again from their disper- 
sions, and henceforward the kingdom of God 
was to assume a more diffusive character. 
Prophecy as an abiding gift in the sacred 
community was to cease. A long period of 
comparative feebleness and adversity was to 
intervene, during which the people of God 
would have to maintain a struggle with 
heavy trials and discouragements. If there 
was any period, as Calvin has said, when 
God might seem to have been asleep in the 
heavens, it was during the period that elapsed 
between the close of the Babylonish exile 
and the advent of Christ. There was there- 
fore a peculiar need, before the period act- 
ually commenced, for those apocalyptic vis- 
ions of Daniel, which opened up the vista of 
the future in a way that had not been done 
before, which announced the happy and tri- 
umphant issue, while portraying the dangers 
and conflicts through which it had to be 



reached, which should serve as a clear light 
to guide believers in the midst of the gloom 
that enveloped them. The book, therefore, 
in its distinctive character and its grand 
scope, may be designated the apocalypse of 
the Old Testament, as the Revelation of St. 
John is that of the New. 

Daniel (Book of— Apocryphal Additions 
to), i. e., pieces found in the Greek transla- 
tions of Daniel, but not in the Hebrew text. 
The most important are those contained in 
the Apocrypha of the English Bible, under 
the titles of The Song of the Three Holy Chil- 
dren, The History of Susanna, and The History 
of Bel and the Dragon. Of their origin noth- 
ing can be said with certainty. By some 
they have been looked upon as mere fables, 
but in the Romish canon they are united to 
the Book of Daniel. They are more com- 
monly believed to have some actual histor- 
ical foundation, but to have been embellish- 
ed and enlarged to shape them for the mor- 
al end for which they were written. They 
were not received by the Jews, nor by the 
Christian fathers, who adhere to the Hebrew 
canon ; though they appear in the "Vulgate, 
and have been received as canonical by the 
Council of Trent. Nearly the first half of 
The Song of tlie Three Holy Children is com- 
posed of The Prayer of Azarias, and is some- 
times so named. A chief part of the song 
has been used as a hymn (JBenedicite) in the 
Christian Church since the fourth century. 
In some Greek and Latin Psalters other por- 
tions of this composition are given as sepa- 
rate Psalms. 

The History of Susanna appears under dif- 
ferent titles. Sometimes it is called Susan- 
na, and sometimes The Judgment of Daniel. 
On account of the lesson of chastity which 
it affords, it is read on certain days in the 
Roman and Anglican churches. Some Chris- 
tian commentators have found in it traces of 
a deeper wisdom, and they consider Susanna 
to be a type of the true Church tempted to 
infidelity by Jewish and pagan adversaries, 
and lifting up her voice to God for help in 
the midst of persecution. 

The History of Bel and the Dragon is some- 
times called The History of Bel and the Great 
Serpent, or a part of the prophecy of Hahalckulc, 
the son of Jesus, of the tribe of Levi. The ba- 
sis of this story is evidently derived from 
Dan. vi., and Ezek. viii., 3, and ingeniously 
embellished, to show the folly and absurdity 
of idolatry, and to extol the God of Israel. 
This story is read in the Romish Church on 
Ash-Wednesday, and in the Anglican Church 
on the 23d of November. 

Darius {coercer). Three persons of this 
name are mentioned in the Bible : 1. "Darius 
the Mede," the son of Ahasuerus, of the seed 
of the Modes, who took the kingdom after 
the death of Belshazzar. Various conjec- 
tures have been hazarded in regard to this 
prince. The most reasonable and probable 



DATARY 



253 



DAVID 



of them is that adopted by Josephus, and sup- 
ported by many recent critics, which identi- 
fies this Darius with Cyaxares II., the son of 
Astyages. Some, however, believing Darius 
to be Cyaxares II., imagine him to be the 
brother and not the son of Astyages, both 
of these princes being regarded as sons of 
Cyaxares I.' 

2. Darius Hystaspes, the son of Hystaspes, 
a king of Persia, who obtained the crown 
after the death of Smerdis. His reign was 
long, B.C. 521-486, and was for the most part 
occupied with internal troubles and foreign 
wars. It was against the forces of Darius 
that the Greeks gained the battle of Mara- 
thon, B.C. 490. The policy of this monarch 
was favorable to the Jews. He confirmed 
the edict of Cyrus, and permitted the re- 
building of the Temple at Jerusalem. The 
works which had been stopped under Cam- 
byses and Smerdis were accordingly resumed 
in the second year of Darius, and the house 
of God was completed and dedicated in the 
sixth year of his reign.^ 

3. ^' Darius the Persian," mentioned in Neh. 
xii., 22, is generally identified with Darius 
II., — Nothus, son of Artaxerxes Longimanus. 
He was a weak prince, apparently under the 
control of his favorites, and especially of his 
wife, Paryxatis ; and his reign, from B.C. 424- 
404, was distinguished by continual insur- 
rections, particularly that of the Egyptians, 
who succeeded in gaining for a while their 
independence, B.C. 414. 

Datary, an officer in the courts of the 
pope, whose duty it is to receive petitions 
presented to him in regard to the provision 



ant.^ It is also used of cities by personifi- 
cation, and especially of villages or small 
places dependent upon the chief town of a 
district.^ Hence it easily comes to signify 
the women of any particular family, or city, 
or race, and is sometimes put for women 
in general.^ 

David (beloved), the youngest son of Jesse, 
of the tribe of Judah, born in Bethlehem, B.C. 
1085, died king of Israel, in Jerusalem, B.C. 
1015, after a reign of forty years. His life 
may be divided into three portions : I. His 
youth before his introduction to the court 
of Saul. II. His relations with Saul. III. 
His reign. 

I. The early life of David contains in many 
important respects the antecedents of his fu- 
ture career. His father, like his ancestor 
Boaz, was probably the sheik of the village ; 
his mother's name is unknown. Through 
his great-grandmother Ruth he was connect- 
ed with Moab, and sought a refuge there 
for both himself and his aged parents when 
driven from Judea by the persecution of 
Saul. His brothers, who appear to have 
been very much older, disappear early from 
history ; but the sons of his sisters Abigail 
and Zeruiah furnished the kingdom with 
four of its most famous men of war — Joab, 
Abishai, Asahel, and Amasa (q. v.) ; and one 
of the sons of that brother, Shimeah, for 
whom in after years he named one of his 
own children,* became one of his chief coun- 
selors. The following genealogy will as- 
sist in understanding David's family rela- 
tionships, and his connection with other im- 
portant historical personages. 



GENEALOGICAL TABLE. 

Salmon or Salmah Elimelech:= Naomi (Ruth i., 1). 
(Ruth iv., 21 ; 1 Chr. ii., 11). \ _ 

I 



Boaz=Ruth=Mahlon. 

Obed 
(Ruth iv., 17). 



Chilion=Orpah. 



(2 Sam. xvii., 25) Nahash=uukuown= Jesse. 



Jonathan (1 Chr. xxvii., 32). 



Zeruiah. Abigail=Jether:=Ira?? Eliab, Abin- Shammah, 

<lChr.ii.,16). (1 Chr. (1 Chr. Elihu adab. Shimmah, 

" -|'7\ -5 A(\\ /1 nv... Shimeah 

(2 Sam. 
xxi.,21). 



ii.,17). xi.,40). (IChr. 
xxvii. 

18). 

I 

I --J. 



Netha- Raddai Ozem 
neel. (Rael). (Asam) 



(one DAVID 

is not 
given, 
unless 
Elihu, 
1 Chr. ii., 15). 



Abishai. Joab. Asahel. Amasa Abiha11=Rehoboam. Jonathan 

I (2 Chr. xi., 1). (2 Sam. xxi., 21 ; 

Zebediah 1 Chr. xxvii., 32). 

(1 Chr. xxvii., 7). Nathan?? 

(lSam.xvi.,12). 



I 
Jonadab 
(2 Sam. 
xiii., 3). 



Joel? 
(1 Chr. 
xi., 38). 



of benefices. He is always a prelate, and 
sometimes a cardinal. 

Daughter. This word is used in the Bible 
in a similar way with " son," in a wider sense 
than the literal acceptation would allow ; as 
for granddaughter, or more remote descend- 



1 Dan. v., 31 ; vi. ; ix., 1 ; xi., 1.— ^ Ezra iv., 5, 24; 
V. ; vi. ; Hag. i., 1, 15 ; ii., 10 ; Zech. i., 1, 7 ; vii., 1. 



The first time that David appears in his- 
tory at once admits us to the whole family 
circle. The account is given in 1 Sam. xvi., 
1-13. The prophet Samuel, having been 
sent to Bethlehem to set apart one of the 



1 Gen. xxiv., 48; Luke i., 5.-2 Isa. x., 32; xxxvii., 
22 ; Ezek. xvi., 40, 48.-3 Qen. vi., 2.—* 1 Chron. iii., 
5. See Abigail; Zeeuiah; Shimeah; Jonathan. 



DAVID 



254 



DAVID 



sons of Jesse to be the future king of Israel, 
causes them all to pass before him. By di- 
vine direction all are rejected, till at length 
David, the youngest of the eight sons, is 
brought in from the sheep - folds. Then 
"the Lord said. Arise, anoint him, for this 
is he." From the description in verse 12 we 
are enabled to fix his appearance at once in 
our minds. He was of short stature, with 
red or auburn hair, such as is not unfrequent- 
ly seen in his countrymen of the East at the 
present day. In later life he wore a beard. 
His bright eyes are especially mentioned; 
and generally he was remarkable for the 
grace of his figure and countenance, well 
made, and of great strength and agility.' 
His swiftness and activity made him like a 
wild gazelle, his feet like hart's feet, and his 
arms strong enough to break a bow of steel.^ 
He was pursuing the occupation allotted in 
Eastern countries usually to the slaves, the 
females, or the despised of the family. He 
usually carried a switch or wand in his 
hand, such as would be used for his dogs, 
and a scrip or wallet round his neck, to car- 
ry any thing that was needed for his shep- 
herd's life.^ Ordained to be king of Israel, 
he did not as yet leave his sheep-fold till 
called by God to a brief life at court, that 
he might both become acquainted with its 
life, and gain some insight into the character 
of the king he was to succeed. 

Saul, oppressed by melancholy, and prey- 
ed upon not only by his own remorse and 
apprehension, but by "an evil spirit from 
the Lord,"'* was recommended by some of his 
servants, possibly by David's three brothers, 
whom a little later we meet in Saul's camp, 
to send for the young shepherd-boy, who, 
after the fashion of the time with poets, 
was musician as well, and played his own 
compositions upon the harp. David was 
sent for, and handled his harp so success- 
fully as quite to exorcise, at least for the 
time, the evil spirit that rested on the un- 
happy king. This incident in the life of 
David receives an illustration from a mar- 
velously similar cure wrought by the mu- 
sicia;n Farinelli on Philip V. of Spain. This 
king, fallen a prey to total dejection of spir- 
its which rendered him incapable of attend- 
ing to business, and which resisted all ar- 
guments and persuasions, was at length re- 
lieved by a plan devised by his courtiers, 
who contrived a concert in a room adjoin- 
ing the king's bed-chamber, in which Fari- 
nelli performed one of his most captivating 
songs in so successful a manner that the 
king yielded himself wholly to the influence 
of the sweet singer, resumed his old place 
in the cabinet, and made the man who had 
ministered to him so successfully his chief 
confidential adviser.^ 



1 1 Sam. xvL, 12, IS ; xvii., 42.-2 p^a. xviii., 33, 34.— 
3 1 Sara, xvii., 40, 43.— •* 1 Sam. xvi., 14.- ^ See the story 
at length in "Kitto's Daily Bible Illustratious," vol. i., 
p. 20T. 



From the court of the king, young David 
returned again to his na^tive home and his 
humble sheep-fold. Meantime a war had 
broken out with the Philistines, and we next 
meet the young shepherd-boy on his way to 
camp, bearing for his brethren an ephah of 
parched corn, and ten loaves and ten cheeses. 
This at least appears to us the more prob- 
able course of this portion of his history. 
The chronology is, however, uncertain. 1 
Sam. XV., 19, indicates that David first ap- 
peared at court as a musician ; 1 Sam. xvii., 
12-31, 55-58, has been thought to indicate 
that he had not been in court before the bat- 
tle with Goliath. This assumption seems to 
us, however, unfounded. It assumes that 
Saul would have remembered his musical 
armor-bearer, one among a score of similar 
youthful attaches at the court ; that he 
knew David's parentage; and that in the in- 
tervening months or years no changes could 
have occurred in David's face and figure 
such as that the king would not recognize, 
even had he otherwise remembered him. 
If Josephus is correct in saying that several 
years elapsed between the first and second 
appearance of David at the court, they are 
amply sufficient, certainly, in the Orient — 
where changes in personal appearance are 
more rapid and marked than with us — to 
account for the fact that the king did not 
recognize the musical shepherd -boy in the 
young, impetuous, martial - spirited youth, 
burning to accept the challenge of the Phi- 
listine giant. 

The scene of the ensuing battle between 
David and Goliath is at Ephes-dammira, in 
the frontier hills of Judah, called, probably 
from this or similar encounters, " the bound 
of blood." Saul's army is encamped' on one 
side of the ravine, the Philistines on the 
other ; the water - course of Elah, or " the 
Terebinth," runs between them. A Philis- 
tine of gigantic stature, and clothed in com- 
plete armor, challenged the comparatively 
defenseless Israelites — among whom the king 
alone appears to be well armed' — to settle 
the hereditary contest for supremacy between 
the two nations by single combat. To us 
this method of settling a national controver- 
sy seems singularly absurd ; but it was con- 
tinued from time to time till a comparatively 
recent period, and receives historical illustra- 
tion not only from such ancient encounters 
as that of the Horatii and the Curatii, but 
from the boastful challenge and cowardly 
withdrawal of the Earl of Boswell at Car- 
berry Hill as late as 1567. No one in the 
camp of Israel can be found to take up the 
challenge of the Philistine giant. At this 
juncture David appears in the camp. Just 
as he comes to the circle of wagons which 
formed, as in Arab settlements, a rude forti- 
fication round the Israelite camp,^ he hears 
the well-known shout of the Israelite war- 



1 Sam. xvii., 38 ; xiii., 20.— 2 1 Sam. xvii., 20. 



DAVID 



255 



DAVID 



cry.^ Tlie martial spirit of the boy is stir- 
red at the sound; he leaves his provisions 
with the baggage-master, and darts to join 
his brothers, like one of the royal messen- 
gers, into the midst of the lines. Then he 
hears the challenge — sees the dismay of his 
countrymen — hears the reward proposed by 
the king — goes, with the impetuosity of 
youth, from soldier to soldier, talking of the 
event, in spite of his brother's rebuke — is 
introduced to Saul — undertakes the com- 
bat. Trusting in God, and going forth to 
the battle with a prayer upon his lips, he yet 
teaches us the meaning of the injunction, 
" watch and pray ;" for he does not attempt 
the singular combat till he has essayed the 
king's armor, laid it aside as unwieldy, and 
taken instead his shepherd's sling and five 
smooth stones selected with care from the 
water-course which flows through the val- 
ley that separaWs the opposing hosts. God 
gives vigor to his arm, and directness to his 
aim; the giant is beheaded with his own 
sword, and the panic-stricken Philistines flee 
in terror. Two trophies long remained of 
the battle : one, the huge sword of the Phi- 
listine, which was hung up behind the ephod 
in the tabernacle at Nob f the other, the 
head of the giant, which David bore away 
himself, and which was either laid away at 
Nob, or subsequently at Jerusalem. 

II. Relations urith Saul. — We now enter on 
a new aspect of David's life. The victory 
over Goliath had been a turning-point of his 
career. Saul, who had promised his daugh- 
ter to him who should kill the Philistine, was 
naturally anxious to know something of his 
future son-in-law. The king ascertained Da- 
vid's parentage, and took him finally to his 
court. The triumphant songs of the Israel- 
itish women, which announced that they felt 
that in him Israel had now found a deliverer 
mightier even than Saul, laid the foundation 
of that unhappy jealousy of Saul toward him, 
which, mingling with the king's constitution- 
al malady, poisoned his whole future rela- 
tions to David. Three new qualities now be- 
gan to develop themselves in David's charac- 
ter : his prudence, his magnanimous forbear- 
ance, called forth, in the first instance, toward 
Saul, but displaying itself (with a few pain- 
ful exceptions) in the rest of his life, and his 
sense of dependence on the divine help, de- 
veloped by the marvelous and almost mirac- 
ulous escapes from his enemies which char- 
acterize this epoch in his history. His office 
at court is not exactly defined. But it would 
seem that, having been first armor-bearer,^ 
then made captain over a thousand — the sub- 
division of a tribe* — he finally, on his mar- 
riage with Michal, the king's second daugh- 
ter, was raised to the high office of captain 
of the king's body-guard, second only, if not 
equal, to Abner, the captain of the host, and 



1 Comp. Numb, xxiii., 21.— 2 1 Sam. xxi. 
xvL, 21 ; xviii., 2,-4 1 Sam. xviii., 13. 



ISam. 



Jonathan, the heir-apparent. These three 
formed the usual companions of the king 
at his meals.^ David lived, however, in a 
separate house, probably on the town wall,^ 
furnished, like most of the dwellings of 
Israel in those early times, with a figure 
of a household genius, which gave to the 
place a kind of sanctity.^ He was chiefly 
known for his exploits against the Philis- 
tines, by one of which he won his wife, 
and drove back the Philistine power with 
a blow from which it only rallied at the 
disastrous close of Saul's reign. He also 
still performed from time to time the office 
of minstrel. But the successive snares laid 
by Saul to entrap him, and the open vio- 
lence into which the king's madness twice 
broke out, at last convinced him that his life 
was no longer safe. He had two faithful al- 
lies, however, in the court, the son of Saul, 
his friend Jonathan, and the daughter of 
Saul, his wife Michal. Warned by the one, 
and assisted by the other, he escaped by 
night, and was from thenceforward a fugi- 
tive. Jonathan he never saw again except 
by stealth. Michal was given in marriage 
to Phaltiel, and he saw her no more till 
long after her father's death. From the 
court he first fled to Naioth (or the pastures) 
of Ramah, to Samuel. This is the first re- 
corded occasion of his meeting with Samuel 
since the original interview during his boy- 
hood at Bethlehem. The madness of Saul 
now became more settled and ferocious in 
character, and David's danger proportion- 
ably greater. The secret interview with 
Jonathan by the cairn of Ezel confirmed the 
alarm already excited by Saul's endeavor 
to seize him at Ramah, and he determined 
to leave his country and take refuge, like 
Coriolanus or Themistocles in like circum- 
stances, in the court of his enemy. Before 
this last resolve, he visited Nob, the seat of 
the tabernacle, partly to obtain a final in- 
terview with the high-priest,* partly to ob- 
tain food and weapons. On the pretext of a 
secret mission from Saul, he gained an an- 
swer from the oracle, some of the consecrated 
loaves, and the consecrated sword of Goliath. 
But his falsehood brought destruction on the 
man who had befriended him. Abimelech, 
with his whole household, was put to death 
by one of those ruthless massacres with 
which that age abounded. One son only 
escaped, to become in after years high-priest 
on David's accession to the throne.^ David's 
stay at the court of Achish was short. Dis- 
covered, possibly by '^ the sword of Goliath," 
his presence revived the national enmity of 
the Philistines against their former conquer- 
or, and he only escaped, after a brief impris- 
onment,® by feigning madness ;'' a deliver- 
ance illustrated in more modern times by 



1 1 Sam. XX., 25.-2 1 Sam. xix., 11, 12.-3 gee Tera- 
PHTM. — * 1 Sam. xxii., 9, 1^. — ^ See Abimelech; Abi- 
ATHAK; DoEG.— « Title of Psa. Ivi.— ^ 1 Sam. xxi., 13. 



DAVID 



256 



DAVID 



that of Aghyle Aga, a weU-known Arab cliief, 
who escaped from the governor of Acre by 
feigning to be a mad dervish. Of his own 
experience in this dark hour of trial the 
sweet singer of Israel has left an enduring- 
record in two Psalms, Ivi. and xxxiv., the 
first of which, a cry for succor, appears to 
have been composed just previous to his es- 
cape from the King of Gath, and the second 
a song of thanksgiving just after the deliv- 
erance was afforded. From his dangerous 
retreat David fled back again to Judea, to 
find in its mountain fastnesses the refuge 
which the territory of his heathen neighbor 
refused him. Of his life as an outlaw among 
the caves and hills of Southern Palestine, 
chapters xxii.-xxvi. of 1 Samuel contain the 
story. His first retreat was the Cave of 
Adullam (q. v.), where he was joined by his 
whole family, now feeling themselves inse- 
cure from Saul's fury.^ His next move was 
to a stronghold, either the mountain, after- 
ward called Herodium, close to Adullam, 
or the fastness called by Josephus Masada,^ 
in the neighborhood of En-gedi, while he 
deposited his aged parents, for the sake of 
greater security, beyond the Jordan, with 
their ancestral kinsman of Moab. He was 
joined at En-gedi by two separate bands — 
one a little body of eleven fierce Gadite 
mountaineers, who swam the Jordan in 
flood-time to reach him, the other a detach- 
ment of men from Judah and Benjamin, under 
his nephew Amasai, who henceforth attached 
himself to David's fortunes.^ It was here, too, 
that occurred that touching and significant 
incident recorded in 1 Chron. xi., 16-19, and 
2 Sam. xxiiL, 14-17. In a passionate ac- 
cess of home-sickness which belonged to his 
character, David longed for a drink from the 
familiar well of his childhood in the adjoin- 
ing village of Bethlehem, just then occupied 
by some marauding forces of the Philistines. 
Three of his captains broke through the 
guard at night, and brought their leader the 
desired draught. But water so won seemed 
to his lofty spirit too sacred to drink, and not 
too common for sacrifice ; and he poured it 
out upon the ground '^ as an offering to the 
Lord." Such a captain was well worthy the 
enthusiasm he never failed to arouse among 
his followers. At the warning of Gad, he fled 
to the forest of Hareth — of the location of 
which nothiug more is known than that it 
was somewhere in Judea — fell in with the 
Philistines, made a descent on their fora- 
ging parties, and relieved KeiUih, in which \ 
lie took up his abode. While there, now for j 
the first time in a fortified town of his own, | 
he was joined bj^ a new and most important 
ally, Abiathar, the last survivor of the house 
of Ithamar, who brought him the news of 
the massacre of the house by the orders of 
Saul, who at the same time appeared on the 



1 1 Sam. xxii., 1.— 2 1 Sam. xxii., 4, 5; 1 Chron. xiL, 
16.— » 1 Chron. xii., S, 16-18. 



scene in pursuit of the innocent fugitive. 
David's little army, increased now to six 
hundred men,^ escaped from Keilah, and dis- 
persed "whithersoever they could go" among 
the fastnesses of Judah. Henceforth it be- 
comes difficult to follow his movements. He 
takes refuge in the wilderness of Ziph. Once 
(or twice) the Ziphites betray his move- 
ments to Saul, who hunts him like a par- 
tridge.^ David is thus driven to the extreme 
south of Judah, in the wilderness of Maon, 
where on two, if not three, occasions the 
pursuer and pursued catch sight of each oth- 
er, and where occurred David's adventure 
with Nabal, and his marriage with Abigail. 
His marriage with Ahinoam from Jezreel, 
also in the same neighborhood, seems to have 
taken place a short time before.^ Wearied 
with his wandering life, he at last crosses the 
Philistine frontier, not, as before, in the char- 
acter of a fugitive, but as the chief of a power- 
ful band of six hundred men now grown into 
an organized force, with their wives and fami- 
lies around them. After the manner of East- 
ern potentates, Achish gave him for his sup- 
port a city — Ziklag, on the frontier of Philis- 
tia. There we meet with the first note of 
time in David's life. He was settled there for 
a year and four months, and a body of Ben- 
jamite archers and slingers, twenty-two of 
whom are specially named, joined him from 
the very tribe of his rival.* He deceived 
Achish into confidence by attacking the old 
nomadic inhabitants of the desert frontier, 
and representing the plunder to be of por- 
tions of the southern tribes, or the nomadic 
allied tribes, of Israel. But this confidence 
was not shared by the Philistine nobles, and 
accordingly David was sent back by Achish 
from the last victorious campaign against 
Saul. During his absence, the Bedouin Am- 
alekites, whom he had plundered during the 
previous year, had made a descent upon Zik- 
lag, burned it to the ground, and carried off 
the wives and children of the new settle- 
ment. A wild scene of frantic grief and re- 
crimination ensued between David and his 
followers. It was calmed by an oracle of as- 
surance from Abiathar. Assisted by the Ma- 
nassites who had joined him on the march 
to Gilboa, he overtook the invaders in the 
desert, and recovered the spoil.^ Two days 
after this victory, a Bedouin arrived from the 
north with the fatal news of the death of 
Saul and Jonathan at Gilboa. The reception 
of the tidings of the death of his rival and 
of his friend, the sloemn mourning, the vent 
of his indignation against the bearer of the 
message, and the pathetic lamentation that 
followed, closes the second period of David's 
life.« 

III. DavicCs Beign. — This is naturally di- 



1 1 Sam. xxiii., 13.— 2 1 Sam. xxiii., 14-26; xxvi., 1^, 
20.-3 1 Sam. sxv., 43 ; xxvii., 3 ; 2 Sara, iil., 2.—* 1 Sam. 
xxvii., 3, 4, 0, 7; 1 Chron. xii., 1-7. -^ 1 Chron. xii., 
19-21 ; 1 Sam. XXX.— 6 2 Sam. i., 1-27. 



DAVID 



257 



DAVID 



vided into two periods — that of his reign 
as king of Judah, only seven and a half 
years ; that of his reign over all Israel, thir- 
ty-three years/ He was formally anointed 
at Hebron, the sacred city of the tribe of Ju- 
dah, and the burial-place of the patriarchs. 
Ishbosheth nominally, really Abner, the cap- 
tain of his host, reigned meanwhile over Is- 
rael. In the constant skirmishing between 
the two kingdoms, " David waxed stronger 
and stronger, and the house of Saul waxed 
weaker and weaker." At length the suc- 
cessive murders of Abner and Ishbosheth va- 
cated the throne of Israel, and for a third 
time David was anointed king, now over all 
Israel.* Jerusalem, which David, with a sin- 
gular prescience, fixed upon as his future cap- 
ital, was still in the hands of the Jebusites, 
but yielded to a sudden assault, the success- 
ful conduct of which made Joab captain of 
the host,^ and it became thereafter the royal 
residence. The ark was brought thither 
from its temporary obscurity at Kirjath-jea- 
rim, with sacred and novel ceremonies.* The 
king himself heads the procession, his own 
royal robes thrown aside for the light linen 
dress which belongs to the costume of Ori- 
ental dancers.^ The pealing of trumpets, the 
shouts of the multitude, the festive dress and 
gay dances, the musical women, the songs of 
praise sung by the multitude, all mark a day 
of great national rejoicing, marred by the un- 
sympathetic spirit of Michal (q. v.), who from 
that hour ceased to be the wife of the victo- 
rious king.® 

The erection of the new capital at Jerusa- 
lem introduces us to a new era in David's 
life, and in the history of the monarchy. He 
became a king on the scale of the great Ori- 
ental sovereigns of Egypt and Persia, with 
a regular administration and organization 
of court and camp ; and he also founded an 
imperial dominion, which for the first time re- 
alized the prophetic description of the bounds 
of the chosen people.' The internal organ- 
ization now established lasted till the final 
overthrow of the monarchy, and proves Da- 
vid to have been no less remarkable as an 
organizer than as a warrior and a poet. The 
organization of the army (q. v.), inherited 
from Saul, was greatly developed and per- 
fected. The civil government was arranged 
in departments, for pastoral, agricultural, and 
financial purposes.^ A court or council of 
the king was formed,^ a historian was ap- 
pointed to superintend the records and ar- 
chives of the nation,*" as well as some assist- 
ant scribes." The religious services, which 
had fallen into disuse, were re-established ; 
the schools of the prophets were fostered ; 



1 2 Sara, ii.-v., 5; and 2 Sam. v., 5-1 Kings ii., 11.— 
2 1 Chron. xii., 38.-3 j Chron. xi., 4-6. See Joab.— 
* See Uzzah; Obed-edom.— * 2 Sam. vi., 14; 1 Chron. 
XV., 27.-6 2 Sam. vi., 12-23 ; 1 Chron. xv. ; xvi.— ^ Gen. 
XV., 18-21.— 8 1 Chron. xxvii., 25-32.-8 1 Chron. xv., 
32-34. See Ahithophei. ; Jonatuan ; Hushai ; Abia- 
thab; Joab.— 1" 2 Sam. xx., 24.—'' 2 Sam. xx., 24; 
1 Chron. xxviL, 82. 

17 



the priests were reiustated, and their order 
reorganized ;* provision was made on a grand 
scale for music, of which the king was ex- 
tremely fond; leaders of the temple-choir 
were appointed,* and the Levites were or- 
ganized in two companies — one of singers, the 
other of guardians and servitors of the tab- 
ernacle and the proj ected tern pie ( q. v. ) .^ This 
reorganization of the kingdom was the work 
of tijne, and was accompanied, if not inter- 
rupted, by continuous wars with neighbor- 
ing kingdoms, in which almost every cam- 
paign was crowned with success. Within 
ten years from the capture of Jerusalem, 
David had reduced to a state of permanent 
subjection the Philistines on the west ; the 
Moabites on the east; the Syrians on the 
north-east as far as the Euphrates ; the 
Edomites on the south ; and, finally, the Am- 
monites, who had broken their ancient alli- 
ance, and made one grand resistance to the 
advance of his emj)tre.* 

At the same time, his reign was far from 
being one of unmingled prosperity. His last 
campaign with the Ammonites was stained 
by the double crime of murder and adul- 
tery,^ and was followed by the death of his 
infant son, the outrage of his daughter Ta- 
mar, the murder of his eldest son Amnon 
(q. v.), and the revolt of his best -beloved 
son Absalom (q. v.), quelled only with the 
death of the young and handsome rebel — a 
bitter price, in David's estimation, to pay 
for the victory. If, as appears from 2 Sam. 
xi., 3; xxiii., 34, Ahithophel (q. v.) was the 
grandfather of Bathsheba, there was a mar- 
velous fitness in making him a chief instru- 
ment of the king's punishment. The quell- 
ing of this rebellion by the short but deci- 
sive battle in the forests of Ephraim, and the 
subsequent fruitless revolt of Sheba, left the 
kingdom once more in peace, disturbed only 
by the three days' pestilence with which the 
kingdom was visited as David's reign drew 
to its close. Whether this taking of the cen- 
sus was displeasing to God because the pro- 
visions of the ancient law for a contempora- 
neous tax® were disregarded, or whether it 
was a sign of pride, like that which led Nebu- 
chadnezzar to boast of great Babylon which 
he had built, there were circumstances at- 
tending it which awakened uneasiness in 
the minds of his subjects, and led Joab, to 
whom the execution of the doubtful duty was 
in part intrusted, to refuse to complete it.''^ 
Skeptics have since called in question the 
justice of the divine decree condemning the 
nation to punishment because of this cen- 
sus ; but as David did not remonstrate, we 
may reasonably assume that there were rea- 
sons for the punishment which his conscience 
recognized, but which the history has failed 



» 1 Chron. xxiv,— « See Asaph.— 3 1 Chron. xxv. ; 
xxvi.— 4 2 Sam. viii., 1, 2, 3, 14; x., 1-19; xii., 26-31.— 

' —6 See Uriah; Bathsheba ^ Exod. xxx., 12.—''' 1 

; Chron. xxi., 6; xxvii., 24. 



DAY 



258 



DAY 



fully to indicate. Even in this hour of 
judgment the inherent nobility and the un- 
wavering faith of David, even when un- 
der divine displeasure, appears alike in his 
choice to fall into the hand of the Lord 
rather than into that of man, and in his en- 
treaty that the punishment may be visited 
upon him rather than upon his people/ The 
selection of Moriah as the site of the future 
temple, by a divinely-vouchsafed vision,^ ac- 
companied the staying of the plague. Ado- 
nijah, the fourth son of David, by Haggith, 
made a desperate venture to secure the 
throne which his father had promised to Sol- 
omon ; the old king, already weak with the 
infirmities of age, and little inclined to enter 
upon new strifes, anointed Solomon king in 
his place, that thus the succession might be 
secured beyond a question ; and the plot of 
Adonijah was stifled in its birth. Solomon 
received the dying charge of his father to 
build that temple which David himself was 
not permitted to build because he was a man 
of blood ; and then the greatest king of Is- 
rael, if not of all time, sank to sleep, to be 
buried in the city which he founded, and 
which in all the subsequent history of his na- 
tion was known as the " city of David."^ His 
tomb, which became the general sepulchre 
of the kings of Judah, was pointed out in 
the latest times of the Jewish people. The 
edifice, shown as such from the Crusades to 
the present day, is on the southern hill of 
modern Jerusalem, commonly called Mount 
Zion, under the so-called " Ccenaculum;" but 
it can not be identified with the tomb of 
David, which was emphatically within the 
walls. 

The chief events of the life of David are 
contained in 1 Sam. xvi., 1, to 1 Kings ii., 11, 
and 1 Chron. x. to xxix. ; but should be read 
in connection with his Psalms. See Psalms. 
Also, for details in his life, Nabal ; Joab ; 
Abner ; Goliath ; Uriah ; Bathsheba ; 
Absalom; Solomon. 

Day. In the earlier periods of O. T. his- 
tory no further divisions of the natural day 
appear than those of morning, noon-day, and 
evening.* The night, in like manner, ap- 
pears under a threefold division — of first, 
middle, and morning watches.^ The mention 
of hours first occurs in the time of the Baby- 
lonish captivity.^ It would appear that the 
Babylonians were among the first to adopt 
the division of twelve equal parts for the 
day, as Herodotus testifies that the Greeks 
derived this custom from the Babylonians. 
The Hebrews also adopted it ; and in the N. 
T. we often read of the third, the sixth, the 
ninth hours of the day, which were the more 
marked divisions of the twelve. The night 
was divided into the same number of parts. 
But from the variations in sunrise and sun- 



1 1 Chron. xxi., 13, IT.— 2 2 Chron. iii., 1.— 3 1 Chron. 
xi., 7; 2 Sam. v., 9.—* Gen. i., 5; xliii., IG.— ^ Exod. 
xiv., 24 ; Judg. vii., 19 ; Lam. ii., 19.— « Dan. iii., 6 ; v., 5. 



set, this division, which had these natural 
phenomena for its two terminations, could 
never attain to exactness, and was therefore 
unsuited to nations that had reached a high 
degree of civilization. Such nations accord- 
ingly fell upon the plan of adopting mid- 
night as the fixed point, from which the 
whole diurnal revolution might be reckoned, 
divided into twice twelve, or twenty-four 
hours. And this division is now followed 
by all European nations, and in a great part 
of the civilized world. In many countries 
of the East, however, the old mode of reck- 
oning from sunrise to sunset still continues. 
With the exception of one passage (John 
xi., 9), which expressly mentions the twelve 
hours of the day, we never meet in N. T. Scrip- 
ture with the mention of any particular 
hours, excepting the third, the sixth, and 
the ninth, which, considering the day to 
commence at six a.m., as being about the 
hour of sunrise, correspond respectively to 
nine a.m., twelve m., and three p.m. The 
ninth and third were regular hours of wor- 
ship at the Temple^ — the times for the morn- 
ing and the evening sacrifice. Other terms 
of a less definite kind are occasionally used 
as notes of time, such as cock -crowing, 
late, early, midnight ; but these have much 
the same import in all languages, and need 
no particular explanation. Tlie Sabbath was 
the only day among the Hebrews which had 
a distinct name, the rest being designated 
simply by numbers, as the first, second, and 
so on. In later times, the sixth day, from its 
immediate relation to the Sabbath, was some- 
times denominated the parasTceuej or prepa- 
ration.'^ It accorded with Hebrew usage to 
designate by the term day or night a part of 
either. Thus Christ is said to have lain in 
the grave three days and three nights. In 
reality the body was buried Friday after- 
noon, and he rose Sunday morning ; so that 
the actual time spent in the grave was only 
two whole nights, one whole day, and parts 
of two others.^ The term day is also often 
used by the sacred writers for an era, as in- 
deed it is with us in such expressions as "in 
our day."* It is perhaps in this general 
sense that the term is used in the Mosaic de- 
scription of the creation in Genesis i. The 
language appears at first to indicate a period 
of twenty-four hours, but it must be remem- 
bered that the statement that '' the eveuiug 
and the morning were the first day," pre- 
cedes the statement of the creation of the 
sun. It has been conjectured that the knowl- 
edge of the Creation was disclosed to Moses 
in a series of visions, which were made to 
pass before him in w hat appeared to be suc- 
cessive days, each vision corresponding to an 
era.^ The proper interpretation of the pro- 
phetic day, i. e., of the word day as employed 



1 Acts ii., 15; iii., 1.— 2 See Passover.— ^ Matt. xii. 
40 ; xxvii., 63, 04 ; comp. 1 Kiuirs xii., 5, 12.-4 Qgn. ii. 
4; Isa. xxii.,5; Joel ii., 2.— * See Ckeation. 



DEACON 



259 



DEATH 



in Daniel and Revelation, lias given rise to a 
great deal of discussion, but can not be con- 
sidered as settled. Many writers regard the 
day there as equivalent to a year, but this is 
by no means certain. 

Deacon (a runner, i. e., servant), an order 
of ministry in the Christian Church. Its 
origin is veiled in some obscurity. In Acts 
vi., 1-7, we have an account of the ordina- 
tion of seven men to act in the ministration 
of the charities of the early Church, that the 
apostles might not be drawn off from the 
work of the Gospel ministry, and especially 
of teaching. It is generally considered that 
this is the origin of the office. It is true that 
the title of " deacons " is nowhere applied to 
these seven in Scripture, nor does the word 
occur in the Acts at all. In 1 Tim. iii., 8-13, 
where the office and duties of deacons are 
described in detail, there is no absolute iden- 
tification of the duties of deacons with those 
allotted to these seven, but at the same time 
nothing to imply that they were different. 
Whether this was intended only to meet an 
immediate and temporary exigency, or was 
intended as the establishment of a perma- 
nent order, there can be little doubt that the 
office of deacon, which at a later period evi- 
dently existed, and was fully recognized, 
sprang out of this appointment. The duties, 
it is tolerably clear, were those of a charita- 
ble and secular, rather than of a clerical 
character. Still, from the very first, deacons 
preached, and great success attended their 
preaching, the conversion of Paul himself be- 
ing possibly partially due to the influence 
of the address of the deacon Stephen, who 
was also the first martyr of the Christian 
Church.^ 

The office is still continued in the Chris- 
tian Church, but with various duties assign- 
ed to it. In the Roman Catholic, Episcopa- 
lian, and Methodist churches the deacons 
constitute an order of the ministry. In the 
Roman Catholic Church it belongs to the 
deacon to act as the assistant of the bishop, 
especially at the administration of the sacra- 
meut, and also in examining into and ascer- 
taining the condition of the clergy and laity 
in his diocese. There are also sub-deacons, 
who prepare the materials for the sacra- 
ment, and otherwise assist in making ready 
for it. In the Church of England and the 
Protestant Episcopal Church of America, a 
deacon is a clergyman, receiving a special 
form of ordination, but differing from a reg- 
ular priest only in not being allowed to con- 
secrate the elements at the communion, or 
pronounce the absolution or benediction. In 
the Methodist Episcopal Church the deacons 
serve as assistants in the administration of the 
communion, and as instructors in the Holy 
Scripture. In the Congregational Church 
they distribute the elements in the commun- 
ion after these have been consecrated by the 

1 See Acts iii., 8-15; vii. ; and compare viii,, 5-8. 



minister, and they act as the advisers of the 
pastor, and as the almoners of the charities 
of the Church. Among Presbyterians their 
place is usually supplied by the elders (q. v.), 
but in some Presbyterian churches the two 
offices of elder and deacon are kept distinct. 

Deaconess, a female minister or servant 
of the Church. The term does not occur in 
the English N. T. But that such an order 
existed in apostolic times is indicated by 
Rom. xvi.,1, where the word "servant" might 
properly be translated "deaconess," and is 
thought by many scholars to be referred to in 
1 Tim. iii., 11, and v., 9-16. It is certain that 
at a very early age in the Christian Church 
deaconesses existed. They co-Oi)erated with 
the deacons, showed the women their place 
in the church assemblies, assisted at the bap- 
tism of persons of their own sex, instructed 
those who were about to be baptized as to 
the answers they should give to the bap- 
tismal questions, arranged the agapce or love- 
feasts, and took care of the sick. In the 
third century it seems to have been also part 
of their duty to visit all Christian women 
who were suffering imprisonment, and to be 
hospitable to such as had come from afar. 
In very early times they were consecrated to 
their office by ordination in the same man- 
ner as other ecclesiastical or spiritual per- 
sonages ; later, however, they were inducted 
into their office by prayer without the impo- 
sition of hands. Their assistants were call- 
ed sub-deaconesses. After the sixth century, 
in the Latin Church, and after the twelfth 
century, in the Greek Church, the office of 
deaconess was discontinued ; but the former 
has retained the name, e. g., in monasteries, 
where the nuns who have the care of the 
altar are called deaconesses. The order has 
been lately revived in this country in some 
Presbyterian and Congregational churches. 

Dean {ten), an ecclesiastical title which 
has had several applications. The oldest use 
of it was to designate an officer in the ancient 
monasteries, in which every ten monks were 
subject to one, called the decanus, or dean, 
from his presiding over ten. In the Church 
of England there are two sorts of deans : Ist. 
The dean of a cathedral, who is an ecclesias- 
tical magistrate, next in degree to a bishop. 
He is chief of the chapter, and is called a 
dean, because he formerly presided over ten 
prebendaries or canons ; 2d. Rural deans, 
whose office is of ancient date in the Church 
of England long prior to the Reformation, 
and which many of the bishops are now re- 
viving. Their chief duty is to visit a certain 
number of parishes, and to report their con- 
dition to the bishop. The word dean is also 
applied in England to the chief officers of 
certain peculiar churches or chapels, as the 
dean of the king's chapel. The dean of a 
college faculty is its presiding officer. 

Death. Death has been variously de- 
fined, but never perhaps better than by Cic- 



DEATH 



'260 



DEBORAH 



ero, who describes it as " the departure of 
the mind from the body." We are assured 
in the Bible that death is the penalty of sin. 
We find in the rocks evidence that it had ex- 
isted in the world long prior to the date as- 
signed in the Bible to man's creation. The 
answer to this difficulty is, that it is man's 
death alone which was inflicted as a punish- 
ment ; and that God, foreseeing the fall and 
the penalty to follow, prepared the earth for 
the abode, not of a sinless and deathless race, 
but for sinful and dying man. In the Bible 
death is symbolized by a great variety of 
types. It is likened to sleep, to the vanish- 
ing of clouds, to the decay of flowers or trees, 
to the going into prison, to the taking down 
of a tent, to the approach of night.^ Many 
of these symbolical expressions indicate the 
faith of the writers in a life beyond the 
grave. Sometimes the Hebrews regarded 
death as a friendly messenger, but they were 
more frequently inclined to dread him as a 
formidable enemy. Impressed with the ter- 
rors of his visitations, their imagination im- 
parted to him a poetical existence as a hunt- 
er armed with a dart or javelin, a net, or a 
snare. The vivid fancy of some of the poets 
went still farther, and represented Death as 
the king of the lower world, a subterranean 
abode denominated Sheol or Hades, in which 
he reigned over all who had departed from this 
upper world. This place is alluded to under 
the phrases the gates of Death or Hades; and 
such are its attributes, that it might very 
justly be denominated Death's royal palace.'^ 
The Hebrews regarded life as a journey, as 
a pilgrimage on the face of the earth. The 
traveler, as they supposed, when he arrived 
at the end of this journey, which happened 
when he died, was received into the com- 
pany of his ancestors, who had gone be- 
fore. Hence such phrases as to 'be gathered 
to one^s people, and to go to one^s fathers. This 
visiting of the fathers has reference to the 
immortal soul, and is clearly distinguished 
in many passages from the mere burial of 
the body.^ 

To the pious Jew, taught by the O. T. and 
the Fall that death was the result of dis- 
obedience, the body from which the loved 
soul had gone was a most vivid emblem of 
corruption and sin, and therefore to be avoid- 
ed. This, and perhaps sanitary reasons, gave 
rise to the Levitical enactments concerning 
death. When a Hebrew died in any house 
or tent, all the persons and furniture in it 
contracted a pollution which continued seven 
days. All who touched the body of one who 
died, or was killed in the open fields, and all 
who touched men's bones, or a grave, were 



1 Gen. ii., 17 ; iii., 19 : Job iii., 13 : vii., 9 ; xiv., 2, 7 ; 
xxxviii., 17; Psa. ciii., 15, 16; Isa. xxxviii., 12; 1 Cor. 
XV., 6; John ix., 4.-2 Job xxxviii., 17; Psa. ix., 13; 
xviii., 5, 6 ; xlix., 15 : evil., 18 ; cxvi., 3 ; Isa. xxviii., 10, 
IS; Matt, xvi., 18.— 3 Gen. XXV., 8 ; xxxv.,29; xxxvii., 
;-55; Psa. xxxix., 12; comp. Numb, xx., 24, 26; Lev. 
viii., 2 ; Deut. xxxii., 50 ; Eccles. xii., 7 ; Heb. xi., 13, 15. 



unclean seven days. To cleanse this pollu- 
tion, the ashes of the red heifer, sacrificed by 
the high-priest on the solemn day of expia- 
tion, were mixed with water, and a person 
who was clean dipped a bunch of hyssop in 
the water, and sprinkled with it the furni- 
ture, the chamber, and the persons on the 
third and on the seventh day. The polluted 
person previously bathed his whole body, and 
washed his clothes.^ Since the destruction 
of the Temple, the Jews have in general 
ceased to consider themselves as polluted by 
contact with death. 

To the Christian, taught by the N. T. and 
Christ's resurrection that the grave has no 
terrors which He has not conquered, death 
has not the disagreeable import which it had 
to the Jew. It has become, in the light of 
the cross, a sleep in Christ, an entrance to 
a crown of life.'* 

For an account of the treatment among 
various nations, and in various ages, of the 
lifeless body, and the preparation for its 
final disposition, see Funeral Rites ; for 
the diverse methods of manifesting respect 
and grief for the dead, see Mourning ; for 
an account of the final disposition of the 
body, see Buriax ; for the condition of the 
soul after death, see Future State. 

Debir (oracle, hence applied by Solomon 
as the distinctive name of the most holy 
place in the Temple),^ a town in the tribe of 
Judah, a few miles west of Hebron. Before 
the conquest of Canaan it was called Kirjath- 
sepher, hooTc city, and Kirjath-sannah,^ city of 
law, or instruction. Though never mention- 
ed in subsequent times, it must have been of 
considerable importance and strength at the 
time of the conquest, as its capture by Joshua 
is particularly described f and having been 
retaken by the Canaanites — for it was one 
of the places which the Anakim held,® and 
this powerful people would give up no post 
without continual struggle — Caleb prom- 
ised his daughter Achsah to him who should 
succeed in again subduing it. Othniel, a 
nephew of Caleb, gained the prize.^ Fronr 
its name it was probably a seat of learning 
in former times, and this might be one rea- 
son for afterward making it a priestly city.^ 

Deborah (a hee, or a wasp). A bee was 
an Egyptian symbol of regal authority, and 
among the Greeks the term was applied to 
poets and priestesses. In both these senses 
the name suits Deborah, since she was es- 
sentially a seer, combining the functions of 
poetry and prophecy. She was probably a 
woman of Ephraim, although from the ex- 
pression in Judg. v., 15, some suppose her 
to have belonged to Issachar. She was the 
wife of Lapidoth, is called a prophetess, and 
is said to have judged Israel. She dwelt 



1 Numb, xix., 1-22.— 2 1 Cor. xv., 18 ; 1 Thess. iv., 14 ; 
2Tim.iv.,8; Rev. ii., 10.— ^ 1 Kin^s vi., 15-19.— * Josh. 
XV., 15, 49; Judff. i., 11.—^ Josh, x., 38, 39; xii., 13.— 
« Josh, xi., 21.— T Josh, xv., 15-17.-8 Josh, xxi., 15; 1 
Chrou. vi., 58. 



DECAPOLIS 



261 



DEHAVITES 



under the palm-tree, that came to bear her 
uame, between Eamah and Bethel, in Mount 
Ephraim.^ There is a beautiful fountain at 
the base of the hill, on which stands a fa- 
mous Jewish cemetery, about six miles west 
of Safed, which is known among the Jews 
at the present day as Deborah's Fountain. 
They have a tradition that the heroine pass- 
ed there with Barak on his march to Tabor, 
and bathed in this fountain on the morning 
of the decisive battle. To Deborah the peo- 
ple resorted for counsel during their oppres- 
sion by Jabin, king of Canaan. But with 
all the influence which her prophetical gift 
conferred upon her, she had the greatest dif- 
ficulty in rousing them to make common 
cause against the enemy ; and it appears 
from different parts of her song'^ that por- 
tions of the tribes refused her urgent solici- 
tations to venture into the conflict. About 
ten thousand men, chiefly of the tribes of Zeb- 
ulun and Naphtali, with some from Ephraim 
and Issachar, under the command of Barak, 
actually assembled, and pitched on Mount 
Tabor. The Canaanites, under the com- 
mand of Si sera, the captain of Jabin's army, 
with nine hundred chariots of war, encamp- 
ed in the plain below. At the word of Deb- 
orah, notwithstanding the disparity of num- 
bers, the small but select company of Ba- 
rak rushed down upon the enemy, and put 
the whole multitude to flight. The result 
was a complete deliverance from the thrall- 
dom which had for many years oppressed 
the land; and while Deborah, in her song 
of praise, does not overlook the human in- 
struments that took part in the struggle, 
she is careful to ascribe the real cause and 
glory of the achievement to God. The song 
is one of the oldest lyrics in existeuce ; and 
for some of the higher qualities of that spe- 
cies of poesy — for dramatic life and action, 
for pictorial skill in the employment of a few 
graphic strokes, for glow of feeling, boldness 
and energy of expression, torrent-like rapid- 
ity of thought and utterance — it has rarely 
been surpassed, and, as a female production, 
perhaps seldom equaled. [ Judg. iv. ; v.] 

Decapolis (often cities), a region which 
embraced ten cities in the north-eastern part 
of Palestine, near the lake of Gennesaret. 
These cities, without any special connection, 
seem to have been endowed with certain 
privileges by the Romans, under whose im- 
mediate authority they were ; their popula- 
tion being, for the most part, heathen. Ge- 
ographers differ as to the names of the cities. 
Possibly the same privileges were extended 
to others besides the original ten. The fol- 
lowing is Pliny's list : Damascus, Philadel- 
phia, Raphana, Scythopolis, Gadara, Hippos, 
Dion, Pella, Gerasa, and Canatha ; all of 
these, except Scythopolis, being east of the 
Jordan. But the district of Decapolis must 
have comprised a tract of country on both 



Judg.. iv.,.4, 5.-3 Jndg. v., 16, 17, 23, 



sides the river. [Matt, iv., 25 ; Mark v., 20 ; 
vii., 31.] 

Decretals, letters from the popes of Rome 
deciding points of ecclesiastical law. The 
decretals compose the chief part of the can- 
on law (q. v.). 

Dedan (depression) occurs as the name of 
two individuals mentioned in Scripture — the 
earliest, a son of Raamah, and grandson of 
Gush ;^ the other, one of the sons of Jok- 
shan, and grandson of Abraham by Ketu- 
rah.^ Different opinions are entertained as 
to whether these two persons are the found- 
ers of the same tribe, or of separate ones. 
The passages in the Bible in which Dedan 
is mentioned, contained in the prophecies of 
Isaiah, Jeremiah, and Ezekiel, are in every 
case obscure. The probable inferences from 
these passages are, 1. That Dedan, son of 
Raamah, settled on the shores of the Persian 
Gulf, and that his descendants became car- 
avan merchants between that coast and Pal- 
estine ; 2. That Jokshan, or his son, by in- 
termarriage with the Cushite Dedan, form- 
ed a tribe of the same name, which appears 
to have had a chief settlement in the bor- 
ders of Idumea, and perhaps to have led a 
pastoral life. [ Jer. xxv., 23 ; xlix., 8 ; Ezek. 
XXV., 13 ; Isa. xxi., 13.] 

Dedication (Feast of), a Jewish feast in- 
stituted by Judas Maccabseus in commemo- 
ration of the cleansing of the second temple 
and altar after they had been profaned by 
Antiochus Epiphanes. The profanation took 
place B.C. 167, and the purification B.C. 164. 
The festival commenced on the twenty-fifth 
day of the ninth month, called Chisleu — corre- 
sponding to our December — and lasted eight 
days. On this occasion the Jews illuminated 
their houses as an expression of joy and glad- 
ness. Hence it was also called the Feast of 
Lights. So long as the festival lasted, hymns 
were sung and sacrifices offered. Instituted 
by the Maccabean dynasty, and observed 
chiefly by the more rigid of the Judeans, it 
afforded to Christ an audience only of the 
most narrow-minded and bigoted of the 
Jews — a fact that must be borne in mind in 
comparing his teaching on this occasion, and 
the reception accorded to it, with that of his 
earlier ministry in Galilee. [John x., 22-40.] 

Defender of the Faith, a title belonging 
to the sovereign of England. It was orig- 
inally conferred by Leo X. on Henry VIII. 
for his work against Martin Luther. The 
English Parliament confirmed the title, and 
it has ever since been used by English mon- 
archs.' 

Dehavites, a tribe which the Assyrian 
king Esar-haddon established in Samaria af- 
ter the completion of the captivity of Israel. 
They are mentioned by Herodotus as one of 
the four great nomad tribes of Persia. They 
were powerful and warlike, originally in- 
habiting the high plains and mountains east 
1 Gen. X., 7 — 2 Geu. xxv., 3. 



DEISM 



262 



DEMON, DEMONIAC 



of the Caspian Sea, but afterward scattered 
through various countries. Their love of 
war and plunder induced them to serve as 
mercenaries under various princes, and their 
valor has immortalized them in the pages 
of Virgil. [Ezra iv., 9. ] 

Deism (from Deiis, God), properly speak- 
ing, signifies belief in God, in contradistinc- 
tion from that philosophy of atheism, on the 
one hand, which denies his existence, and 
that system of faith, on the other, which to 
belief in God adds belief in the truth and 
supernatural origin of the Christian religion. 
Deists have existed probably in all ages of 
the world, certainly as far back as the time 
of Christ ; for both the Sadducees among 
the Hebrews, and the Ejjicureans among the 
Greeks, were in fact, though not in name, 
deists. The title was, however, first aj^plied, 
about the middle of the sixteenth century, 
to a class of unbelievers who rejected Chris- 
tianity, but affirmed the truth and sufficien- 
cy of natural religion. Hence deism spread 
to England, where it was maintained by 
Lord Herbert, and subsequent!}^ by Gibbon, 
Hume, Priestley, Bolingbroke, Shaftesbury, 
and Hobbes. It existed also in France si- 
multaneously with the French Revolution, 
where, however, it was merged into and did 
not widely differ from materialism and prac- 
tical atheism. In this country there are 
not many thinkers who avow themselves de- 
ists, but deism exists in a modified form in 
the radical wing of the Unitarian Church, 
and, under the name of rationalism (q. v.), 
still exercises a powerful influence both in 
England and this country, as well as in 
France and Germany. Some attempts have 
been made to classify deists according to 
their various views ; but the differences be- 
tween them are so great, and yet the grada- 
tions from one extreme to the other are so 
gradual, that the attempt is not very suc- 
cessful. The deists have only two tenets in 
common ; the affirmative one, belief in the 
existence of a God ; the negative one, denial 
of the truth of the Christian religion. They 
assert that the religion of nature is sufficient 
for the guidance and government of man- 
kind ; but their interpretations of this " re- 
ligion of nature" are almost as numerous 
as their individual thinkers. Some among 
them construct a system which differs from 
the Christian only in excluding the doctrine 
of an atonement and belief in miracles and 
prophecy ; a system which includes faith, 
not only in a personal God, but in his provi- 
dential control, his spiritual presence in the 
soul, in prayer, in a future state of rewards 
and punishments, and in the law of love to- 
ward God and man as the highest law for 
the government of the human race, obedi- 
ence to which is the condition of enjoying 
his favor and true happiness. Others, on 
the contrary, believe only in a supreme be- 
ing, concerning whom nothing, they think, 



can be known, and deny absolutely his prov- 
idential control of the universe and all pos- 
sibility of personal intercourse with him, 
and think, with the Epicureans of old, that 
it is derogatory to the Supreme Being to sup- 
pose that he has any care for, or exercises 
any supervision over, the human race. The 
gulf between these two systems of disbe- 
lief is filled with every variety of opinion 
from one extreme to the other. In a gener- 
il way, however, deists may be divided, per- 
haps, into two classes : 1. Those who deny 
that there is any communication possible 
between God and man, and w^ho assert that 
the human reason and conscience are the 
only and all-sufficient guide and authority 
in the religious life ; 2. Those who hold that 
there is a divine Spirit, who acts upon the 
heart and conscience, and that it is only 
when we act under his inspiration that we 
act safely, but who deny that the inspira- 
tion accorded to the O. T. writers was dif- 
ferent in kind or degree from that which 
every one imbued with the Spirit of God 
possesses in modern times. This indwelling 
Spirit of God they term the "inner light." 
See Rationalism. 

Demas (probably contracted from Deme- 
trius), a companion of St. Paul during his 
first imprisonment at Rome. The mournful 
note is subsequently made that he had for- 
saken the apostle, " having loved this pres- 
ent world." Whether this meant actual apos- 
tasy we know not. [Col. iv., 14 ; 2 Tim. iv., 
10; Philem.24. 

Demetrius, a maker of silver shrine of 
Diana at Ephesus. These silver shrines were 
most probably silver models of the temple 
of the god with her statue therein, and were 
used as charms. Demetrius and his fellow- 
craftsmen, fearing lest they should lose their 
trade by the conversions which were being 
made to the faith of the Gospel, raised a tu- 
mult against St. Paul and his missionary 
companions. [Acts xix., 24.] 

Dem.on, Demoniac. The appellation de- 
mon was given by classical writers to beings 
superior to man, including even the highest 
deities they worshiped. In later speech, the 
demons were regarded as intermediate be- 
tween gods and men — either the spirits of the 
dead or a distinct order of creatures. The 
full idea of a naturally evil and malignant 
character in these beings does not seem de- 
veloped in classical writers. But when Ave 
consider the debased notions popularly en- 
tertained by the heathen respecting the gods 
they worshiped, it is easy to see that the 
step was natural to the belief that there were 
evil demons, bent on moral and phj^sical mis- 
chief, whose enmity must be counteracted 
or bought off by those who would escape its 
effects ; and, though there might be a linger- 
ing idea in the Jewish mind that there were 
good demons as well as bad, yet, generally 
speaking, such spirits were regarded by those 



DEMON, DEMONIAC 



263 



DEMON, DEMONIAC 



who had the knowledge of the true God as 
foul and wicked. These facts are to be borne 
in mind in considering the teaching of the 
Bible on this difficult subject. 

The New Testament, and especially the 
evangelists, repeatedly mention individuals 
whom they describe as possessed by devils.^ 
For the most part, these persons seem to have 
been harmless ; sometimes, however, of a vi- 
olent and dangerous character. The posses- 
sion was often accompanied by physical dis- 
ease — blindness, dumbness, epilepsy. In one 
case it accompanied a disorder which was 
congenital, if not hereditary. The victim 
seems usually to have been possessed of a 
double consciousness. His acts were unwit- 
ting. And when, by the word of Jesus, the 
devil was cast out, and he appeared clothed 
and in his right mind, he was with peculiar 
significance a new creature in Christ Jesus.^ 
In the absence of any scientific diagnosis, it 
is often difficult to identify the diseases of 
which a mere passing and incidental men- 
tion is made in the N. T. The language is 
popular, not scientific — the language of the 
first century, not of the nineteenth. This 
is particularly true of disorders of a mental 
type. It is but lately that mental hygiene 
has been made a subject of scientific study. 
An ambiguity, therefore, surrounds the cases 
so briefly described by the evangelists which 
it is not easy to remove. It has been sup- 
posed by many that they are simply cases 
of what may be termed moral insanity; and 
the parallel between modern forms of moral 
insanity, as it is termed, and the cases of de- 
moniacal possession described in the Bible, 
is certainly striking. In both there is a 
clear recognition of the difiference between 
right and wrong ; in both there is the testi- 
mony of the patient that he is impelled by 
a power beside himself; both are accompa- 
nied sometimes by acts of violence, some- 
times by attempts at suicide ; both are, in 
their worst forms, attended with epileptic 
convulsions ; both are frequently manifest- 
ed in periodic returns of disorder, with inter- 
vals of sanity ; both are sometimes tracea- 
ble to willful self-indulgence in some form 
of sin as their provoking cause ; and in both 
there is at times, in a remarkable degree, 
an appreciation of the character of persons 
with whom the insane are thrown in contact, 
who are sometimes peculiarly affected by the 
presence of persons of a pure and holy char- 
acter.^ The students who have noted these 
parallels will be variously affected by them. 
He who is determined to find a visible and 
material cause for every mental phenome- 
non, will attribute the demoniacal possession 



1 The Greek is Demon.— 'i Matt, xii., 22; Mark ix., 
18, 20, 21 ; Luke viii., 29.-3 Mark i., 24 ; v., 6, 9 ; Matt, 
viii., 28 ; corap. Mark i., 23 ; v., 2, 6, 7, 9 ; ix., 17, 18-22 ; 
Luke iv., 33. The reader who is curious to investigate 
this matter will find a number of such cases recorded 
in Ray's "Medical Jurisprudence," chap, vii,, sec. v., 
pp. 202-260. 



of ancient times to physical causes, and will 
interpret the language of the Gospels in ac- 
cordance with the popular belief of the age. 
He who believes with Hamlet, that " there 
are more things in heaven and earth than are 
dreamed of in our philosophy," will be pre- 
pared to believe with us that the Scriptural 
interpretation of the influence of evil spirits 
affords the most satisfactory and the most 
rational explanation of phenomena which, to 
the present day, afford the students of men- 
tal disease their greatest perplexity. 

However this may be, it is difficult, if not 
impossible, to reconcile the language of the 
N. T. with any other hypothesis than that 
which assumes that there are evil spirits, 
subjects of the Evil One, who, in the days of 
the Lord himself and his apostles, were per- 
mitted by God to exercise a direct influence ° 
over the souls and bodies of certain men. 
The effects of this influence are clearly dif- 
ferent from those of ordinary diseases of 
body and mind. Demoniacs are frequently 
distinguished from those afflicted with bodi- 
ly sickness.^ The demons are represented as 
speaking in their own persons with super- 
human knowledge, and acknowledging our 
Lord to be, not as the Jews generally called 
him, son of David, but Son of God.^ Our 
Lord speaks of demons as personal spirits of 
evil, not only to the multitude, but in his se- 
cret conversations with his disciples declar- 
ing the means and conditions by which pow- 
er over them could be exercised.^ Twice 
also he distinctly connects demoniacal pos- 
session with the power of the Evil One ; once 
in Luke x., 18, to the seventy disciples, where 
he speaks of his power and theirs over de- 
moniacs as a " fall of Satan," and again in 
Matt, xii., 25-30, where he was accused of 
casting out demons through Beelzebub, and, 
instead of giving any hint that the possessed 
were not really under any direct and per- 
sonal power of evil, he uses an argument as 
to the division of Satan against himself, 
which, if possession be unreal, becomes in- 
conclusive and almost insincere. Lastly, 
the single fact recorded in Mark v., 10-14, 
of the entrance of the demons at Gadara into 
the herd of swine, and the effect which that 
entrance caused, is sufficient to overthrow 
the notion that our Lord and the evangelists 
do not assert or imply the reality of demoni- 
acal possession. It is impossible to give to 
that account an interpretation which pre- 
serves its historical truthfulness, and yet 
interprets demoniacal possession as a mere 
mental disease ; for mental disease can not 
possibly be said to leave an insane man, and 
ask and obtain permission to enter a herd of 
swine ! If, therefore, we accept the literal, 
historical truthfulness of the N. T., we must 
accept the doctrine that, whatever may be 



1 Mark i., 32 ; xvi., 17, 18 ; Luke vi., 17, 18.-2 Matt, 
viii., 29 ; Mark i., 24 ; v., 7 ; Luke iv., 41.-3 Matt, xvii., 
21. . 



DEPOSITION 



264 



DERVISH 



tlie case now, in Christ's time evil spirits not 
only influenced, but gained actual control 
of certain men, acting out their demoniacal 
character through the possessed — a doctrine 
which receives some confirmation from such 
histories as that of Saul,^ and such passages 
as Ephes. vi., 11, 12. 

Deposition, the act of deposing a clergy- 
man from his office. It differs from degra- 
dation m that, technically, it only forbids him 
to perform the duties of his office, but does 
not deprive him of orders. The term degra- 
dation, also, is given to the act of degrading 
from a higher to a lower office. Deposition 
differs, again, from deprivation, y^hich. only de- 
prives the clergyman of his parsonage, vic- 
arage, or other office. But these distinctions 
are known only in the liturgical churches. 
In countries where the Church and State are 
united, it can be effected only through the 
ecclesiastical courts, or by the consent and 
concurrence of the civil authorities. In the 
Protestant Episcopal Church of America, the 
distinction between deposition and degra- 
dation is abolished by a canon which pro- 
vides that, where a minister is deposed from 
office, he shall be degraded entirely. See 

DiSCIPLIXE. 

Depravity. By depravity is meant the 
tendency alleged to be inherited from Adam 
through all his descendants, by which men 
are prone to commit sin from their infancy. 
It is distinguished by many theologians from 
sin, which they regard as consisting only in 
voluntary action ; only, i. e., in the act of the 
will yielding to the evil predisposition.'' The 
term total depravity, though it abounds in 
theological treatises, does not appear in Scrip- 
ture. By it, as now commonly employed, is 
not meant that man is as bad as he can be, 
or that he possesses no natural virtues, or 
that there is nothing good in him. At the 
same time it must be confessed that the defi- 
nition of some of the older creeds would give 
this impression. Thus the '^ Westminster Cat- 
echism" describes man as "utterly indisposed, 
disabled, and made opposed unto all that is 
spiritually good, and wholly inclined to all 
evil, and that continually." Generally, how- 
ever, it is readily conceded by modern di- 
vines that man possesses naturally some in- 
clination toward truth, purity, generosity, 
and love, and that those natural inclinations 
are commendable as far as they go ; but it is 
maintained that they do not at all compen- 
sate for a want of supreme controlling love 
toward God. By total depravity, as that 
term is ordinarily employed, is simply meant 
that by nature man is totally unfitted for 
the purpose of his being until born again by 
the Spirit of God. A common popular illus- 
tration of the doctrine is afforded by the case 
of a watch the hair-spring of which isbroken. 
So long as it remains broken, though every 
other part of the watch may be sound, the 



1 Sam. xvi., 14, 23 ; xviii., 10, 11.— " See Sin. 



watch is totally unfitted for its purpose of 
time-keeping, is good for nothing, and might 
be said to be totally depraved. So, whatev- 
er natural virtues a man may possess, until 
the spirit of true holiness is implanted in his 
heart by the Spirit of God, he is wholly un- 
fitted for the end of his creation, viz., to glo- 
rify God, and so may be said to be totally 
depraved. The doctrine of the older theo- 
logians, that there is literally nothing com- 
mendable in a man who is unregenerated, is 
not now generally entertained by any very 
large class of theologians, though doubtless 
it possesses some advocates. 

Deputy, the term by which our transla- 
tors render a Greek word equivalent to the 
Latin proconsul, the governor of a senatorial 
province. He was appointed for one year, 
and discharged the general civil functions, 
without, however, possessing power of life 
and death. [Acts xiii., 7, 8, 12 ; xix., 38.] 

Derbe (perhaps juniper-tree), a small town 
in Lycaonia, probably near the pass called 
the Cilician gates. St. Paul visited Derbe 
repeatedly, and one of his companions when 
proceeding to Jerusalem was Gains of Derbe. 
He was not persecuted in this place, and 
therefore it is not mentioned in 2 Tim. iii., 
11, a minute coincidence conficrming the cred- 
ibility of the sacred narrative. Its exact 
site is uncertain. [Acts xiv., 6, 20 ; xvi., 1 ; 
xviii., 23 ; xix., 1.] , 

Dervish. Dervish is a Persian word sig-, 
nifying poor, corresponding to the Arabic 
/afctr (q. v.). It designates, in Mohamme- 
dan countries, a class of persons resembling 
in many respects the monks of Christendom. 
The dervishes are divided into many dif- 
ferent brotherhoods and orders. They live 
mostly in well-endowed convents, called Tek- 
kye or Changah, and are under a chief, with 
the title of sheik, i. e., elder. Some of the 
monks are married, and allowed to live out 
of the monastery, but must sleep there some 
nights weekly. Their devotional exercises 
consist in meetings for worship, prayers, re- 
ligious dances, and mortifications. As the 
convent does not provide them with cloth- 
ing, they are obliged to work more or less. 

It is difficult to say when these religious 
orders took their rise. From the earliest 
times, pious persons in the East have held 
it to be meritorious to renounce earthly joys, 
to free themselves from the trammels of do- 
mestic and social life, and to devote their 
thoughts in poverty and retirement to the 
contemplation of God. In this sense, pover- 
ty is recommended by Mohammed in the Ko- 
ran. Tradition refers the origin of these or- 
ders to the earliest times of Islam ; but it is 
more probable that they arose later. Many 
Mohammedan princes and Turkish sultans 
have held dervishes in high respect, and be- 
stowed rich endowments on their establish- 
ments, and they are still in high veneration 
with the people. See Dancing. 



DESERT 



265 



DEUTERONOMY 



Desert. In the East wide extended plains 
are usually liable to drouglit and barrenness. 
Hence the Hebrew language describes aplain^ 
a desert, and an unfruitful ivaste by the same i 
word. The term which is in general render- 1 
ed "wilderness" means, properly, a grazing j 
tract. This is very commonly, in Eastern ; 
countries, an extensive plain or steppe, which i 
during the heat of summer becomes utterly | 
parched and bare ; so that the same word 
may denote a region which is desert, and also 
one which at stated seasons contains rich and 
abundant jDastures. This may be perceived, 
even by an English reader, from such pas- 
sages as Psa. Ixv., 12 : " They drop upon the 
pastures of the wilderness ;" and Joel ii., 22 : 
" The pastures of the wilderness do spring." 
These and other passages which speak of the 
desert as rejoicing and as being dried up, 
are well illustrated by the fact that even 
the desert of Arabia, which is utterly burned 
up in summer, is, in winter and spring, cov- 
ered with rich and tender herbage. Whence 
it is that the Ai"abian tribes retreat into 
their deserts on the approach of the autum- 
nal rams, and when the spring has ended 
and the summer drought begun, return to 
the lands of rivers and mountains in search 
of the pastures which the deserts no long- 
er afford. In fact, in our Bible " desert " or 
" wilderness" often means no more than ox)en 
pastures or uncultivated iields. But in the 
greater number of i^assages the idea of ster- 
ility is prominent, especially where what was 
emphatically the desert or wilderness, the 
great wilderness is spoken of. And in com- 
parisons the term is used with exclusive ref- 
erence to this im]3ort, as in Jer. ii., 31 ; Hos. 
ii., 3.* See Arab ah ; Wilderness of the 
Wandering. [Exod. iii., 1 ; v., 3 ; xix., 2 ; 
xxiii., 31 ; 1 Sam. xxiii., 14, 15, 25 ; Psa. Ixv., 
13 ; Ixviii., 7 ; Ixxviii., 40 ; Joel i., 19; Luke 
XV., 4.] 

Deuteronomy {repetition of the law), the 
fifth book of the Pentateuch. In Hebrew 
it is named from the words with which it 
opens ; but the ordinary name of the book is 
derived, through the Septuagiut and Vulgate, 
from the one sometimes employed by the 
Jews, and meaning " the repetition of the 
law." Its contents consist — 1st, of three ad- 
dresses to the people delivered by Moses in 
the eleventh month of the fortieth year after 
the exodus — chap. i. to xxx. ; 2d, of certain 
final acts and words of Moses, viz., the solemn 



1 The following are among the principal deserts 
mentioned in Scripture: The Arabah (q. v.), Josh. 
xviii., IS ; Jeshimou, Numb, xxi., 20 : Shur, or Etham, 
Numb, xxxiii.,8; Exod. xiii., IT; i)esert of Paran, 
Numb. X., 12 ; xiii., 3; Desert of Sinai, Exod. xix. ; 
Desert of Siu, Exod. xvi., 1 ; Desert of Zin, Numb, xx., 
1, both probably parts of the great Arabian Desert ; 
Desert of Judah, Luke i., SO; Desert ofZiph, 1 Sam. 
xxiii., 14, 15; Desert of En-gedi, Josh, xv., 62 ; Desert 
of Carmel, .Josh, xv., 55; Desert of Maon, 1 Sara, xxiii., 
24; Desert of Tekoa, 2 Chron. xx.,20 ; probably only 
parts of the Desert of Judah ; Desert of Jericho, Jer. 
iii., 8 ; Desert of Beth-aven, Josh. sviiL, 12 ; Desert of 
Damascus, 1 Kings xix., 15. 



appointment of his successor, his so:^g, and 
blessing, which, together with the account of 
his death, form an appropriate conclusion to 
the book and to the whole Pentateuch. The 
second, and much the shorter part of the book, 
containing the thirty-first and three follow- 
ing chapters, was probably added to the rest 
by Joshua, or some other duly authorized 
prophet or leader of the people, after the 
death of Moses. The three addresses, which 
constitute seven-eighths of the contents of 
Deuteronomy, reflect very clearly the circum- 
stances which attended their delivery. They 
were spoken within a very few days, and must 
all be placed chronologically in the first ten 
days of the eleventh month in the fortieth 
year. They exhibit a unity of style and char- 
acter which is strikingly consistent with such 
circumstances. They are pervaded by the 
same vein of thought, the same tone and tenor 
of feeling, the same peculiarities of concep- 
tion and expression. They exhibit matter 
which is neither documentary nor tradition- 
al, but conveyed in the speaker's own words. 
Their aim is strictly hortatory, theu^ style ear- 
nest, heart-stirring, impressive, in passages 
sublime, but rhetorical throughout ; they 
keep constantly in view the circumstances 
then present, and the crisis to which the for- 
tunes of Israel had at last been brought. 
Moses had before him not the men to whom 
by God's command he delivered the law at Si- 
nai, but the generation following which had 
grown up in the wilderness. Large portions 
of the law necessarily stood in abeyance dur- 
ing the years of wandering ; but now, on their 
entry into settled homes*in Canaan, a thor- 
ough discharge of the various obligations 
laid on them by the covenant would become 
imperative ; and it is to this state of things 
that Moses addresses himself. He speaks to 
hearers neither ignorant of the law, nor yet 
fully versed in it. Much is assumed and 
taken for granted in his speeches ; again, on 
other matters he goes into detail, knowing 
that instruction in them was needed. Some- ^ 
times, too, opportunity is taken of promul- 
gating relations which are supplementary or '^ 
auxiliary to those of the preceding books ; 
some few modifications, suggested by longer 
experience or altered circumstances, are 
made ; and the whole Mosaic system is com- 
pleted by the addition of several enactments 
in chaps, xii. to xxvi., of a social, civil, and 
political nature. These would have been su- 
perfluous during the nomadic life of the des- 
ert ; but now, when the permanent organi- 
zation of Israel as a nation was to be accom- 
plished, they could not be longer deferred. -^ 
Accordingly, the legislator provides for his 
people civil institutions accredited by the 
same divine sanctions as had been vouch- 
safed to their religious rites. It is, then, not 
quite accurate to speak of Deuteronomy as 
merely a recapitulation of things command- 
ed and done in the preceding books, nor yet 



DEUTERONOMY 



266 



DEVIL 



as properly a compendium and summary of I 
the law. Still less is it a manual compiled 
for the instruction of those wholly ignorant 
of the law. The phrase used in chap, i., 5, ex- 
actly indicates the task Moses undertook in 
the closing month of his life, and the rela- 
tion of this book to the preceding ones. He 
"began," or, rather, " undertook," " took upon 
himself," to " declare this law," i. e., explain 
and elucidate it. Such is the force of the He- 
brew verb, a word implying the pre-existence 
of the matter on which the process is em- 
ployed, and so the substantial identity of the 
Deuteronomic legislation with that of the 
previous books. It is thus quite in keeping 
that the various commandments are given 
in Deuteronomy as injunctions of Moses, and 
not, as before, directly in the name of God. 
Deuteronomy is an authoritative and in- 
spired commentary on the law, serving in 
some respects also as a supplement and cod- 
icil to it. The preceding books displayed 
Moses principally in the capacity of legisla- 
tor or annalist. Deuteronomy sets him be- 
fore us in the character of a prophet. And 
he not only warns and teaches with an au- 
thority and energy which the sublimest 
pages of the later prophets do not surpass, 
but he delivers some of the most notable and 
incontrovertible predictions to be found in 
the O. T. The prophecy in xviii., 18, finds its 
fulfillment in the Messiah, who stands alone 
as the only complete counterpart of Moses, 
and the one greater than he. The punish- 
ments so minutely and pointedly denounced 
so many years before the destruction of the 
Jewish commonwealth by the Romans, which 
so strikingly realized them, furnish an argu- 
ment for prophecy that can not be gainsaid 
or evaded. We can not walk the streets of 
our cities without beholding its fulfillment.^ 
Referring to the article Pentateuch for 
the general discussion as to the unity, an- 
tiquity, authorship, and credibility of that 
portion of Scripture ascribed to Moses, it is 
only necessary to remark in this place that 
it is generally allowed that Deuteronomy 
must in substance have come from one hand. 
The song and the blessing have indeed been 
regarded by some few critics as independ- 
ent poems, incorporated by the writer into 
his work ; but, on the whole, the processes 
applied by many writers so freely to the rest 
of the Pentateuch, the processes of disinte- 
gration and partition of contents among a 
number of supposed writers of different 
dates, have been admitted by themselves to 
be inapplicable to Deuteronomy. Its char- 
acteristics, as above indicated, are in full ac- 
cord with the traditional view which ascribes 
the book to Moses; and this conclusion is 
not in the least shaken either by the ear- 
lier critics, who unhesitatingly affirmed that 
Deuteronomy was written long after the 
rest of the Pentateucli, or by the newer 
- 1 Deut. xxviii., 15-68 ; see especially verses 64-66. 



school, which sees no less certainly in Deu- 
teronomy the most ancient part of the Pen- 
tateuch, the primeval quarry out of which 
the writers of the preceding books drew their 
materials. 

Devil, the term given in the N. T. to the 
spirit of evil. He is called in the O. T. Satan, 
a Hebrew term with the same signification 
as the Greek diabolos, i. e., accuser. He is also 
called Apollyon and Abaddon, and is char- 
acterized as the " prince of this world," and 
the "prince of the power of the air."^ 

Belief in such an evil spiiit is almost uni- 
versal. It is in accordance with reason, an- 
alogy, and personal experience. That there 
are men who are actuated by the same ma- 
licious feelings and purposes which in Scrip- 
ture are attributed to Satan, is very clear, 
and there is no reason to suppose that in 
dropping their human bodies they would 
lose any thing of their malicious character ; 
nor is there any thing irrational in suppo- 
sing that disembodied spirits may be actu- 
ated by a similar spirit, and that among 
them there may be one who is a prince of 
wickedness among his fellows. The com- 
mon experience of mankmd in receiving sug- 
gestions of evil, they know not whence, so 
graphically portrayed by Bunyan in his de- 
scription of the Christian walking through 
the Valley of the Shadow of Death, confirms 
also these analogies. And it is largely, per- 
haps, on this dim light of nature that the all 
but universal belief in an evil spirit, or per- 
sonal devil, has been built up. It is, at all 
events, impossible for those who accept the 
Bible as a divine revelation to doubt the 
fact, though numberless attempts have been 
made to show that the belief, admitted to 
be recognized in the Scripture, was borrowed 
by the Jews from the Persians, and referred 
to by the N. T. writers, and especially by 
Christ, only in accommodation to a popular 
error which it was not important to correct. 

Concerning the origin and history of the 
devil. Scripture gives us much less informa- 
tion than many persons suppose. A great 
deal of what passes for Scriptural doctrine 
on this point is derived from ancient legends. 
The O. T. teaches very little. The N. T. is 
more explicit, yet its revelations are brief 
and fragmentary. Satan and his angels are 
declared to be fallen spirits. The everlast- 
ing fire, in which the wicked generally are 
to have their final doom, is that which has 
been primarily prepared for the devil and 
his angels, who are described as " the angels 
that kept not their first estate, but left their 
own habitation," or as "the angels who sin- 
ned," and who, in consequence, were " cast 
down to hell, and delivered into chains of 
darkness, to be reserved unto judgment."^ 
But how this sinning came about we are not 
told, the popular conception which attrib- 

i John xii., 31 ; xiv., 30 ; xvi., 11 ; Eph. ii., 2.-2 Matt. 
xx;v.,41; 2Pet.ii.,4; Jude6. 



DIAL 



267 



DIAL 



utes it to pride being derived more from 
Milton than from Scripture. But there is 
one respect in whicli the testimony of the 
Bible is unequivocal — a point which makes 
the distinction very clear between the Chris- 
tian belief in a personal devil, and that of 
the ancient Persians in Ahriman, and that 
of the Hindoos of to-day in Siva, from which 
the Christian belief is sometimes said to be 
derived. The Satan of the Bible is always 
represented as inferior and subordinate to 
God. As he has no independent existence, 
so he has no sovereign dominion. His sphere 
of operations is on every hand bounded, in 
subordination to the purposes of the divine 
government. He can work only where God 
permits him, and in such ways as can be 
made subservient to the accomplishment of 
the purposes of Heaven.^ Whatever temp- 
tations, therefore, believers be exposed to, 
they can be subject to no violence ; a re- 
straint is laid upon the movements of the ad- 
versary ; and if they resist him, he must flee.^ 
This distinction is the more important to be 
observed, because the popular conceptions, 
being derived from erroneous sources, are 
not only not always Scriptural, but are oft- 
en in direct conflict with Scripture. The 
medieval conception of the devil is a gro- 
tesque compound of elements, derived from 
the pagan mythology whicli Christianity 
superseded. The giants who attempted to 
scale . Olympus, the classic, belt-bound Cer- 
berus, the sylvan deity Pan, the musical god 
Orpheus, the classic fire -god Vulcan, the 
Scandinavian god Thor, all enter into the 
conception of the devil as he appears in 
these ancient and curious legends, so that it 
almost seems as though the conception of 
his character had been made up of the hea- 
then gods. 

That worship should be paid to the devil 
will not appear strange, after observing the 
fact that the word itself is the same as that 
employed by heathen nations for their deity, 
and further observing that fear and terror 
have oftener been the basis of worship among 
the ignorant and superstitious than rever- 
ence and love. The Hebrews are distinct- 
ly charged with worshiping devils^ (though 
this may merely mean false gods), and the 
worship of evil spirits is still maintained 
among the hill tribes of Hindoostan, and 
among many of the degraded tribes of Afri- 
ca. There are also in Turkey what are 
known as devil- worshipers, but their relig- 
ion is probably a product of Zoroastriauism, 
aud their devil only the Ahriman (q. v.) of 
Persia. 

Dial. This word occurs only once in our 
English Bibles, and it is matter of some 
doubt whether even that once is not too 
much. It is in the account given of the 
miraculous sign which was granted to Heze- 



kiah regarding his recovery from an appar- 
ently hopeless disease, when the sun's shad- 
ow, it is said, went '* ten degrees backward, 
by which it had gone down in the dial of 
Ahaz.'" The word here rendered dial is the 
same that is translated degrees in the earlier 
part of the verse ; and its usual meaning is, 
beyond doubt, degrees or steps. These de- 
grees or steps of Ahaz must have been some- 
how adapted for marking, by the incidence 
of a shadow, the progression of the sun's 
daily course ; but what they were it is im- 
possible to determine. Ahaz appears to have 
had a taste for curious things,^ and might 
have borrowed this dial from some foreign 
pattern. Some have imagined it a hemispher- 
ical cavity in a horizontal square stone, pro- 
vided with a gnomon, or index, in the mid- 
dle, the shadow of which fell on different lines 
cut in the hollow surface : some think that 
it was a vertical index surrounded by twelve 
concentric circles ; while some, with perhaps 
greater probability, believe it an obelisk- 
like pillar, set up in an open, elevated place, 
with encircling steps, on which the shadow 
fell. It would seem probable, from the cir- 
cumstances, that it was of such a size, and 
so placed, that Hezekiah, now convalescent, 
but not perfectly recovered, could witness 
the miracle from his chamber or pavilion. 
May it not have been situated " in the mid- 
dle court ?"^ The annexed cut represents an 
Indian dial discovered in Hindoostan, near 
Delphi, which seems to have answered the 
double purpose of an observatory and a dial, 
and would well suit the circumstances re- 
corded of the dial of Ahaz. 




1 2 Sam. xxiv., 1 ; 1 Chron. xxi., 1 ; Job i. ; 2 Cor. xii, 
7.-2 Jas. iv., 7.-3 Deut. xxxii., 17. 



In regard to the sign performed upon the 
instrument in question, there can be no doubt 
that it was, in the strict sense of the term, 
miraculous; only by being so could it have 
served the purpose for which it was given. 
But as the representation is made in popular 
language, and according to the apparent phe- 
nomena, we have no reason to suppose that 
there was any change in the real motion of 
the heavenly bodies ; the shadow was made 
to move backward ten degrees, as if the sun 
itself had so far retrograded ; but the effect 
was no doubt produced by some divine op- 



2 Kiugs XX.; 11.— 2 2 Kiugs xvi., 10.— 3 2 Kings xx., 4. 



DIAMOND 



268 



DIANA 



eration of a merely local nature, since the ef- 
fect could not otherwise have been confined 
to a particular instrument or structure be- 
longing to the palace in Jerusalem. 

Diamond. Two Hebrew words are thus 
translated, one of which is also translated 
adamant (q. v.). The other word, which is 
used in describing the gems of the high- 
priest's garment, signifies evidently a very 
beautiful stone ; but whether the modern 
diamond, the jasper, or the onyx, is uncer- 
tain. [Exod. xxviii., 18 ; xxxix., 11 ; Ezek. 
xxviii., 13.] 

Diana. The Roman divinity Diana, iden- 
tical with the Greek Artemis, is a goddess 
known under various modifications, and with 
almost incompatible attributes. She was the 
daughter of Jupiter and Latona, and the sis- 
ter of Apollo. She was the goddess of hunt- 
ing, and is usually represented as armed with 
a bow, quiver, and arrows. But the worship 
of Artemis or Diana, as practiced at Ephe- 
8US, was evidently of Eastern and not of 




Image of the Egyptian Diana. 



Greek origin. Greek polytheism never would 
have conceived such a representation of the 
goddess as the " image which fell from heav- 
en," which was enshrined in the temple at 
Ephesus. Instead of the superb Diana of the 
chase, this idol consisted of a rude image 
shaped like a mummy, and covered with 
mystic symbols, wearing upon the head a 




Ephesiau Coin with Diana's Temple. 

mural crown, and holding in each hand a 
bar of metal. It had many breasts, and was 
evidently symbolical of the productive pow- 
ers of nature, and undoubtedly a representa- 
tion of the same power, presiding over con- 
ception and birth, which was adored in Pal- 
estine under the name of Ashtoreth (q. v.). 
This image was lodged in the most famous 
temple of the ancient world. The sun, it 
was said, saw nothing in its course more 
magnificent than Diana's temple. Leaving 
out of consideration the earlier temples, the 
foundations of the great edifice were laid by 
Theodorus about 500 B.C., on marshy ground, 
to obviate the efiect of earthquakes. These 
foundations consisted of immense masses of 
marble, over which was laid a deep bed of 
charcoal and wool, well rammed down. All 
the Greek cities of Asia contributed to the 
structure, and Croesus, the king of Lydia, 
lent his aid. This work was partially burned 
in the year 400 B.C., but was rebuilt with 
such magnificence as to inspire a fanatic 
named Herostratus with the idea of perpet- 
uating his name by destroying it. This he 
effected by fire in the year 356 B.C., the same 
night on which Alexander the Great was 
born. The inhabitants exerted themselves 
to the utmost to restore it on a still more en- 
larged scale, the Ephesian women freely giv- 
ing their gold and jewels. It was at last fin- 
ished, after two hundred and twenty years 
of building, and was justly accounted one of 
the wonders of the world. It exhibited the 
most perfect example of the graceful Ionic 
style, and was four hundred and twenty-five 
feet long by two hundred and twenty broad 
— the largest of known Greek temples. Its 
columns were sixty feet high, and about one 
hundred and twenty in number, and thirty- 
six of them were ornamented with inlaid 
metals. Its value was enhanced by its be- 
ing the treasury in which a large portion of 
the wealth of Western Asia was stored up. 
There w^as probably no religious building in 



DIBON 



269 



DIET 



tlie world in which was concentrated a great- 
er amount of admiration, enthusiasm, and 
superstition. Alexander offered the spoils 
of his Eastern campaign if he might inscribe 
his name on the building, but the honor was 
declined. The Ephesians never ceased to 
embellish the shriue of their goddess, and 
were continually adding new decorations 
and subsidiary buildings, with statues and 
pictures by the most famous artists. This 
was the temple that kindled the enthusiasm 
of St. Paul's opponents, and was still the ral- 
ly ing-poiut of heathenism in the days of St. 
John and Polycarp. In the second century 
it was united to the city by a long colon- 
nade, but was soon after destroyed by the 
Goths. In the age when Christianity was 
overspreading the empire, it sunk entirely 
into decay, and its remains are to be sought 
for chiefly in medieval buildings, in the col- 
umns of green jasper which support the dome 
of St. Sophia, and even in the naves of Italian 
cathedrals. [Acts xix., 24 sq.] 

Dibon, a town on the east side of the Jor- 
dan, originally belonging to Moab.^ It was 
rebuilt by the tribe of Gad, and hence was 
called Dilbon-Gad.^ In later times it revert- 
ed to the Moabites, and is mentioned among 
the cities against which the divine judg- 
ments were pronounced.^ A place called 
Dhiban has been discovered by modern trav- 
elers in the same region, which is supposed 
to be the representative of the ancient city. 
The ruins are of some extent. There was 
another place of the same name, which was 
re-inhabited by the tribe of Judah after the 
return from the captivity.* It is probably 
the same as the Dimonah mentioned in Josh. 
XV., 22. 

Dies Irae {day of wrath), the name gen- 
erally given (from the opening words) to the 
famous medieval hymn on the Last Judg- 
ment. The authorship of the hynm has 
been ascribed to various persons ; but in all 
probability it proceeded from the pen of the 
Franciscan, Thomas of Celano, who died 
about the year 1255. It is uncertain when 
this hymn was adopted as a portion of the 
service of the mass by the Romish churches, 
though it was undoubtedly as early as the 
fourteenth century. Although by all Chris- 
tendom it is acknowledged the greatest of 
hymns, possessing a strange fascination, its 
form is very simple. The rhyme is criti- 
cised as wanting in dignity, the measure is 
artless, and yet the sound, even when its 
meaning is not understood, almost always 
inspires awe. In appearance easy to be 
translated, in fact its subtle power has baf- 
fled the best translators, and not one of the 
many versions possesses the grandeur of the 
original. A German theologian has collect- 
ed eighty -seven translations, the greater 



1 Josh, xiii., 17; Numb, xxi., 30.— 2 Numb, xxxii., 34; 
xxxiii., 45, 46.-3 i^a, xv., 2 ; Jer. xlvii., IS, 22.—* Neh. 
xL, 25. 



number being in German. The task of ren- 
dering the Latin into English verse of the 
same measure is very difftcult. Some trans- 
lators have aimed to preserve the form, and 
others the power of the original, but none 
have succeeded in giving both, though some 
version of the hymn is to be found in almost 
every Christian hymn-book. Perhaps the 
most popular of these, though it should, per- 
haps, be called a paraphrase rather than a 
translation, is the one which is taken from 
Sir Walter Scott's ''Lay of the Last Min- 
strel," commencing " That day of wrath, that 
dreadful day." The spirit of the original is 
here reproduced Avith a vividness that noth- 
ing else in our language equals. 

Diet, the title formerly given to the as- 
sembly of the states of Germany. The Diet 
shared with the emperor the rights of sover- 
eignty, except in a few cases reserved to the 
emperor. It consisted of three chambers. 
To be valid, a resolution had to be adopt- 
ed by all three, and to be sanctioned by the 
emperor. In a particular chamber a ma- 
jority of votes was in most cases suflicient, 
but religious questions formed an excep- 
tion. The following are the principal Diets 
held in reference to the Reformation : 1. Tlie 
Diet of Worms, 1521. In this assembly, Lu- 
ther being charged by the pope's nuncio 
with heresy, and refusing to recant, the 
emperor, by his edict of May 26, before all 
the princes of Germany, publicly outlawed 
him. 2. The Diet of Nuremberg, 1.523. Here 
Pope Adrian VI.'s nuncio demanded the exe- 
cution of Leo X.'s bull, and Charles V.'s edict 
against Luther. But the assembly drew up 
a list of grievances, which were reduced to 
a hundred articles, some whereof aimed at 
the destruction of the pope's authority and 
the discipline of the Romish Church ; how- 
ever, they consented that the Lutherans 
should be commanded not to write against 
the Roman Catholics. 3. The Second Diet of 
Nuremherg, 1524. In this assembly, the Lu- 
therans having the advantage, it was de- 
creed that the pope should call a council in 
Germany ; but that, in the mean time, an as- 
sembly should be held at Spire to determine 
what was to be believed and practiced, but 
Charles V. prohibited the holding this as- 
sembly. 4. Tlie Diet of Spire, 1526. In this 
assembly, the Dnke of Saxony and the Land- 
grave of Hesse demanded the free exercise 
of the Lutheran religion ; upon which it was 
decreed that the emperor should be desired to 
call a general or national council in Germany 
within a year, and that in the mean time 
every one should have liberty of conscience. 
5. The Diet of Spire, 1529, decreed that in the 
countries which had embraced the new relig- 
ion, it should be lawful to continue in it till 
the next council, but that no Roman Cath- 
olic should be allowed to turn Lutheran. 
Against this decree, six Lutheran princes, 
with the deputies of fourteen imperial towns, 



DIMISSORY LETTERS 



270 



DIRECTORY 



protested in writing; from which solemn 
X)rotestation came the famous name of Prot- 
estants, which the Lutherans presently af- 
ter took. 6. The Diet of Augsburg , 1530, was 
assembled to reunite the princes of the em- 
pire in relation to some religious matters. 
The Elector of Saxony, followed by several 
princes, presented the Confession of Faith, 
called the Confession of Augsburg. The em- 
peror ended the Diet with a decree that no 
alteration should be made in the doctrines 
and ceremonies of the Romish Church till 
the council should order it otherwise. 7. 
The Diet of Batishon, 1541, was held for re- 
uniting the Protestants with the Roman 
Catholics. The emx)eror named three Ro- 
man Catholics and three Protestant divines, 
to agree upon articles ; but, after a whole 
month's consultation, they could agree upon 
no more than tive or six articles, which the 
emperor consented the Protestants should 
retain, forbidding them to solicit any body 
to change the ancient religion. 8. The Diet 
of Batishon, 1546, decreed thctt the Council of 
Trent was to be followed, which was op- 
posed by the Protestant deputies, and this 
caused a war against them. 9. The Second 
Diet of Augsburg, 1547, was held on account 
of the electors being divided concerniDg the 
decisions of the Council of Trent. The em- 
peror demanded that the management of 
that affair should be referred to him ; and it 
was resolved that every one should conform 
to the decisions of the council. 10. The Third 
Diet of Augshurg, 1548, was assembled to ex- 
amine some memorials relating to the Con- 
fession of Faith ; but the commissioners not 
agreeing together, the emperor named three 
divines, who drew the design of the famous 
Interim (q. v.). 11. The Fourth Diet of Augs- 
hurg, 1550. In this assembly the emperor 
complained that the Interim was not ob- 
served, and demanded that all should sub- 
mit to the council, which they were going 
to renew at Trent, which submission was re- 
solved upon by a plurality of votes. 12. 
The Fifth Diet of Augshurg, 1555. At this Diet 
the " Religious Peace of Augsburg " was 
concluded, which regulated the civil rela- 
tions of the Evangelicals or Lutherans. Ac- 
cording to this agreement, no state of the 
German Empire was to be disturbed on ac- 
count of its religious and ecclesiastical us- 
ages ; religious controversies were to be 
compromised by Christian, amicable, and 
peaceable means ; the episcopal jurisdiction 
was suspended with regard to the faith and 
religious worship of Evangelicals ; free emi- 
gration on account of religion was guaran- 
tied. This agreement was to continue even 
if a religious reunion should not be effected. 
Dimissory Letters. In the Church of 
England, dimissory letters are those which 
are given by a bishop to a candidate for holy 
orders having a title in his diocese, directed 
to some other bishop, and authorizing the 



bearer to be ordained by him. When a per- 
son produces letters of ordination conferred 
by any other than his own diocesan, he must 
at the same time produce the letters dimis- 
sory given by his own bishop. 

Dinah (judged, acquitted, or avenged), the 
daughter of Jacob and Leah. The history 
of her visiting the daughters of the heathen 
inhabitants of the land, of her defilement by 
Shechem, and of the treacherous and bloody 
revenge taken by her brothers Simeon and 
Levi, are recorded in Genesis chap, xxxiv. 
Nothing more is certainly known of her: 
she probably accompanied her family into 
Egypt. [Gen. XXX., 21 ; xxxiv.; xlvi., 15.] 

Diocese. Originally a diocese meant the 
collection of churches or congregations un- 
der the charge of an archbishop. The name 
afterward came to be applied to the charge 
of a bishop which had previously been call- 
ed a parish. A diocese is now synonymous 
with the see of a bishop. The Church of 
England now includes twenty-eight dioceses ; 
that of Ireland, twelve. In the United States 
a diocese is an ecclesiastical territory un- 
der the jurisdiction of a single bishop of 
the Protestant Episcopal or ;^mish Church. 
There were in the United States, in 1871, in 
the Protestant Episcopal Church of Ameri- 
ca, thirty-nine dioceses ; in the Roman Cath- 
olic Church, fifty-two. 

Dionysius the Areopagite, an eminent 
Athenian, converted to Christianity by the 
preaching of St. Paul. He is said to have 
been first bishop of Athens. The writings 
which were once attributed to him are now 
confessed to be the production of some Neo- 
platonists of the sixth century. [Acts xvii., 
34.] 

Diptychs, church registers, so called be- 
cause they were originally tablets folded in 
two leaves, wherein, among the early Chris- 
tians, were recorded the names of bishops 
and other brethren, whether deceased or liv- 
ing, who were entitled to have their names 
mentioned in the celebration of the Liturgy, 
from having rendered any signal service to 
the Church. When a member of the Church 
was excommunicated, his name was erased 
from the diptych. They are still in use in 
the Greek Church. In Christian art, a dip- 
tych is an altar-painting in two pieces, which 
may be folded together, and which contains 
paintings on both the interior and exterior 
surfaces. 

Directory, a set of rules for worship and 
ordination, drawn up to take the place of 
the Liturgy, or Book of Common Prayer, by 
the Westminster Assembly of Divines. The 
same ordinance which established the Di- 
rectory repealed the acts of Edward VI. and 
Elizabeth by which the Liturgy was estab- 
lished, and forbade the use of it within any 
church, chapel, or place of public worship in 
Englaud or Wales, appointing the use of the 
Directory in its stead. This ordinance, in- 



DISCIPLINE 



271 



DISCIPLINE 



deed, never received the royal assent, and it 
was a long time before it succeeded in abol- 
ishing the established worship. In some 
parts the Directory could not be procured, in 
others it was rejected ; some ministers would 
not read any form, others read one of their 
own. The Parliament, therefore, in the en- 
suing summer, called in all the Books of Com- 
mon Prayer, and imposed a fine upon such 
ministers as should read any other form than 
that imposed by the Directory. Though of 
course the Book of Common Prayer was re- 
established with the re-establishment of the 
Episcopal Church, still the Directory is part- 
ly adhered to by Presbyterians in the British 
Isles. 

Discipline, a term used ecclesiastically to 
denote the rules and methods employed for 
preserving the purity of the Church, either 
by punishing offenders against its canons, or 
by withdrawing from all fellowship, and so 
from all responsibility for their conduct. 

I. Jewish. — According to the Jewish schol- 
ars, there were three kinds of discipline 
known in the ancient synagogues, all of 
which are entitled excommunication or cutting 
off. Excommunication in the slightest de- 
gree was separation from the synagogue, and 
the suspension of intercoiirse with all Jews 
whatever, even with one's wife and domes- 
tics. A person who had exposed himself to 
excommunication of this sort was not allow- 
ed to approach another nearer than a dis- 
tance of four cubits. This separation was 
continued for thirty days ; and in case the 
excommunicated person did not repent, the 
time might be doubled or tripled, even when 
the transgression, by means of which it was 
incurred, was of small consequence. The 
second degree of excommunication is de- 
nominated the curse, and was more severe in 
its effects. It was pronounced with impre- 
cations, in the presence of ten men, and so 
thoroughly excluded the guilty person from 
all communion whatever with his country- 
men, that they were not allowed to sell him 
any thing, even the necessaries of life. The 
third degree of excommunication was more se- 
vere in its consequences than either of the 
preceding. It was a solemn and absolute 
exclusion from all intercourse and commun- 
ion with any other individuals of the nation ; 
and the criminal was left in the hands, and 
to the justice of God. It is thought prob- 
able that in the time of Christ the second 
degree of excommunication was not distin- 
guished from the third, and that both were 
expressed by the phraseology which is used 
in 1 Cor. v., 5, and in 1 Tim. i., 20, viz., to de- 
liver to Satan for the destruction of the flesh. 

II. Christian. — Christ gives, in Matthew 
xviii,, 15-17, explicit directions as to disci- 
pline in the future Church. In these direc- 
tions, apparently, three steps are recognized 
in all cases of private wrong : first, the of- 
fender is to be privately visited and reason- 



ed with ; then, if that be unsuccessful, a sec- 
ond attempt is to be made with witnesses to 
secure legal evidence perhaps, but also pos- 
sibly as a self-restraint, since disinterested 
witnesses might be able to reconcile the par- 
ties and prevent injustice in the accuser. 
If this be unsuccessful, then the offense may 
be brought before the Church, i. e., says Al- 
ford, '^before the congregation of Christ." 
'' That it can not mean the Church as repre- 
sented by her rulers, appears by verses 19, 
20, where any collection of believers is gift- 
ed with the power of deciding in such cases. 
Nothing could be further from the spirit of 
our Lord's command, than proceedings in 
what were oddly enough called ecclesiastical 
courts."* These were, as we shall presently 
see, of later origin. In case the ofiender 
would not hear the Church, no penalties are 
provided. " Let him be as an heathen man 
and a publican." This is the whole extent 
of punishment justified by Christ. And this 
simply signifies that the Church should with- 
draw all fellowship, and cease to regard him 
as a Christian brother. In other words, all 
that Christ allows, even in the last extremi- 
ty, is that the Church take such act that it 
can no longer be held responsible for the of- 
fense of its offending member, and leave him 
to himself/ to render his account to God. 
These are the general principles. Their ap- 
plication receives illustration from other pas- 
sages in the N. T., especially from Paul's di- 
rections to the Church at Corinth.^ 

III. Medieval Discipline. — In two respects 
the Church gradually departed from the 
principles which Christ laid down respect- 
ing discipline to be administered by the 
congregation of Christ. It seems clear that 
the action of the laity was requisite, as late 
as the middle of the third century, in all 
disciplinary proceedings of the Church. But 
from about the middle of the fourth century, 
the bishops assumed the control of the whole 
penal jurisdiction of the Church. The peo- 
ple, accordingly, ceased to watch for the pu- 
rity of the Church, connived at offenses, and 
concealed the offender, not caring to inter- 
fere Avith the prerogative of the bishop, in 
which they had no further interest. This 
transition changed essentially the relations 
of the officers to the members of the Church, 
and the conditions of Church membership. 
The officers of the Church, instead of receiv- 
ing authority and office from that body for 
their service, claimed authority and commis- 
sion from God for the exercise of their func- 
tions. They became the rulers, not the serv- 
ants, of the Church. 

While the clergy thus usurped the func- 
tions of the Church, they also changed the 
nature of the punishment. At first disci- 
pline was a mere spiritual act. It deprived 
the offender of none of his natural or civil 
rights. Offenders Avere publicly rebuked, 



1 Alford ou Matt, xviii., 17.-2 i Cor. v. ; '2 Cor. ii., 1-11. 



DISCIPLINE 



272 



DISMISSION 



snspended from communion, expelled from 
the Church, excluded from its privileges, but 
this was all. Then corporal puuishmeut was 
inflicted on minors and children. Little by 
little the idea of civil punishment was ex- 
tended, until at length, as the result of ex- 
communication, the offender was handed 
over to the civil authorities for punishment, 
and even whole communities were laid un- 
der a ban which threw society into anarchy.^ 
In the second of these respects, the Prot- 
estant churches have universally returned 
to the N. T. principles respecting discipline. 
They do not claim to enforce the decrees of 
the Church by civil punishments, or to do 
aught else in the case of the extremest of- 
fender than to withdraw all fellowship, cut 
him off from the privilege of Church mem- 
bership, and leave him to his own way. In 
respect to the method of trial, there is no 
agreement between them. Where the Church 
is established by law, as in England, and re- 
ligious privileges carry with them civil and 
political rights, discipline in most, if not 
all, cases can be effected only by means of 
ecclesiastical courts. In the Presbyterian 
Church, discipline is exercised by the Ses- 
sion, whence an appeal lies to the Presby- 
tery, and hence to the Synod, and finally to 
the General Assembly. In the Methodist 
Church, trial is had before a committee, the 
pastor presiding. An appeal lies to the 
Quarterly and Annual Conferences. In the 
Church of England, every parish is commit- 
ted to the government of the minister, with 
the assistance of the church-wardens, who are 
the guardians of public morals and ecclesias- 
tical disciplipe within their precincts. These 
lay officers of the Church are bound by their 
oath to return the names of all loose and 
scandalous livers into the ecclesiastical court 
of the diocese at least once a year. If the 
church- wardens neglect their duty, the min- 
ister may take the business of prosecuting 
offenders into his own hands. If the party 
accused be convicted of the crime, he may 
be excommunicated, and not admitted to the 
sacrament, or any communion, in divine of- 
fices, and be condemned in the costs of the 
suit. There is also what is termed the 
"Greater Excommunication," whereby the 
offender is cut off from all commerce with 
Christians, even in temporal affairs. This 
must be pronounced by the bishop. Such, 
at least, is the mode of discipline which is 
sanctioned by the canon law of the Church 
of England, but the exercise of discipline in 
that Church has fallen into disuse. In Amer- 
ica, of course, ecclesiastical courts are un- 
known. In the Episcopal Church, the pastor 
has a right to suspend from the communion 
any one whose conduct is such that, by his 
coming, the congregation would be offended. 
The action of the pastor and church- wardens 
is, however, subject to revision by the bish- 



* See Auto-da-fe ; Intebdiot. 



op, on the complaint of the accused. The 
particular method of proceeding in each dio- 
cese is determined by the canons of that 
diocese. In the Congregational churches, 
including the Baptist and Unitarian, and 
others whose polity is Congregational, dis- 
cipline is administered directly by the local 
church. The final judgment is rendered by 
the vote of the members, and from it there 
is no appeal. 

Discipline is still generally of three kinds : 
Public Censure, Suspension, and Excommu- 
nication (q. v.). The question has arisen in 
many modern churches. What shall be done 
in those cases in which a church practically 
loses all power over, and fellowship with a 
member, without any flagrant fault on his 
part, as where he leaves the place and does 
not subsequently commune with the church, 
or where, from conscientious scruples of any 
kind, he ceases to commune with it ? Some 
churches have introduced the practice of 
withdrawing watch and care, and striking 
the name from the roll in such cases, with- 
out proceeding to a formal trial, or to an ex- 
communication. For some account of dis- 
cipline of the clergy, see Deposition. See 
also Anathema; Excommunication; and 
Interdict. 

Discipline (Book of), in the Methodist Epis- 
copal Church, is a volume published quad- 
renially, after the sessions of the General Con- 
ference, and entitled " The Doctrines and Dis- 
cipline of the Methodist Episcopal Church." 
It is divided into six parts : 1. Origin, Doc- 
trines, and General Rules ; 2. Government of 
the Church ; 3. Administration of Discipline ; 
4. Ritual; 5. Education and Benevolent Insti- 
tutions ; 6. Temporal Economy. All but the 
constitutional portions are liable to change 
under the authority of the General Confer- 
ence. 

Discipline (First and Second Books of). 
An important document drawn up by the 
Scottish Reformers in 1560, containing a plan 
of order, government, and discipline of the 
Church of Scotland. When completed, it 
was cordially approved of by the General 
Assembly, but, when submitted to the Privy 
Council, it was so warmly opposed that it 
never received a formal ratification. Not- 
withstanding this, however, the Church has 
been accustomed to regard it as a standard 
book for the regulation of her practice and 
the guidance of her decisions. A second 
book of discipline was drawn up by a com- 
mittee of the General Assembly of the Church 
of Scotland, and sanctioned by the Assembly 
in 1578. It was never ratified by Parlia- 
ment, but it has continued down to the pres- 
ent day to be regarded as the authorized 
standard of the Church of Scotland, in so far 
as government and discipline are concerned. 

Dismission. In the ancient Church it 
was customary for any one about to travel 
to take with him letters of credence from his 



DISPENSATIONS 



273 



DISSENTERS 



own bishop, if lie wished to communicate 
with a church in another country. These 
letters were of different sorts, according to 
the occasion, or the quahty of the person 
who carried them. From this custom, prob- 
ably, has grown up one which is almost uni- 
versal in Protestant churches. Whenever a 
church member changes his residence, the 
church to which he belongs, or its pastor, 
gives him in some form a letter, which serves 
as his credential with other churches of the 
same faith and order. According to the the- 
ory of the Episcopal Church, he who joins it 
becomes a member, not of the local organi- 
zation, but of the general body. Hence, in 
case of removal, no letter of dismission is 
necessary ; for convenience, however, it is 
customary in such case for the pastor to give 
a personal letter, which serves as an intro- 
duction to other pastors and parishes. In 
the Methodist Church, the letter is usually 
simply a certificate of the individual's mem- 
bership and good standing, but does not ex- 
press the idea that the member is dismissed 
from one church or parish to unite with an- 
other, the Methodist organization being in 
this respect analogous to that of the Episco- 
pal Church. According to the theory of the 
Congregational and Presbyterian churches, 
he who makes a public profession of relig- 
ion not ouly unites himself with the general 
Church of Christ, but enters into special re- 
lations, for the purpose of work and Chris- 
tian fellowship, with the local organization. 
In order to transfer this relationship to any 
other local church, it is necessary to obtain 
from the proper officers, usually by applica- 
tion to the pastor, a letter dismissing him 
from that church, and recommending him 
to the Christian fellowship of some other 
church. By general usage, these letters are 
ordinarily regarded good only for one year 
from their date ; and they do not operate to 
sunder the relationship of the individual to 
the church from whence they issue, until 
they have been presented to and accepted 
by the church to which they are addressed. 
In most of the churches, any member who 
removes his residence, or from any other rea- 
son absents himself from the public worship, 
without taking such a letter, or satisfacto- 
rily explaining his failure so to do, renders 
himself amenable to church discipline, while 
in others the church simply withdraws its 
watch and care In such a case, and strikes 
his name from the roll. 

Dispensations, special modes of providen- 
tial dealing with individuals or communi- 
ties ; thus we speak of the Adamic Dispensa- 
tion, the Abrahamic Dispensation, the Jew- 
ish Dispensation, etc. The term is also used 
in an ecclesiastical as well as a theological 
sense. In the Church of Rome, a dispensation 
means a permission from the pope to do what 
may have been prohibited. Thus, before any 
one in communion with that Church can con- 
18 



tract a marriage within the forbidden de- 
grees, he must have previously received a dis- 
pensation from the pope. In the Church of 
England, the word dispensation denotes a 
power, vested in the archbishop, of dispens- 
ing, on certain emergencies, with some minor 
regulations of the Church. 

Dispersion. The "dispersed " or the " dis- 
persion " was the appellation given to those 
Jews who continued in other countries after 
the return from the Captivity. Babylon be- 
came one centre, from which colonies estab- 
lished themselves in Persia, Media, and other 
neighboring countries. The Greek conquests 
attracted Jewish settlers to the West, and 
large settlements were made in Cyprus, in 
the islands of the iEgean, and on the West- 
ern coast of Asia Minor. The Jews of these 
Syrian provinces adopted the language, and 
in many respects the ideas of the Greeks. 
The Jewish settlements established at Alex- 
andria by Alexander and Ptolemy I. became 
the source of the African dispersion which 
spread over the north coasts of Africa, and 
perhaps inland to Abyssinia. After the cap- 
ture of Jerusalem by Pompey, settlements 
of Jews were formed in Rome. All the dis- 
persed looked to Jerusalem as the metropolis 
of their faith, paid the legal half-shekel to- 
ward its services, and carried with them ev- 
erywhere their sacred books, which thus be- 
came known to the Gentiles. The difficul- 
ties in the way of a literal observance of the 
Mosaic ritual led to a wider view of its scope, 
and a stronger sense of its spiritual signifi- 
cance. The influence of the dispersion on 
the rapid promulgation of Christianity can 
scarcely be overrated. The course of the 
apostolic preaching followed in a regular 
progress the line of Jewish settlements. The 
mixed assembly from which the first con- 
verts were gathered on the Day of Pentecost 
represented each division of the dispersion, 
and these converts naturally prepared the 
way for the apostle. The " dispersion " in- 
cluded representatives from all of the twelve 
tribes. [John vii., 35 ; Acts ii., 9-11 ; xv., 
21 ; xxvi., 7 ; James i., 1 ; 1 Pet. i., 1.] 

Dissenters. The term usually applied in 
England to those who agree with the Estab- 
lished or Episcopal Church in the most essen- 
tial doctrines, but differ from it on questions 
of Church government, relation to the State, 
and rites and ceremonies. The word is of 
English origin and growth, and appears to 
have come into use in the seventeenth cen- 
tury, as synonymous with Non-conformists, al- 
though its equivalent may be said to have 
existed in Poland in the name Dissidents, a 
term which first appears in the acts of the 
Warsaw Confederation of 1573, and there 
denotes the Polish Protestants, in contradis- 
tinction to the members of the established 
Catholic religion ; the claims of the Romish 
Church, where dominant, having always been 
asserted in a manner incompatible with the 



DIVINATION 



274 



DIVINATION 



existence of recognized religious dissent. The 
term is not ordinarily applied to the Episco- 
palians in Scotland, though they dissent from 
its established church, which is Presbyterian. 

Since the beginning of the eighteenth cen- 
tury, the Presbyterian, Independent or Con- 
gregation alist, and Baptist denominations in 
England, have been associated under the 
name of the Three Denominations. This as- 
sociation was fully organized in 1727, and 
has contributed much to promote toleration 
and religious liberty. At the present time, 
Dissenters in England of all denominations 
are allowed to practice without restraint 
their own system of religious worship and 
discipline. They are entitled to their own 
places of worship, and to maintain schools 
for instruction in their own opinions. They 
are also permitted, in their character as 
householders, to sit and vote in the parish 
vestries. A Dissenter, if a patron (q. v.) of a 
church, may also exercise his own judgment 
in appointing a clergyman of the Church of 
England to a vacant living. 

Divination. In the ordinary acceptation 
of the term, divination differs from prophecy 
in that the one is a human device, while the 
other is a divine gift. The one was an unwar- 
ranted prying into the future by means of 
magical arts, superstitious incantations, and 
the arbitrary interpretation of natural signs 
or omens ; the other, an insight into the fu- 
ture, partially disclosed by the aid of Him 
who sees the end from the beginning. In 
Scripture the word commonly used for div- 
ination, and its corresponding verb which 
means originally to apportion lots, is used of 
false prophets and soothsayers, of necroman- 
cers or persons who professed to evoke the 
dead, of heathen augurs and enchanters, of 
prognostications made from the observation 
of arrows, entrails, and in other similar ways.' 
Another word is used in two or three pas- 
sages with reference merely to auguries, or to 
the arts by which they were usually taken.^ 
But besides these more general terms vari- 
ous specific terms are used, having reference 
to particular modes of divination, such as 
sorcerers, charmers, enchanters, witches, and 
Avizards. The word translated sorcerers in 
Exod. vii., 11, should perhaps have been 
translated — as in Deut. xviii., 10 — enchanters ; 
those who use incantations, whether with 
the design of creating a delusion respecting 
the present, or false expectations of the fu- 
ture.^ The wizards — the translation in Lev. 
xix., 31 ; XX., 6 ; Deut. xviii., 11, of a Hebrew 
word meaning the knowing ones, the wise 
beyond others — were those who professed to 
see into the future, and to have the power, 
probably by means of certain forms of incan- 
tation, to reveal the secrets of heaven. The 

1 Lev. xiii., 22 ; Dent, xviii., 10, IS ; Josh, xiii., 22 ; 1 
Sam. vi., 2 ; xxviii., 8 ; 2 Kintrs xvii., 7 ; Jer. xxvii., 9 ; 
Ezek. xxi., 28; Zech. x., 2.-2 Geu. xliv., 1.5; Numb, 
xxiii., 23; xxiv., 1; 1 Kings xx., 33.-3 See Witcii- 

CEAFT. 



last name is commonly coupled with anoth- 
er, which points to a specific mode of divina- 
tion — ohoth — persons having, or consulting 
with familiar spirits, as they are called in 
Lev. xix., 31, or, as more fully described in 
Lev. XX., 27, those who, "whether man or 
woman, had oh in them." This word oh, ex- 
pressive of a familiar spirit — a spirit oi py- 
thon, or divination: — designates a bottle ; and 
the spirit was supposed to be in the body of 
the diviner, as if in a bottle. To this class 
belonged the Witch of Endor (q. v.), who, in 
1 Sam. xxviii., 7, is called a '' mistress of o&," 
and whom Saul asked to divine to him by 
the oh, i. e., by the familiar spirit. The term 
seems to have been but another mode of 
designating a necromancer, or one who pro- 
fessed to have familiar converse with the 
souls of the dead, and to derive thence infor- 
mation not accessible to others respecting 
the designs of Providence. The responses 
given to the questions which they undertake 
to answer were pronounced as from the 
bloodless and ghastly frame of an apparition, 
and hence were usually uttered in a shiill, 
squeaking voice. This is alluded to by 
Isaiah when he represents the voice of Jeru- 
salem, in her coming prostration and ruin, as 
like the voice of an oh out of the earth — the 
voice of one more dead than alive.' Appar- 
ently another and distinct class of diviners 
is indicated by a word which in our Bible is 
usually rendered " observers of times.'"' It 
was applied to such as foretold lucky and un- 
lucky days. The same Hebrew word is some- 
times translated soothsayers ;^ and doubtless 
soothsaying in ancient as well as in modern 
times has sometimes taken this direction ; 
but whether it is indicated by the term is 
doubtful. Soothsaying seems rather to in- 
dicate any of the occult and magic arts by 
which the soothsayer pretended to divine 
the future. 

The earliest of the methods mentioned is 
divination by the cup. The allusion in the 
history of Joseph* to this well-known prac- 
tice shows how early it must have got a 
footing in Egypt ; but neither in this nor in 
any other passage of Scripture is any thing 
indicated as to the mode in which the cup 
was used for the purpose in question. The 
ancient Egyptians, and still more the Per- 
sians, practiced a mode of divination from 
goblets. Small pieces of gold or silver, and 
precious stones marked with strange figures 
and signs, were thrown into the vessel, and 
by certain incantations was invoked the evil 
demon, who was supposed to give the infor- 
mation sought, either by intelligible words, 
by pointing to some of the characters upon 
the precious stones, or in some more myste- 
rious manner. Cups or bowls, upon the in- 



» Gen. xli., S; Exod. vii., 11; Lev. xix., 26; Deut. 
xviii., 10, Vl; Isa. viii., 19; xxix., 4; Ixv., 3.-2 Lev. 
xix., 20; Dent, xviii., 10, 14; 2 Kini^s xxi., 6 ; 2 Chron. 
xxxiii., ().— 3 Isa. ii., 6; Ivii., 3; Micah v., 12.— ^ Gen. 
xliv., 4, 5. 



DIVINATION 



275 



DIVINATION 



side of whidi charms have been written by 
magicians, are still frequently used in vari- 
ous parts of the East in cases of dangerous 
maladies, and water from them is expected 
to operate as a cure. Sometimes of old the 
goblet was filled with pure water, upon 
which the sun was allowed to play; and the 
figures which were thus formed, or which a 
lively imagination fancied it saw, were in- 
terpreted as the desired omen — a method of 
taking auguries still employed in Egypt and 
Nubia. 

Another mode of divination was that by 
means of arrows, mentioned in Ezek. xxi., 
21, as practiced by the King of Babylon. Je- 
rome, in his comment on this passage, says 
that the king " put a certain number of ar- 
rows into a quiver, each having a particu- 
lar name inscribed on it, and then mixed 
them together that he might see whose ar- 
row should come out, and which city he 
should first attack. And this (he adds) the 
Greeks call helomantia (divining by arrows), 
or rabdomantia (divining by rods)."^ To this 
probably correct account no later research- 
es have added any thing. Pictures have 
been found on the Assyrian tablets which 
are supposed to represent the king in a di- 
vining-ch amber, with arrows and other in- 
struments of divination in his presence ; but 
this is by no means certain. Some author- 
ities, however, speak of sacred arrows kept 
at Mecca, and used by the Arabs for sim- 
ilar purposes, though contrary to the pre- 
cepts of the Koran. In the same passage 

Ezekiel mentions two other kinds of divina- 
tion ; by consulting teraphim (q. v.), and by 
inspecting the entrails, particularly the liver, 
of newly-slain animals. Traces of the former 
are found among the covenant people both 
in earlier and later times ; but there is no ev- 
idence that the latter was practiced among 
the Jews. It is mentioned in Scripture only 
this once ; but we know from other sources 
that from the state and color of the liver, ac- 
cording to certain rules, favorable or unfa- 
vorable omens were drawn. In addition 

to the preceding special forms of divination, 
there were others of a more general kind, 
such as consulting oracles, which was not un- 
known among the Israelites in the more cor- 
rupt periods of their history ; seeking false 
prophets or dreamers of dreams; listening to 
the prognostications of star-gazers or astrol- 
ogers.^ 

Egypt seems to have greatly encouraged 
the practice of divination at an early age, 
and there were magicians in that country 
whose dexterity enabled them to imitate 
very closely some of the miracles of Moses. ^ 
It is reasonable to suppose that all the allu- 
sions in the Pentateuch to the vario^ls kinds 
of divination were to those which were prac- 
ticed in Egypt ; and indeed so strong a taste 



1 Ho?ea iv., 12.— ^ 2 Kinscs i., 2. See Dreams; As- 
TEOLOGY; Oeacle. — ^ gyg Plaqces OF Egypt ; Magio. 



had the Israelites imbibed, while there, for 
this species of superstition, that throughout 
the whole course of their history it seems to 
have affected their national character and 
habits. But to Chaldea belongs the distinc- 
tion of being the mother-country of diviners. 
They there attained to such a degree of pow- 
er and influence that they formed the high- 
est caste, and enjoyed a place at court ; and 
so indispensable were they in Chaldean so- 
ciety that no step could be taken, not a rela- 
tion formed, a house built, a journey under- 
taken, a campaign begun, until the diviners 
had ascertained the lucky day, and prom- 
ised a happy issue. At various times, but 
more especially during the reign of the later 
kings, a great influx of these impostors had 
poured from Chaldea and Arabia into the 
land of Israel, to pursue their gainful oc- 
cupation ; and we find Manasseh not only 
their liberal patron, but zealous to appear as 
one of their most expert accomplices. The 
long captivities in Babylon spread more wide- 
ly than ever among the Jews a devoted at- 
tachment to this superstition ; and after their 
return to their own country, having entirely 
renounced idolatry, and no longer enjoying 
the gift of prophecy, or access to oracles, 
they gradually abandoned themselves be- 
fore the advent of Christ to all the prevail- 
ing forms of divination.' Against every 

si^ecies and degree of this superstition the 
sternest denunciations of the Mosaic law were 
directed, as fostering a love for unlawful 
knowledge, and withdrawing the mind from 
the only wise God ; while at the same time 
repeated and distinct promises were given, 
that in place of diviners, and all who used 
enchantments, God would send his people 
prophets, messengers of truth, who would re- 
veal to them the divine will, the future and 
the useful knowledge that was vainly sought 
from these pretended oracles of wisdom. 

There has been much discussion whether 
the ancient tribe of diviners merely pretend- 
ed to the powers they exercised, or were act- 
ually assisted by demoniacal agency. The 
latter opinion was embraced by almost all the 
fathers of the primitive Church. On the oth- 
er hand, it has been maintained, with great 
ability and erudition, that the whole arts of 
divination were a system of imposture based 
on hypocrisy and deceit ; that Scripture rid- 
icules those who practiced them as utterly 
incapable of accomplishing any thing be- 
yond the ordinary powers of natiire ; and 
that hence divination readily allied itself to 
idolatry. Rejected by the true religion, it be- 
came the handmaid of the false, and has ever 
shown the same tendency to ally itself with 
the progress of a corrupt Christianity as 
with the corruptions of Judaism. See Witch- 
craft ; Magic ; Teraphim. [Exod. xxii., 18 ; 
Lev. xix., 26, 31 ; xx., 27 ; Dent, xviii., 10, 11 ; 



1 2 Kintrs xxi., 
Acts xiii., 6; xvi. 



6 ; 2 Chron. xxxiii., 6 ; Isa. viii. 
16. 



19; 



DIVORCE 



276 



DOCTOR 



Isa. xliv., 25 ; xlvii., 11-13 ; Jer. xiv., 14 ; Jonah 
ii., 8.] 

Divorce. Originally marriage was re- 
garded as indissoluble. But divorce, like 
polygamy, gradually became customary ; and 
when the Mosaic laws were promulgated 
both were so common, that Moses, instead 
of prohibiting, undertook simply to regulate 
them. There was then no such elaborate ju- 
dicial system as with us, there were no such 
opportunities for trial. Moreover, woman 
held no such position as Christianity has ac- 
corded to her, but was regarded rather in the 
light of a slave, except as the Jewish laws 
themselves ameliorated her condition. The 
Mosaic law, therefore, permitted divorce, 
though it provided some check by enacting 
that "When a man hath taken a wife, and 
married her, and it come to pass that she 
find no favor in his eyes, because he hath 
found some uncleanness in her ; then let him 
write her a bill of divorcement, and give it 
in her hand, and send her out of his house."^ 
That this was not really in accordance with 
the divine idea of marriage is clear from 
Christ's declaration that " Moses, because of 
the hardness of your hearts, suffered you to 
put away your wives."^ However, it was an 
effectual check upon dissolution of marriage ; 
how effectual, is indicated by the fact that 
there is no instance of divorce recorded in 
O. T. history. But in the time of Christ the 
laws regulating the marriage relation had 
become fearfully lax. The Mosaic law evi- 
dently implied that the husband should write 
the cause of the divorce in the bill of divorce- 
ment. But this was practically no longer 
required. " He that desires to be divorced 
from his wife for any cause whatsoever," 
writes Josephus — " and many such cases 
arise among men — let him in writing give 
assurance that he will never use her as his 
wife any more ; for by these means she will 
be at liberty to marry another husband." 
The Mosaic law expressly provided that the 
husband could only put away his wife in case 
" he found some uncleanness in her." But 
this provision had also been practically ab- 
rogated. The gravest discussions had taken 
place among the Jewish doctors as to the 
meaning of the word "uncleanness." The 
school of Hillel gave to it the utmost lat- 
itude. That a woman appeared in public 
with unveiled face, that she burned her hus- 
band's food in cooking, even that she ceased 
to please his capricious fancy, was gravely 
asserted to be a sufficient ground of separa- 
tion. The divorce laws of Greece and Rome 
were very similar. Cicero dismissed Teren- 
tia after thirty years of married life ; Cato 
the younger divorced his wife, that he might 
give her to a friend. 

It was under such circumstances that 
Christ was applied to by the Pharisees to 
know what was a lawful ground of divorce. 



Deut. xxiv., 1.— 2 Matt, xix., S. 



His answer was very explicit.^ He referred 
his questioners back to the first marriage in 
Eden ; declared that God, by the very consti- 
tution of the race as male and female, had 
ordained marriage ; asserted that one cause 
only could justify in the eyes of God the dis- 
solution of the marriage tie, viz., a violation 
of the marriage oath. It is true that some 
attempts have been made to show that the 
term here translated "fornication" was a 
word of wide signification, not confined to 
sins against the marriage obligation. Dean 
Alford's answer to these attempts is suffi- 
cient and conclusive. " The figurative senses 
of fornication can not be admissible here, as 
the law is one having reference to a definite 
point in actual life; and this, its aim and 
end, restricts the meaning to that kind of 
fornication immediately applicable to the 
case. Otherwise this one strictly guarded 
exception would give indefinite and univer- 
sal latitude." He, then, who accepts the teach- 
ing of Christ as conclusive can hardly doubt 
that divorce is absolutely forbidden by the 
divine law, except for the one cause of adul- 
tery. "This was the original institution. 
This is the only law that is productive of 
peace and good morals, and that secures the 
respect due to a wife, and the good of chil- 
dren. Nor has any man or set of men — any 
legislature or any court, civil or ecclesiastic- 
al — a right to interfere, and declare that di- 
vorces may be granted for any other cause. 
They, therefore, whoever they may be, who 
are divorced for any cause except the single 
one of adultery, if they marry again, are, ac- 
cording to the Scriptures, living in adultery. 
No earthly laws can trample down the laws 
of God, or make that right which he has sol- 
emnly pronounced ivrong.^''^ 

How far the marriage of the innocent party 
after separation, on account of fornication, is 
forbidden by Christ,^ is a weighty and difiQ- 
cult question. By the Roman Church such 
marriage is strictly forbidden. On the other 
hand, the Protestant and Greek churches al- 
low such marriage. Those who defend the 
latter view suppose divorced, in Matt, v., 32, 
to mean unlawfully divorced, i. e., on some 
other ground than fornication ; and certain- 
ly this is not improbable. We may, how- 
ever, well leave a matter in doubt of which 
Augustine could say that it was so obscure 
that error on either side was venial. See 
Marriage ; Socialism ; Free Love. 

Doctor (teacher). I. Jewish. — Learned men 
among the Jews Avere given various titles, 
which seem to have been used very nearly 
interchangeably. In the time of Christ they 
were called "teachers of the law," "lawyers," 
"doctors," "fathers," and "rabbi" or "rab- 
boni,"* The last word, meaning " great," is 
still used to designate the modern religious 

1 Matt, xix., .S-9.— 3 Barnes's Notes, Matt, v., .82.— 
3 Matt, v., 32 ; xix., 9.— « Matt, xxiii., 7, 8; Lnke v., 17; 
xi., 52 ; John xx., 16 ; Acts vii., 2 ; 1 Tim., 1, 7. 



DOCTOR 



277 



DOMINICAL LETTER 



heads ox Jewish communities or congrega- 
tions. These titles, Avhile used often in a 
vague and indefinite way, properly signify 
the succession of teachers by whom the oral 
traditions (q. v.) were transmitted from one 
generation to another. Esdras is usually 
placed by Jewish rabbis at the head of the 
doctors, who were held by the Jews in great 
veneration. They were assisted, it is alleged, 
by the Bath-kol (q. v.). Each doctor was 
permitted to add his own comments to the 
traditions which had been handed down to 
him, and thus the traditions went on in- 
creasing from one generation to another till 
the composition of the Talmud (q. v.). After 
the publication of tiie Talmud arose another 
class of doctors, which lessened its authority 
by their doubts and conjectures. They were 
termed Sahureans, or Doubters. The populari- 
ty of the Talmud rendered this sect peculiar- 
ly odious to the Jews ; many of whom have 
refused to recognize them as belonging to the 
list of doctors, and the sect became extinct 
about seventy-four years after its establish- 
ment. They were followed by another class 
of Jewish doctors, called Geonim, or Excellents, 
because of their extensive learning and their 
remarkable virtue. Esteemed as interpreters 
of the law, they were consulted upon all im- 
portant or difficult matters, and their decis- 
ions were received with the utmost confi- 
dence and respect. This sect originated in 
the beginning of the sixth century, and con- 
tinued to maintain considerable credit till 
it came to an end in the eleventh century. 
Another class of Jewish doctors distinguish- 
ed themselves as grammarians, and publish- 
ed a well-known work of traditions, called 
the Masorah, which has undoubtedly render- 
ed great service to the cause of Hebrew liter- 
ature, in the preservation and critical knowl- 
edge of the O. T., by its vowels, accents, and 
notes. By the laborious industry of these 
men, each verse, word, and even letter of the 
Hebrew Scriptures, has been carefully num- 
bered, while, with marvelous but unprofita- 
ble ingenuity, they have deduced the most 
strange and absurd meanings from the inser- 
tion of a larger or smaller letter in the text, 
or the intervention of a greater or less space 
between the chapters. The last order of 
Jewish doctors to which it is necessary to 
advert are those which bore the name of 
Cabalists,^ who taught a species of Orient- 
al mysticism, by which all kinds of strange 
fancies, and even magical powers, were de- 
duced from the words, letters, and accents 
of the Hebrew Scriptures. The power of 
the doctors was great among the Jews, and 
they omitted nothing that might draw the 
veneration of the people. 

II. Christian. — At an early period the term 
doctor was used as a general expression for 
any teacher of Christian doctrine. Then it 



knowledge in theology without reference to 
their special skill in teaching it. Pre-emi- 
nently it was given to four of the Greek fa- 
thers — Athanasius, Basil, Gregory Nazianzen, 
and Chrysostom ,• and to three of the Latin 
fathers — Jerome, Augustine, and Gregory the 
Great. It is now conferred as a title of hon- 
or by universities and colleges. D.D. stands 
for doctor of divinity, LL.D. for doctor of 
laws, and M.D. for doctor of medicine. The 
two former titles are given in Germany, 
Great Britain, and the United States, as a 
title of honor, and without examination, 
upon men who have distinguished them- 
selves by their learning in theology or liter- 
ature. 

Doeg (fearful), an Idumean, and officer 
of Saul's court, and, according to Josephus, 
chief of his herdsmen. By Saul's command, 
he put the priests of Nob to death, together 
with their families, for the succor which 
Ahimelech the high-priest had unwarily af- 
forded to David. Nothing more is known 
of him. See Ahimelech ; David. [1 Sam. 
xxi., 7 ; xxii., 9, 18, 22 ; Psa. lii.] 

Dog. This well-known animal is fre- 
quently mentioned in the Bible. But though 
it was employed to watch the flocks, and 
perhaps to guard the house,' it was by no 
means, as we regard it, the companion and 
friend of man. Many of the various species 
of the dog were known to the Egyptians, 
and doubtless also to the Israelites. Some, 
probably, had never been domesticated; and 
there were multitudes half wild, prowling 
about the fields and the towns, devouring 
offal and dead bodies,^ and disturbing the 
night with their bowlings. This is the 
case at present in the East. Troops of dogs 
abound, recognized, in a degree, by food and 
water being occasionally given to them ; 
but they are deemed impure and unclean, 
just as among the ancient Hebrews. Hence 
we can understand why the dog is always 
mentioned contemptuously in Scripture — in 
many passages being used as a metaphor for 
wicked and unclean persons.^ To the pres- 
ent day the term is applied in the East by 
Jews to Gentiles, and by Mohammedans to 
Christians, as a term of reproach. 

Dogma, a word used originally to express 
any doctrine of religion formally stated. 
Dogmatic theology is the statement of positive 
truths in religion. The term dogma is now 
popularly, but incorrectly, used to designate 
too positive or harsh a statement of uncer- 
tain or unimportant articles ; and the epithet 
dogmatic is given to one who is rude, or ob- 
trusive, or overbearing in the statement of 
what he judges to be true. 

Dominical Letter, the letter in our alma- 
nacs which marks the Lord's Day, usually 
printed in a capital form. In the ecclesias- 



came to be applied to those eminent for their ' , ' J^^ fl^A^ ^ ^ Isa. Ivi., 10.-2 1 Kings x\v.,n- xxl, 

. ii — — 19, 23.-3 2 Sam. ix., 8 ; xvi., 9 ; 2 Kmgs vui., IS ; Matt. 

1 See Cabala. i vii., 6; Mark vii., 27. 



DOMINICANS 



278 



DONATISTS 



tical calendar, the first seven letters of the 
alphabet are applied to the days of the week, 
A being always given to the first of January, 
whatsoever that day may be, and the others 
in succession to the following days. If the 
year consisted of three hundred and sixty- 
four days, making an exact number of weeks, 
no change would ever take place in these let- 
ters. Thus, supposing the first of January 
in any given year to be Sunday, all the Sun- 
days would be represented by A, not only in 
that year, but in all succeeding. The fact 
that there are three hundred and sixty-five 
days and a fraction, occasions a variation. 
The rules for finding the Dominical Letter for 
any year are given in the Book of Common 
Prayer. 

Dominicans, a celebrated order of men- 
dicant monks, which was instituted in the 
thirteenth century. Its founder was St. 
Dominic, who established the first monas- 
tery of the order at Toulouse. The monks 
connected with it were put under the rule of 
St. Augustine. To this order specially be- 
longs the rosary, which seems to have been 
adopted by them so early as a.d. 1270. The 
Dominicans were the most prominent inquis- 
itors at the time of the exterminating cru- 
sade waged against the Albigenses. 

From the thirteenth century onward to 
the period of the Reformation, the Domini- 
cans, and their rivals the Franciscans, held 
the chief power and influence both in Church 
and State. They occupied the highest offices, 
both ecclesiastical and civil; they taught 
with almost absolute authority both in 
churches and schools, and maintained the 
supreme majesty of the Roman pontiifs 
against kings, bishops, and heretics, with re- 
markable zeal and success. To distinguish 
them from the Franciscans, who were called 
Minor Friars, the Dominicans occasionally re- 
ceived the name of Major Friars. In France 
the latter order were often styled Jacobins 
or Jacobites, while in England the name of 
Black Friars was given them from the col- 
or of their dress ; and the part of London 
where they first had their residence is still 
styled Blackfriars. In Edinburgh, also, there 
is a locality which still bears the same name, 
there having been at one time on that spot 
a monastery of Dominicans. The Roman 
pontiffs very soon discovered that the two 
powerful orders which had thus arisen might 
easily be rendered of eminent service to the 
cause of the Church. They were invested, 
accordingly, with special privileges above all 
the other orders of monks, permitted to preach 
publicly everywhere without license from the 
bishops, to act as confessors whenever re- 
quired, and to grant absolutions, and even 
indulgences. The peculiar favor thus shown 
to the two rival mendicant orders excited 
the jealousy and bitter hatred of the bishops 
and priests. Commotions arose, and violent 
contentions broke out in every country of 



Europe, and even in the city of Rome itself. 
One of the most noted of these disputes was 
that wliich was carried on for thirty years 
between the Dominican monks and the Uni- 
versity of Paris. The monks claimed the 
privilege of having two theological chairs in 
the university. The claim was refused ; one 
of the chairs was taken from them, and a 
decree passed by the university that no or- 
der of monks should be entitled to have two 
theological chairs. The Dominicans were 
firm in asserting their claim to a second 
chair ; and the university, with the view of 
putting an end to the controversy, deprived 
the monks of all connection with them. This 
strong step, however, instead of terminating 
the dispute, only rendered matters worse. 
The Dominicans appealed to Rome, and the 
pope, Alexander IV., decided so completely 
in their favor, that after a bold and fruitless 
struggle, carried on by the university for 
several years, they were compelled to con- 
cede all that the mendicant orders wished. 
Hence arose the hostility which the Univer- 
sity of Paris has ever since maintained to 
the Dominicans. 

The two rival orders, the Dominicans and 
Franciscans, not contented with embroiling 
all Europe in discord and angry strife, be- 
gan, soon after the decease of their respect- 
ive founders, to contend with each other for 
precedence. But notwithstanding this keen 
rivalry between the two great orders of men- 
dicants, the Dominicans gradually rose to 
great power and influence, both through 
their connection with the Inquisition, and 
the high position which they occupied as 
confessors at the courts of all the kings 
and princes of Europe. Elated with the ex- 
traordinary power which they had thus ac- 
quired, the Dominican monks, by their vio- 
lent measures, drove many of the most intel- 
ligent and honest from the Church to join 
the ranks of the open opponents of the Ro- 
man pontiffs. The deadliest blow which 
they unwittingly aimed at the authority of 
the Church of Rome was the independent 
step M^hich they took of prompting Leo X. 
to issue a public condemnation of Luther. 
Thus were the Dominican friars unconscious- 
ly the instruments of bringing about the Ref- 
ormation in the sixteenth century. For cen- 
turies the dispute between the Franciscans 
and the Dominicans was conducted with the 
utmost bitterness on both sides, and in the 
sixteenth century a sharp contest commenced 
between the Dominicans and the Jesuits on 
certain doctrinal questions. Throughout the 
whole of the last century, and down to the 
present day, the Dominicans have been in- 
cessantly at variance with the Jesuits on 
the one hand, and the Franciscans on the 
other, exhibiting the most violent intestine 
discord in a church which claims as its char- 
acteristic perfect iTnity. 

Donatists, the followers of Donatus, aNu- 



DOOR-KEEPEE 



279 



DOVE 



midian bishop, who, in the beginning of the 
fourth century, seceded from the Catholic 
Church, and formed a distinct sect, which 
by 330 had as many as one hundred and sev- 
enty-two bishops in Northern Africa. The 
Donatists, like the Novatiaus, went upon the 
principle that the essence of the true Church 
consisted in the purity and holiness of all its 
members individually, and not merelj^ in its 
apostolical and Catholic foundation and doc- 
trine. They therefore both excommunicated 
all lapsed and gross offenders, not receiving 
them again except on re-baptism, and also 
held that the efficacy of the sacraments de- 
pended on the worthiness of the administra- 
tor. Driven to fanaticism by the oppression 
of the secular power, they not only denied 
to the State all right to meddle with ecclesi- 
astical affairs, but bands of Donatist ascet- 
ics collected, attacked the imperial troops 
(348), and continued to devastate Mauritania 
and Numidia for a dozen years. In the be- 
ginning of the fifth century they seem to 
have almost equaled the Catholics in num- 
bers. The eloquence of Augustine and the 
severities of Honorius were exercised upon 
the sect in vain ; they continued to exist as 
a separate body. But by adopting a more 
prudent plan of proceeding, the Catholic 
bishops had, by the end of the sixth centu- 
ry, induced most of those that had left to re- 
turn to the bosom of the Church ; and in the 
seventh century the Donatists were extinct. 
The fact that our knowledge of the Dona- 
tists is derived mainly from opponents not 
always either intelligent or scrupulous, 
makes it difficult to estimate aright either 
their character or their doctrine. There is 
no real evidence, however, that they were 
guilty of immoralities, or affected by false 
doctrines, but undoubtedly they carried their 
opposition to the union of Chiirch and State to 
a fanatical extreme, and by measures which 
are not in accordance with the spirit of the 
Gospel. 

Door-keeper, a person appointed to keep 
the street door leading by an alley-way to 
the interior entrance of an Oriental house. 
Door-keepers in the ancient Church were a 
class of church officers forming the lowest 
clerical order. Their duties were to open 
and close the doors, not only at the termi- 
nation of religious worship, but during the 
services. In later times, in the Roman Cath- 
olic Church, their duties became nearly those 
of the modern sexton. [ Jer. xxxv., 4 ; 2 
Kings xxiii., 4 ; xxv., 18 ; 1 Chron. xv., 23 ; 
Esther vi., 2.] 

Dor (hahitation), a town on the Mediterra- 
nean, one of the royal cities of the Canaan- 
ites, and a part of the heritage assigned to 
Manasseh. One old author says that it was 
founded by Dorus, a son of Neptune, while 
another affirms that it was built by the 
Phoenicians, because the neighboring rocky 
shore abounded in the small shell-fish from 



which they got their purple dye. The orig- 
inal inhabitants were never expelled, but 
during the reigns of David and Solomon they 
were made tributary. The city was be- 
sieged and captured by Antiochus Sidetes, 
and afterward rebuilt by Gabinius, the Ro- 
man general, and it remained an important 
place during the early years of the Roman 
rule in Syria. A poor village of about thir- 
ty houses, bearing the name of Tortura, is 
now found on the site of the ancient Dor. 
[Josh, xi., 2 ; xvii., 11 ; Judg. i., 27, 28.] 

Dothan (two ivells), the name of a region 
not very exactly defined, but situated some- 
where on the north of Samaria, and not far 
from Shechem. It is first mentioned in the 
history of Joseph, and afterward as the res- 
idence of Elisha. About twelve miles north 
of Shechem there is a plain of the richest 
pasturage, which still bears the name of 
Dothan. It shows the tenacity of the an- 
cient names, that this one still clings to this 
site, though no village has existed there for 
a long period. Near the ruins are large cis- 
terns, from which no doubt the name was 
derived, such as in that country are liable at 
times to be left dry, as happened to be true 
of the one into which Joseph was put by his 
brothers. Its situation is on the present line 
of travel from East Jordan to Egypt, and 
travelers still speak of meeting there '^a 
long caravan of mules and asses laden, on 
their way from Damascus to Egj^pt." It 
was at Dothan that Elisha was when the 
King of Syria sent his host to take him ; and 
the army, struck by blindness, were led by 
Elisha himself into the midst of Samaria. 
[Gen. xxxvii., 17 ; 2 Kings vi., 8-23.] 

Dove. As to the rendering of the words 
which have been translated as pigeon, dove, 
turtle, and turtle-dove, there has never been 
any discussion. They all refer to species of 
the dove. No bird plays a more important 
part in both the Old and New Testaments, 
or is employed more largely for metaphor 
and symbol. We find the first mention of 
the dove in the familiar account of the sub- 
siding of the Flood, when the dove acted as a 
messenger to bring tidings of the abatement 
of the waters.' Some four hundred years 
after, when the covenant was made between 
the Lord and Abraham, a turtle-dove and a 
young j)igeon were part of the solemn sacri- 
fice which was offered f and when the prom- 
ise of the Lord had been fulfilled, the dove 
was mentioned in the new law as one of the 
creatures that were to be sacrificed on cer- 
tain defined occasions, the particular mode 
of offering it being strictly enjoined.^ 

As a general rule, the pigeon was only 
sanctioned as a sacrificial animal where one 
of more value could not be afforded.* These 
birds cost very little. The peasant might 
take them from the dove-cote, which was an 

1 Gea. viii., 8.-2 Geu. xv., 9.— ^ Lev. i., 14-17.—* Lev. 
v., 7. 



DOXOLOGY 



280 



DRAGON 



appendage of most dwellings ; and he who 
was too poor even to have a dove-cote of his 
own might go to the rocky side of a ravine 
and take as many young as he pleased from 
the myriad nests of the wild dove which are 
placed in the clefts ;^ hence poverty need not 
hinder any man from enjoying the highest 
spiritual privileges. The fidelity of the dove 
is referred to in Solomon's Song. She ad- 
mits but one mate, and never forsakes him 
until death puts an end to their union. The 
same writer also refers to the turtle, i. e., the 
turtle-dove, as one of the signs or accompani- 
ments of early spring.'^ 

The beauty of the dove, its gentleness, 
its harmlessness, and the pathetic disposi- 
tion which it seems to exhibit in its mourn- 
ful cry when it has been wounded or deprived 
of its mate, and the gentle plaintiveness of 
even its ordinary cooing, secure it the place 
among birds which the lamb holds among 
animals in the regard of man, and render it 
a fitting type to prefigure the '' Man of sor- 
rows" — the ultimate sacrifice. When the 
Saviour, whom all the slain beasts had pre- 
figured, was first publicly made known, af- 
ter he had received the baptism of John, he 
was recognized by the Father in the pres- 
ence of the great multitude "by a voice 
from heaven." "And the Holy Ghost de- 
scended in a bodily shape like a dove/'^ and 
rested upon him. 

Various explanations have been given of 
the passage in 2 Kings vi., 25, which describes 
the famine of Samaria as having been so ex- 
cessive that " an ass's head was sold for four- 
score pieces of silver, and the fourth part of 
a cob of dove's dung for five pieces of silver." 
Commentators are divided in regard to the 
propriety of interpreting the Hebrew word 
literally. Many suppose that the reference 
is to a vegetable of some kind. We find a 
similar nomenclature in the popular names 
of many of our own plants, such as cowslip, 
mouse-ear, maiden-hair, and the like. 

Sacred associations other than biblical 
gather around the dove. It was worshiped 
by the Assyrians and Samaritans, and a rev- 
erence amounting almost to worship has been 
accorded to it by other nations. Among 
Egyptians' a black pigeon was the symbol 
of a widow who declined to marry a second 
time. According to the Jewish rabbis, a 
dove was placed upon the top of a sceptre 
appended to Solomon's throne. To molest 
pigeons is regarded among some nations as 
sacrilege. They are revered among the 
North American Indians ; and the ecclesias- 
tical legends narrate that on several occa- 
sions bishops and other officials of the Ro- 
man Catholic Church have been designated 
to the holy office by doves alighting on their 
heads. 

Doxology, a Greek word, signifies an ex- 



^ Jer. xlviii. 
iii., 22. 



-2 Sol. Song i., 15 ; ii., 12, 14— 3 Luke 



clamation or prayer in honor of the majesty 
of God, such as Paul uses at the close of his 
epistles, and sometimes even in the middle 
of an argument.^ The hymn of the angels'^ 
is also called a doxology by the Christian 
Church, so likewise is the close of the Lord's 
Prayer. The so-called " Great Doxology" is 
simply an expansion of the angelic hymn, 
and is sung in the Roman Catholic Church 
at the celebration of the Lord's Supper, and 
at matins. It commences with the words, 
Gloria in exeelsis Deo ("Glory to God in the 
highest"). It has been so long in use that 
it is not known by whom it was introduced 
into the service in its present form. The 
ordinary doxology, " Glory be to the Father, 
and to the Son, and to the Holy Ghost, as it 
was in the beginning, is now, and ever shall 
be, world without end. Amen," is usually 
called the Gloria Patri, and is repeated at the 
end of each psalm in the service of the Church 
of England. There is a similar doxology in 
verse to suit different metres, used in nearly 
all Christian churches. 

Dragon. There are two Hebrew words 
nearly alike which are rendered "dragon'^ 
in our version ; but they must be carefully 
distinguished. One, tannim,^ is a plural form ; 
they are animals which dwell in deserts;* 
hence " the place of dragons," mentioned in 
Psa. xliv., 20, means the desert. They are de- 
scribed as suckling their young, and as utter- 
ing a wailing cry.^ Wild asses, too, are com- 
pared to them.^ Now it is manifest that ser- 
pents can not be intended : it has therefore 
been with reason supposed that jackals, noted 
for their wailing cry, and their frequenting 
desert places, are the tannim of Scripture, or 
at least some animals akin to jackals. The 
other word is tamiin. This seems to describe 
some monstrous creature whether of the 
land or the sea. Thus it is used for marine 
animals'' in Psa. cxlviii., 7, and Gen. i., 21; it 
is rendered "whales" in Job vii., 12, and is 
sometimes coupled with the leviathan.^ It 
must mean land serpents in Dent, xxxii., 33 ; 
Psa. xci., 13 ; Jer. li., 34 ; and it is rendered 
"serpent" in Exod. vii., 9, 10, 12.^ Not un- 
frequently it signifies the crocodile, as the 
emblem of the King of Egypt. It is used in 
this sense in Isa. li., 9 ; Ezek. xxix., 3 ; and 
xxxii., 2. In the N. T. the word is sym- 
bolically used for Satan, "that old serpent 
which is the devil," or for some anti-Chris- 
tian power stirred up by him against the 
Church. ^° In medieval mythology the dragon 
is a fantastic and impossible animal, of im- 
mense size, and various shapes and forms, 
with wings, thorny crests, powerful claws, 
and a snaky tail and motion, and is found in 
the literature of the East, in that of Greece 



1 Romans ix., 5 — ^ Luke ii., 14.— ^ Isa. xiii., 22; 
xxxiv.,13; XXXV., 7; xliii.,20.— 4 Isa. xiii., 22 ; xxxiv., 
I.'J ; XXXV., 7 ; xliii., 20.— ^ Lam. iv., 3, "sea-mousrers ;" 
Job XXX., 28, 29; Mic. i., 8.— « Jer. xiv., 6.—'' Job vii., 
12.— « Psa. Ixxiv., 13, 14; Isa. xxvii., 1.— » See Serpent. 
—10 Rev. xii., 3, 17 ; xiii., 2, 4, 11. 



DREAMS 



281 



DRESS 



aud Rome, in the legends of the Middle Ages, 
and is still an emblem in universal use among 
the Chinese. Among some of the ancient 
nations the dragon or crocodile was regarded 
as an evil deity, and as such was the object 
of superstitious worship. 

Dreams. The Scripture declares that the 
influence of the Spirit of God upon the soul 
extends to its sleeping as well as its waking- 
thoughts. But in accordance with the prin- 
ciple enunciated by St. Paul in 1 Cor. xiv., 
15, di'eams, in which the understanding is 
asleep, are placed below the visions of proph- 
ecy, in which the understanding plays its 
part.^ Under the Christian dispensation, 
while we read frequently of trances and 
visions, dreams are never referred to as ve- 
hicles of divine revelation. In exact ac- 
cordance with this principle are the actual 
records of the dreams sent by God. The 
greater number of such dreams were grant- 
ed, for prediction or for warning, to those 
who were aliens to the Jewish covenant.^ 
Many of these dreams were symbolical, and 
so obscure as to require an interpreter. And 
even where dreams are recorded as means 
of God's revelation to his own servants, they 
are almost always referred to the periods of 
their earliest and most imperfect knowledge 
of him.^ They belong, loo, especially to the 
earliest age, and become less frequent as the 
revelations of prophecy increase. The gen- 
eral conclusion, therefore, is that while God 
has spoken through dreams, yet the Scrip- 
ture lays less stress on them than on that di- 
vine influence which affects the understand- 
ing also, and leads us to expect that the age 
of shadowy dreams would give way, as it has 
done, to one of clearer revelation. 

Dress. The first attempt at clothing made 
by Adam and Eve at the fall was by adopt- 
ing fig-leaves.* Coats of skins soon followed, 
and pontinued to be a customary material, 
particularly for the poorer classes, or for 
prophets or others who assumed them as in- 
signia of their calling.^ Other materials of 
dress were wool and linen.*' Of linen the 
very finest kinds were in early use, as the 
existing linen integuments of Egyptian mum- 
mies show. Diflerent words are used in the 
original for linen, distinguishing perhaps the 
raw material from the manufactured fabric, 
or denoting various degrees of fineness or 
quality.'' Linen and wool might be ordi- 
narily used at pleasure separately ; but, un- 
der the Mosaic law, a garment of woolen and 



1 Numb, xii., 6; Dent, xiii., 1, 3, 5; Jer. xxvii., 9- 
Joel ii., 28 ; comp. 1 Sam. xxviii., 6.-2 As the dream 
of Abimelech (Gen. xx., 3-7), Labau (Gen. xxxi., 24), 
butler and baker (Gen. xl., 5), Pharaoh (Gen. xli., 1-S), 
the Midianite (Judg. vii., 13), Nebuchadnezzar (Dan. 
ii., 1, etc. ; iv., 10-lS), the ma.iri (Matt, ii., 12), Pilate's 
wife (Matt, xxvii., 19).— 3 As in the cases of Abraham 
(Gen. XV., 12), Jacob (xxviii., 12-15), Joseph (xxxvii., 
5-10), Solomon (1 Kin<rs iii., .5), and Joseph (Matt, i., 
20 : ii., 13, 19, 22).—* Gen. iii., 7.— ^ 1 Kings xix., 13, 19 ; 
2 Kinofs i., S ; ii., S, 13, 14 ; Zech. xiii., 4 : Heb. xi., 37 : 
Rev. vi., 12; Matt, iii., 4 — « Lev. xiii., 47-49.— ^ See 

LiNEM. 



linen together could not be worn.^ Cotton 
is a common material of dress in the East 
now, and may have been used in Palestine 
in ancient times, but is not mentioned in the 
English Bible. Silk was not known till 
later times.'^ As the articles of Hebrew 
clothing were for the most part loose and 
simple, their garments could have required 
little of what we call " making." This, so 
far as it was necessary, was perhaps general- 
ly done in a household. Thus the excellent 
housewife is described both as spinning, and 
also as making clothing ; and the charitable 
Tabitha is mentioned as making '' coats and 
garments " for the needy. ^ 

The following list of modern Arabic gar- 
ments is given by Dr. Thomson,* and is use- 
ful in studying the dress of the ancient Jews. 
^^Kumis, inner shirt, of cotton, linen, or silk. 
Those of the Bedouins are long, loose, and 
made of strong cotton cloth, the most impor- 
tant item in their wardrobe. Lihds, inner 
drawers of cotton cloth. Shintidn, drawers, 
very full. Sherndl, very large, loose panta- 
loons. DiJcky, a cord or sash with which the 
pantaloons are gathered and tied round the 
waist. Sudei'iyeh, an inner waistcoat, with- 
out sleeves, buttoned up to the neck. Min- 
tidn, an inner jacket worn over the suderi- 
yeh, overlapping in front, with pockets for 
purse, handkerchief, etc. Gumhdz, or Mf- 
tdn, long, open gown of cotton or silk, over- 
lapping in front, girded tightly above the 
loins by the zunnar. Zilnndr, girdle of leather, 
camels' hair, cotton, silk, or woolen. Sulta, 
an outer jacket worn over the gumbaz. Ku- 
hrdn, a stout heavy jacket, with open sleeves 
fastened on at the shoulders by buttons. Jih- 
hehjjuJch, hentsh, a long robe or mantle, with 
short sleeves, very full, used in full dress. 
^Aba, abaiyeh, meshleli, a strong, coarse cloak, 
of various forms and materials. Burnus, 
long, loose cloak of white wool, with a hood 
to cover the head. For the head there are 
the ^aruktyeh, or takiyek, a cotton cap fitting 
closely to the head, whether shaven or not. 
If the head is shaved, a soft felt cap is often 
worn under the taklyeh. Tariush, or fez, a 
thick, red, felt cap. Turhan, a shawl of wool, 
silk, or cotton, wound round the tarbush. 
For the feet there are jerahdt, or kalsdt, socks 
or stockings of every variety. KalsMn, inner 
slippers of soft leather, yellow or black. Siir- 
maiyeh, shoes, commonly of red morocco. Bd- 
Mje, a kind of half slipper, answeritig in part 
to the ancient sandal, which is not now used. 
Jeznieh, boots of red morocco, very stout and 
clumsy." 

With this list before us, let us recur to the 
Hebrew names of the principal garments re- 
ferred to in the Scriptures. Unfortunately 
we can not follow in such a classification 
the English Bible, since the translators have 

1 Lev. xix., 19 ; Dent, xxii., 11.— 2 Rev. xviii., 12.— 
3 Prov. xxxi., 19, 22, 24; Acts ix., 89.— •* "The Laud 
aud the Book," i., 167. , 



DRESS 



282 



DRESS 



not preserved any uniformity in their ren- 
derings. We must take them up, therefore, 
according to their original names. 

The khethdnetli, or Jchuttoneth, corresponding 
to the Greek cJiiton, was a loose inner gar- 
ment or tunic, like the shirt with us. Orig- 
inally, perhaps, it was short and without 
sleeves; but afterward it had sleeves, and 
was larger. It was made of wool, cotton, or 
linen, of finer or coarser quality, according 
to the means of the wearer. Frequently this 
garment was worn alone, being confined by 
a girdle. But any one wearing only the 
Methoneth was commonly called naked in 
Scripture, as Saul, when he had stripped off 
his upper clothes ; Isaiah, when he had laid 
aside his outer garment of sackcloth ; Peter, 
when he was without his fisher's coat.^ An- 
other loose under-garment was worn next the 
body, called sadtn. It was probably always 




Egyptians of the Lower Orders. 

of linen. It is rendered by our translators 
" sheet " or " shirt," and might be the " linen 
cloth," sindon, cast about the young man's 
naked body.^ The me^il, generally of one 
piece, was an upper tunic, larger than the 
Methoneth, and worn over it. Travelers or- 
dinarily wore the two — a fact which gives 
peculiar significance to Christ's prohibition 
to his apostles when he sent them forth on 
their missionary tour.^ The word me^il oc- 
curs very frequently, and is rendered in al- 
most every conceivable mode by our trans- 
lators.'* Finally, there was an outer large 
woolen garment, quadrangular, answering to 
the present Arabic humus. Several names 
were given to this, perhaps expressing some 
differences of size and quality. This outer 
garment was wrapped round the body, or 
brought over the shoulder, with the ends 



' 1 Sam. xix., 24; Isa. xx., 2, .3; John xxi., 7; comp. 
Job xxii., 6; Isa. Iviii., 7.-2 Jndg:. xiv., 12, 13; Mark 
xiv., 51.— 3 Matt. X., 10 ; Luke iii., 11.— < Exod. xxxix., 
22 ; 1 Sam. ii., 19 ; xv,, 27 ; xviii., 4 : xxiv., 4, 11 ; xxviii., 
14 ; 1 Chron. xv., 27 ; Job i., 20 ; ii., 12. 




An Egyptian Woman. 

hanging down, or passed over the head. It 
was this that in the corners or ends was to 
have '' a fringe," and be bound with " a rib- 
bon of blue." It was fastened round the 
waist by a girdle, and one or more of its 
folds were used as convenient receptacles.^ 

The dress of the women differed less from 
that of the men than it does in modern times. 
The Methoneth, or inner tunic, was worn alike 
by both sexes. There were, however, some 
outer garments peculiar to women. The 
veil, or wimple, was a kind of shawl which 
often entirely enveloped the person. The 
other titles employed, of which there are a 
number, are not very well understood by 
scholars, and their significance is merely con- 
jectural. The dresses of women were, ho w- 




AWomau of the Southern Province of Upper Egypt. 

ever, almost always long; for it was consid- 
ered a peculiar disgrace for the leg to be left 
bare.^ 



1 Numb. XV., 3S; Deut. xxii., 12; 2 Sam. xx., 8; 2 
Kings iv., 39 ; Prov. xvii., 23. — ^ jga, xlvii., 2. 



DRESS 



283 



DRESS 




Syrian Gentlemen in Full Dress. 

The general color of Hebrew garments 
would seem to have been white ; several of 
the terms used for the materials implying 
whiteness/ the symbol of joy and of purity. 
Hence, as stains would be easily percepti- 
ble, the necessity for the fuller. Sometimes, 
however, scarlet and purple robes were worn.^ 
Dresses of the richer hues were preferred 
more by the neighboring nations than by 
the Hebrews ; at least we find more frequent 
reference to them among the Midianites, the 
Persians, the Assyrians, and the Phoenicians.^ 
It is a question whether variegated robes 
were in early use among the Israelites. The 
many-colored garments occasionally spoken 
of ^ have been thought to be rather such as 
had long sleeves, and reached to the ankles. 
Yet garments were frequently ornamented. 
Those for the high-priest were embroidered. 
Both colored threads and gold threads were 



1 Eccles. ix., 8 ; Mark ix., 3 ; Eev. iii., 4, 5 ; iv., 4 ; vii., 
9, 13; xix., 14.— 2 2 Sam. i., 24; Prov.xxxi., 22; Luke 
xvi., 19.— 3 Judg. viii., 26 ; Esth. viii., 15 ; Ezek. xxiii., 
6, 12, 15.— ■* Gen. xxxvii., 3, 23 ; 2 Sam. xiii., 18. 



introduced into the fabric, as well as 
figures, as of the cherubim in the tab- 
ernacle curtains.^ 

Great store of garments consti- 
tuted a considerable part of a man's 
riches ; hence " to have clothing " 
was expressive of being wealthy. 
Changes of raiment were not only 
required for personal luxury, but 
were necessary, according to Orient- 
al customs, as presents to friends, 
or those who were to be honored.^ 
Sometimes also at feasts the guests 
were provided with attire. Hence 
the fault of the man in our Lord's 
parable, who must have refused the 
offered wedding garment.^ To be- 
stow the best robe was a peculiar 
mark of affection ; and it was a 
great honor when a superior, as 
Jonathan, who was a prince, strip- 
ped off his own garment and gave 
it to another.* Kings had a large 
quantity of vestments, and a special 
officer appointed to take charge of 
them ; but private persons also were 
in the habit of accumulating dress- 
es : for which, and for extravagance 
in dress, frequent reproofs were giv- 
en by the prophets and apostles.^ 

The garments of the Hebrews be- 
ing loose and ample, could be easily 
taken off and used off-hand for va- 
rious purposes, as to receive or car- 
ry articles, or to serve for a saddle.® 
An outer garment served also for 
bed-clothes ; whence it was forbid- 
den to retain it as a pledge after sun- 
set.' 

Various symbolical actions were 
performed with the garments. Rend- 
ing them implied grief, fear, indig- 
nation, or despair.® Sometimes, also, the 
rending of a garment was the figurative 
sign of a prophecy to be accomplished.'' 
Shaking the garments, or shaking the dust 
off them, was a sign of renunciation ;^° 
spreading them before a person, indicated 
loyalty and a joyous reception ;^^ wrap- 
ping them round the head, awe or grief; 
casting them off, excitement; laying hold 
of them, supplication.^^ It was necessary to 
gird up the flowing dress of the Israelites 
on occasion of any particular exertion, or to 



1 Exod. xxvi,, 1, 31; xxviii., 6, 8, 15; xxxv., 25.— 

2 Gen. xlv., 22; 2 Kings v., 5, 22, 23: Isa. iii., 6, 7.— 

3 Matt, xxii., 11, 12. See Banquet.— ^ 1 Sam. xviii., 4 ; 
Luke XV., 22.-5 2 Kings x., 22 ; Job xxvii., 16 ; Jer. iv., 
30 ; Matt, vi., 19 ; 1 Tim. ii., 9 ; Jas. v., 2 ; 1 Pet. iii., 3. 
—8 Judg. viii., 25 ; Ruth iii., 15 ; Matt, xxi., 7.—^ Exod. 
xxii., 26, 27; Deut. xxiv., 12, 13; Ruth iii., 9.-8 Gen. 
xxxvii., 29, 34 ; Judg. xi., 35 ; 2 Sam. i., 2 ; 1 Kings xxi., 
27; 2 Kings xxii., 11, 19; v., 7; xi., 14; Esth. iv., 1; 
Job i., 20 ; Matt, xxvi., 65. See Mourning.—^ 1 Kings 
xi., 29-32.— 10 Acts xviii., 6.— 11 2 Kings ix., 13 ; Matt, 
xxi., 8.-12 1 Kings xix., 13; 1 Sam. xv., 27; 2 Sam. 
XV., 30; xix., 4; Esth. vi., 12; L«a. iii., 6; iv., 1; Jer. 
xiv., 3, 4 ; Zech. viii., 23 ; Acts xxii., 23. 



DRUIDS 



284 



DRUSES 



phorical expression of girding up the loins. 
See Girdle ; Head-dress ; Ornaments ; 
Veil; Sandal; Shoe. [1 Kings xviii,, 46; 
2 Kings iv., 29; Mark x., 50; Luke xii., 35; 
John xiii., 4 ; 1 Pet. i., 13.] 

Druids, the priests of the most ancient re- 
ligion of Great Britain. Druiclism prevailed 
among the Gauls, Britons, and other Celtic 
nations, but Great Britain seems to have 
been the original seat of the religion. The 
name is deduced by some from the Teutonic 
Bruthiiv — a servant of Truth, or from the 
Welsh Dar Gtvydd — a superior priest ; but a 
more numerous class of writers trace it to 
the Greek word drus, an oak — that tree occu- 
pying a conspicuous place in their religious 
ceremonies. Julius Caesar, in giving a de- 
scription of the character and functions of 
the Druids, says that they attended to divine 
worship, performed public and private sacri- 
fices, were the teachers, judges, and men of 
science, and were held in great veneration 
by the people. The doctrines of the Druids 
were of a twofold character, secret and pub- 
lic. The secret doctrines were reserved for 
those who bound themselves by a solemn 
oath to keep them from all men, and had 
themselves been taught a knowledge of them 
in the caves of the earth and recesses of the 
forests. It is supposed that the principal se- 
cret of Druidism was the great doctrine of 
one God, the creator and governor of the 
universe. Their principal public doctrine 
was the immortality of the soul, or rather 
its transmigration from one individual to 
another, which was taught to the people to 
excite bravery and contempt of death. Such 
assurance had they and their followers of a 
future existence, that they cast letters on the 
funeral piles of their friends to be read in 
the next life, left accounts to be settled in 
the next world, and lent money to be repaid 
there. The principles of their theological 
system were contained in hymns amounting 
to twenty thousand verses, and their study 
frequently occupied twenty years. They 
were preserved only in the memories of the 
Druids and their disciples, for it was held 
unlawful to commit them to writing. The 
Druids appear also to have been adepts in 
the magical arts, and believers in the myste- 
rious powers of animals and plants. They 
considered the oak as especially sacred, but 
had still greater reverence for the mistletoe 
when found growing on that tree. They 
generally performed their sacred rites in oak 
groves. One of these consisted in cutting 
the mistletoe on the 10th of March, the com- 
mencement of their year. According to 
Pliny, a Druid clothed in white mounted the 
tree, and with a knife of gold cut the par- 
asite, which was received in the white robe 
of another priest standing on the ground. 
In all the countries anciently inhabited by 
Celts there are now to be found rude struc- 
tures of stone, the most common form of 



which is the so-called cromlech, which con- 
sists of two or more unhewn stones, placed 
erect in the earth, supporting a larger stone.^ 
It is supposed that these were used as altars, 
but of this there is no proof. The Roman 
invasion of Britain gave the first blow to 
Druidism. The governor of Britain, under 
Nero, cut down the sacred groves of the 
Druids, overthrew their altars, and burned 
many of their priests. Traces of the sys- 
tem remained in Britain until a.d. 177, when 
King Lucius embraced Christianity ; and 
finally, before the zealous exertions of Co- 
lumba and the Culdees (q. v.), a. d. 520, the 
barbarous rites and superstitions of the Dru- 
ids passed utterly and forever away. 

Druses, a remarkable people inhabiting 
a district of Syria, including the southern 
range of Lebanon, and the western slopes 
of Anti-Lebanon. With their northern neigh- 
bors the Maronites (q. v.) they have become 
somewhat commingled, and some two hun- 
dred villages are occupied jointly by the two 
sects. While the descent of the Druses has 
been traced back through the Carmathians 
and the Assassins to the Cuthites, one of the 
fierce tribes with which Esarhaddon repeo- 
pled the wastes of Samaria after Israel's sec- 
ond captivity, other races have left their im- 
pression upon it. The wandering Arabs, the 
Mardi, whom Constantiue transplanted thith- 
er in A.D. 686, and even the Crusaders, are 
supposed to have contributed their pecul- 
iarities to form the strange being, the mod- 
ern Druse. Their mysterious religion was 
systematized by Hakim, a caliph of Egypt, 
and a Nero in cruelty. The tenets of this 
sect have, until recently, been almost un- 
known ; but by authors who have made 
careful investigation, the religion is repre- 
sented to be a system of deism, with traces 
of Judaism, Christianity, and Mohammed- 
anism. Their religious ceremonies are stu- 
diously enveloped in mystery, their mosques 
are isolated, and the most inviolable secrecy 
is required from the initiated, the least be- 
trayal of which brings death without mercy. 

Previous to 1840, Druse and Maronite lived 
on terms of intimacy and friendship. At 
that period, however, dissension sprung up 
between the two tribes, and proved to be 
the introduction to years of intermittent 
warfare. The strife reached its climax in 
1860, and accounts of the fearful barbarities 
practiced by the Druses upon the Marouites 
followed each other with appalling frequen- 
cy, until the indignation of Em-ope was 
roused against them. In August of the same 
year an expedition was sent out from France 
to Syria, with the consent of the Great Pow- 
ers, for the purpose of protecting the Chris- 
tian residents and the so-called Maronite 
Cliristians, and of restoring tranquillity. 
But it seemed that however criminal may 
have been the excesses into which the Drn* 



See Altak, for illustrauou of a cromlech. 



DRUSILLA 



285 



DUST 



ses were betrayed, the original provocation 
came from the Maronites. Although the 
lives of women and children Avere lost in 
considerable numbers, yet it was not alone 
the Druses who were in general guilty of 
such abominable crimes. The Turks, par- 
ticularly the low, fanatical mob of Damas- 
cus (who have frequently been confounded 
with the Druses, because they fomented their 
passions), are mainly chargeable ; while the 
retaliation of the Maronites, who took ref- 
uge in the French camp, was equally vin- 
dictive and horrible. The number of lives 
lost in the Syrian massacres was never defi- 
nitely ascertained, but must have amounted 
to many thousands. The Druses were until 
lately governed by a grand emir, subject to 
the Porte ; but at the conclusion of the late 
troubles, it was resolved that one ruler, and 
he a Christian — the Maronites being in pro- 
portion to the Druses as three to one — 
should be appointed as their governor. Ac- 
cordingly, after some deliberation at the 
Porte, Daud Efifendi, formerly director-gen- 
eral of telegraphs, was appointed to the 
Lebanon to act as governor, with full pow- 
ers, June 22, 1861. The Druses are about 
eighty thousand in number; they are a brave, 
handsome, and industrious people, and are 
almost all taught to read and write. Polyg- 
amy is unknown among them. They have, 
with incredible toil, carried the soil of the 
valleys up and along the liill-sides, which are 
laid out in terraces, planted with the mul- 
berry, the olive, and the vine. From the 
produce of these, the hardy mountaineers 
draw the greater part of their sustenance. 
Their chief trade is the manufacture of silk. 

Drusilla {waiered hy the dcAv), a daughter of 
Herod Agrippa L, and sister of Agrippa II. 
She was betrothed to Antiochus Epiphanes, 
prince of Comagene ; but, as he refused to 
become a Jew, she was married to Azizus, 
prince of Emesa. Soon after, Felix, the Ro- 
man procurator, persuaded her, by means of 
the Cyprian sorcerer Simon, to leave her 
husband and marry him. She bore him a 
son, Agrippa, who perished in the eruption 
of Vesuvius, in the reign of Titus. At the 
time when Paul preached before Felix and 
Drusilla she was living in adultery, since she 
had no just reason for leaving her previous 
husband. Tliis fact gives significance to the 
declaration that Paul *' reasoned of righteous- 
ness, temperance, and judgment to come." 
The address, from which the guilty pair ex- 
pected only entertainment, made Felix trem- 
ble. [Acts xxiv., 24, 25.] 

Dumah (silence), Ishmael's sixth son, prob- 
ably the founder of a tribe in Arabia, and 



hence the name of the principal place or dis- 
trict inhabited by that tribe on the borders 
of Syria and Arabia. The Arabs still call 
a place in that region Duma el-Jendel — the 
rocky Dumah. The place is the subject of 
a very enigmatical prophecy in Isaiah,^ and 
is there spoken of in connection with Seir. 
There was another Dumah, a town belong- 
ing to the tribe of Judah, probably a few 
miles south-west of Hebron, where there are 
some ruins still bearing the name. 

Dung was used among the ancient Jews 
both as manure and as fuel. The manure 
consisted either of straw steeped in liquid 
manure, or the sweepings of the streets and 
roads, which were carefully removed from 
about the houses, and collected in heaps out- 
side the walls of the towns at fixed spots, 
and thence removed in due course to the 
fields. The mode of applying manure to 
trees was by digging holes about their roots 
and inserting it, as still practiced in South- 
ern Italy. Particular directions were laid 
down in the law to enforce cleanliness with 
regard to human ordure.^ The difficulty of 
procuring fuel in Syria, Arabia, and Egypt 
has made dung in all ages valuable as a sub- 
stitute : it was probably used for heating 
ovens and for baking cakes, the equable 
heat which it produced adapting it peculiar- 
ly for the latter operation. Cow's and cam- 
el's dung is still used for a similar purpose 
by the Bedouins. [Exod. xxix., 14 ; Lev. iv., 
11 ; viii., 17 ; Numb, xix., 5 ; Dent, xxiii., 12 ; 
2 Kings X., 27 ; Ezra vi., 11 ; Isa. xxv., 10 ; 
Ezek. iv., 12, 15.] 

Dura (circle), the place where Nebuchad- 
nezzar set up his golden image. Dr. Layard 
identifies it with Dur, below Tekrit, on the 
east bank of the Tigris ; by others it is lo- 
cated to the south-east of Babylon, near a 
mound called Duair, where has been found 
the pedestal of a colossal statue. [Dan. iii., 

1-] 

Dust. The Jews taught uniformly that 
the dust of the Gentiles was impure, and was 
to be shaken otf. To shake off the dust from 
the feet, therefore, against a place, was a sig- 
nificant act, denoting that the people of the 
place were regarded as impure, profane, and 
lieathenish, and that all further connection 
with them was declined. It is recorded that 
this was actually done by some of the apos- 
tles. The casting of dust on or against a 
person was a form of bitter execration. It 
was also employed as a sign of mourning 
(q. v.). [2 Sam. xvi., 13 ; Matt, x., 14 ; Luke 
X., 11 ; Acts xiii., 51 ; xviii., 6; xxii.,23.] 



1 Isa. xxi., 11, 12.— 2 Dent, xxiii., 12; Dan. ii., 
iii., 29. 



EAGLE 



286 



EASTER 



E. 



Eagle. The principal characteristics of 
the eagle referred to in the Bible are its 
swiftness of flight, its mounting high into 
the air, its strength and vigor, its predatory 
habits, its setting its nest in high places, the 
care in training its young to fly, its powers 
of vision, and its moulting.^ The Hebrew 
word translated eagle does not, however, al- 
ways, or perhaps generally, indicate the bird 
of that name. At least it often comprehends 
the great or griffion vulture. This bird is 
found in large numbers in Palestine, and its 
habits and size render it very conspicuous. 
In flight, it is one of the most magnificent 
birds that can be seen ; and even when perch- 
ed, it often retains a certain look of majesty 
and grandeur. That the familiar passage in 
Matthew,^ " Wheresoever the carcass is, there 
will the eagles be gathered together," refers 
to the vulture and not the eagle, is evident 
from the fact that eagles do not congregate, 
never being seen together in greater numbers 
than two or three, while the vultures assem- 
ble in hundreds. That the prophet Micah 
refers to the vultui'e and not the eagle, in the 
passage, ^' Make thee bald, and poll thee for 
thy delicate children ; enlarge thy baldness 
as the eagle,"^ is equally evident from the 
fact that the head of the vulture is feather- 
less, while the head of the eagle is thickly 
covered with feathers. The vulture affords, 
too, an image of strength and swiftness when 
applied to warriors, the bird being an inva- 
riable attendant on the battle, and flying to 
the field of death with marvelous swiftness.* 

Among nearly all nations the eagle was the 
symbol of God, as sovereign creator and ruler, 
and it was also a bird of good omen among 
the Greeks and Romans. The frequent use 
in some churches of its form for the lectern 
has probably some reference to the fact that 
it was attributed by medieval art to St. John 
as his symbolical companion, on account of 
the lofty character of his inspiration. 

The gier-eagle, mentioned only in the lists 
of unclean birds prohibited by the laws of 
Moses,^ is identified by most scholars with 
the Egyptian vulture. 

East. The term "the. East" is used 
somewhat looselj^ in Scripture, to denote not 
only the countries which lay directly east of 
Palestine, but those also which stretched to- 
ward the north and east — Armenia, Assyria, 
Babylonia, Parthia, as well as the territo- 
ries of Moab, Amnion, and Arabia Deserta. 
In the varied use and application of the 



1 Exod. xix., 4; Dent, xxiii., 11; xxviii.,49; 2 Sara, 
i., 23; Job ix., 2() ; xxxix., 27, 20; Psa. ciii., 5; Prov. 
xxiii., 5; XXX., 17, 19; Isa. xl., 31; Jer. iv., 13; xlix., 
22; Lam. iv,, 19.— 2 Matt, xxiv., 2S.— 3 Mic. i., IG.— 
4 2 Sam. i., 23 ; Lam. iv., 19; Hab. i., 8.-6 Lev. xi., IS ; 
Deut. xiv., 17. 



term, therefore, it is necessary to consider 
the connection in which it stands, in order 
to obtain any distinct idea of the region 
more particularly indicated by it. [Gen. 
xxix., i. ; Numb, xxiii., 7 ; Judg. vi., 3 ; viii., 
10; Isa. ii., 6.] 

East ("Worshiping toward the). This 
custom, which early appeared in the Chris- 
tian Church, is of very remote antiquity, 
having probably been derived from the habit 
prevailing among those who worshiped the 
sun, of turning toward the east, where he is 
seen to rise. While the ancient Jews turn- 
ed toward the west, that they might not 
appear to imitate the idolatrous heathen, it 
was customary in the early Christian Church 
to pray facing toward the east. The altars 
were placed at the east side of the church ; 
the dead were buried, so that the eyes might 
be turned in the same direction ; and in the 
baptismal ceremony it was customary first 
to turn toward the west as the region of 
darkness, and to renounce with great so- 
lemnity the devil and his works, and then 
to turn about to the east and enter into 
covenant with Christ. Many reasons have 
been assigned for the introduction and con- 
tinued observance of the custom of worship- 
ing toward the east. " Some say the east was 
the symbol of Christ, who was called the 
Orient, and Light, and Stiu of Righteousness, 
in Scripture ;" others, '* that the east was 
the place of paradise — our ancient habitation 
and country — which we lost in the first Adam 
by the fall, and whither we hope to be re- 
stored again, as to our native abode and 
rest, in the second Adam, Christ our Sav- 
iour;" another reason assigned was, "that 
the east was the most honorable part of the 
creation, as being the seat of liglit and bright- 
ness; and as we set apart the most honorable 
things to the honor of God, we therefore in 
time of prayer turn our faces to the east." 
There is one more reason assigned for it, 
" that Christ made his appearance on earth 
in the east, and there ascended into heaven, 
and there will appear again at the last day." 

Easter, a festival observed in the Chris- 
tian Church from early times, in memory of 
the resurrection of Jesus Christ from the 
dead. It corresponds with the Passover of 
the Jews, which is in our Bible called once 
by the name of Easter.^ Among the Latins 
and others it is called by the same Hebrew 
word, Pascha {passage), which is applied to 
the Passover. The term Easter is said to 
have been first used when Christianity was 
introduced among the Saxons in Britain ; 
and the Venerable Bede traces it to Eostre, a 
Saxon goddess whose festival was celebrated 
1 Acts xii., 4. See Passover. 



EASTER 



287 



EBAL 



annually at the season in which. Easter is 
now held. When the worship of the heathen 
deity was abolished, the name was still re- 
tained by the Christian festival to which it 
gave place. According to other writers, 
however, it is derived from a Saxon word 
signifying rising, and thus Easter-day is the 
day of the rising of Christ from the dead. 
Strictly speaking, Easter- Sunday is not the 
anniversary -day of our Saviour's resurrec- 
tion, but is the day appointed to be kept in 
remembrance of that event. Concerning 
the celebration of this festival, there were 
anciently very great disputes in the Church. 
Though all agreed in the observance of it in 
general, yet they differed very much as to the 
particular time when it was to be observed ; 
and it was only after a controversy of several 
centuries that the day to be appropriated to 
this festival was finally settled on. 

But though the Christian churches differ- 
ed as to the time of celebrating Easter, yet 
they all agreed in bestowing upon it a pe- 
culiar respect and honor. It was anciently 
called " the great day," " the queen of fes- 
tivals, that excels all others as far as the 
sun exceeds the other stars." Some ancient 
writers term Easter-Sunday the Lord's day 
of joy ; and in token of gladness the Chris- 
tian emperors of Rome were accustomed 
upon that day to grant a general release of 
prisoners, with the exception of those who 
had committed great crimes. It was like- 
wise usual at this holy season for private per- 
sons to manumit their slaves. But the festi- 
val was not limited to Easter-Sunday alone. 
Christians were wont to keep the whole 
week as part of the festival, holding every 
day religious services for prayer, preaching, 
and partaking of the Lord's Supper. Nay, 
the ancient Christian Pasch included the 
week before Easter-Sunday, as well as the 
week following it ; the one being called the 
Pasch of the Cross, the other the Pasch of the 
Resurrection. The season was signalized by 
special liberality to the poor. Servants were 
required to rest from their; work. All public 
games, were prohibited, and, except in some 
special and extraordinary cases, all proceed- 
ings at law. It was the most noted and sol- 
emn of all the stated times of baptism. The 
festival was uniformly preceded, even from 
early times, by a season of fasting, which 
lasted for forty hours, corresponding to the 
time our Saviour lay in the grave. At first 
strictly voluntary in its character, this fast 
became at length a prescribed duty for all 
believers. In the fifth and sixth centuries 
the fast was extended to thirty-six days. 
The four additional days, which complete the 
season of Lent, were added either in the sixth 
century by Gregory the Great, or in the 
eighth century l)y Gregory II. This fast be- 
gan with Ash-Wednesday, and ended with 
the Saturday before Easter. The whole 
week before Easter, beginning with Palm- 



Sunday, was kept as holy time ; but the fifth, 
sixth, and seventh days of the week were re- 
garded as peculiarly sacred. The week was 
called Great- Week and Passion-Week. The 
fifth day was Maunday-Thursday, the sixth 
Good-Friday, and the seventh was the Great- 
Sabbath, which was observed as a day of 
rigorous fasting. The night of the Great- 
Sabbath, the eve of Easter, was celebrated 
with more than ordinary pomp, with solemn 
watchings, and with multitudes of lighted 
torches, both in churches and private houses, 
so as to turn night into day. This was done 
as a forerunner of that great light, the Sun 
of Righteousness, which the next day had 
given to the world. No sooner did the time 
when our Lord rose from the grave — the 
cock-crow — come, than suddenly joyful ac- 
clamations burst forth amidst the stillness 
of the midnight vigils: ''The Lord is risen! 
The Lord is risen ! The Lord is risen indeed !" 
The ceremonies of the Easter festival are 
still observed in the Romish Church with 
great strictness, and at Rome are partici- 
pated in by the pope. By the Greek Church 
it is accounted as the most solemn festival of 
all the year, and Easter-day is waited for and 
ushered in by a midnight service so impress- 
ive and joyful that it is impossible in these 
pages to give any adequate account of it. 

The law which regulates Easter in Great 
Britain declares that whenever the full moon 
on or next after March 21st falls on a Sun- 
day, that Sunday is not Easter-Sunday, but 
the next. It also prescribes rules for deter- 
mining Easter.^ From the fixed rule which 
prevails throughout the Roman, English, and 
Scottish Episcopal churches, the remaining 
Protestant churches who observe Easter differ 
very little. Presbyterian and Congregation- 
alist churches do not observe the festival. 

Eastern Church, a name given, in distinc- 
tion from the Western or Latin Church,^ to 
Eastern Christendom, divided into the fol- 
lowing churches : the Greek Church, the Ar- 
menian Church, the Nestorians, the Jacobites, 
the Copts, and the Abyssinians. See the arti- 
cles so entitled. 

Ebal and Gerizim, two mountains of Pal- 
estine, bounding a beautiful valley, in which 
lies Shechem, the modern Nablous — Ebal on 
the north, Gerizim on the south of this valley. 
Moses directed that the Israelites, when they 
had passed into Canaan, should gather at this 
point and erect an altar, and write thereon 
the words of the law. .Half the tribes were 
to stand here and denounce the curses upon 
transgressors, while over against them the 
other six were to stand on Mount Gerizim 
and to bless the people. This was accord- 
ingly done by Joshua.' It has been objected 
that the words of Moses describe the mount- 
ains as over against Gilgal ; and also that 
those at Shechem are too far apart for the 



1 See Grekk Chckou.— '^ Dent, xi., 29, 30; xxvii. ; 
Josh, vlii., 30-85.— 3 See Table iu Appendix. 



EBONY 



288 



ECCLESIASTES 



voice to be sufficiently heard from one to 
the other. These objections- are futile. The 
Canaanites are described as dwelling, not the 
mountains as situated, over against Gilgal; 
and that the voice is audible from one of the 
Shechem mountains to the other has been 
proved again and again by actual experi- 
ment, the valley at the eastern end being not 
more than sixty rods wide. The experiments 
of a recent traveler, Mr. Mills, on this point 
are very conclusive. His tent was placed be- 
tween the mountains, in a spot where he 
thinks the ark might have stood. He ascend- 
ed Grerizim, while a friend stood on Ebal. Mr. 
Mills read out the blessings, and his voice was 
distinctly heard at the tent, and by his friend 
on Ebal, who then read the curses with a 
similar result. Ebal is the higher summit — 
about 2700 feet above the level of the sea ; 
Gerizim, 2600 ; and as Nablous is 1672 feet 
above that level, Gerizim rises 928, Ebal 1028 
above the town. There are remains of old 
buildings on Ebal, but they have not been 
fully examined. In regard to the law to be 
written on the stones there, it has been ques- 
tioned whether it was the whole law ; it was 
more x^robably the blessings and cursings be- 
fore prescribed. It has also been questioned 
whether the words were cut in the stones. 
They were more likely written on the plas- 
ter with which the stones were coated. Dr. 
Thomson says that he has seen such writing 
on or in cement more than 2000 years old 
still perfectly distinct. See Gerizim. 

Ebony, a dark, hard, stone-like wood, men- 
tioned as brought with ivory by the men 
of Dedan to Tyre. The best quality comes 
from Southern India and Ceylon. It is the 
centre of the tree which furnishes the very 
black wood which is so much prized in or- 
namental carvings and inlayings, and takes 
so fine a polish. Probably some so-called 
ebony is procured from trees of a different 
genus. [Ezek. xxvii., 15.] 

Ecce Homo {heJiold the man !), a name giv- 




Ecce Homo. 

en in art to pictures representing the Saviour 
as described in John xix., 5 : " Then came 



Jesus forth, wearing the crown of thorns 
and the purple robe. And Pilate saith unto 
them. Behold the man !" Although a com- 
paratively recent subject in art, many of the 
greatest painters have employed their high- 
est efforts upon it. There are two forms of 
it, viz., the devotional picture, which offers 
the single head or half- figure of Christ to 
our contemplation as the '■'■ Man of Sorrows," 
and the more historical picture, which either 
places him before us together with Pilate 
and one or more attendants, or gives the 
full scene with numerous figures. 

Ecclesiastes. The title of this book in 
our Bibles is derived from the Septuagint 
version, Ecclesiastes being a Greek word sig- 
nifying a preacher. The Hebrew title, fco- 
heleth, conveys nearly the same idea, and is 
used throughout the book as a proper name. 
That King Solomon is the individual desig- 
nated as the preacher throughout the book, 
and that the book contains what purports to 
be a record of his experience and reflections, 
is admitted by all ; but it is by no means so 
universally admitted that Solomon himself 
was the author of the book. Some writers, 
both evangelical and rationalistic, place Ec- 
clesiastes among the very latest books of 
the O. T., principally on account of its style, 
which differs in a marked degree from that of 
Proverbs, or any other book of the Scriptures 
which belongs to the age of Solomon. But 
we think that the internal evidence is rea- 
sonably conclusive that the book is the prod- 
uct of Solomon's pen. It tends to identify it 
with one who was famous for his love of nat- 
ural science, and who wrote "of the trees of 
Lebanon, and of beasts, and of fowls, and of 
creeping things, and of fishes." The expe- 
rience therein recorded tallies wonderfully 
with what we know of the grandeur of one 
who was at once famed for his wisdom and 
his love of Oriental display.^ And as we 
have elsewhere shown, '^ it is required to fill 
up the volume of his experience, of which 
Solomon's Song is the introduction, and the 
book of Proverbs is the close. For instead 
of attributing it to Solomon's old age, as 
many do, we are rather inclined, as we have 
in our article on Solomon indicated, to re- 
gard it as analogous to the Confessions of Au- 
gustine, and as marking the transition peri- 
od between the satisfaction of a man of the 
world in worldly enjoyment and worldly 
wisdom, and the final experience which the 
vanity of the world affords to one who is 
able to learn its lesson. The doubts on the 
subject of its canonicity, which occasionally, 
even in early times, found expression within 
the synagogue and the church, were never 
able to shake the dominant belief that the 
author of Ecclesiastes was one of the favored 
few who wrote " as they were moved by the 



1 1 Kings iv., 32-34; cornp. Eccles. i., 13, with 1 
Kin<;s iv./29, 30; and Ercles. ii., 1-10, with 1 Kiugs 
X. See art. Solomon. — ^ g^-e art. Solomon. 



ECCLESIASTES 



289 



ECCLESIASTICUS 



Holy Gliost." The autboritatire decision 
of the Church teachers is amply confirm- 
ed by the internal evidence of the book. 
Nowhere, even in the sacred Scripture*, is 
the vanity of all sublunary things depicted 
80 overpoweringly. The utterances of the 
book, indeed, often startle and surprise by 
their boldness. The tongue of skepticism 
appears to be allowed an excess of license. 
But this is no indication of the absence of 
inspiration ; rather the reverse. Shrinking 
timidity and smooth propriety characterize 
the words of man, but the words of the Spirit 
are ever characterized by bold and fearless 
honesty. Who does not feel that the ab- 
sence of Ecclesiastes from the O. T. would 
create a blank which no skill of man could 
fill up ? We catch tbe echo of Ecclesiastes 
frequently in the N, T. And no wonder, for 
no teacbing could form a more fitting prep- 
aration for the full revelation of the world 
to come than the teaching of this book, in 
whicb tbe vanity of the world is so impress- 
ively displayed. 

Distinguished in a marked manner from 
all the other Scriptural books, Ecclesiastes 
stands alone among the Hebrew writings. 
It contains not a few proverbs, but it is not 
a collection of proverbs. It is a continuous 
composition, having one theme from begin- 
ning to end. It is, moreover, a book of ar- 
gument, appealing not to authority, but to 
reason and experience. It contains no " Thus 
saitb the Lord," like the writings of the 
prophets. The author takes lower ground. 
He makes no claim to prophetic powers ; he 
reasons witb men on their own level, and 
builds his argument on what lies under the 
observation of every one. The book is re- 
markable for the copious introduction of 
particulars, by which the general theme is 
illustrated, and the final conclusion estab- 
lished. We can not expect in this treatise 
of Eastern origin, written between two and 
three thousand years ago, the same regular- 
ity and logical sequence which would be 
demanded in any similar production of our 
time. Yet there is an obvious advance and 
a marked distinction between the close of 
the treatise and tbe commencement. There 
is an introduction (chap, i., 1-11), in which 
the theme is announced and the problem 
stated, and there is a conclusion (chap, xii., 
8-14), in whicb the result of the argument is 
most distinctly enunciated. The interme- 
diate chapters (i., 12, to xii., 7) form the body 
of the treatise, in whicb by reflection, ar- 
gument, and illustrations, the preacher en- 
forces, chiefly out of his own experience, the 
one text to whicb he constantly recurs, "■ Van- 
ity of vanities, all is vanity," and which leads 
Mm to bis final conclusion that the lesson 
of every life, however full of worldly pros- 
perity and advantage it may appear to be, is, 
that true happiness consists in fearing God 
and keeping his commandments ; and that 
19 



he who does this has no reason to envy those 
more fortunate than bimself ; while even the 
most prosperous, if they do not fear and obey 
God, possess no true or permanent peace or 
joy. It is the confession of a man of the 
world, and is of all books in tbe Bible the 
most effective, in its supx)ly of materials, to 
deal with the worldly-minded, elated, and 
self-satisfied witb their own worldly pros- 
perity. 

Ecclesiastical History, in the full sense 
of the term, is the history of God's Church 
on the eartb from the beginning to the pres- 
ent time. In this sense, it includes botb the 
O. T. and the N. T. bistory of the Church. 
As generally employed, however, it desig- 
nates simply tbe bistory of the Christian 
Church, and includes an account both of its 
interior and its exterior development, i. e., a 
history of its organization, and also an ac- 
count of the development of Christian doc- 
trine. 

Ecclesiasticus, the title given in the Latin 
version to '^ the wisdom of Jesus the Son of 
Siracb," wbicb bas often been regarded and 
cited as a genuine work of Solomon. Sol- 
omon's, however, it can not be ; for the di- 
vision of the kingdom after bis death, and 
the sins of Israel deservedly punished by 
the Captivity, are recorded in xlvii. 13-25 ; 
nor was it ever admitted into the Jewish 
canon. It is, therefore, reckoned among the 
books of the Apocrypha. The notices in the 
book itself, and in the prologues, indicate 
that it was the work of one Jesus, a Pales- 
tinian Jew ; and tbe most reasonable conclu- 
sion as to the date of the composition is that 
it was originally compiled about 180 B.C., in 
the Hebrew or Syro-Chaldaic vernacular, and 
subsequently translated into the Greek about 
130 B.C. 

Ecclesiasticus is a book of very consider- 
able value, frequently cited in the Church by 
honorable names ; and though not a part of 
canonical Scripture, yet occasionally read in 
the service of the English Church. There 
is a general resemblance in it to the book of 
Proverbs, from which, as well as other sources, 
tbe compiler borrowed. But topics are some- 
times discussed more connectedly and at 
greater lengtb than by Solomon. There is 
little definite order, however, in tbe work, 
nor would it be easy to arrange its contents. 
The best division is that which distinguish- 
es three parts: 1. (i. to xliii.) A commenda- 
tion of wisdom, with precepts of general ap- 
plication for the regulation of life ; 2. (xliv. 
tol.) An encomium on the patriarchs, proph- 
ets, and other Hebrew worthies ; 3. (1.) A 
prayer and exhortation to the pursuit of 
wisdom. The style is poetical, and there is 
mucb acuteness of thought and beauty of 
expression in this work. It has been sup- 
loosed that reference to it has been made in 
the N. T. ; but the parallels are too general 
to make it clear that they were quotations, 



ECCLESIOLOGY 



290 



ECUMENICAL COUNCIL 



and not mere similarities of tlionght or ex- 
pression. 

Ecclesiology, a word of recent use, is tlie 
name wMch has been given in the British 
Islands to the study of church architecture 
and decoration. It takes account of all the 
elaborate details of church furniture and its 
symbolism, and is cultivated chiefly, if not 
exclusively, by the High-Church party in 
the Church of England. It has a literature 
of its own, including a monthly journal call- 
ed The Ecclesiologist. There are societies for 
promoting its study, one of which, the Eccle- 
siological, late Cambridge Camden Society, 
has published "A Hand-book of English Ec- 
clesiology." 

Eclipse of the Sun. No historical notice 
of an eclipse occurs in the Bible, but there 
are passages in the prophets which contain 
manifest allusion to this phenomenon. Some 
of these notices probably refer to eclipses 
that occurred about the time of the respect- 
ive compositions, so that astronomy lends 
incidental confirmation to the Scri^iture nar- 
rative. Thus the date of Amos coincides 
with a total eclipse which occurred Febru- 
ary 9, B.C. 784, and was visible at Jerusalem 
shortly after noon ; that of Micah with the 
eclipse of June 5, B.C. 716 ; and a passing no- 
tice in Jer. xv., 9, coincides in date with the 
eclipse of Sej)tember 30, B.C. 610. The dark- 
ness that overspread the world at the cruci- 
fixion can not with reason be attributed to 
an eclipse, as the moon was at the full at 
the time of the Passover. See Crucifixion. 
[Joel ii., 10, 31 ; iii., 15 ; Amos viii., 9 ; Mic. 
iii., 6; Zech. xiv., 6.] 

Ecumenical Council. The term council 
is applied by Roman Catholics to certain 
ecclesiastical asseinblages.^ These are of 
various sorts, as Diocesan, Provincial, Na- 
tional, General, and finally Ecumenical. A 
Diocesan or Synodical Council is composed 
of a particular diocese, with the bishop of 
the diocese at its head ; a Provincial or Met- 
ropolitan Council is composed of the bish- 
ojis of an ecclesiastical province, with the 
archbishops at their head ; a National or 
Plenary Council is composed of the bishops 
and archbi8hox)s of all the provinces in the 
nation. Two such have been held in Balti- 
more in the years, respectively, 1852 and 1866. 
Finally, an Ecumenical Council is properly 
a council assembled from all parts of the in- 
habited world. Only the higher dignitaries 
of the Church attend it, as the bishops, arch- 
bishops, primates, and the like. It is sum- 
moned by the pope, or by the act of some 
previous council. Its acts, when approved 
l)y the pope, are regarded by Roman Catho- 
lics as infallible and authoritative in all mat- 
ters of faith and morals. Other councils 
have only so much authority as the church- 
es which they represent, unless their acts 
are especially confirmed by the pope. The 
1 For Proiestaiit use of term, see Congregationalists. 



term General Council is sometimes given to 
one which, though conspicuous for the num- 
ber of its prelates, is for some reason, as for 
lack of the papal confirmation, held not to 
represent the universal Church. 

The synodical system in general took its 
rise, and has its sanction in the Apostolic 
Council at Jerusalem, of which Luke, in the 
fifteenth chapter of Acts, and Paul, in the 
second chapter of Galatians, give us an au- 
thentic account. In its historical develop- 
ment, it passed, like the episcopal system, 
through the Diocesan, Provincial, Patriarch- 
al, and National Councils, and culminated, 
in the age of Constantine, in the Ecumenic- 
al Council. Ecumenical councils could not 
be convened till after the persecutions had 
ceased, and the Roman Empire had nomi- 
nally become Christian. They were not 
stated, but extraordinary assemblies, occa- 
sioned by great theological controversies 
which agitated and aftected the whole 
Church. While an Ecumenical or Univer- 
sal Council, strictly speaking, is one iu which 
the Church of the whole inhabited earth is 
represented, in point of fact even those which 
were most numerously attended embraced 
but a small portion of Christendom, and be- 
came ecumenical only by the open or tacit 
acquiescence of the rest. Of the three hun- 
dred and eighteen fathers of the Council of 
Nicsea, the first in the list, there was but one 
Latin bishop present, Hosius, of Spain ; and 
in that of Constantinople, the second, there 
was none at all. As to the laity, they have 
no rei^resentation whatever in Catholic coun- 
cils, unless we except the Roman emperors 
in the Greek councils. 

There are seven ecumenical councils 
which are recognized as such both by the 
orthodox Greek and the Latin Church, and, 
with some restrictions, also by the ortho- 
dox branches of Protestantism. These are 
described by Dr. Philip Schaff as follows : 

1. The First Council ofNiccea (a.d. 325). It 
was called by Emperor Constantine the 
Great, held at Nicsea, in Bithynia, near the 
imperial residence of Nicomedia. It con- 
sisted of three hundred and eighteen bish- 
ops, all from the East, except Hosius, of 
Cordova. It was occasioned by the Arian 
controversy, and decided in favor of the 
strict divinity of Christ, which was set forth 
in the famous Nicene Creed, still held in the 
highest honor in all branches of orthodox 
Christendom. The Nicene Council stands 
first in authority as well as chronologically 
among ecumenical councils, and is called 
''The Great and Holy Council!" In the 
Greek Church, the Nicene Creed takes the 
place of the Apostles' Creed. 

2. The First Council of Constantinople (a.d. 
381), summoned by Theodosius the Great. It 
consisted of but one hundred and fifty bish- 
ops, as the emperor summoned only those 
who were orthodox. It re- affirmed and en- 



ECUMENICAL COUNCIL 



291 



ECUMENICAL COUNCIL 



larged the Nicene Creed, and brougbt it into 
its present shape. It marks the hnal over- 
throw of the Ariau heresy in the Roman Em- 
pire. 

3. The Conncil ofEplicsus (a.d. 431), called 
by Theodosins II., consisting of one hundred 
and ninety -eight — among whom were for 
the first time papal delegates from Rome — 
marks the conclusion of the first act in the 
Christological war, and resulted in the con- 
demnation of Nestorianism, or the doctrine 
that held to the duality of natures, but virtu- 
ally denied the unity of the person of Christ. 
As its action was merely negative, it stands 
lowest among the first four ecumenical coun- 
cils. It gave rise to the Nestorian schism. 

4. The Council of Clialcedon (a.d. 451), sum- 
moned by the Emperor Marcion at the request 
of Pope Leo I. It was composed of five hun- 
dred and twenty (according to other author- 
ities, of six hundred and thirty) bishops, 
including three delegates from Rome, and 
two bishops of North Africa. This council 
stands next in importance to that of Nicsea. 
It settled the orthodox dogma of the person 
of Christ by condemning Eutychiauism, as 
well as Nestorianism, and teaching that Je- 
sus Christ ivS '' truly God and truly man, of a 
reasonable soul and human flesh subsisting, 
consubstantial with the father as to his God- 
head, consubstantial also with us as to his 
manhood." 

The doctrinal decisions of these four coun- 
cils, relating to the holy Trinity and the 
divine human constitution of Christ's per- 
son, are universally adopted in the Christian 
Church — Protestant as well as Catholic. 
But their disciplinary canons are regarded 
as binding only by the Greek Church. Even 
the Latin Church dissents from some of these 
canons, especially the one which relates to 
the rival patriarchs of Constantinople and 
Rome. 

The next three ecumenical councils are 
likewise recognized by the Greek and Latin 
churches, but are of less importance. They 
are as follows : 

5. The Second Council of Constantinople (a.d. 
553), called by the Emperor Justinian for the 
adjustment of the tedious Monophysite con- 
troversy and the condemnation of the Chris- 
tological views of Theodoret, Ibas, and The- 
odore of Mopsuestia. It emphasized the doc- 
trine of the unity of Christ's person, and 
made some concessions to the Monophysites, 
but without reconciling them to the Council 
of Chalcedon. 

6. The Third Council of Constantinople (a.d. 
680), under Constantiue Progonatus. It con- 
demned Pope Honorius and the doctrine of 
Monothelitism — that is, that Christ had only 
one will. It completed the orthodox Chris- 
tology. 

7. The Second Council of Nicma (a.d. 787), 
under the Empress Irene, for the settlement 
of the iconoclastic controversy. It belongs 



more to the history of worship and ritualism 
than of doctrine, and sanctioned the moder- 
ate use of images as helps to devotion. 

This completes the first class of ecumenic- 
al councils — the only ones which can prop- 
erly be so called. The Greek Church holds 
them in the highest veneration, and cele- 
brates their memory annually on the first 
Sunday in Lent, called the Sunday of Ortho- 
doxy. On that day the ancient councils are 
dramatically reproduced in the public wor- 
ship. The Greek Church looks forward to 
an eighth ecumenical council, that shall heal 
all the divisions in Christendom. 

A second class of ecumenical councils em- 
braces those which are recognized only by 
the Roman Catholic Church, and are rejected 
by both the Greek and the Protestant. Some 
of them are disputed even by Roman Catho- 
lics. They were all convened by popes, and 
attended only by bishops of the Roman Cath- 
olic Church. They are as follows : 

8. The Fourth Council of Constantinople (a.d. 
869). It confirmed the previous deposition 
of Photius from the patriarchate of Constan- 
tinople, and repealed the condemnation of 
Pope Honorius as a heretic. In this council, 
the legates of the Roman pontiff, Hadrian II., 
had a controlling influence. It was attend- 
ed by about two hundred prelates. 

9. The First Lateran Council (a.d. 1123), so 
termed because it was held at the Lateran 
Basilica in Rome. It was convened about 
seventy years after the final separation of 
the Greek and Roman churches. From this 
time a truly ecumenical council became an 
impossibility, since the Greek Church was 
never after represented. This council de- 
creed the celibacy of the clergy. 

10. The Second Lateran Council (a.d. 1139) 
condemned the views of Arnold of Brescia.^ 

11. The Third Lateran Council (a.d. 1179) 
decreed that the pope should be elected by 
a two-thirds vote of the cardinals, and sanc- 
tioned a crusade against the Waldenses and 
Albigenses. 

12. The Fourth Lateran Council (a.d. 1215), 
under Pope Innocent III. Transubstantia- 
tion, auricular confession, and the inquisi- 
tion were sanctioned, and the papal author- 
ity over temporal sovereigns was ratified. 
The two great orders of mendicant monks, 
the Franciscans and the Dominicans, were 
sanctioned. 

13. The First Council of Lyons (a.d. 1245) 
excommunicated the German emperor, Fred- 
erick II., and decreed a general crusade for 
the recovery of the Holy Land. Its author- 
ity is denied by many Roman Catholics. 

14. The Second Council of Lyons (a.d. 1274) 
attempted, unsuccessfully, a reunion of Greek 
and Roman churches, and established regu- 
lations, still in force, respecting the election 
of the pope (q. v.) by the cardinals. 

15. The Council of Vienna (a.d. 1311) abol- 



1 See Abnoldites. 



ECUMENICAL COUNCIL 



292 



ECUMENICAL COUNCIL 



ished tlie order of Knights Templars, and 
condemned certain sects. 

16. The Counoil of Pisa (a.d. 1409), sum- 
moned hy the cardinals to put an end to a 
schism in the Church produced by two rival 
popes, Gregory XII. and Benedict XIII. Both 
were deposed for heresy and crime, and a 
third, Alexander V., was elected. But nei- 
ther of the deposed popes paid any attention 
to the decrees of the council, and its author- 
ity is a matter of dispute to the present day, 

17. The Council of Constance (a.d. 1414- 
1418). There were at this time three rival 
popes, John XXIII., Benedict XIII., and 
Gregory XII. The two former were deposed 
by the council, the latter resigned. A new 
pope, Martin V., was elected. John Wyc- 
liffe, who had been dead for thirty years, 
was anathematized, and John Huss, who was 
provided with a safe -conduct, and had at- 
tended the council, was arrested, tried, con- 
victed of heresy, and condemned to be burned, 
and was executed accordingly. This coun- 
cil declared emphatically its authority over 
all dignitaries, including even the pope him- 
self. For this reason its authority is im- 
pugned by some Roman Catholics. Its de- 
crees in this respect flatly contradict those 
of the Council of the Vatican referred to be- 
low. 

18. The Council of Pavia (a.d. 1423) trans- 
ferred its sittings to Siena, but was speedily 
dissolved, on account of the fewness of those 
present. 

19. The Council of Basle (a.d. 1431-1439) 
was summoned by Pope Martin V., who died 
before it convened. The council attempted 
certain reforms, which led to a protracted 
controversy with the new pope, Eugene IV. 
It deposed him, and elected a successor, who 
was never generally recognized, and who 
finally resigned. Eugene IV., on the other 
hand, directed the council to be removed, 
first to Ferrara, afterward to Florence. Two 
councils were the result. The final issue 
of the struggle was the victory of the pope 
Eugene. The anti-papal faction removed 
to Lausanne, where their council was dis- 
solved. The papal faction removed to Flor- 
ence, where a second attempt at reconciling 
the Greek and Latin Church was made. It 
is difficult to say whether this council is to 
be regarded as one or two, and equally diffi- 
cult to determine whether it is more correct- 
ly described as the Council of Basle or the 
Council of Florence. 

20. The Fifth Lateran Council (1512-17), 
convened by Pope Julius II. to condemn a 
general council held the year before by nine 
cardinals at Pisa. 

21. The Council of Trent (a.d. 1545-63). It 
was summoned in consequence of the Refor- 
mation (q. v.), professedly to consider what 
reforms, if any, were needed in the Church. 
In this coTincil, as in so many others, there 
appear to have been two parties, one really 



desirous of promoting, the other of prevent- 
ing reform. The struggle was long. The 
council was several times prorogued, and 
once removed to Bologna by papal decree, 
but removed back again to Trent after Pope 
Paul's death. Four popes died during its 
nominal continuance, and a period of ten 
years elapsed at one time between its ad- 
journing and its re-assembling. The reac- 
tionists carried the day against the reform- 
ers. The decrees which it finally passed are 
still accepted as an authoritative declaration 
of Roman Catholic faith on the points- of 
difference between the Roman Catholics and 
the Protestants. They were signed by two 
hundred and fifty-five prelates, and were 
subsequently epitomized in what is known 
as the Creed of Pius IV.^ 

22. The Council of the Vatican'' (a.d. 1869). 
This council was convened at the Vatican, in 
Rome, on the 8th day of December, 1869. It 
comprised seven hundred and sixty-four del- 
egates, and included representatives from all 
parts of the Roman Catholic world. It pass- 
ed various decrees on subjects connected 
with church order and discipline. Its most 
important decree was one proclaiming the 
persoual infallibility of the pope as a dogma 
of the Roman Catholic Church. This coun- 
cil was so constituted as to give the pope 
practical control of it. Italy, with a popu- 
lation of twenty-seven millions, had in the 
council two hundred and seventy-six votes ; 
while France and Germany combined, with 
a Roman Catholic population nearly if not 
quite double, had less than half its number 
of representatives. The pope reserved to 
himself the exclusive right to suggest top- 
ics for the consideration of the council. All 
propositions submitted by any member had 
to be reduced to writing, and submitted to 
a committee of cardinals and fathers ap- 
pointed by him. Standing committees were 
elected by secret ballot, to whom was to be 
referred every matter that provoked debate, 
and by whom it was to be prepared for the 
act of the council. And the presiding cardi- 
nals were not elected by the council, but ap- 
pointed by the pope. Notwithstanding these 
provisions for unanimity, the decree secured 
the suffrages of but very little over one half 
the number of delegates summoned to the 
council. One thousand delegates were sum- 
moned. On the first vote, four hundred and 
fifty (some estimate the number as high as 
four hundred and eighty-eight) voted in the 
affirmative. On the final public or formal 
vote, this was increased to five hundred and 
thirty-three. Two voted in the negative. 
Of the seven hundred and sixty-four in at- 
tendance at tl\& first session, the rest, with 
the exception of a few who had sickened and 



1 See Roman Catholios for this creed.— ^ For an ac- 
count of the proceeding's of this council, held in secret, 
but reported, despite the decree of the pope, through 
the press, see Pio Nono and his Councilors, in "Har- 
per's Magazine" for December, 1870. 



EDEN 



293 



EDOMITES 



died, absented themselves. These consider- 
ations have led a considerable party in the 
Eoman Catholic Church to deny the au- 
thority of this council, while yet they claim 
to adhere to the Catholic Church. This par- 
ty is largest in Germany, where, under the 
leadership of Dr. Dollinger and the title of 
the Old Catholics, it strenuously opposes the 
doctrine of papal infallibility.^ 

Eden {pleasure or delight). 1. The region 
in which the garden of paradise was plant- 
ed, the original residence of Adam and Eve.'^ 
Few questions have been more perplexing 
than the determination of the site of the Gar- 
den of Eden. The sacred writer describes 
it in these words : "A river went out of 
Eden to water the garden ; and from thence 
it was parted, and became four heads." The 
word here rendered river means stream or 
flowing of water, and from thence signifies 
that the ''four heads" or sources of four 
streams all issued from Eden, which, it must 
be remembered, is not identical with the 
garden, but a district in which the garden 
was situated. Adam and Eve were expelled 
from the garden, but not from Eden.^ The 
names of the four rivers are given : the Pison, 
the Gihon, the Hiddekel, and the Euphrates. 
The Hiddekel is unquestionably the stream 
now known as the Tigris ; so that we have 
this much clear in respect to the location of 
Eden, that it was in the region watered by 
the Tigris and the Eu^ihrates, and that two 
other important rivers also watered it. Now 
if the reader will turn to a map and trace 
the Tigris and the Euphrates to their source, 
he will see that they take their rise in the 
higher regions of Armenia, which also afford 
the source of several other large streams, 
two of which, the Halys, flowing in a north- 
westerly direction into the Black Sea, and 
the Araxes, flowing into the Caspian Sea, 
have been thought to be the Pison and the 
Gihon. These four rivers rise within a few 
miles of each other ; and, on the whole, the 
best opinion appears to be that which locates 
the district of Eden in this extensive and 
well -watered region. The particular site 
of the garden in this general district must, 
however, remain forever unknown.^ 

2. A region, the children or inhabitants of 
which had been subdued by the Assyrians. 
It is also mentioned as having had commer- 
cial intercourse with Tyre. There are vari- 
ous conjectures as to this locality. But as we 
find it connected with Gozan and Haran, we 
may fairly believe that it was somewhere in 
the north-western part of Mesopotamia. [2 
Kings xix., 12 ; Isa. xxxvii., 12 ; Ezek. xxvii., 
23.] 

Edification (building). This word is, in its 
root, the same as our word edifice. To edify, 



1 See Infalt.tbility.— 2 Gen. ii,, 8-lS.— 3 Gen. ii., 8; 
iii., 23 ; comp. iv., 16.—* For a full account of different 
theories, seeM'Cliutock and Strong's Cyclopaedia, art. 
Eden. 



therefore, is, strictly speaking, to build. The 
word has, however, lost its original signifi- 
cation, and is now used almost wholly in a 
symbolical and spiritual sense. The N. T. 
writers frequently employ two symbols in 
describing the gradual development of the 
individual character, or of the Church of 
Christ — growth and building.^ They thus 
indicate that Christian character is produced 
in its perfection by gradual processes, " here 
a little, and there a little;" and they urge 
upon every one the duty of so living as, by 
his example, to edify, that is, build up in 
Christian character, his neighbor. [Rom. 
XV., 2 ; 1 Cor. viii., 1 ; x., 23 ; xiv., 3 ; Eph. 
iv., 29.] 

Edom (redness). The Greek form of this 
Hebrew word is Idumea. The name Edom 
was given to Esau, the twin brother of Ja- 
cob, and is applied both to the people de- 
scended from him and the country in which 
they settled.'^ This country was the mount- 
ainous tract between the Dead Sea and the 
Red Sea. Previously to the occupation of 
Edom by the descendants, it was called 
Mount Seir, and was occupied by the Hor- 
ites,^ who dwelt in caverns in the mountains, 
whence their name is derived. The children 
of Esau succeeded the Horites.* The whole 
breadth of this tract of country did not ex- 
ceed fifteen or twenty miles, and it was about 
one hundred miles long. This was Edom 
Proper, and, when it became the seat of the 
Nabatheans, was called Arabia. On the con- 
quest of Judah, the Edomites were permit- 
ted to settle in Southern Palestine, and un- 
der the Greek name Idumea some portions 
of this country were included. The ancient 
capital of Edom was Bozrah,^ afterward call- 
ed Sela (q. V.) or Petra. 

Edomites, the descendants of Esau, who 
received the name of Edom when he sold his 
birthright to his brother Jacob.^ The early 
Edomites, who settled in Mount Seir, were 
believers in the true God, but in course of 
time they became idolaters.'^ They were gov- 
erned by petty kings for many generations 
before there reigned any king over the chil- 
dren of Israel.® Esau's bitter hatred to his 
brother Jacob seems to have been inherited 
by his latest posterity. The Edomites per- 
emptorily refused to let the Israelites pass 
through their land, although the request was 
made in the most courteous terms.^ But we 
have no account of actual hostilities till the 
time of Saul,^" Nearly forty years later Da- 
vid overthrew their army, and his general, 
Joab, following up the victory, destroyed 
nearly all the male population." The kings 
of Judah held Edom a long time, governing 
it by a vassal prince.^^ In the reign of Joash, 

1 Eph. ii., 20, 22 ; iv., 15, 16.— 2 Numb, xx., 18, 20, 21 ; 
Jer. xlix., 17.-3 Gen. xiv., 6.— * Deut, ii., 12.— ^ Gen. 
xxxvi., 33; comp. 1 Clirou. i., 44.— ** Gen. xxv., 30.— 
'> 2 Chron. xxv., 20.-8 Qen. xxxvi., 31.— » Numb, xx., 
14_22.— 10 1 Sam. xiv., 4T.— ^ 1 Kings xi., 15, 16.— 
12 1 Kings xxii., 47. 



EDREI 



294 



EGYPT 



however, the Edomites revolted, and, after a 
desperate struggle, established their inde- 
peudence/ retaining it nearly half a century. 
Under Amaziah, Sela, their great stronghold, 
was captured, yet the Israelites were not 
able completely to subdue them.'^ We hear 
little of Edom from this period till the time 
of the Babylonian conquests, when this coun- 
try also, it was foretold, should fall into the 
power of the great king.^ It is marked, as a 
great aggravation of Edom's guilt and pun- 
ishment, that they rejoiced at and helped 
forward the calamity of Judah.* During the 
warlike rule of the Maccabees, the Edomites 
were again subdued, and forced to submit 
to the government of Jewish prefects. They 
were now incorporated with the Jewish na- 
tion, and, as a separate people, disajipear 
from the page of history. 

Edrei (cloud), one of the two capitals of 
Bashan. In Scripture it is only mentioned 
in connection with the victory gained by the 
Israelites over the Amorites, under Og, their 
king, and the territory thus acquired. The 
ruins of this ancient city, still bearing the 
name Edr^a, stand on a rocky promontory 
which projects from the south-west corner 
of the Lejah. The ruins are nearly three 
miles in circumference, rising up in black, 
shattered masses from the midst of a wilder- 
ness of black rocks. [Numb, xsi., 33 ; Deut. 
i., 4 ; iii., 10 ; Josh, xii., 4.] 

Eglon. 1. A king of the Moabites, who, 
aided by the Ammonites and the Amalekites, 
crossed the Jordan and took " the city of 
palm-trees," L e., probably Jericho. Here, ac- 
cording to Josephus, he built himself a pal- 
ace, and continued for eighteen years to op- 
press the children of Israel, who paid him 
tribute. He was slain by Ehud. [ Judg. iii., 
12-30.] 

2. A town of Judah, in the low country. 
During the struggles of the conquest, Eglon 
was one of a confederacy of five towns which, 
under Jerusalem, attempted resistance by 
attacking Gibeon after the treaty of the lat- 
ter with Israel. The name survives in the 
modern JjZiiH, a shapeless mass of ruins, about 
ten miles from Eleutheropolis, and fourteen 
from Gaza, on the south of the great mari- 
time plain. [Josh, x., 5 ; xv., 39.] 

Egypt. Egypt is a region important from 
the earliest times, and more closely identi- 
fied with Bible incidents than any other, ex- 
cept the Holy Land itself. The common 
name of Egypt in the Bible is " Mizraim " 
(q. v.), or, more fully, " the land of Mizraim." 
In form Mizraim is a dual, and may indi- 
cate the natural division of the country 
into an upper and a lower region (the plain 
of the Delta, and the narrow valley above). 
The singular Mazor also occurs, and some 
suppose that it indicates Lower Egypt ; but 



1 2 Kings viii., 22; 2 Chron. xxi., 8-10.— 2 2 Chroii. 
xxviii., 17.— 3 Jer. xxvii.,3; xlix., T-22; Ezek. xxxv., 
2-15; Amos i., 11, 12.— 4 Obad. 10-16. 



there is no sure ground for this assertion. 
The Arabic name of Egypt, Misr, signifies 
" red mud." Egypt is also called in the Bi- 
ble " the land of Ham,"^ referring to Ham, 
the son of Noah ; and occasionally " Eahab," 
the proud or insolent ; both of which appear 
to be poetical appellations. The common 
ancient Egyptian name of the country is 
written, in hieroglyphics, KEM, which was 
perhaps pronounced Chem. This name sig- 
nifies, alike in the ancient language and in 
Coptic, '' black," and may be supposed to 
have been given to the land on account of 
the blackness of its alluvial soil. We may 
reasonably conjecture that Kem is the Egyp- 
tian equivalent of Ham, and also of Mazor, 
these two words being similar, or even the 
same in sense. Egypt occupies the north- 
eastern angle of Africa, lying between N. lat. 
31° 37' and 24° 1', and E. long. 27° 13' and 34° 
12'. On the east it is bounded by Palestine, 
Idumea, Arabia Petraea, and the Arabian 
Gulf. On the west the moving sands of the 
wide Libyan desert obliterate the traces of 
all political or physical limits. Its bounda- 
ries appear to have been always very nearly 
the same. In Ezek. xxix., 10 ; xxx., 6, the 
whole country is spoken of as extending 
from Migdol to Syene, which indicates the 
same limits to the east and the south as at 
present. Egypt seems, however, to have 
been always held, except by the modern 
geographers, to include no more than the 
inhabited tract irrigated by the Nile, lying 
within the limits we have specified. The 
deserts were different from the river val- 
ley, and their tribes more or less independ- 
ent of the rulers of Egypt. The length of 
the country in a direct line is one hundred 
and twelve geographical miles. Though, 
in the extensive sense, it contains one hun- 
dred and fifteen thousand two hundred 
square geographical miles, it has only a su- 
perficies of about nine thousand five hun- 
dred and eighty-two square geographical 
miles of soil which the Nile either does or 
can water and fertilize. This computation 
includes the river and lakes, as well as sandy 
tracts, which can be inundated, and the 
whole space either cultivated or fit for cul- 
tivation is no more than about five thousand 
six hundred and twenty-six square miles — a 
little less than the combined area of the 
States of Rhode Island and Connecticut. 
Under the Pharaohs Egypt was divided into 
Upper and Lower, "the two regions" called, 
respectively, "the southern region" and "the 
northern region." There were diiferent 
crowns for the two regions ; that of Upper 
Egypt being white, that of Lower Egj^pt 
red — the two together composing the pshent. 
The sovereign had a special title as ruler of 
each region : of Upper Egypt, he was Suten, 
"king," and of Lower Egypt, Sheht, "bee," 
the two combined forming the common title 
1 Psa. cv., 23, 27 ; comp. Ixxviii., 51. 



EGYPT 



295 



EGYPT 




Egypt under the Komaus. 



Suten-sliebt. The initial sign of tlie former 
name is a "bent reed, which illustrates what 
seems to have been a proverbial expression 
in Palestine as to the clanger of trusting to 
the Pharaohs and Egypt. The latter name 
may throw light upon the comparison of the 
King of Egypt to a fly, and the King of As- 
syria to a bee/ In subsequent times this 
double division obtained. In the time of 
the Greeks and Romans, Upper Egypt was 
divided into the Heptanomis and the The- 
bais, making altogether three provinces; but 
the division of the whole country into two 



1 2 Kings xviii., 21: Isa. vii.', 18; xxxvi., 
xxix., G. 



Ezek. 



was even then the most usual. From a re- 
mote period Egypt was subdivided into 
nomes or districts, each one of which had its 
special objects of worship. This subdivision 
was more or less maintained till the invasion 
of the Saracens. Egypt is now composed 
of twenty-four departments, which are sub- 
divided, according to the French system of 
geographical arrangement, into arrondisse- 
ments and cantons. 

General Appearance, Climate. — The gener- 
al appearance of the country can not have 
greatly changed since the days of Moses. 
The Delta was always a vast level plain, al- 
though of old more perfectly watered than 



EGYPT 



296 



EGYPT 



now by the branches of the Nile and nu- 
merous canals, while the narrow valley of 
Upper Egypt must have suffered still less al- 
teration. Both the plain and the valley are 
bounded by rocky deserts covered or strewn 
with sand. In Upper Egypt, near the Mle, 
the mountains rarely exceed three hundred 
feet in their height ; but far in the Eastern 
desert they often attain a much greater ele- 
vation, and the highest rises about six thou- 
sand feet above the sea — nearly the height 
of Mount Washington. Limestone, sand- 
stone, and granite were obtained from quar- 
ries near the river ; basalt, breccia, and por- 
phyry from others in the Eastern desert. 
An important geological change has, in the 
course of centuries, raised the country near 
the head of the Gulf of Suez, and depressed 
that on the northern side of the isthmus. 
Since the Christian era, the head of the gulf 



upon it. Egypt has been visited in all ages 
by severe pestilences, but it can not be de- 
termined that any of those of ancient times 
were of the character of the modern plague. 
The dryness of the atmosphere causes a vast 
quantity of .dust, peculiarly annoying and 
injurious to the sight ; hence ophthalmia is 
common. Cutaneous disorders, which have 
always been very prevalent, are distinctly 
mentioned in Deut. vii., 15; xxviii., 27, 35, 
60, as peculiar to the country. Famines are 
frequent, and one which occurred in the Mid- 
dle Ages seems to have been even more se- 
vere than that in the time of Joseph. 

Agriculture. — That Egypt was anciently a 
prosperous country is attested by the Bible 
and the numerous monuments that still re- 
main. So early as the age in which the 
Great Pyramid was built, it must have been 
densely populated, and well able to support 




Tlie Pyramids. 



has retired southward. The Delta is of a 
triangular form, its eastern and western lim- 
its being nearly marked by the courses of the 
ancient Pelusiac and Canopic branches of 
the Nile : Upper Egypt is a narrow, winding 
valley, but seldom more than twelve miles 
wide. Anciently there was a fertile valley 
on the course of the canal of the Eed Sea, 
the Land of Goshen (q. v.), now called Wady- 
et-Tumeyla, and covered with the sands of 
the desert. The whole country is remark- 
able for its extreme fertility, which especial- 
ly strikes the beholder when the rich green 
of the fields is contrasted with the utterly 
bare yellow mountains, or the sand-strewn, 
rocky desert on either side. The climate is 
equable and healthy. Rain is not very un- 
frequent on the northern coast, but inland 
is very rare.' Cultivation nowhere depends 



Zech. xiv., 18. 



its inhabitants; for it can not be supposed 
that there was then much external traffic. 
It is naturally an agricultural country; and 
so far back as the days of Abraham, when 
the produce failed in Palestine, Egypt was 
the natural resource. In the time of Joseph, 
it was evidently the granary, at least during 
famines, of the surrounding nations. The 
inundation of the Nile (q. v.) fertilizes and 
sustains the country, and makes the river its 
chief blessing. This inundation leaves the 
fields, generally by the end of November, cov- 
ered with its deposit of a rich, brown slime, 
and ready for the labors of the husband- 
man. The seed is then sown, and in three or 
four months' time the harvest begins. The 
cultivation of such a country is, of course, 
peculiar, as absence of rain renders artifi- 
cial irrigation' necessary during the time of 



1 Deut. xi.j 10, 11. See Ikrigation. 



EGYPT 



297 



EGYPT 



low Nile. A machine still used, called the 
shaduf, is depicted upon the monuments, 
and seems to have been the common means 
of artificial irrigation. It consists simply 
of a pole so hung that a weight at one end 
assists in lifting the bucket at the other. 
Upon the monuments also are detailed pic- 
tures of breaking up the earth, or plowing, 
sowing, harvest, threshing, and storing the 
wheat in granaries. The threshing was sim- 
ply treading out by oxen or cows. Vines were 
extensively cultivated, and several different 
kinds of wine made. The date-palm was the 
most common and valuable fruit-tree. Figs, 
sycamore-figs, pomegranates, bananas, many 
kinds of melons, and the olive were the chief 
fruits of old as now. Gardens seem to have 
received great attention, to have been elabo- 
rately planned, and well filled with shrubs 
and trees. They were watered by irrigation 
in the same manner as the fields. To-day hor- 
ticulture is neglected, though the modern in- 



vorite flower, and at feasts took the place of 
the rose among the Greeks and Arabs : it is 
now very rare. 

Animals. — Of old, Egypt was far more a 
pastoral country than at present. The neat 
cattle are still excellent, but lean kine are 
more common among them than they seem 
to have been in the days of Joseph's Pha- 
raoh. Sheep and goats have always been 
numerous. Anciently swine were kept, but 
not in great numbers ; now there are scarce- 
ly any. Under the Pharaohs, the horses of 
the country were in repute among the neigh- 
boring nations, who purchased them, as well 
as chariots, out of Egypt. ^ Asses were nu- 
merous, and the breed at the present time is 
excellent. Dogs were formerly more prized 
than now; for being held by the Moham- 
medans as unclean, they are used only to 
guard the houses in the villages. Singularly 
enough, the camel has nowhere been found 
mentioned in the inscriptions of Egypt, or 




Egyptian Shaduf. 



habitants are as fond of flowers as their pred- 
ecessors. The vegetables are of many kinds, 
and excellent, including beans, peas, lentils, 
leeks, onions, garlic, radishes, cucumbers, to- 
matoes, and cabbages. Anciently cattle seem 
to have been more numerous, and the meat 
more usually eaten. The Israelites, though 
they sighed for the flesh-pots, seem to have 
longed as much for the vegetables and fruits 
of Egypt.^ The most important field-produce 
in ancient times was wheat, and after it bar- 
ley, millet, and flax. To these must, at the 
present time, be added maize, rice, oats, clover, 
the sugar-cane, the tobacco-plant, hemp, and 
cotton ; some of which are not indigenous. 
The byblus or papyrus was formerly a com- 
mon and most important plant : boats were 
made of its stalks, and from it the famous 
paper was manufactured. It is now almost or 
quite unknown, and the reeds are well-nigh 
perished.^ The lotus was anciently the fa- 



1 Exod. xvi., 
Reed. 



Numb, xi., 4, 5.-2 Isa. xix., T. 



represented on the monuments, though there 
can be no doubt that it was known in Egypt 
in very early times.^ The deserts have al- 
ways abounded in wild animals of the ca- 
nine and antelope kinds. The hippopotamus 
was anciently found in the Egyptian Nile, 
but now is rarely seen even in Lower Nu- 
bia. Bats abound in the temples and tombs, 
filling the dark chambers with the dismal 
whir of their wings. The birds are ;iot re- 
markable for beauty of plumage, and the 
most common are scavengers, as the vulture 
and the kite. Quails migrate to Egypt in 
great numbers. Divers and waders frequent 
the islands and sand-banks; but the once sa- 
cred ibis has disappeared. Among reptiles, 
the crocodile must be especially mentioned. 
In the Bible it is usually called dragon — a 
generic word of almost as wide a significa- 
tion as reptile — and is used as a symbol of 
the King of Egypt.^ Frogs are numerous, 



See 1 Deut. xvii., 16; 1 Kings x., 28, 29.-2 Gen, xii., 16; 
Exod. ix., 3; comp. 6.-3 Ezek. xxix., 3, 4. 



EGYPT 



298 



EGYPT 




Men's Dresses. 1. A shirt (from Prof. Eosellini). 

and their lond and constant croaking in the 
autumn in the streams, rivers, and marsh- 
es, makes it easy to picture the plague of 
frogs. Serpents are common ; but the more 
venomous have tljeir home, like the scorx)ion, 
in the desert.^ The Nile and lakes abound- 
ed with fishes, and they are still a common 
article of food. Locusts sometimes come 
upon the cultivated land in a cloud, and, as 
in the plague, eat every herb, and fruit, and 
leaf where they alight. They disappear as 
suddenly as they come, and are carried away 
by the wind. Lice and flies are still plagues 
of Egypt.' 

Inhabitants. — Egypt was peopled in a very 
remote age by the descendants of Ham.^ Its 




A Woman's Dress. 

early inhabitants appear to have occupied a 
place between the Nigritians and the Cauca- 
sians. They were not negroes, but a branch 
of the great Caucasian family. They were 



12-19 



Comp. Dent, viii., 15.— 2 Exod. viii., 16-31 ; 
'" ^ Gen. X., 6, 13, 14. 



X., 



slender in frame, but of 
great strength, with oval, 
olive -colored faces, nar- 
rower and darker in the 
men than in the women ; 
well - shaped, but small 
and retiring foreheads, 
black, almond - shaped 
eyes, and long, crisp 
black hair. They almost 
universally shaved their 
heads, and generally wore 
skull - caps. Otherwise, 
they wore their own hair, 
or wigs falling to the 
shoulders in numerous 
curls, or done uj) in the 
form of a bag. They also 
shaved their faces, but 
kings and other great personages had beards 
about three inches long and one inch broad, 
which were plaited. The royal princes were 
distinguished by a side lock of hair elaborate- 
ly plaited. The women wore their hair curled 




Head-dress of a Lady, from a Mummy-case. 



or plaited, reaching half-way from the shoul- 
ders to the waist. Sandals were worn on the 
feet, and on the person armlets, bracelets, and 
necklaces. The upper and middle classes usu- 
ally went barefoot ; in other respects, their 
dress, though inferior in costliness, was much 
the same in style as that of the king. This was 
a kilt reaching to the ankles, over which was 
worn a shirt coming down to the knees, with 
wide sleeves as far as the elbows. Both kilt 
and shirt were usually of fine white linen. In 
character, the Egyptians were very religious 
and contemplative, but given to base super- 
stition; patriotic, respectful to woman, hos- 
pitable, generally frugal, but at times luxu- 
rious, very sensual, lying, thievish, treach- 
erous, and cringing ; intensely prejudiced, 
through pride of race, against strangers, yet 
kind to them. Their sports embraced games 
of chance, athletic sports, particularly ball- 
playing, and other analogous sports. Their 
character is, indeed, much the same as that of 
the modern inhabitants, except that Moham- 
medanism has taken away the respect for 
women. The ancient Egyptians, are indeed, 
the only Eastern nation that we know to 
have reseml)led the modern Westerns in this 
particular, but we find the same virtue mark- 



EGYPT 



299 



EGYPT 




Game of Draughts. 



edly characteristic of the Nigritians of our 
day. 

Beligion. — The basis of the religion was 
Nigritian fetichism — the lowest kind of na- 
ture-worship. Upon this were ingrjxfted first 
cosmic worship, mixed up with traces of pri- 
meval revelation as in Babylonia, and then 
a system of personifications of moral and 
intellectual abstractions. There were three 
orders of gods — the eight great gods, the 
twelve lesser, and the group of which Osiris, 
who was worshiped under the form of an ox 



their pantheistic philosophy, they conceived 
not of God as a person, but as an essence 
diffused throughout nature, and manifested 
in infinite variety of form. Animate and in- 
animate things were x)arts of one nature, of 
which the entirety was believed to be God ; 
so that any one might be a manifestation of 
the divine presence, and deceased kings and 
heroes were often deified. The great doc- 
trines of the immortality of the soul, man's 
responsibility, and future rewards and pun- 
ishments, were taught. It is remarkable that 




A complete Egyptian Temple 



or bull, was the chief. The gods of the first 
and second order were but partially vener- 
ated. It was the third order of Osiris that 
was nationally recognized. Besides these, 
the Egj^tians worshiped various animals, 
and even inanimate things, believing that 
the gods dwelt in them\ For, according to 



Comp.Exod.viiL, 



circumcision is found among their most an- 
cient rites. The religious festivals were nu- 
merous, and often kept with great merry- 
making and license. Very much the same 
sort of a feast was that which the Israelites 
celebrated when Aaron had made the golden 
calf The Israelites appear to have adopt- 
ed, for the most part, the Egyptian religion 



EGYPT 



300 



EGYPT 



during tlie oppression ; and tMs golden calf, 
or rather steer, was copied from one of the 
sacred bulls. 

Government, Laws. — The government was 
monarchical, but not of an absolute charac- 
ter. The sovereign was not superior to the 
laws, and the priests had the power to check 
the undue exercise of his authority. Even 
the almost absolute monarchs of Joseph's 
time did not venture to touch the independ- 
ence of the priests.^ The laws of the coun- 
try were equitable, and well enforced. There 
was a very high degree of personal safety, 
and people of all ranks commonly went 



the tombs, is the high position occupied by 
women, and the entire absence of the harem 
system of seclusion. They enjoyed liberties 
like unto American ladies — this affirms Jo- 
seph's story; could see their friends when 
and where they pleased, went in public un- 
veiled, and associated with men at public 
feasts. Marriage appears to have been uni- 
versal, at least with the richer class, and if 
polygamy were tolerated, it was rarely prac- 
ticed. The wife is called " the lady of the 
house." There were no castes, though great 
classes were very distinct. The higher class 
occupied themselves in superintending their 




Throwing up aud catching one, two, and three Balls 



about unarmed, and without military pro- 
tection. The punishments seem to have 
been lighter than those of the Mosaic law, 
and very diiferent in their relation to crime 
and in their nature. Capital punishment 
appears to have been almost restricted, in 
practice, to murder. Notices of the Egyp- 
tian army in the O. T. show, with the monu- 
ments, that its most important branch was 
the chariot force.^ The "horsemen" mention- 
ed in the account of the pursuit of the Isra- 
elites by Pharaoh and elsewhere were prob- 
ably warriors fighting in chariots, who are 
called in Egyptian " horse " or " cavalry." 




Conjunirs, or Thimble-rig. 

Customs. — What most strikes us, in the very 
full insight into their domestic life which is 
given us by the sculptures and paintings of 



1 Gen. xlvii., 20-2G.— 2 For illustration of Egyptian 
chariot, see art. Cuariot. 



fields and gardens, hunting in the deserts, 
or fishing on the river. The tending of cat- 
tle was left to the most despised of the lower 
class. This shows how essentially different 
was the general manner of life of the Egyp- 
tians and the Israelites, who were pre-emi- 
nently a pastoral people, and how little the 
manners of the one resemble those of the 
other people. The manners of the modern 
inhabitants are, however, more similar to 
those of the ancient Hebrews, on account of 
Arab influence, and remarkably illustrate the 
Bible customs. The Egyptians were a pleas- 
ure-loving and convi\aal people. The monu- 
ments present very inter- 
esting pictures of their 
festivities,which,though 
far more elaborate, agree 
with the account of, and 
serve to illustrate in 
some degree, the noon- 
tide dinner of Joseph.^ 
The attention to prece- 
dence which seems to 
have surjjrised Joseph's 
brethren is perfectly 
characteristic of Egyp- 
tian customs. They 
ate with their fingers, 
though they occasionally used spoons. The 
table was sometimes covered with a cloth, and 
in great entertainments each guest was pro- 
vided with a napkin. They sat on a carpet 



1 Gen. sliii., 16, 31-34. 



EGYPT 



301 



EGYPT 



or mat upon the ground, or on stools and 
chairs about the table, and did not recline at 
meat like the Greeks and Romans. They 
were particularly fond of music and dancing. 
The most austere and scrupulous priest could 
not give a feast without a good band of mu- 
sicians and dancers, as well as plenty of 
wine, costly perfumes and ointments, and a 
profusion of lotus and other flowers. Tum- 
blers, jugglers, and persons skilled in feats 
of agility, were hired for the occasion, and 
the guests played at games of chance or skill. 
Of far more importance than any events of 
Egyptian life were the funeral ceremonies, 
for the tomb was regarded as the only true 
home. The body of the deceased was em- 
balmed, and conducted to the burial-place 
with great pomp. The process of embalm- 
ing occupied forty days, and the mourning 
lasted seventy (or seventy-two) days.^ 

Literature and Language. — The Egyptians 
were a very literary people; and time has 
preserved to us, besides the inscriptions of 




The name of Egypt in Hieroj^dyphics. 

their tombs and temples, many papyrus rolls, 
w^hich contain numerous poems, novels, an- 
nals, theology, history, travel, and narratives 
of campaigns. These are written in hiero- 
glyphics; and the language they express 
was entirely unknown until the discovery 
and decipheriug of the Rosetta stone, now 
in the British Museum. 
This stone was found by 
the French in August, 
1799, near the mouth of 
the Rosetta branch of the 
JS'ile. It is a slab of black 
marble, on which is en- 
graven a decree in three 
different kinds of writing. 
One of these is Greek, 
which was easily decipher- 
ed, and, by comparison 
with the hieroglyjjhics, 
furnished the key that un- 
locks Egyptian history. 
The language thus reveal- 
ed closely resembles that 
which afterward , when the 
people had become Chris- 
tians, was called Coptic. 
It is monosyllabic in its 
roots, and abounds in 
vowels. There were at least two dialects of 
it spoken respectively in Upper and Lower 
Egypt. 

Science and Art. — The influence of Egyp- 
tian science may be distinctly traced in the 
Pentateuch. Moses was learned in all the 



wisdom of the Egyptians, '^ and probably de- 
rived from them the astronomical knowledge 
necessary for the calendar. His acquaint- 
ance with chemistry is shown in the manner 
of the destruction of the golden calf. The 
Egyptians excelled in geometry and math- 
ematics, were very proficient in medicine 
and surgery, and practical anatomy from the 
earliest ages. They cultivated more recon- 
dite sciences, as the mention of their magi- 
cians shows. ^ The industrial arts held an 
important place among them. The workers 
in fine flax and the weavers of white linen 
were evidently the chief contributors to the 
riches of the country, and the fine linen of 
Egypt found its way to Palestine.^ Their 
looms were famous for cotton and woolen 
fabrics, worked with beautifully-colored pat- 
terns. They were acquainted with glass- 
blowing three thousand two hundred years 
ago, and made most beautifnl and richly-col- 
ored bottles, with waving lines and inlaid 
mosaics so fine that it must have required a 
strong magnifying power to put 
the parts together. Potters were 
very numerous, and pottery ap- 
pears to have furnished employ- 
ment to the Hebrews during the 
bondage.'* It is singular, as af- 
fording illustration of Scripture 
language, that the same idea of fashion- 
ing the clay was also applied to man's 
formation, and the gods Ptah and Num 
are represented sitting at the potter's wheel 
turning the clay for the human creation. 
They were familiar with the use of iron 
from a remote period, and their skill in 





1 Gen. 1., 2, 3, 26. See Embalming. 



Boat with colored and embroidered Sails. 

the manufacture of bronze was celebrated. 
They Avere acquainted with the forceps, the 
blow-pipe, the bellows, the syringe, and the 
siphon. They were skilled in the arts of 



1 Acts vii., 22.-2 Gen. xli., 8; Exod. vii., 11, 12— 

Isa. xix., 9 ; Prov. vii., 16 * Psa. Ixviii., 13 ; Ixxxi., 

; comp. Exod. i., 14. 



EGYPT 



302 



EGYPT 



architecture, sculp- 
ture, aud painting, 
the former of which 
was with them a 
religion. Durable 
construction, mass- 
ive and grand form, 
and rich though so- 
l)er color, character- 
ize their temples and 
tombs — the abodes 
of gods and "homes" 
of men. The Greeks 
are supposed to have derived their Doric or- 
der froin columns found at Beni Hassan, and 
the arch is at least as old as the sixteenth 
century B.C. That a high degree of me- 




Tlieban Glass-maker. 



with dynasties of gods, demi-gods, and manes, 
i. e., ghosts, and pass abruptly, with very lit- 
tle or no period of tradition, to the human 
dynasties. The indications are of a sudden 
change of place, and the settlement in Egypt 
of a civilized race which, having lost all ties 
of its first dwelling-place, filled up the com- 
mencement of its history with materials 
drawn from mythology. There is no trace 
of the tradition of the Deluge, which is 
found in almost every other country in the 
world. The history of the dynasties prece- 
ding the eighteenth is not told by any con- 
tinuous series of monuments. Except those 
of the fourth and twelfth dynasties, there 
are scarcely any records of the age left to the 
present day; and thence in a great meas- 




Theban Glass-makers. 



ure arises the difficulty of determining the 
chronology. From the time of Menes, the 
first king — about B.C. 2700 — until the shep- 
herd invasion, Egypt seems to have enjoy- 
ed perfect tranquillity. During this age 



chanical science and skill existed so early as 
B.C. 2440-2220, is implied in the quarrying, 
transporting, and raising into place of the 
huge blocks of which the pyramids are 
composed, and the jolacing of each pyra- 
mid so as exactly to face 
the cardinal points. Writ- 
ing appears in such a shape 
as to imply long use. The 
reed pen and inkstand are 
among the hieroglyphics em- 
ployed, and the scribe ap- 
pears, pen in hand, in the 
paintings on the tombs, tak- 
ing notes on linen or papy- 
rus. The drawing of human 
and animal figures is fully 
equal, if not superior, to that 
of later times, and nearly the 
same trades are represented. 
Altogether, it is ai)parent 
that the Egyptians of the 
pyramid period were not 
just emerging out of bar- 
barism, but had made very 
considerable progress in the 
arts of life. Egypt was in 
full possession of herself, and 
bordering on decadence be- 
fore Nineveh or Babylon 
were known. 

History. — The evidence of 
the Egyptians as to their 
primeval history is extreme- 
ly indefinite. They seem to 
have separated mankind into 
two great stocks, and to have 
held to a double origin of Fig. 1. Bronze Vase from Thebes, now in the Biitish Mnsenm. 2. Show- 
ihp <T>(^o\(^^ "F'nrrTTipnf'^ of ins: how the handle is fixed. .^ Alabaster Vase from Thebes, of the time 
tne species, fragments OI of Neco. 4, Vase at Berlin of cnt Glass. 5. Stone Vase. C to 9. From 
Egyptian history commence the Sculptures of Thebes. 




EGYPT 



303 



EGYPT 



MempTiis was tlie capital, and by the Mem- 
plnte kings of the fourth dynasty the most 
famous pyramids were built. The shep- 
herds were foreigners who came from the 
East, and for several centuries occupied and 
made Egypt tributary. They form the fif- 
teenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth dynas- 
ties — from about 2080 to 1525 B.C. It is not 
impossible that the war of Chedorlaomer 
and his allies was directed against the pow- 
er of the kings of the fifteenth dynasty. 
Most probably the Pharaoh of Abraham's 
time was of this line, which lived at Mem- 
phis, and at the great fort or earth-camp of 
Avaris, on the eastern frontier. Though it 
is difficult to determine the period, Dr. J. P. 
Thomxison places the descent of the Israel- 
itish family into Egypt at 1867 B.C., and the 
Exodus at 1652 B.C. ; thus bringing the whole 
sojourn within this era of the shepherd- 
kings. In this era, also, two independent 
kingdoms were formed in Egypt. The his- 
torj^ of the eighteenth, nineteenth, and twen- 
tieth dynasties is that of the Egyptian Em- 
pire. Aahmes, the head of the first of these 
— about B.C. 1525 — overthrew the power of 
the shepherds, and probably expelled them, 
and consolidated the kingdom, and thus pre- 
pared the way for the foreign expeditions 
which his successors carried on in Asia and 
Africa, subduing Nineveh, and perhaps Bab- 
ylon, and extending from Mesopotamia to 
Ethiopia. The glorious era of Egyptian his- 
tory was under the nineteenth dynasty, when 
Sethi I. (B.C. 1340), and his grandson, Rame- 
ses the Great (b.c. 1311), both of whom repre- 
sent the Sesostris of the Greek historians, car- 
ried their arms over the whole of Western 
Asia, and southward into Soudan, and amass- 
ed vast treasures, which were expended on 
public works. Under the later kings of the 
nineteenth dynasty the power of Egypt de- 
clined, and the country seems to have fallen 
into anarchy. The head of the twenty-sec- 
ond dynasty, Sheshonk I., restored the unity 
of the kingdom, and revived the credit of 
the Egyptian arms about 990 B.C. He is the 
Shishak who invaded Judea in Rehoboam's 
reign, and pillaged the Temple.^ His suc- 
cessor, Osorkon, is probably the Zerah whom 
Asa defeated. 

Egypt makes no figure in Asiatic history 
during the twenty-third and twenty-foru'th 
dynasties ; under the twenty-fifth it regain- 
ed, in part at least, its ancient importance. 
This was an Ethiopian line, the warlike sov- 
ereigns of which strove to the utmost to re- 
pel the onward stride of Assyria. One of 
these, called in Scripture So, probably She- 
bek II. or Sebacho, the second Ethiopian, 
made an alliance with Hoshea, the last king 
of Israel, and Tehrak or Tirhakah, the third 
of this house, advanced against Sennacherib 
in support of Hezekiah. After this, a na- 
tive dynasty again occupied the throne — the 



1 1 Kings xiv., 25. 



twenty-sixth — of Saite kings. Psametek I. 
or Psammetichus I. (b.c. 664), who may be 
regarded as the head of this dynasty, warred 
in Palestine, and took Ashdod — Azotus — af- 
ter a siege of twenty-nine years. Neku or 
Necho, the son of Psammetichus, continued 
the war in the East, and marched along the 
coast of Palestine to attack the King of As- 
syria. At Megiddo Josiah encountered him. 
(B.C. 608-7), notwithstanding the remon- 
strance of the Egyptian king — a remon- 
strance which is no less illustrative of the pol- 
icy of the Pharaohs in the East, than is his 
lenient conduct after the defeat and death 
of the King of Judah.^ The army of Necho 
was, after a short space, routed at Carche- 
mish by Nebuchadnezzar (B.C. 605 - 4).^ The 
second successor of Necho, Apries or Pha- 
raoh -hophra, sent his army into Palestine 
to the aid of Zedekiah,^ so that the siege of 
Jerusalem was raised for a time, and kind- 
ly received the fugitives from the captured 
city. He seems to have been afterward at- 
tacked by Nebuchadnezzar in his own coun- 
try; but there is no certain account of a 
complete subjugation of Egypt by the King 
of Babylon. Amasis, the successor of Apries, 
had a long and prosperous reign, and some- 
what restored the weight of Egypt in the 
East. But the new power of Persia was to 
prove even more terrible to his house than 
Babylon had been to the house of Psammet- 
ichus ; and the son of Amasis had reigned 
but six months when Cambyses reduced the 
country to the condition of a province of his 
empire (B.C. 525). 

The prophecies relating to Egypt were ut- 
tered when the Pharaohs were in the height 
of their power. The visitor to the country 
needs not to be reminded of them ; every- 
where he is struck by the precision with 
which they have come to pass. We recognize, 
for instance, the singular disappearance of 
the city of Memphis and its temples in a coun- 
try where several primeval towns yet stand, 
and scarce any ancient site is unmarked by 
temples — the fulfillment of the words of Jer- 
emiah : '^ Noph shall be waste and desolate, 
without an inhabitant ;" and those of Eze- 
kiel : " Thus saith the Lord God ; I will also 
destroy the idols, and I will cause (their) 
images to cease out of Noph."* Not less sig- 
nally are the words immediately following 
the last quotation — "And there shall be no 
more a prince of 'the land of Egypt " — ful- 
filled in the history of the country ; for from 
the second Persian conquest, more than two 
thousand years ago, until our own days, not 
one native ruler has occupied the throne. 

Egypt is now a fief, under hereditary ru- 
lers — viceroys — of the Turkish Empire. The 
houses of the wealthier classes in the chief 
towns are roomy, and substantially built ; 
but the dwellings of the lower orders are 



1 2 Chron. xsxv., 21 sq. — 2 Jer. xlvi., 2.-3 Jer. 
xxxvii., 5, T, 11.— 4 Jer. xlvi., 19 ; Ezek. xxx., 13. 



EKEON 



304 



ELDAD 



many of them mere hovels, built of imbaked 
bricks cemented with mud. The villages 
stand upon eminences of rubbish, the mate- 
rials of older buildings, and are thus just 
above the reach of the inundations. The 
whole land is crowded with relics of antiq- 
uity. The pyramids, the temples, the tombs, 
speak of a grandeur that has passed away, 
and will always attract the curiosity and 
admiration of the world. 

Ekron {eradication, einigration), one of the 
five principal cities of the Philistines. It 
was assigned first to the tribe of Judah, af- 
terward to that of Dan. But, though once 
taken by Judah, it continued generally in 
the hands of the Philistines. It was from 
Ekron that the ark of God was sent back to 
Israel. We afterward hear of a shrine of 
Baal-zebub at this city ; and it is occasional- 
ly mentioned by the prophets. Josephus says 
that its god was a fly ; and the name means 
fly-god, a protector from flies. It was situa- 
ted in the plain country, just on the north- 
west border of Judah. It was given by Al- 
exander Balas to Jonathan Maccabeus, being 
then called Accaron, and is now the village 
Akir, with pretty gardens, and still, accord- 
ing to Dr. Thomson, abounding in flies. [Josh, 
xiii., 3,- XV., 11, 45, 46 ; xix., 43; Judg. i., 18; 1 
Sam. v., 10 ; vi., 17 ; 2 Kings i., 2, 3, 6, 16 ; Jer. 
XXV., 20 ; Amos i., 8 ; Zeph. ii., 4 ; Zech. ix., 
5,7. 

Elah {terebinth or oaTc), the son and suc- 
cessor of Baasha, and fourth king of Israel 
(B.C. 931-930). His reign lasted for little 
more than a year. He was killed, while 
drunk, by Zimri, in the house of his steward, 
Azra, who was probably a confederate in the 
plot, and while his army and oflicers were 
absent besieging Gibbetha. His death end- 
ed Baasha's short-lived dynasty. [1 Kings 
xvi., 8-14, 15.] 

Elah, the valley of {valley of the tereUnth), 
a valley in which the Israelites were encamp- 
ed against the Philistines when David kill- 
ed Goliath.^ It lay somewhere near Socoh 
of Judah, modern Shuweikeh, some fourteen 
miles south-west of Jerusalem, on the road 
to Gaza, among the more western of the hills 
of Judah, not far from where they begin to 
descend into the great Philistine plain. A 
little below Socoh, three wadys joining make 
an open plain a mile wide, in the centre of 
which is a torrent bed strewed with peb- 
bles, such as furnished David with his sim- 
ple but deadly ammunition. The terebinth 
still grows here in abundance, though the 
valley is now called after another tree. 
There is no doubt this is the scene of Da- 
vid's exploit, though tradition fixes upon 
another site about four miles north-west of 
Jerusalem. 

Elam {eternity), a region of Asia peopled by 
the descendants of the son of Sliem.^ These 
were conquered in very ancient times by a 
' ^\ Sam. xvii., 2, 19.— 2 Gen. x., 22. 



Hamite or Cushite race from Babylon, who 
became the dominant people in Elam, and 
were called by the Greeks Cissians. It is 
difiicult to define exactly the boundaries of 
this country, which probably was of greater 
or less extent at different times ; but it may 
generally be said that it lay to the south of 
Assyria, and east of Persia proper, reaching 
down to and along the Persian Gulf. Elam 
appears as an independent power, its sov- 
ereign holding supremacy over Shinar, or 
Babylonia, in the time of Abraham,^ and ex- 
tending his conquests far westward. This 
independence was in great measure main- 
tained during the Assyrian and Babylonian 
dominion ; but Elamite troops marched un- 
der the banner of Sennacherib; and ulti- 
mately Elam was a province of Babylon, 
in fulfillment of the prophetic denunciations.^ 
Elam is spoken of in Isaiah xxi., 2, as sup- 
plying part of the invading army which cap- 
tured Babylon, and was of course a constit- 
uent part of the Persian Empire ; its chief 
city, Shushan, or Susa (whence the name 
Susiana), becoming the Persian metropolis. 
The inhabitants, as proved by some of the 
passages already referred to, were brave, and 
skilled in archery. Captive Israelites were 
located in Elam, whence their return is pre- 
dicted in Isa. xi., 11 ; Elamites, too, were 
placed in the cities of Samaria; and Jews 
were still resident there in the apostolic age.^ 

Elath (perhaps ^a?m-</rove), a town of Idu- 
mea, at the extremity of the eastern gulf of 
the Red Sea. It is fiLrst mentioned in the 
account of the journey in gs of Israel in the 
wilderness. When David conquered Edom, 
Elath came into his possession; and it is 
named in connection with Solomon's navy 
at the neighboring port of Ezion-geber. It 
was lost when Edom revolted, was recover- 
ed by Uzziah, and was finally wrested from 
Judah by Rezin, king of Syria, who expelled 
all the Jewish inhabitants. By the Greeks 
and Romans it was called Elana, and hence 
gave name to the eastern gulf of the Red 
Sea, called the Elanitic Gulf, at present the 
Gulf of Akabah. Elath is said now to be 
an insignificant place termed Eylet. [Dent, 
ii., 8; 2 Sam. viii., 14; 1 Kings ix., 26; 2 
Kings xiv., 22 ; xvi., 6 ; 2 Chron. viii., 17.] 

Eldad (whom God loves — identical with 
TJieopMlus), one of the seventy to whom the 
prophetical spirit of Moses was communi- 
cated. He, with Medad, did not go with the 
rest to the tabernacle, but prophesied in the 
camp. Joshua therefore begged Moses to 
forbid them. But Moses, with characteristic 
magnanimity, replied, "Would God that all 
the Lord's people were prophets, and that 
the Lord would put his Spirit upon them !" 
The great significance of the passage is the 
fact of the more <:reneral distribution of the 



1 Gen. xiv., 1, 9.-2 Isa. xxii., 6; Jer. xlix., S4-3S; 
Ezek. xxxii., 24, 25; Dan. viii., 1, 2 — ^ Ezra iv., 9; 
Acts ii., 9. 



ELDERS 



305 



ELDERS 



spirit of prophecy which had hitherto been 
concentrated in Moses, and the implied sanc- 
tion of a tendency to separate the exercise 
of this gift from the service of the taber- 
nacle, and to make it more generally availa- 
ble for the enlightenment and instruction of 
the Israelites — a tendency which afterward 
led to the establishment of " schools of the 
prophets." [Numb, xi., 24-29.] 

Elders. I. Jewish. — The Hebrew word in 
the O. T. so translated signifies, literally, 
seniors, or persons advanced in age. From 
the earliest times such were naturally se- 
lected for posts of dignity and authority.^ 
But there must have been some recognized 
body under this title at an early period of 
the Hebrew history ; for Moses was desired 
to convey the divine message to " the elders 
of Israel." We are not distinctly told who 
these elders were — probably the leading per- 
sons in each tribe ; and they were to accom- 
pany him when he demanded freedom from 
Pharaoh, and also to be the means of com- 
munication between Moses and the mass of 
the people.^ The institution remained in Is- 
rael through its whole history, under every 
change of government, and a certain au- 
thority was exercised by them to which the 
people submitted. Sometimes they are men- 
tioned as local magistrates, presiding over 
separate tribes or districts, and sometimes 
as the superior class, acting generally for the 
nation.^ Those who locally administered 
justice are said to have been termed " elders 
of the gate ;" because that was the place 
where a court was often held.* Elders are 
mentioned in Maccabean times, apparentlj^ 
distinct from the Sanhedrim; and we find 
them in the N. T. history associated with the 
chief priests and scribes, but yet not to be 
confounded with them.^ 

11. Apostolic. — As ecclesiastical officers, el- 
ders do not occur until the introduction of 
the synagogue worship, when they are found 
as rulers of the synagogue. On some oc- 
casions there was only one elder, but more 
frequently more than one.*' Jewish writers 
affirm that three was the proper number ; 
and in certain judicial matters three appear 
to have been necessary. These sat in judg- 
ment on matters of discipline and worship ; 
but they did so also on a variety of offenses, 
both civil and criminal. Great variety of 
opinion has existed among the learned on 
many points in reference to these elders of 
the synagogue ; but all writers of weight, 
whether Jewish or Christian, unite in main- 
taining that there was in every synagogue 
such a bench of elders, who conducted its 



1 Gen. 1., 7.-2 Exod. iii., 16, 18; iv., 29; xii., 21.— 
3 Deut. xix., 12; xxi., 2, 3, G; xxxi., 2S; Josh, ix., 15, 
18-21; xxiv., 1; Judg. ii., 7; viii., 14; xi., 5; 1 Sam. 
iv.,3; viii., 4; xvi.,4; xxx,, 26; 2 Sam. xvii., 4; xix., 
1 1 ; 1 Kings xii., 6 ; XX., 8 ; xxi., 11 ; 2 Kings X., 1, 5 ; 1 
Chron. xxi., 16; Ezra v., 5; vi., T, 14; x., 8, 14; Jer. 
xxix., 1 ; Ezek. viii., 1.—* Prov. xxxi., 23 ; Lam. v., 14 ; 
Ruth iv., 2, 4, 9, 11.— s Matt, xvi., 21; xxi., 23; xxvi., 
59 ; xxvii., 41.— 8 Acts xii!., 15. 
20 



discipline and managed its affairs. Appar- 
ently they did not usually preach, but sim- 
ply acted as rulers in ecclesiastical matters. 
The elders mentioned in the N. T. in con- 
nection with the Christian Church probably 
grew out of this office in the synagogue. 
There is reason to believe that in some in- 
stances the synagogue became a Christian 
church, and that in such cases its offices and 
method of government remained the same. 
But whether there were in the apostolic 
churches two classes of elders — one, lay offi- 
cers, who governed ; and the other, ministeri- 
al officers,who taught — is a question on which 
the learned are not agreed. The Presbyte- 
rians, who derive their title from the Greek 
word presbyter, meaning elder, maintain that 
there were two classes of elders — teaching 
and ruling elders — and in support of this 
opinion not only refer to the recognized 
constitution of the synagogue, but cite also 
the following passages of Scripture : 1 Tim. 
v., 17 ; 1 Cor. xii., 28 ; Rom. xii., 6, 8 ; Acts 
XV., 25, 26; xx., 28; Heb. xiii., 7, 17. The 
Congregationalists on the one hand, and the 
Episcopalians on the other, maintain that 
there was no distinction between ruling and 
teaching elders, the elder or presbyter being, 
in their judgment, identical with tlie pastor 
or shepherd of the flock. And in support 
of their view they refer to the fact that the 
same persons or class of persons are spoken 
of as rulers and instructors in the following, 
among other passages : Acts xx., 28 ; 1 Thess. 
v., 12 ; Heb. xiii., 7, 17 ; 1 Tim. v., 17. 

III. Modem. — The office of elder is main- 
tained as an office distinct from the pastor- 
ate only in the Presbyterian Church, or in 
those which maintain in a qualified form the 
Presbyterian form of government.^ In the 
Roman Catholic and Episcopal churches the 
word "priest" (q. v.) is usually employed 
instead of ''elder" or ''presbyter;" among 
Congregationalists the "teaching elder" is 
known as " pastor" or " minister ;" and "rul- 
ing elders," though recognized in the early 
history of the denomination in New En- 
gland, are now unknown. In the Methodist 
Episcopal Church there is an office of presid- 
ing elder. He is, however, a clergyman who 
presides over a certain ecclesiastical district, 
not a ruler in the local church. In all Pres- 
byterian churches, including under that title 
all who adopt the Presbyterian form of gov- 
ernment, or government by presbyters or 
elders, an office of ruling elder is recognized 
distinct from the pastorate or teaching elder. 
These ruling elders are usually elected for 
life, though sometimes only for a term of 
years, as in the Reformed (Dutch) Church, 
where their term of office is but two years. 
Together with the pastor, they constitute 
the Session, or in the Reformed Church the 
Consistory, the governing body of the local 
church. One or more of their number ap- 



1 See Presbytekianb. 



ELEALEH 



306 



ELIJAH 



pointed by them, together with the pastor, 
represent the Church in the superior ecclesi- 
astical bodies, as the Synod, Presbytery, and 
General Assembly. They are elected by the 
communicants in the Church, and are or- 
dained by prayer and the right hand of fel- 
lowship, but not with the laying on of hands. 

Elealeh (ivJdther God ascends), one of the 
cities assigned to the tribe of Reuben, which 
they built or fortified. In later times it was 
occupied by Moab. The ruins of it, now call- 
ed el-A^al, stand on an eminence within two 
miles of Heshbon. [Numb, xxxii., 3, 37 ; Isa. 
XV., 4 ; xvi., 9 ; Jer. xlviii., 34.] 

Eleazar (God's help), third son of Aaron, 
by Elisheba, daughter of Amminadab. Af- 
ter the death of Nadab and Abihu without 
children, Eleazar was appointed chief over 
the principal Levites. With his brother 
Ithamar, he ministered as a priest during 
their father's lifetime, and immediately be- 
fore his death was invested on Mount Hor 
with the sacred garments, as the successor 
of Aaron in the office of high-priest. In con- 
junction with Moses, he superintended the 
census of the people ; assisted in the inau- 
guration of Joshua and the division of the 
spoil taken from the Midianites f and, after 
the conquest of Canaan by Joshua, took part 
in the distribution of the land. The time of 
his death is not mentioned in Scripture, but 
is said by Josephus to have taken place 
about the same time as that of Moses. The 
high-priesthood subsequently passed to the 
family of his brother Ithamar, but was re- 
stored to his family in the person of Zadok. 
See Zadok ; Ithamar. [Numb, iii., 32 ; xx., 
28; xxvi., 3; Josh, xiv., 1.] 

Eli (the highest, or adopted of the Lord), a 
noted high-priest and judge of Israel. He 
was of the family of Ithamar, Aaron's young- 
est son ; for his descendant Ahimelech, or 
Abiathar, is expressly said to be of that 
house. We do not know how or when the 
high-priesthood passed from Eleazar's family 
to that of Ithamar ; but it was declared, on 
account of Eli's sin in not restraining his un- 
godly sons, Hophni and Phinehas, that the 
dignity should revert to the elder branch. 
His anxiety for the ark of God, carried with 
the Israelitish army to battle, is graphically 
depicted in the sacred history. He sat watch- 
ing for news in the open road ; and when he 
heard the disastrous intelligence, the death 
of his two sons, and, worst of all, the cap- 
ture of the ark hj the Philistines, he who 
could have borne the desolation of his own 
house sank down in grief, his neck brake, 
and he died. He was ninety-eight years old, 
and had judged Israel forty years, some of 
these years probably including the time of 
Samson. 

Personally, Eli appears to have been a 
man of unalfected piety and genuine worth. 
But this earnest and high-toned piety was 



Numb, xxvi., 3. 



conjoined with a most culpable slackness 
in the management of his own family. His 
history affords a warning against the undue 
relaxation of parental discipline and author- 
ity. [1 Sam. i.-iv. ; xiv., 3 ; xxii., 20 ; 2 Sam. 
viii., 17 ; 1 Chron. xxiv., 3.] 

"EMdih {God is father), David's eldest broth- 
er. His fine personal appearance led Sam- 
uel to suppose that he was the one chosen to 
be king, and his own disappointment on this 
occasion may have led to his subsequent in- 
sulting demeanor toward David. He appears 
in history only on these occasions, though an 
ancient Hebrew tradition identifies him with 
the Elihu mentioned in 1 Chron. xxvii., 18, 
as a chief of the tribe of Judah ; but " breth- 
ren" may there mean kinsmen, as often else- 
where. His daughter, or perhaps grand- 
daughter, Abihail, married her second cous- 
in, Eehoboam. [1 Sam. xvi.^ 6, 7 ; xvii., 28 ; 
2 Chron. xi., 18.] 

Eliezer {whom God ^eZps), substantially the 
same with Eleazar, though the names are 
not interchanged in Scripture. Eliezer first 
appears as the name of one in the household 
of Abraham ; he is called Eliezer of Damas- 
cus. There appears to have been some re- 
lation between Abraham and this man supe- 
rior to that of master and servant, but we 
want the means of determining what it act- 
ually was. The probability is, that Eliezer, 
though he may have been a distant relative, 
was something like an adopted son of Abra- 
ham, and that the main part of Abraham's 
possessions would have fallen to him if Abra- 
ham himself died childless. The story of 
Eliezer's journey, at Abraham's command, to 
obtain a wife for his son Isaac, is not only 
interesting because it affords a striking il- 
lustration of the Oriental wedding customs 
of past ages, but instructive because it is a 
most remarkable example both of the power 
of prayer and of the principle upon which 
prayer should be offered. [Gen. xv., 2, 3, 5 ; 
xxiv.] 

Elijah {my God is Jehovah) has well been 
called the grandest and most romantic char- 
acter that Israel ever produced. He reached 
a height equal to that of Moses and Samuel 
in the traditions of his country. He was the 
prophet for whose return in later years his 
countrymen looked with eager hope, and 
whose prophesied re-appearance was fulfill- 
ed in the life and teachings of John the Bap- 
tist.^ 

Of the parentage of Elijah nothing is 
known, and of his birthplace only that it 
was in the land of Gilead, east of Jordan.^ 
This one fact accounts for his outward pe- 
culiarities. Coming from a wild, uncultured 
pastoral race, whose mode of life had become 
more and more assimilated to the Bedouins 
of the neighboring desert, his dress and man- 
ners partook of the same character. His 
only clothing was a girdle of skin around 



1 Matt, xi., 14; xvi., 14.— ^ 1 Kings xvii., 1. 



ELIJAH 



307 



ELIJAH 



his loins, and a large, rougli mantle of sheep- 
skin. This mantle, the special token of his 
power, at times he would strip off, and roll up 
like a staff' in his hand ; at other times wrap 
his face in it/ His life and appearance es- 
pecially qualified him for his peculiar mis- 
sion. He was not to he the revealer of a new 
truth, hut the champion of the old forgot- 
ten law. He was not so much a prophetic 
teacher, as the precursor of prophetic teach- 
ers. He wrote, he predicted, he taught al- 
most nothing. He is to he valued not for 
what he said, hut for what he did ; not he- 
cause he created, hut hecause he destroyed. 
Of all the prophets, he is the one most re- 
moved from modern times, from Christian civ- 
ihzation. He was the original type of the 
hermit and the monk, not the type of ordi- 
nary Christians. He suddenly appears, and 
as suddenly disappears. He was seen only in 
partial and momentary glimpses : sometimes 
in the ravines of the Cherith, in the Jordan 
valley ; sometimes in the forests of Carmel ; 
now on the sea-shore of Zidon at Zarephath, 
now in the wilderness of Horeh, in the dis- 
tant south ; then far off on his way to north- 
ern Damascus ; then on the top of some lone- 
ly height on the way to Ekron; then snatch- 
ed away " on some mountain or some valley" 
in the desert of the Jordan. He was in his 
lifetime what he still is in the traditions 
of the Eastern Church, the prophet of the 
mountains. 

It was prohahly ahout the tenth year of 
Ahah's reign that Elijah suddenly appeared 
before the king to announce the coming of an 
unusual drought.^ This i3 his first appear- 
ance in history. It seems that the prophet 
was more than a mere messenger of the judg- 
ment. " He prayed earnestly that it might 
not rain, and it rained not on the earth by 
the space of three years and six months."^ 
The severity of this drought is indicated by 
the fact that the king and his chief officer 
divided between them the task of passing 
through the land^ and ascertaining that nei- 
ther around the numerous springs of Pal- 
estine nor in the nooks and crevices of the 
most shaded torrent - beds was there any 
herbage left. During part of this time Eli- 
jah was hidden beside the brook Cherith 
(q. v.), where he found not only water from 
the brook, but supplies of bread and flesh, 
morning and evening, brought by ravens at 
God's command. When at length the sup- 
ply of water was exhausted, he was obliged 
to seek another refuge ; and the honor of 
nourishing God's prophet was granted to 
a poor widow of the heathen city of Zare- 
X")hath.^ By the miraculous replenishing of 
the last barrel of meal and cruse of oil, she 
and her family were sustained while the 
famine lasted. The drought advanced and 



reached its height ; the third year had ar- 
rived, when the word of the Lord came to 
Elijah announcing the near prospect of 
rain, and bidding him go and show himself 
to Ahab.^ Face to face the prophet and 
the king met ; and the persecuting king 
became a passive instrument in the hand 
of the persecuted prophet. Ahab was chal- 
lenged to a decisive trial between Jehovah 
and Baal, and a scene ensued on Mount Car- 
mel which has no parallel in the history of 
the world. On the one side were Baal's 
prophets, four hundred and fifty in number,^ 
supported by the court, and followed by the 
people ; on the other side Elijah stood alone,^ 
The test was simple. Each party should pre- 
pare a bullock and wood, and pray for fire to 
descend upon the sacrifice, " and the God that 
answereth by fire, let him be God." The re- 
sult of this trial was a popular revulsion 
against the religion of Baal: its prophets 
were seized and swept away by the multi- 
tude, Elijah taking upon himself the dread- 
ful ofiSce of executioner.'* A rain-storm al- 
most immediately followed, and Elijah, 
amidst the rushing storm, ran before the 
king's chariot to the gates of Jezreel, a dis- 
tance of sixteen miles. ^ 

The threats o'f Jezebel (q. v.), exaspera- 
ted at the destruction of her prophets, again 
compelled Elijah to flee for his life.^ Here 
in the wilderness the resolution of the lion- 
hearted prophet for the moment failed, and 
he prayed for death. But once and again an 
angel's hand brought him sustenance and 
comfort, and in the strength of that food he 
went forty days and forty nights, till he 
came to Horeb, the mount of God.^ Here 
the glory of Jehovah passed before him in 
the rushing wind, the earthquake, and the 
fire ; but it was in the still small voice^ that 
the divine communications were made to 
the prophet. Thus reanimated for his re- 
maining work, he was sent to prepare for 
three great changes affecting the states of 
Israel ; to anoint Hazael as the future king 
of Syria, Jehu as king of Israel, and Elisha 
to be prophet and successor to himself. Eli- 
jah himself only performed the last of these 
acts. For a time the prophet again disap- 
peared ; and the King of Israel, thinking he 
had got rid of his great " troubler," plunged 
still deeper in his acts of wickedness. The 
murder of Naboth drew forth Elijah from 
his seclusion, and suddenly the well-known 
prophet appeared before the king to utter 
the doom of the house of Ahab.^ Three or 
four years after this denunciation, Ahab be- 
ing dead, and his son Ahaziah dangerously 
ill, Elijah appears to messengers who had 
been sent to consult a heathen god, utters 
his message of death, and hastily disappears. 



1 1 Kings xix., 13 ; 2 Kings ii., 8.— 2 1 Kings xvii., 1. 
—3 James v., 17.— ^ 1 Kings xviii., 5, 6.— ^ 1 Kings xvii., 
9 ; Luke iv., 26. 



1 1 Kings xviii., 1.— 2 1 Kings xviii., 19.— ^ 1 Kings 
xviii., 22.-4 1 Kings xviii., 17-40.— ^ 1 Kings xviii., 
41-46.— « 1 Kings xix., 2.—"^ 1 Kings xix., 8.— « 1 KiJigs 
six., 12.— 9 1 Kings xxi., 19-24. 



ELI^I 



308 



ELISHA 



Troops were sent to seize this enemy of the 
royal house, and on the top of Carmel they 
saw the solitary form. But he was not to 
be taken by human force, and stroke after 
stroke of celestial fire destroyed the armed 
bands/ This was his last interview with 
the house of Ahab, his last appearance in 
person against the Baal worshipers. It was 
at Gilgal that Elijah received the divine in- 
timation that his departure was at hand. 
Elisha, his constant companion, could not be 
prevailed upon to leave him, and the two 
traveled on together till they reached the 
Jordan. The aged Gileadite can not rest 
till he again sets his foot on his own side of 
the river. He ungirds his rough mantle, 
smites the waters, and the two pass over on 
dry land. Ou the farther shore, under the 
shade of the hills of Pisgah and Gilead, 
Elijah knew that his hour had come, and, 
as a parting gift, bestows the desired boon 
of a "double portion" of his spirit upon 
Elisha. " As they still went on, talking 
as they went, behold there appeared a char- 
iot of fire and horses of fire, and parted 
them asunder." This was the severance of 
the two friends. Then came a furious storm, 
and Elijah went up in the tempest into heav- 
en.^ As of Moses, so of Elijah, ''no man 
knoweth his sepulchre, no man knoweth his 
resting-place until this day." On some lone- 
ly peak, or in some deep ravine, the sons of 
the prophets vainly hoped to find him, cast 
away by the breath of the Lord, as in former 
times. "And they sought him three days, 
but found him not."^ He was gone, never 
more to be seen by mortal eyes, until in far- 
distant ages, on the summit of a high mount- 
ain apart by themselves, three disciples were 
gathered around a Master whose departure 
they were soon expecting; and "there ap- 
peared unto them Moses and Elijah talking 
with him."^ See Jehoram. [1 Kings xvii.; 
xviii. ; xix. ; xxi., 17-29 ; 2 Kings i. ; ii., 1- 
18 ; ix., 36.] 

Elim {trees, perhaps palm-trees), the sec- 
ond station of the Israelites after they had 
passed the Red Sea. They found here twelve 
wells or springs of water, and threescore-and- 
ten palm-trees. There are several valleys 
which descend from the mountain range 
et-Tigh toward the sea, fringed with trees 
and shrubs, among which are wild palms. 
One of these must be Elim, but which one is 
uncertain. [Exod. xv., 27 ; xvi., 1 ; Numb, 
xxxiii., 10.] 

Eliphaz, the leading one of the "three 
friends" who came to condole with Job in 
liis affliction. He is called "the Temanite ;" 
hence it is naturally inferred that he was 
of the region known as Tcman, in Idumea ; 
and as Eliphaz, the son of Esau, had a son 
called Teman, from whom the place took its 
name, many have concluded that this Eliphaz 



» 2 Kinsjs i., 10-14.— 2 2 Kings ii., 11.— ^ 2 Kings ii. 
IT.—* Matt, xvii., 3. 



was a descendant of the other Eliphaz, or 
identical with him. Eliphaz is the first of 
the friends to take up the debate, in reply to 
Job's passionate complaints. He appears to 
have been the oldest of the speakers, from 
which circumstance, or from natural dispo- 
sition, his language is more mild and sedate 
than that of the others. 

Elisabeth {wlw swears hy God), the Greek 
form of Elisheba ; but in the English Bible it 
occurs only as the name of the wife of Zach- 
arias, and mother of John the Baptist. She 
was, like her husband, of the family of Aaron. 
The only description given of her character 
is in connection with that of her husband ; 
both are said to have been "righteous be- 
fore God, walking in all the commandments 
and ordinances of the Lord blameless." 
[Luke i.] 

Elisha (God is salvation), son of Shaphat, 
and disciple and friend of Elijah. When we 
first meet him, he is " plowing with twelve 
yoke of oxen, and he with the twelfth;" that 
is, he is the last in a line of twelve who are 
following one another, after the Eastern 
custom, with their frail plows that barely 
scratched the surface of the soil.^ Elijah 
casts his mantle upon him, and so calls him 
to the sacred office which he has himself fill- 
ed, but is ere long to leave. Stopping only 
for a farewell to his home and kindred, 
Elisha follows the now aged prophet, from 
whom he seems thenceforth never to have 
been separated till the mysterious transla- 
tion of the prophet left the son alone upon 
the earth. This call took place four years 
before the death of Ahab ; but it is not till 
after the translation of Elijah, seven or eight 
years later, that Elisha actually engaged in 
the duties of the prophetic office. Dur- 
ing that time he receives his instructions 
from Elijah, to whom he ministers.^ But 
immediately after that translation, he joins 
himself to a company of the prophets in the 
Valley of the Jordan, who perceive at once 
that the spirit of Elijah restsupon him, and, 
doing him homage, recognize in him their 
future chief.^ From this time to the day of 
his death, over half a century, he retains the 
ascendency thus granted to him, being, above 
all others, the prophet of Israel during the 
reigns of Jehu and Jehoahaz, and during a 
part of those of Jehoram and Joash. His 
prophetic office, after the disappearance of 
Elijah, extends over a period of fifty-five 
years (B.C. 893-839). This, however, is the 
only definite chronological statement we are 
able to make concerning the great prophet's 
life. Though he had a greater reputation 
while he lived than his predecessor, and re- 
sided at court, enjoying in no small measure 
the confidence of the kings of Israel, and act- 
ing as their counselor, though his fame trav- 
eled beyond the boundaries of his own na- 
tion, and men from foreign and heathen 



See Plow.— 2 2 Kings iii., 11.— ' 2 Kings ii., 14-18. 



ELISHA 



309 



ELISHA 



lands sought his aid/ and though his history 
is given in great detail in the Bible, yet any 
chronological arrangement of his life is im- 
possible. Leaving particular miracles to be 
treated of elsewhere, we can only present an 
estimate of his character and place in Jew- 
ish history gathered from the fragmentary 
accounts of his life. This is, with the ex- 
ception which we note below, so admirably 
afforded by Stanley in his '^ Jewish Church,"^ 
that we can not do better than to quote his 
words. 

"A long career of sixty years^ now opens 
before us, which serves to bring out the gen- 
eral features of his relations to his predeces- 
sor. The succession was close and immedi- 
ate ; but it was a succession not of likeness 
but of contrast. The whole appearance of 
Elisha revealed the difference. The very 
children laughed when they saw the change, 
and watched the smooth, well-shorn head of 
the new and youthful prophet going up the 
steep ascent where last they had seen the 
long, shaggy locks streaming down the shoul- 
ders of the great and awful Elijah. The 
rough mantle of his master appears no more 
after its first display. He uses a walking- 
staff, like other grave citizens.* He was not 
secluded in mountain fastnesses, but dwelt 
in his own house,^ in the royal city ; or lin- 
gered amidst the sons of the prophets, with- 
in the precincts of ancient colleges, embow- 
ered amidst the shade of the beautiful woods 
which overhang the crystal spring that is 
still associated with his name; or was sought 
out by admiring disciples in some tower on 
Carmel, or by the pass of Dotham f or was 
received in some quiet balcony overlooking 
the plain of Esdraelon, where bed, and ta- 
ble, and seat had been prepared for him by 
pious hands.' His life was spent not like 
his predecessor, in unavailing struggles, but 
in wide-spread successes. He was sought 
out not as the enemy, but as the friend and 
counselor of kiugs. One king was crowned 
at his bidding, and wrought all his will ; 
another consulted him in war ; another, on 
the treatment of his prisoners; another, in 
the extremity of illness ; another, to receive 
his parting counsels.^ ' My father,' was 
their reverent address to him. Even in 
far Damascus his face was known. Benha- 
dad treated him with filial respect; Haza- 
el trembled before him ; Naaman hung on 
his words as upon an oracle.® If for a mo- 
ment he shows that the remembrance of the 
murder of Naboth, and the prophets of Ahab 
and Jezebel is burned into his soul,^** yet he 
never actively interposes to protest against 
the idolatry or the tyranny of the court. 



1 See Naamax.— 2 Vol. ii., pp. 359-362.-3 That is, 
after the translation of Elijah; but we think it should 
read fifty-five years.—'* 2 Kinir? iv., 29.-5 2 Kings v., 
9, 24; vi., 32; xiii., IT.— « 2 Kin^s iv., 25; vi., 14.— 
'' 2 Kings iv., 8, 10.— 8 2 Kings iii.^'ll ; vi., 21 ; viii., 8; 
ix.. 1, 2 ; xiii., 14-19.-9 2 Kings v., 18; viiL, 7, 8, 11-18. 
—10 2 Kings iii., 13. 



Even in the revolution of Jehu he takes no 
dii-ect part. Against the continuance of the 
worship of Baal and Ashcaroth, or the re- 
vival of the golden calves, there is no re- 
corded word of protest. There is no express 
teaching handed down. Even in his oracu- 
lar answers there is something uncertain and 
hesitating. He needs the minstrel's harp to 
call forth his peculiar powers,^ as though he 
had not them completely within his control. 
His deeds were not of wild terror, but of gra- 
cious, soothing, homely beneficence, bound 
up with the ordinary tenor of human life. 
When he smites with blindness, it is that he 
may remove it again ; when he predicts, it 
is the prediction of plenty, and not of fam- 
ine. The leprosy of Gehazi is but as the 
condition of the deliverance of Naaman. 
One only trait, and that on the very thresh- 
old of his career, belongs entirely to that 
fierce spirit of Elijah which called down our 
Lord's rebuke when he cursed the children 
of Bethel for their mockery. The act itself, 
and its dreadful sequel, are as exceptional in 
the life of Elisha as they are contrary to the 
spirit of the Gospel.^ At his house by Jeri- 
cho, the bitter spring is sweetened ; for the 
widow of one of the prophets, the oil is in- 
creased ; even the workmen at the prophets' 
huts are not to lose the axe-head which has 
fallen through the thickets of the Jordan 
into the eddying stream ; the young proph- 
fets, at their common meal, are saved from 
the deadly herbs which had been poured 
from the blanket of one of them into the 
caldron, and enjoy the multiplied provision 
of corn.^ At his home in Carmel he is the 
oracle and support of the neighborhood ; 
and the child of his benefactress is raised 
to life, with an intense energy of sympathy 
that gives to the whole scene a grace as of 
the tender domestic life of modern times. 
And when at last his end comes, he is not 
rapt away like Elijah, but buried with a 
splendid funeral.* A sumptuous tomb was 
shown in after ages over his grave in the 
royal city of Samaria, and funeral dances 
were celebrated round his honored resting- 
place. Alone, of all the graves of the saints 
of the Old Testament, there were wonders 
wrought at it which seemed to continue af- 
ter death the grace of his long and gentle 
life. It was believed by the mere touch of 
his bones, a dead corpse was reanimated.^ 
In this, as in so much besides, his life and 
miracles are not Jewish, but Christian." 

We have quoted Dean Stanley's summary 
of Elisha's life without alteration; but in 
fact we think a more careful consideration 
of the incident of the destruction of the chil- 
dren by the two she -bears recorded in 2 
Kings ii., 23, 24, is, if properly understood, in 



1 2 Kings iii., 15.-2 go says Dean Stanley; but the 
reader will notice our dissent below.— 3 2 Kings ii., 
2.H, 24; iv., 3-6, 2T-44: \-i., 5-T. 18-2U; vii., 1.—'* Jo- 
sephus, Antiq., ix., 8, § 6.— ^ 2 Kings xiii., 2L 



ELKANAH 



310 



ELYSIUM 



nowise contrary to the spirit of the Gospel. 
According to the ordinary interpretation of 
this incident, Dean Stanley's expression might 
not be, perhaps, too strong. But Dr. Kitto 
has shown, in his ''Bible Illustrations," vol. 
iv., p. 279, that the word translated " little 
children" in this passage is elsewhere used 
to designate young men, beiug nearly equiv- 
alent to the gargon of the French.^ More- 
over, it is to be remembered that at this era, 
and for a long time after, there was a bit- 
ter and relentless conflict between the fol- 
lowers of the true God and the adherents of 
the idolatrous religion which Jeroboam had 
first introduced, and which Jezebel had at 
once made immeasurably worse, and done 
what she could to make the state religion. 
Bethel, where Jeroboam had placed one of 
the golden calves at the time of the divis- 
ion of the kingdom,^ became one of the cen- 
tres of the new and idolatrous worship ; and 
it was from this centre the insulting crowd 
came out to assail Elisha. The fact then is, 
not that a parcel of little children in thought- 
lessness reviled the prophet, but a mob of 
the " roughs " of the city assailed him, and 
that by insulting him they openly defied the 
God of Israel, while it is probable that they 
added threatening to insult. That it was a 
deliberate assault is clear, from the fact that 
they came out of the city to mock him ; and 
that the mob was one of serious proportions, 
appears from the statement that of them for- 
ty-two were destroyed — probably the ring- 
leaders of the rabble. 

Elisha is canonized in the Greek Church ; 
his day is the 14th of June. In the time of 
Jerome, a mausoleum said to contain his re- 
mains was shown in Samaria. Under Julian, 
the bones of Elisha were taken from their re- 
ceptacle and burned. But notwithstanding 
this, his relics are heard of subsequently, and 
the Church of St. Apolliuaris, at Ravenna, 
still boasts of possessing his head. The Car- 
melites have a special service in honor of 
Elisha. [1 Kings xix., 16-21 ; 2 Kings ii. ; 
iii. ; iv. ; v.; vi.; vii., 1; viii., 1-16; ix., 1-5; 
xiii., 14-22.] 

Elkanah {whom God provided). Several 
descendants of Korah bore this name, but 
the only one known to history was the father 
of Samuel ; and of him we know nothing more 
than that he lived at Ramathaim-Zophim, in 
Mount Ephraim, had two wives, Hannah and 
Peuinnah, and by the former became the fa- 
ther of Samuel the prophet. [1 Sam. i., 2; 
see 1 Chron. vi., 26, 27, 34 ; ix., 16 ; xii., 6.] 

Elkosh, the birth-place of Nahum the 
prophet. There are two cities of this name, 
each of which has had its advocates as that 
which may lay claim to the honor of being 
the birth-place of Nahum. One is situated 
in Koordistan, on the east side of the Tigris, 

1 Gen. xxi., 16; xxii., 12; xxxiv., 19; xxxviL, 2; 1 
Kings iii., 7; xx., 15: 2 Kiugs ix,, 4; 1 Sara, xxx., IT. 
—2 1 Kings xii., 28, 29. 



about three hours' journey to the north of 
Mosul, which lies on the same side of the 
river, and is supposed to be the site of an- 
cient Nineveh. It is inhabited by Chaldean 
or Nestorian Christians, and is a place of 
great resort by Jewish pilgrims, who fiLrmly 
believe it to be the birth-place and burial- 
place of the prophet to whose tomb ttey pay 
special respect. It is, however, generally 
thought that the tradition which connects 
this place with his name is of later date, 
and that it owes its origin to the Jews or the 
Nestoriaus, who imagined that he must have 
lived near the principal scene of his prophe- 
cy. The other place is a village in Galilee, 
the exact site of which does not appear now 
to be known, which was pointed out to Je- 
rome as a place of note among the Jews, 
and which, though small, still exhibited some 
slight vestiges of more ancient buildiugs. 

Ellasar, the country and kingdom of Ari- 
och, one of the four kings who invaded Ca- 
naan in the days of Abraham. Nothing cer- 
tain is known of it ; but being associated with 
Elam and Shinar, there can be no doubt that 
it indicated an Asiatic region somewhere in 
the same neighborhood. According to Raw- 
linson, it was probably Larsa or Larancha, a 
city of Lower Babylonia, about half-way be- 
tween Ur and Erech. Old inscriptions show 
this place to have been a very ancient city. 
[Gen. xiv., 1.] 

Elymas, the interpretation, not of the 
name Bar-jesus, but of the word rendered the 
sorcerer. It is an Arabic word, and means 
the same as Magus. It seems that Bar-jesus 
was better known by this foreign name than 
by his own. He was struck blitid by Paul 
for resisting the truth, and endeavoring to 
turn the proconsul Sergius Paulus away from 
it. [Acts xiii., 6-12.] 

Elysium, the future abode of the blessed, 
according to the mythology of the ancient 
poets of Greece and Rome. They paint in 
the most glowing colors the gorgeous scen- 
ery of that land of beauty and of bliss. All 
that is fitted to please the imagination, to 
regale the senses, or to gratify the desires of 
the most voluptuous and sensual, is concen- 
trated there. But, unlike the heaven of the 
Christian, it has no delights save those to 
which men are wont to be attached on earth, 
no employments save those in which the 
worldly habitually engage. The ancients 
were not agreed as to the precise locality of 
the Elysian fields. Some taught that they 
were among a cluster of islands, which they 
designated as the Fortunate, in the Atlantic 
Ocean; others placed them in the Euxine 
Sea ; and Virgil designated Italy as the fit- 
test country that could overlie so felicitous 
a spot. All agreed, however, that it was 
a most enchanting region, with delightful 
meadows and pleasant streams, a balmy air, 
a serene sky, and a salubrious climate ; birds 
continually warbling in the groves, and a 



EMBALMING 



311 



EMBALMING 



heaven illumined by a glorious sun and 
bright stars. 

Embalming is the process by which dead 
bodies are preserved from putrefaction and 




Binding a Mummy. 

decay. It was most general among the Egyp- 
tians, and it is in connection with this peo- 
ple that the two instances which we meet 
with in the O. T. are mentioned.^ Of the 
Egyptian method of embalming there remain 
two minute accounts, which have a general ! natron. 



was a perfect mode of embalming, and 
preserved the features, and even the hair 
of the eyebrows and eyelids. The second 
mode of embalming cost about tweutj'- 
minse — equivalent probably to about three 
hundred dollars of our money. In this case, 
there was generally no incision made in 
the body, nor were the intestines removed ; 
but cedar-oil was injected into the stomach 
by the rectum, and the body steeped in na- 
tron for seventy days. On the last day 
the oil was withdrawn, and carried off with 
it the stomach and intestines in a state of 
solution ; and the natron having consumed 
the flesh, nothing was left but the skin and 
bones. In this state the body was returned 
to the relatives of the deceased. The cheap- 
est mode, which was adopted by the poorer 
classes, was merely a rinsing of the abdomen 
with syrmase — an infusion of senna and cas- 
sia — and the usual steeping of the body in 



agreement, though they differ in details, 
They describe three modes, varying in com- 
pleteness and expense, and practiced by per- 
sons who were initiated into the mysteries 
of the art by their ancestors, and regularly 
trained to the profession. The most expensive 
mode cost a talent of 
silver — equivalent to 
about fifteen hundred 
dollars of our money. 
The embalmers first 
removed as much as 
possible of the brain 
through the nostrils 
by means of a crooked 
iron, and destroyed the 
rest by injecting caus- 
tic drugs. An incision 
was then made in a 
part of the left side previously marked by 
one of the operators, called the scribe. The 
dissector, with a sharp stone, black flint, or 
Ethiopian agate, hastily cut through as much 
flesh as the law enjoined, and fled, pursued 
by curses and volleys of stones from the 
spectators, for it was a crime to mutilate a 
dead body. Through this incision the em- 
balmers removed all the intestines except 
the heart and kidneys, rinsed the cavity 



Embalming and "mummification were cus- 
tomary till the fifth century of the Christian 
era, but from that time fell gradually into 
disuse. The modern Egyptians wash their 
dead thoroughly in water in which leaves of 
the lote-tree have been boiled, stop up with 





Mummy of Peu-amen, priest of Amun-Ra. 
British Museum.) 



thoroughly with palm- wine, scoured it with 
pounded perfumes, and filled it with pure 
myrrh, cassia, and other aromatics, except 
frankincense. The body was then sewn up 
and steeped in natron for seventy days, af- 
ter which it was washed, and enveloped in 
linen bandages smeared with gum. This 
1 Gen. 1., 2, 26. 



Painting and polishing a Mummy-case. 

cotton every aperture, shave the whole body, 
sprinkle the corpse with a mixture of preserv- 
atives and perfumes, bind together the an- 
kles, and place the hands upon the breast. 
If the deceased was a man of property, the 
body is afterward wrapped in muslin, in cot- 
ton cloth of a thicker texture, striped stuff 
of silk and cotton intermixed, and a cash- 
mere shawl. White and green are the usual 
colors ; blue, or what approaches it, is gen- 
erally avoided. The body of a poor 
man is simply surrounded with a few 
pieces of cotton, or put into a kind of 
bag." 

It does not appear that the Hebrews 
practiced systematic embalming as did 
the Egyptians. Still some process was 
employed tending to soothe surviving friends 
by arresting or delaying decay. Asa was laid 
in a bed " filled with sweet odors and divers 
kinds of spices prepared by the apothecaries' 
art." The women who had followed Jesus 
"bought sweet spices, that they might come 
and anoint him;" and Nicodemus "brought a 
mixture of myrrh and aloes," and " wound " 



(From the 



EMBER-DAYS 



312 



EMERODS 



the body ''in linen clothes with the spices, 
as the manner of the Jews is to burj^."^ In 
some instances, too, the later Jews embalmed 
a body in honey, after having covered it with 
wax. 

Ember - days, in the Roman Catholic 
Chnrch, certain days, first appointed by Pope 
Calixtus, a.d; 220, to be set apart for fasting 
and prayer, and for imploring the blessing 
of God on the fruits of the earth, and on the 
ministers ordained at these times. The em- 
ber-days occur four times in the year, being 
the Wednesday, Friday, and Saturday after 
the first Sunday in Lent ; after the Feast of 
Peutecost or Whitsunday; after tbe Festi- 
val of the Holy Cross, on the 14th of Sep- 
tember ; and after the Festival of St. Lucia, 
on the 13th of December. The weeks in 
which ember-days fall are called emher-iveeks. 
The Sundays immediately following these 
seasons are still appointed by the canons of 
the Church of England for the ordination of 
priests and deacons. The derivation of the 
term is doubtful. 

Embroidery. This word does not occur 
in the English Bible ; but we have the verb 
embroider once used, and embroiderer twice f 
so that if these passages are correctly ren- 



hood. The notices of Egyptian history, con- 
firmed by the monumental remains, give rea- 
son for believing that at a comparatively 
early period they had made wonderful at- 
tainments in this line. The Assyrians culti- 
vated with great success, even in early times, 
the art of producing embroidered as well 
as richly colored clothing. The Babylonians 
certainly were most noted for their skill in 
weaving cloths distinguished for their col- 
ors ; and the Babylonish garment which at- 
tracted the eye of Achan, and drew after it 
such disastrous results,^ was in all probabil- 
ity of that description ; and we are now in 
possession of specimens of beautifully- em- 
broidered dresses from the remains of Nine- 
veh. How far the Israelites might cultivate 
such arts after they were settled in Canaan, 
we have no means of properly ascertaining ; 
but as their general habits were such as 
grew out of the possession and cultivation 
of land, the probability is that they knew 
little or nothing, practically, of at least the 
higher kinds of this skilled handicraft. 

Em.erald, one of the precious stones of the 
high-priest's breastplate. It is said to have 
been imported into Tyre from Syria, and to 
have been used there as an ornament. There 




Ornaments on the Kobe of King. 



dered, the Israelites must have known the 
art of embroidery. In several passages, also, 
the expression ''needle- work" is used in such 
connections as to imply that not plain sew- 
ing, but ornamental work, was evidently 
meant.^ In all the passages the Hebrew 
word is the same. The Israelites first learn- 
ed the art in Egypt ; and, whether in con- 
nection with the bond-service they had to 
perform there, or of their own choice, cer- 
tain families, it would appear, at the time 
of the Exodus, had risen to distinction in the 
arts of weaving and embroidery — some, es- 
pecially, in the tribes of Judah and Dan.^ 
These were exhorted to turn their acquired 
skill in this department of handicraft to a 
sacred use, and to prepare ornamented fab- 
rics in tapestry and needle-work, variegated 
also with divers colors, for the curtains of 
the tabernacle and the robes of the priest- 



1 2 Chron. xvi., 14; Mark xvi., 1 ; Luke xxiii., 56; 
John xix., 39, 40. — 2 Exod. xxviii., .39; xxxv., 35; 
xxxviii., 23.-3 Exod. xxvi., 36; Judi,'. v., 3(i ; Psa. 
xlv., 14.— 4 Exod. XXXV., 30-35; 1 Chron. iv., 21. 



would seem no sufficient ground for disbe- 
lieving that the gem intended was the stone 
now known by that name. The rainbow 
round God's glorious throne is likened to an 
emerald ; and this stone is described as one 
of the foundations of the new Jerusalem. 
[Exod. xxviii., 18; xxxix., 11; Ezek. xxvii., 
16 ; xxviii., 13 ; Rev. iv., 3 ; xxi., 19. 

Emerods, a disease which was inflicted by 
God upon the Philistines when they took 
the ark of God and brought it to Ashdod. 
The nature of the disease is supposed to be 
like hemorrhoidal tumors or bleeding piles. 
This is indicated by the descriptions in the 
Bible, and also from the account in Josephus. 
The fact that golden emerods were offered 
with the return of the ark seems at first to 
contradict the supposition, but it probably 
means five golden images of that portion of 
the body afflicted by the disease ; a custom 
being common then among the heathen, and 
now in some Roman Catholic countries, of 
cousecratino; to the god, or the saint wlio is 



1 Josh, vii., 21. 



EMIM 



313 



ENGINE 



believed to have performed a cure, an image 
in wax or metal of that part of the body 
upon which a cure has been effected. [Deut. 
xxviii., 27 ; 1 Sam. v., 6 ; vi., 4, 5.] 

Emim, a race of people distinguished for 
their gigantic stature and Avarlike propensi- 
ties, who originally occupied a portion of the 
territory to the east of Jordan, which after- 
ward fell into the hands of the Moabites. 
They were in existence so early as the time 
of Abraham. See Gia^nTS. [Gen. xiv., 5; 
Deut. ii., 10.] 

Emmaus. There are three towns of this 
name mentioned as being in Palestine, only 
one of which, however, is referred to in the 
Bible. The site of this village is unknown. 
It was between six and eight miles from Je- 
rusalem. It is not to be confounded, how- 
ever, with either the Emmaus on the Sea of 
Galilee, or that in the Philistine plain. See 
Tiberias. [Luke xxiv., 13-35.] 

Encampment primarily denoted the rest- 
ing-place of an army or company of travelers 
at night, and was hence applied to the army 
or caravan when on its march. Among no- 
madic tribes war never attained to the dig- 
nity of a science, and their encampments 



East. — Ist Division — Camp of Jtjdau ; 186,400. 







JUDAH, 








74,600. 






ISSACnAE A>n) ZEnTTLITN, 






54,400. 57,400. 






It 


MOSES, AARON, 
AND THE PEIESTB. 


ii 


W 


1. 


13 


o 




< 


H 

8e 


pi 


z 








K O 








C-. > 




's. 


•0S95 

ILKOHSa- 


19 






OOt'SS -006 '58 






'K 


Kvjfiiaa a&T nassviivre 








•ooe'o^ 








'RivaHja 





•QOl'SOl : KivaHda io dKvo— koi91ai(i as— -isa^ 



Diagram of the Camp of the Israelites during the 
Esode. 

were therefore devoid of all the appliances 
of more systematic warfare. Of the Jewish 
system of encampment the Mosaic books 
have left a detailed description, and the 
book of Numbers is so explicit upon the sub- 
ject, that no other explanation seems to be 
necessary than is afforded by the annexed 
plan of the Israelitish camp. [Numb, ii.] 

Encyclical, in the ancient Church, letters 
sent by bishops to all the churches of a par- 
ticular circuit. At present the name is ex- 
clusively used for letters addressed by thie 
pope to all the bishops of the Eoman Catho- 
lic Church. Among modern encyclicals, none 



attracted greater attention than that issued 
by Pope Pius IX., in December, 1864, against 
modern civilization. 

Endor (founiain of the age), a place in the 
territory of Issachar yet possessed by Ma- 
nasseh, famous in Jewish history in connec- 
tion with the great victory of Deborah and 
Barak over Sisera and Jabiu, but yet better 
known as the residence of the famous witch 
of Endor. The declivity of the neighboring 
mountain is perforated with caves, one of 
which was probably the abode of the sor- 
ceress ; and hags who might be her successors 
still haunt them, and startle the traveler with 
their cries and curses. The fountain which 
is supposed to have given the valley its name 
is still pointed out, and the name itself lin- 
gers in the deserted village of Endtir. [Josh, 
xvii., 11 ; Judg. iv. ; Psa. Ixxxiii., 10 ; 1 Sam. 
xxviii., 7-25.] 

En-gannim (fountain of gardens), a city in 
the territory of Issachar, but allotted to the 
Levites ; for which we find in 1 Chron. vi., 73, 
Anem substituted. There can be no doubt 
that En-gannim is the modem Jenin, still sur- 
rounded by gardens — a place with about two 
thousand inhabitants, under a governor. It 
deals largely in the products of the coun- 
try, but the people are fanatical and unruly. 
With En-gannim may probably be identified 
Beth-hag-gan. [Josh, xix., 21 ; xxi., 29.] 

En-gedi (fountain of the lid), a place orig- 
inally called Hazezon-tama, or Hazazon-ta- 
mar,^ in the wilderness of Judah. It was 
about the middle of the western shore of the 
Dead Sea, on a gentle slope from the base 
of the mountains extending to the water. 
The fountain bursts from the limestone rock 
at an elevation of four hundred feet above 
the sloping x)laiu, fertilizing the soil around ; 
but the spot is little cultivated. There is no 
habitation except the tents of a few Arabs ; 
and ruins mark the site of the ancient city. 
The neighboring cliffs are full of natural 
and artificial caves and sepulchres. In these 
strongholds of En-gedi David at one time 
dwelt, eluding the pursuit of Saul. Here 
flourished the camphire and the vine ; and 
still the wild goats, from which the name 
was derived, are found upon the rocks of 
the modern 'Ain Jidy. [Josh, xv., 62 ; 1 Sam. 
xxiii., 29; xxiv., 1; Sol. Song i., 14; Ezek. 
xlvii., 10.] 

Engine, a term exclusively applied in the 
Bible to military affairs. These engines 
were designed to propel various missiles from 
the walls of a besieged town ; one, like the 
halista, for throwing stones, consisted, proba- 
bly, of a strong spring, and a tube to give 
the right direction to the stone ; another, 
like the catapulia, for shooting arrows, was 
an enormous stationary bow. The inven- 
tion of these is assigned to Uzziah's time — 
a statement which is supported both by the 
absence of such contrivances in the repre- 



Gen. xiv. 



2 Chrou. xx.,2. 



ENGINE 



314 



ENOCH 




Euman Bulista. 
sentations of Egyptian and Assyrian warfare, 
and "by the traditional belief that the haJista 
^vas invented in S^Tia. All these engines 




f i^^Lj^ ^Tt-z^'V^ct ^ ^-^^t »-^| yj^- 




iioman Catapult 

Tvere constructed upon the principle of the 
sling, the bow, or the spring. Another war- 
engine with which the Hebrews were ac- 




Batieriug-rani, wiih movable Tower. 



qnainted was the battering-ram, described in 
Ezek. xxTi., 9, and with more particularity in 
Ezek. IT., 2 ; xxi., 22, as a ram. The use of 
this instrument was well known both to the 
Egyptians and the Assyrians. The references 
in Ezekiel are to rams used by the latter peo- 
ple, consisting of a high and stoutly built 
fi-ame-work on four wheels, covered in at the 
sides, in order to protect the men moving it, 
and armed with one or two pointed weapons. 
Their appearance was very different from 
that of the Koman arks, with which the Jews 
afterward became acquainted. Xo notice 
seems to be taken in our Bible of the testudo 
or the vinea — engines of war in use among 
the Eomans — but it is not improbable that 
the Hebrews were acquainted with them; 
and ligures of the former occur on Egyptian 
monuments, which represent the besiegers, 
under shelter of a testudo, driving the point 
of a huge lance between the stones of a city 
wall. It is mentioned in Nah. ii., 5, where 
the common English version has '• defense." 
Enoch (The Book of). The only notice 
in the Scripture of any prophecy of Enoch is 
that recorded in Jude 14. Where this proph- 
ecy was obtained, and how preserved, is a 
question which can not be quite satisfacto- 
rily answered. There is, however, an apoc- 
ryphal book called the book of Enoch, which 
was well known to the early Christian fa- 
thers, and certain fragments of it were pre- 
served ; but, as a whole, it was for a long 
time supposed to be irrecoverably lost, till, 
in 1773, three manuscript copies, in the Ethi- 
opic language, were brought from Abyssinia ; 
and the first English copy was published by 
Archbishop Lawrence in 1821. 
The Ethiopic version appears 
to have been made from the 
Greek, though the ablest schol- 
ars believe that the book was 
originally composed in Hebrew 
or Aramean, especially as it is 
said that a Hebrew book of 
Enoch was known to the Jews 
down to the thirteenth centu- 
ry. It is divided into five 
parts, comprising various rev- 
elations alleged to have been 
made to Enoch and Xoah in 
visions and parables. No apoc- 
ryphal book is more remarka- 
ble for eloquence and poetic 
vigor ; and the range of sub- 
jects which it includes is as 
noble as its style. There is 
— \^^^ considerable difficulty in as- 
^"^''yA certaiuing the real date of the 
^^^^""^ book ; though a passage oc- 
curs in it which so nearly re- 
sembles the prophecy in Jude, 
that it is evident that if the 
two writers had not a common 
f \ authority before them — a writ- 
ing of much higher antiquity 



EN-ROGEL 



315 



EPHESUS 



than either — the one must have borrowed 
from the other; The most common opin- 
ion, however, appears to be that St. Jude 
incorporated into his epistle a prophecy 
known to have been uttered by Enoch, and 
that the writer of the apocryphal work af- 
terward introduced the same into his own 
composition. 

En-rogel (fountain of the scout, or fuller's 
fountain), a fountain on the boundary -line 
between Judah and Benjamin, where Jona- 
than and Ahimaaz waited for intelligence 
which they might convey to David at the 
time of Absalom's rebellion, and where Ado- 
nijah made his feast when he aspired to the 
crown. Thus En-rogel must have been close 
to Jerusalem ; and it is generally supposed 
to be the modern well of Job or Nehemiah, 
Bir Eyub, just below the junction of the val- 
leys of Hinuom and Kedron, a little south 
of the Pool of Siloam ; though some would 
identify it with the Fountain of the Virgin, 
a few hundred yards further north. [Josh. 
XV., 7; xviii., 16; 2 Sam. xvii., 17; 1 Kings 
i.,9.] 

Epaphras (contracted from Epaphroditus), 
a Christian, perhaps a Colossian by birth, 
who had ministered at Colosse, and probably 
founded the Church there. He was with 
St. Paul at Rome when the letter to the Co- 
lossians was written, and he is styled "fel- 
low-prisoner." We know nothing more of 
him. Tradition makes him bishop of Co- 
losse, and martyr there. [Col. i., 7 ; iv., 12 ; 
Philem.23.] 

Epaphroditus, an officer in the church at 
Philippi, and the messenger whom the church 
deputed to go to Rome with certain contri- 
butions to the apostle Paul, for his support 
during the time of his imprisonment. While 
fulfilling this ministry, he was seized with a 
dangerous illness, which for a time awaken- 
ed the deepest concern in the apostle's mind. 
Bat he was again restored, and bore with 
him, on his return to Philippi, the epistle 
which the apostle addressed to that church. 
That Epaphroditus was a person of high 
Christian worth, and of singular self-denial 
in the labors of the Gospel, is evident from 
the language of Paul. By some he is regard- 
ed as identical with Epaphras. [Phil, ii., 
25; iv., 18.] 

Ephesians (The Epistle to the). The 
sublime epistle to the Ephesians was written 
by Paul during his first captivity at Rome. 
That it was addressed to the Christians of 
the important city of Ephesus seems proba- 
ble, both on critical grounds, and from the 
nearly unanimous consent of the early 
Church. But the two oldest extant manu- 
scripts omit the words "at Ephesus" (in 
chap, i., ver. 1); and many regard the epistle 
as encyclical, intended for a circle of neigh- 
boring churches. 

The epistle does not appear to have been 
called forth by the partictdar circumstances 



of any single church. Tychicus and Onesi- 
mus were being sent to Colosse, the former 
with an important epistle to the church there, 
the latter with a private apostolic letter of 
recommendation to his former master, also 
a resident at Colosse. Under these circum- 
stances, the yearning heart of Paul went 
forth to the church (or churches) of his own 
planting. He thought of them as the mystic 
body of Christ, growing onward for a habi- 
tation of God through the Spirit. And, full 
of such thoughts, he wrote this epistle to 
them at the same time with, or immediately 
subsequently to, his penning of that to the 
Colossians. Indeed, so closely are these two 
epistles related, that the discussion as to 
time of writing, authorship, style, and sub- 
ject-matter of the one involves also those 
points with regard to the other ; and for these 
the reader is referred to the article upon the 
Epistle to the Colossians. It is only neces- 
sary to observe here that the object of the 
epistle is a general one — to set forth the 
ground, the course, the aim and end of the 
Church of the faithful in Christ. Paul speaks 
to his readers as a type or sample of the 
Church universal. He writes to them not 
as an ecclesiastical father, directing and cau- 
tioning them, but as their apostle and pris- 
oner in the Lord, bound for them, and ap- 
pointed to reveal God's mysteries to them. 

Ephesus, a very celebrated city, the me- 
tropolis of Ionia, and of Proconsular Asia un- 
der the Romans. It was seated in a fertile 
alluvial plain south of the river Cayster, not 
far from the coast of the Icarian Sea, between 
Smyrna and Miletus, distant from the first- 
named city three hundred and twenty stadia, 
or near forty miles. Under the Roman Gov- 
ernment, it was a free city, with its own 
magistrates, and other officers and legal as- 
semblies. The town clerk is specially men- 
tioned in Acts xix., 35. In the midst of a 
rich country, advantageously placed for com- 
merce, and provided with a carefully con- 
structed port, Ephesus became the great em- 
porium of trade for the Asiatic regions. Its 
classic celebrity is chiefly owing to its fa- 
mous temple, and the goddess in whose hon- 
or it was built, Diana of the Ephesians.^ 
The city was famed for the constant use of 
those arts which pretend to lay open the se- 
crets of nature, and clothe men with super- 
natural power, no less than for the refine- 
ments of a voluptuous and artificial civili- 
zation, and the "books" mentioned in Acts 
xix., 19, were doubtless books of magic.^ The 
civil and ecclesiastical centre of Asia Minor, 
the meeting-point of Oriental, religious, and 
Greek culture, Ephesus would naturally be 
looked at by the apostle Paul as one of the 
most important places where the Gospel 
could be planted. In his days, Jews were 
settled in the city in no inconsiderable num- 
bers ; and from them the apostle, upon his 



1 See Diana. — ^ gee Divlnation ; MAGia 



EPHESUS 



316 



EPHESUS 



second missionary journey, collected a Chris- 
tian community, which, fostered and extend- 
ed by his own hand, became the centre of 
Christianity in Asia Minor. On leaving the 
city, Paul left Timothy in his place; The 
apostle John is believed to have made Ephe- 
sus his residence during the later part of his 
life. The ruins of Ephesus lie two short 
days' journey from Smyrna toward the south- 
east. A few corn-fields are scattered along 
the site of the ancient city, which is marked 
by some large masses of shapeless ruins and 
stone walls. Toward the sea extends a pes- 
tilential marsh — all that is left of the ancient 
port. Along the slope of the mountain and 



or could have conceived such structures. In 
Italy they have parallels in Adrian's villa, 
near Tivoli, and perhaps in the pile upon 
the Palatine. Many other walls remain, to 
show the extent of the buildings of the city, 
but no inscription or ornament is to be found; 
for cities have been built out of this quarry 
of wrought marble. The ruins of the adjoin- 
ing town, which rose about four hundred 
years ago, are composed entirely of materi- 
als from ancient Ephesus. Within these ru- 
ins, about a mile and a half from Ephesus, 
there are a few huts which still retain the 
name of the parent city, Asalooh — a Turkish 
word associated with the same idea as Ephe- 




Ephesus from the Theatre. 



over the plain are scattered fragments of 
masonry and detached ruins ; but nothing- 
can now be fixed upon as the great temple 
of Diana. There are some broken columns 
and capitals of the Corinthian order, of white 
marble, the ruins of a theatre, supposed to 
be the one in which Paul was preaching 
when interrupted by shouts of " Great is Di- 
ana of the Ephesians," a splendid circus or 
stadium nearly entire, and numerous piles 
of buildings seen at Pergamus and Troy as 
well as here, which some call gymnasia, oth- 
ers temples, and others still, with more pro- 
priety, palaces. They all came with the Ro- 
man conquest. No one but a Roman emper- 



sus, meaning the city of the moon. A church 
dedicated to St. John is thought to have 
stood near the present mosque, and under 
this church was his tomb. 

However much the Church at Ephesus 
may in its earliest days have merited praise 
for its " works, labor, and patience," yet it 
appears soon to have left its first love, and 
to have received in vain the admonition, 
" Remember therefore from whence thou art 
fallen, and repent, and do the first works ; 
or else I will come unto thee quickly, and 
will remove thy candlestick out of his place, 
except thou repent."^ If any repentance 



1 Rev. ii., 5. 



EPHOD 



317 



EPHRAIM 



was produced by this solemn warning, its i tion, adopted them as patriarchs, or heads 
effects were not durable, and the place has [ of tribes, equally with his own sous. But 
long since afforded an evidence of the 
truth of prophecy. Its fate is that of 
the once flourishing seven churches of 
Asia^ — that of the entire country — a gar- 
den become a desert. Busy centres of 
civilization, spots where the refinements 
and delights of the age were collected, 
are now a prey to silence, destruction, 
and death. Consecrated first of all to 
the purposes of idolatry, Ephesus next 
had Christian temples almost rivaling 
in splendor the pagan — temples in which 
the image of the great Diana lay pros- 
trate before the cross ; and after the 
lapse of centuries, Jesus gives place to 
Mohammed, and the crescent glitters on 
the dome of the once Christian Church. 
A few more scores of years, and Ephesus 
has neither temple, cross, crescent, nor 
city, but is " a desolation, a dry land, 
and a wilderness." Even the sea has 
retired from the scene of devastation, 
and a pestilential morass, covered with 
mud and rushes, has succeeded to the 
harbor which floated merchant vessels 
from every quarter of the known world. 
Ephod, a Hebrew word which has the 
same breadth of meaning as our word 
vestment. It consisted of blue, purple, 
and scarlet yarn, and ''fine twined lin- 
en" wrought together in work of the 
skilled weaver. It was the distinctive 
vestment of the high -priest, to which 
"the breastplate of judgment" was at- 
tached.^ It would seem that the ephod 
consisted of two principal pieces of 
cloth, one for the back, and the other 
for the front, joined together by shoul- 
der-straps. Below the arms, probably 
just above the hips, the two pieces were 
kept in place by a band attached to one 
of the pieces. Most Jewish aiithorities 
have thus understood the description. 
But Josephus describes the ephod as a 
tunic having sleeves. It is just possible 
that the fashion of it may have changed 
before the time of the historian. An 
ephod of linen appears to have been a 
recognized garment not only for the com- 
mon priests, but also for those who were 
temporarily engaged in the service of the 
sanctuary.^ [Exod. xxviii., 6-12.] 

Ephraim (twin land, two-fold increase, m^o j^ir^^j/ j- ^t. 

j^ ..J? 1 a\ ,■, J ^ T 1 The Sacerdotal Ephod (according to Braun). 

very fruitful f), the second son of Joseph, ^_ ^^^^^ ^.^^ . j^ ^^^ ^^^^^ ,^^^1,,^ but without the strap., 

born m Egypt before the famme, and clasps, or space for the pectoral: together they constituted 

therefore upward of twenty at Jacob's ^^^ ^^y" ^'^}^^ "^ \ea\es of which it was composed, united 

over triG '^nouinGr^ 

death. Joseph, when he was apprised a, a. The two shoulder-pieces. 

of his father's sickness, was anxious to ^ b. The belt, or two bands for girding it on. 

obtain the recognition of his sons Ma- ''breTrnplaYe.""^^"'' ""^' for fastening the bottom of the 

nasseh and Ephraim as interested in d, d. The two bezels or settings, each with its memorial 

+lip pnvpnaTi+ hlp«<siTio- Tnf>nli nppnrrl gem engraved with six of the tribal names ; serving also 

tne co\enant blessing. Jacob, accord- ^^ ^j^^p- ^^. buttons for fastening the shoulder-pieces to- 

mgly, outstripping Joseph's anticipa- gether, and likewise as attachments for the gold chains 

on the upper corners of the breastplate. 

1 Exod. xxviii., 2.5-2S.— 2 1 Sam. ii., 18 ; xxii., e. The vacant space, a span wide, left for the insertion of the 

18 ; 2 Sam. vi., 14 ; 1 Chrou. xv., 27. gemmed breastplate, according to Josephus {Ant. iii., 7, 5). 




EPHRAIM 



318 



EPHRAIM 




Map of the Tribe of Ephiaim. 



he placed the younger, Ephraim, before the 
elder, Manasseh (q[. v.), "guiding his hands 
wittingly," in spite of Joseph's remonstrance, 
and prophetically declaring that the pos- 
terity of Ephraim should be far greater and 
more powerful than the posterity of Manas- 
seh. The descendants of any other sons that 
Joseph might beget were not to be ranked 
separately, but to be " called after the name 
of their brethren in their inheritance." We 
can hardly doubt that Joseph did have oth- 
er sons ; and their posterity, perhaps, were 
sometimes deemed Ephraimites, and some- 
times Manassites, according as they chose to 
locate themselves. And this may account for 
the reproach once thrown upon some Gilead- 
ites, as fugitives belonging, justly, neither to 
the one tribe nor to the otlier.^ 

At the first census in the wilderness, the 
number of the tribe of Ephraim was forty 
thousand five hundred. At the second cen- 
sus they had diminished to thirty-two thou- 
sand five hundred ; but this numerical defi- 
ciency was more than counterbalanced by 
the fact that the great captain under whose 
guidance the Israelites entered the promised 
laud was an Ephraimite. The tribes of Ju- 
dah, Ephraim, and Manasseh first took their 
inheritance ; and the boundaries of Ephra- 
im's territory are given in Josh. xvi. ; comp. 
1 Chron. vii,, 28, 29. From our imperfect 



^ Gen. xli., 50, 52 ; xlviii. ; Judg. xii., 5. 



knowledge of some of the places mentioned, 
we are not able to trace very exactly the 
boundary-line. The territory abutted on the 
Jordan to the east, and on the Mediterranean 
to the west : in the south it was contiguous 
to Benjamin's lot, and probably a part of 
Dan — the frontier running from near Jeri- 
cho in a north-easterly direction to the neigh- 
borhood of Japho or Joppa; while in the 
north it was separated from Manasseh by 
the River Kanah, and a line extending thence 
to the Jordan by Tappuah. Mr. Grove esti- 
mates the district allotted to Ephraim and 
Western Manasseh " at fifty-five miles from 
east to west, by seventy from north to south." 
It was a rich and fertile territory, admirably 
situated in the heart of Palestine. What 
was called "Mount Ephraim" (perhaps ex- 
tending across the border of Benjamin) con- 
sisted of rounded limestone hills, among 
which were valleys and plains, well water- 
ed, yielding abundantly, as Moses had pre- 
dicted, " the precious things of the earth and 
fullness thereof." The tribes were not, at 
first, contented with the size of their allotted 
portion, but were told by Joshua (not with- 
out a touch of irony) that if they were, as 
they called themselves, a great people, they 
ought to go boldly and occupy the adjacent 
mountain and woodland country.^ 



1 Nnmb. i., 32, 33 ; ii., 18, 19 ; xxvi., 37 ; Deut. xxxiii., 
16; Josh, xvii., 8-18. 



EPHRAIM 



319 



EPICUREANS 



Not only was Ephraim located iu the cen- 
tre of the laud, but the tabernacle was set up 
within their territory at Shiloh, where it con- 
tinued through the time of the judges. The 
influence of the tribe was thereby increased ; 
and we find it bearing itself very haughtily. 
Examples of this we have in the remon- 
strance made to Gideon after his first victory, 
which that leader judged it prudent to paci- 
fy by a flattering answer. They were still 
more incensed with Jephthah, because they 
said he had not solicited their assistance. 
Jephthah, however, was not the man to 
yield. He boldly attacked and defeated them, 
and when they fled, intercepted the fugitives 
at the passages of the Jordan, so that there 
perished in that disastrous quarrel forty- 
two thousand. A rivalry continued long 
after to prevail between Ephraim and the 
great tribe of Judah. The Ephraimites did 
not at first submit to the authority of Da- 
vid ; and though, after the death of Ish- 
bosheth, a large body of them went to He- 
bron to join David, and that monarch could 
speak of Ephraim as the strength of his 
head, yet the jealousy sometimes broke out. 
David had his ruler in Ephraim, and Solo- 
mon his commissariat officer. Still the spirit 
and weight of the tribe were so great that 
Rehoboam found it necessary to repair to 
Shechem, a city within its borders, for his 
inauguration. And there, on his foolish re- 
fusal of their demands, the ten tribes revolt- 
ed, established a different mode of worship, 
and ever after Ephraim was the main sup- 
port of a northern kingdom, which came to 
be designated by its name, and the reunion 
of which, with Judah, was the hope of the 
prophets as the fulfillment of Israel's glory. 
The subsequent history of Ephraim was that 
of the kingdom of Israel. 

It may be observed that some peculiari- 
ties of dialect seem to have characterized the 
Ephraimites. [Josh, xviii., 1 ; Judg. vii., 24, 
25 ; viii., 1-3 ; xii., 1-6 ; 2 Sam. ii., 8, 9 ; xix., 
40-43 ; 1 Chron. xii., 30 ; xxvii., 20 ; 1 Kings 
iv., 8; xii., 1 ; Psa. Ix., 7; Isa. vii., 2; xi., 13; 
Ezek. xxxvii., 15-22 ; Hos. iv., 17.] 

Ephraim (Wood or Forest of). 1. A place 
rendered memorable from being the scene of 
Absalom's defeat and death. ^ It must have 
been on the east of Jordan, and not far from 
Mahanaim. David and his party are ex- 
pressly said to have crossed the Jordan, to 
have pitched in the land of Gilead, and made 
Mahanaim their head - quarters.^ In that, 
neighborhood, therefore, must the field of 
battle have been, and consequently the wood 
in which Absalom met his death. The idea 
has been suggested that the name may have 
arisen from the slaughter of the Ephraimites 
by Jephthah, which took place somewhere 
in that direction. 

2. A place near where Absalom had a 
sheep-farm ; the situation is unknown. 



1 2 Sam. xviii., 6 2 2 Sam. xvii., 24, 26 ; xviii., 3. 



3. A city to which our Lord withdrew af- 
ter the raising of Lazarus, and the counsel 
there taken by the priests and rulers to put 
him to death.' It is described as near the 
wilderness — that is, perhaps, the wild hill- 
country north-east of Jerusalem toward the 
valley of the Jordan. Robinson believes it 
the Ophrah of the O. T., and would identify 
it with the modern et-Taiyiheli, five or six 
miles east of Beth-el, and about sixteen from 
Jerusalem, seated on a conical hill, and com- 
manding a view of the Jordan Valley and 
the Dead Sea. 

Epicureans, disciples of Epicurus. They 
are referred to in the Bible only in Acts xvii., 
18, where we are told that " certain philos- 
ophers of the Epicureans and of the Sto- 
ics " encountered Paul. Epicurus was born, 
B.C. 341, iu the Island of Samos. In B.C. 306 
he opened a school in a garden at Athens, 
whence his followers have sometimes been 
called the " philosophers of the garden." His 
life was simple, chaste, and temperate. Of 
the three hundred works he is said to have 
written, nothing has come down to us except 
three letters, giving a summary of his views 
for the use of his friends, a number of de- 
tached sayings, preserved by Diogenes La- 
ertius, and others, and some fragments of 
his work on nature, found at Herculaneum. 
The additional sources of our kliowledge of 
Epicurus are the works of his opponents, Cic- 
ero, Seneca, Plutarch, and of his follower Lu- 
cretius. Other distinguished followers were 
Horace, Atticus, and Lucian. The standard 
of virtue and vice is referred by Epicurus to 
pleasure and pain. Pain is the only evil, 
pleasure is the only good. Virtue is no end 
in itself, to be sought ; vice is no end in itself, 
to be avoided. The motive for cultivating 
virtue and banishing vice arises from the con- 
sequences of each, as the means of multiply- 
ing pleasures and averting or lessening pains. 
To the attainment of this purpose, the com- 
plete supremacy of the reason is indispensa- 
ble, in order that we may take a right com- 
parative measure of the varieties of pleasure 
and pain, and pursue the course that prom- 
ises the least amount of suflfering. It is, 
however, a great error to suppose that, in 
making pleasure the standard of virtue, Epi- 
curus had in view that elaborate and studied 
gratification of the sensual appetites that we 
associate with the word Epicurean. Epicu- 
rus declares, "When we say that pleasure 
is the end of life, we do not mean the pleas- 
ures of the debauchee or the sensualist, as 
some, from ignorance or from malignity, rep- 
resent, but freedom of the body from pain, 
and of the soul from anxiety. For it is not 
continuous drinkings and revelings, nor the 
society of women, nor rare viands and other 
luxuries of the table, that constitute a pleas- 
ant life, but sober contemplation, such as 
searches out the grounds of choice and avoid- 
1 John xi., 54. 



EPIPHANY 



320 



EPISCOPACY 



ance, and bauishes those chimeras that har- 
ass the mind." But the doctrine that pleas- 
ure, not duty, is the motive of moral exer- 
tion, however guarded, was one which was 
liable to the grossest corruption, and gave 
rise to that j^seucZo-Epicureanism which has 
generally passed current for the real. 

Theologically, the philosophy of the Epi- 
cureans was practical atheism. It was a 
system of materialism, in the strictest sense 
of the word. In the view of the Epicureans 
the world was formed by an accidental con- 
course of atoms, and was not created, or even 
modified, by the Divinity. They did indeed 
profess a certain belief in what were called 
gods ; but these equivocal divinities were 
merely phantoms, impressions on the popu- 
lar mind, dreams, which had no objective 
reality, or at least exercised no active influ- 
ence on the physical world or the business 
of life. The Epicurean deity, if self-existent 
at all, dwelt apart in serene indifference to 
all the affairs of the universe. The universe 
was a great accident, and sufficiently ex- 
plained itself without any reference to a 
higher power. The popular mythology was 
derided, but the Epicureans had no positive 
faith in any thing better. As there was no 
creator, so there was no moral governor. All 
notions of retribution and of a judgment to 
come w^ere of course forbidden by such a 
creed. The principles of the atomic theory, 
when applied to the constitution of man, 
must have caused the resurrection to ap- 
pear an absurdity. The soul was nothing 
without the body ; both body and soul were 
dissolved together and dissipated into the 
elements ; and when this occurred, all the 
life of man was ended. The moral result of 
such a creed was necessarily that w^hich the 
apostle Paul described : '' If the dead rise 
not, let us eat and drink, for to-morrow we 
die."^ Such, without entering into details 
at once abstruse and unprofitable, were the 
two great characteristics of the philosophy 
of the Epicureans who encountered Paul at 
Athens, and who not unnaturally mocked 
when they heard of the resurrection. 

Epiphany (appearance) denoted, among 
the heathen Greeks, a festival held in com- 
memoration of the appearance of a god in 
any particular place. The word subsequent- 
ly passed into the usage of the Christian 
Church, and was used to designate the man- 
ifestation or appearance of Christ upon the 
earth to the Gentiles, w^ith especial reference 
to the day on which he was seen and wor- 
shiped by the wise men who came from the 
East. It was sometimes called the festival 
of the Three Holy Kings. This occasion is 
commemorated in the Episcopal and Roman 
Catholic churches on the 6th of January, the 
twelfth day after Christmas, and hence the 
Epiphany is also called Twelfth Day. The 
Epiphany is said not to have been observed 
' 1 1 Cor. XV., 32. 



as a separate festival, having been included 
iu the Feast of the Nativity till a.d. 813. 

Episcopacy, a form of Church govern- 
ment. The word is derived from the Greek 
word episkopos, meaning overseer, but ordi- 
narily translated in the N. T. bishop. It sig- 
nifies that form of Church government iu 
which three orders of ministers are main- 
tained — bishops, priests or pastors, and dea- 
cons. It differs from Presbyterianism and 
Congregationalism in that they maintain but 
two orders, pastors or elders, and deacons. 
In the Episcopacj^, the third order, bishops 
(q. v.), are superior to the other clergy, and 
exercise a general supervision or superin- 
tendence over them. Episcopacy is main- 
tained not alone by the Episcopalians (q. v.), 
but also by the Moravians, Methodists, Lu- 
therans, and Roman Catholics. It exists, 
however, in three different forms : 1. In the 
Church of England and the Protestant Epis- 
copal Church of America, the churches or 
parishes of certain districts are united in one 
ecclesiastical organization, termed a diocese. 
Each diocese is under the charge of a bishop. 
The same system substantially is maintained 
by the Lutherans (q. v.). In England the 
dioceses are again united in two districts, 
each under an archbishop. In America there 
are no Episcopal archbishops. The bishops 
are all of equal authority, each ruling his 
own diocese independently of the control of 
any ecclesiastical superior. There are, how- 
ever, assistant and missionary bishops. 2. In 
the Roman Catholic Church there is the 
same union of parishes in dioceses, each di- 
ocese being under the supervision of its own 
bishop. But the bishops are themselves all 
amenable to one spiritual father, the pope, 
who is the head of the Church. According 
to the view now entertained by the Romish 
Church, as interpreted by the voice of its 
last Ecumenical Council, all bishops derive 
their authority from, or rather through, the 
pope. 3. In the Methodist Church the bish- 
ops are not diocesan, but general and itiner- 
ant ; that is, they are not allotted any par- 
ticular districts, but exercise their functions 
of superintendence alike over all the church- 
es. The same is true of the Moravian bish- 
ops. The Greek, Russian, and Armenian , and 
all the Eastern churches, are Episcopalian in 
government. 

As to the origin of Episcopacy, those who 
maintain it are not fully agreed. Some re- 
gard the bishops as the successors of the 
apostles, and divinely commissioned to su- 
pervise the churches and to ordain the cler- 
gy. They hold that the Episcopal form of 
government is the divinely constituted form, 
and that all variations from it are heretical 
and schismatical. This is the view of the 
High-Church party in the Episcopal Church. 
It is entertained, with the addition of a. sim- 
ilar faith respecting the Papacy, by all Ro- 
man Catholics. Others hold that, while 



EPISCOPALIANS 



321 



EPISCOPALIANS 



Episcopacy conforms most nearly to the pat- 
tern of the N. T. churches, it is not divinely 
constituted in such a sense as to be obliga- 
tory upon the Church. This is the view 
held probably by the large majority of Epis- 
copalians, and by all Methodists, who would 
agree with Dr. Paley in saying that "there 
is no precept in the N.T. which commands 
that every Church should be governed by a 
bishop." See, for a statement of the differ- 
ent views respecting the office of a bishop, 
under that title; for an account of the differ- 
ent views of Church government. Church; 
for an account of the doctrines and govern- 
ment of the Church of England and the Prot- 
estant Episcopal Church of America, Epis- 
copalians. 

Episcopalians, properly all those who ac- 
cept the Episcopacy as the best form of 
Church government. In this sense of the 
term, it would include the Lutherans, Meth- 
odists, Moravians, and perhaps also the Ro- 
man Catholics. It is more popularly used, 
however, to designate the members of the 
Church of England and the Protestant Epis- 
copal Church of America; and in that signifi- 
cance we shall use it in this article, referring 
the reader, for further information as to the 
Episcopacy in other denominations, to the 
articles respecting them ; and for a general 
statement of Episcopacy as a system of 
Church government, to the articles Bishop, 
Church, and Episcopacy. 

I. History. — The Episcopalians, like all 
other denominations, claim that their Church 
originated in reality in the apostolic times, 
and is modeled upon the pattern of the Apos- 
tolic Church. Indeed many Episcopalians 
claim that it also derives its authority direct 
from Christ, through a long series of success- 
ive ordinations from the days of the apostles 
to the present time.^ Without entering into 
the discussion of this question, it is enough 
to say that the Church, as at present consti- 
tuted, dates its organic life from the days 
of Henry VIII. Prior to the sixth century, 
British Christianity was independent of 
Rome. The same, indeed, is true of the Irish 
Church. The patron saint of Ireland, St. 
Patrick, was not a Romanist, and even pro- 
tested vigorously while he lived against 
many of the errors which his name has been 
made to sanction since. From the sixth 
century, however, up to the reign of Henry 
VIII., 1509-1547, the Church in England was 
in formal connection with the See of Rome. 
But it was never without earnest spirits who 
protested against the increasing errors and 
usurpation of the Papacy. The struggle for 
civil and religious liberty went on together, 
though no effectual separation of the Church 
from foreign dominion was effected until 
1534, and constitutional government in the 
state did not gain a final victory till the ad- 
vent of William and Mary in 1689. The first 



practical step toward a separation from th^ 
Church of Rome resulted from the labors of 
Wickliffe. His translation of the Scriptures, 
and his successful efforts in introducing it 
among the people,^ produced a profound and 
wide - spread dissatisfaction with the doc- 
trines of the Church of Rome, and this was 
aggravated by the flagitious lives of many 
of the clergy, and the intolerant abuses 
which rendered the monasteries a reproach 
throughout the nation. When Henry VIII. 
broke with the Pope of Rome, the people 
were ready to follow him, and the fulmina- 
tions of the pope and the opposition of the 
clergy were unable to check the popular cur- 
rent after it received the royal sanction. 
The immediate occasion of Henry's revolt 
was his desire to obtain a divorce from his 
queen, Catherine of Aragon, that he might 
marry the youthful Anne Boleyn. The pope 
refused his assent. Henry thereupon re- 
nounced his allegiance to Rome, and pro- 
claimed himself the "head of the Church." 
The last tie which bound the Church of 
England to the Church of Rome was sunder- 
ed (1534-35), when, at his instigation, statutes 
were passed forbidding all appeal from the 
ecclesiastical courts to the pope, and provid- 
ing for the installation of archbishops with- 
out the papal approval. The religious houses 
were soon after dissolved, and their property 
confiscated to the crown. But the movement 
thus far was in appearance one of a purely 
political character, and the Church remained 
unchanged in the spirit of its services and 
in the form of its government, except in be- 
ing freed from all allegiance to the Court of 
Rome. Henry VIII. was never a Protestant 
in the religious sense of that terra. The 
marriage of the priests and the giving of the 
cup to the laity were still prohibited, and 
tran substantiation and auricular confession 
maintained, up to the time of Henry's death, 
and by his will he bequeathed large sums to 
be expended in saying masses for the repose 
of his soul. Meanwhile, however, the doc- 
trines of Wickliffe and the Lollards (q. v.) 
had spread among the people, and the Refor- 
mation, which was in the court purely a po- 
litical movement, was among the people of a 
religious character. Under Henry's successor, 
Edward VI., the Reformation was carried 
forward to a point which Henry had neither 
desired nor anticipated. All images were 
ordered to be removed from the churches ; 
prayers were no longer ajipointed to be of- 
fered for the dead ; auricular confession and 
transubstantiation were declared to be un- 
scriptural ; the clergy were permitted to 
marry ; and a series of articles, forty-two in 
number, was drawn up, which, subsequent- 
ly modified to thirty -nine, constitute the 
doctrinal basis of the Church of England 
and the Protestant Episcopal Church of 
America to the present day. 



See Apostolioai. Suooebsion. 
21 



1 See Bible : Lollaeds. 



EPISCOPALIANS 



322 



EPISCOPALIANS 



Throughout this entire period the work 
of reform was largely indebted to Thomas 
Cranmer, who may almost be regarded as the 
religious founder of the Episcopal Church. 
His character was one of singular contradic- 
tions, and is variously estimated by different 
writers. Without entering into these con- 
troversies, we think it is safe to assert that he 
was an honest and sincere friend of the Refor- 
mation, but at the same time a man of timid 
character and averse to controversies, or to 
radical and sweeping measures of reform. He 
sought rather to reconcile allpartiesby a com- 
promise between them than to give victory 
to either one by a decided and earnest advo- 
cacy, or to fixed, clear, and simj)le principles 
which the future would justify, however the 
present might receive them. He was in this 
respect better fitted to conduct to a success- 
ful issue measures for the establishment of a 
state church, than measures for the organiza- 
tion of a reformed theology adapted to take 
a deep hold upon the hearts of the people. 
He was born at Aslacton, in the County of 
Nottingham, on the 2d of July, 1489. In his 
fourteenth year he went to Jesus College, 
Cambridge, of which he was elected a fellow 
in 1510. In 1523 he took his degree of D.D., 
and was appointed lecturer on theology. He 
was first introduced to the notice of the court 
by his suggestion respecting Henry's desired 
divorce, that " it should be tried according 
to the Word of God " — a suggestion which re- 
ceived from Henry the coarse but character- 
istic approval, " That man has got the right 
sow by the ear." From this time Henry 
never lost sight of Cranmer. Under his 
auspices the divorce was speedily carried 
through, and by him the king was married 
to Anne Boleyn, May 28, 1533. On Henry 
VIII.'s death, Cranmer was appointed one of 
the regents of the kingdom, and, with Lati- 
mer and others, largely contributed to the 
advance of the Protestant cause during the 
reign of Edward. He assisted in the com- 
pilation of the Service-Book and the Articles 
of Keligion, and the latter are said to have 
been chiefly composed by him. 

The people of England were, however, far 
from united in the work of reformation. Not 
only the Eoman Catholic priesthood, but a 
large number of the laity, still retained their 
affection and reverence for the RomishChurch, 
and under Mary a vigorous but unsuccessful 
attempt was made to bring England back 
to submission to the Papal See. The per- 
secutions conducted under her sanction have 
given her the name of " bloody Mary." Dur- 
ing her short reign of four years and four 
months, " by imprisonment, by torment, by 
famine, by fire, almost the number of four 
hundred were lamentably destroyed." Among 
the martyrs of this period were Cranmer, Lat- 
imer, and Ridley, whose names are held in 
honorable remembrance not only by the Epis- 
copalians, but by all Protestant Christians, 



notwithstanding the recantation of Cranmer. 
Under the severity of his sufferings, he tem- 
porarily yielded, hoping thus to save his life. 
But when brought to the stake, he with un- 
expected firmness placed the hand with which 
he had signed his recantation of Protestant- 
ism in the flame, and held it there till con- 
sumed, as an attestation of the depth and sin- 
cerity of his religious convictions. "Bloody 
Mary" was succeeded by Elizabeth, whose 
coronation was almost immediately followed 
by the repeal of all the laws passed for the 
restoration of Popery. The English service 
was again brought into use ; some altera- 
tions were made in the Prayer-Book (q. v.) ; 
a translation of the Scripture known as the 
" Bishops' Bible " was prepared by eight of the 
bishops, aided by a select number of learn- 
ed laymen ; preaching, which had fallen into 
disuse, was reinstated; and the forty -two 
articles were reduced to thirty -nine, and 
finally perfected in their present form. The 
reign of Queen Elizabeth may be regarded 
as the close of the formative period in the 
history of the Episcopal Church, which has 
neither materially changed its faith, or its 
form of government since that time. In 
later times, two great controversies have 
shaken the English Church ; but they have 
led to nothing more than some internal di- 
visions, and the secession of some members 
to Rome, and a few to the ranks of dissent. 
These were the Tractarian and the Gorham 
controversies. The former was occasioned 
by some tracts which began to be published 
at Oxford in 1833, the object of which was to 
revive something of the spirit of Roman Cath- 
olic antiquity. Tractarians, many of them, 
ended by leaving the communion of the 
Church of England for that of Rome. The 
Gorham controversy related to the doctrine 
of baptismal regeneration, but nothing was 
really settled by it. 

Immediately following the discovery of 
America, there commenced a large emigra- 
tion hither, including many who had been 
reared in the doctrine and worship of the 
Church of England. Scattered Episcopal 
churches sprang up at various points, but 
they enjoyed no true Episcopalian supervis- 
ion. Nominally they were under the su- 
pervision of the bishops of London. Singu- 
larly enough, the English Government reso- 
lutely opposed the ordination of any bishops 
in the colonies, or the sending of any bishops 
to act there. Nor was it till after the close 
of the Revolutionary War that the Ameri- 
can churches were able to secure bishops 
for themselves, nor until 1789 that a com- 
plete organization was effected. At a Gen- 
eral Convention held at that time, the En- 
glish Prayer-Book was modified to suit the 
wants of this country ; but at the same time 
it was declared that "this Church is far 
from intending to depart from the Church 
of England in any essential point of doctrine, 



l&PISCOPALIANS 



323 



EPISCOPALIANS 



discipline, or worship, or further than local 
circumstances require." j 

II. Government and Doctrine. — The history \ 
of the Church of England interprets its char- 
acter, which has been admirably portrayed | 
in the light of its history by Lord Macau! ay. j 
" To this day/' says he, " the constitution, j 
the doctrines, and the services of the Church | 
retain the visible marks of the compromise 
from which she sprang. She occupies a mid- 1 
die position between the churches of Rome 
and Geneva. * * * * The Church of Rome 
held that Episcopacy was of divine institu- 
tion, and that certain supernatural graces of 
a high order had been transmitted by the 
imposition of hands through fifty genera- 
tions, from the eleven who received their 
commission on the Galilean mount, to the 
bishops who met at Tr^nt. A large body of 
Protestants, on the other hand, regarded 
prelacy as positively unlawful, and per- 
suaded themselves that they found a very 
different form of ecclesiastical government 
prescribed in Scripture. The founders of 
the Anglican Church took a middle course. 
They retained Episcopacy ; but they did not 
declare it to be an institution essential to 
the welfare of a Christian society, or to the 
efficacy of the sacraments. Cranmer, in- 
deed, plainly avowed his conviction that in 
the primitive times there was no distinction 
between bishops and priests, and that the 
laying on of hands was altogether unneces- 
sary. Among the Presbyterians the conduct 
Of public worship is, to a great extent, left 
to the minister. Their prayers, therefore, 
are not exactly the same in any two assem- 
blies on the same day, or on any two days in 
the same assembly. In one parish they are 
fervent, eloquent, and full of meaning; in 
the next parish they may be languid or ab- 
surd. The priests of the Roman Catholic 
Church, on the other hand, have, during 
many generations, daily chanted the same an- 
cient confessions, supplications, and thanks- 
givings, in India and Lithuania, in Ireland 
and Peru. The service, being in a dead lan- 
guage, is intelligible only to the learned; 
and the great majority of the congregation 
may be said to assist as spectators rather 
than as auditors. Here, again, the Church 
of England took a middle course. She 
copied the Roman Catholic forms of prayer, 
but translated them into the vulgar tongue, 
and invited the illiterate multitude to join 
its voice to that of the minister. In every 
part of her system the same policy may be 
traced. Utterly rejecting the doctrine of 
transubstantiation, and condemning as idol- 
atrous all adoration paid to the sacramental 
bread and wine, she yet, to the disgust of 
the Puritan, required her children to receive 
the memorials of divine love, meekly kneel- 
ing, upon their knees. Discarding many 
rich vestments which surrounded the altars 
of the ancient faith, she yet retained, to the 



horror of weak minds, the robe of white lin- 
en, which typified the purity which belong- 
ed to her as the mystical spouse of Christ. 
Discarding a crowd of pantomimic gestures 
which in the Roman Catholic worship are 
substituted for intelligible words, she yet 
shocked many rigid Protestants by marking 
the infant just sprinkled from the font with 
the sign of the cross. The Roman Catho- 
lic addressed his prayers to a multitude of 
saints, among whom were numbered many 
men of doubtful, and some of hateful char- 
acter. The Puritan refused the addition 
of saint even to the apostle of the Gentiles, 
and to the disciple whom Jesus loved. The 
Church of England, thongh she asked for 
the intercession of no created being, still set 
apart days for the commemoration of some 
who had done and sufii^ered great things for 
the faith. She retained confirmation and 
ordination as edifying rites, but she de- 
graded them from the rank of sacraments. 
Shrift was no part of her system. Yet she 
gently invited the dying penitent to confess 
his sins to a divine, and empowered her min- 
isters to soothe the departing soul by an ab- 
solution, which breathes the very spirit of 
the old religion. In general, it may be said 
that she appeals more to the understanding, 
and less to the senses and the imagination, 
than the Church of Rome ; and that she ap- 
peals less to the understanding, and more to 
the senses and imagination, than the Protest- 
ant churches of Scotland, France, and Switz- 
erland." 

In form of government there is, of course, 
some difference between the Church of En- 
gland and the Protestant Episcopal Church 
of America. The constitution of the Church 
of England has been defined as that " of an 
authorized and paid establishment, which is 
not allowed to persecute those who dissent 
from it." The king is nominally the su- 
preme head. But practically the manage- 
ment of the Church is in the hands of a hie- 
rarchy of archbishops and bishops, subject to 
the authority of the king and Parliament. 
The united Church of England and Ireland 
is divided into four provinces : two English, 
Canterbury and York ; two Irish, Armagh 
and Dublin. These are under four mutually 
independent archbishops. These are chosen 
by the crown from among the bishops, who 
are also nominated by the sovereign. The 
archbishops and bishops alone have the pow- 
er to ordain clergymen. Candidates for the 
ministry are usually college or university 
graduates ; but the bishops are not bound to 
restrict ordination to members of any uni- 
versity or college. Approved candidates 
take " the oath of supremacy," sign a dec- 
laration that they will conform to the litur- 
gy, and subscribe three articles : the first af- 
firming the supremacy of the sovereign in the 
Church ; the second asserting that the Book 
of Common Prayer contains nothing contrary 



EPISCOPALIANS 



324 



EPISCOPALIANS 



to the Word of God, and that the ordained 
person will use the form of the said book ; and 
the third, that they hold all " the Thirty-nine 
Articles." The candidate is first ordained a 
deacon, and so continues for one year. At 
the expiration of this term he undergoes an 
examination, and when this is satisfactory, 
he is admitted by the bishop to the order of 
priest or presbyter. When once ordained a 
presbyter, he is competent to take any duty 
or to hold any preferment in the Church. 
The Church being established by law, is sup- 
ported by the state, and from revenues de- 
rived from its lands. Its revenues from 
these sources are estimated at being near- 
ly or quite equal to twenty million dollars 
annually, and it is said to derive as much 
more from voluntary contributions and oth- 
er sources.^ The only ecclesiastical assembly 
of the Church of England is the Convoca- 
tion (q. v.), whose powers are, however, little 
more than nominal. All cases of discipline, 
since they necessarily involve civil rights, 
are tried before ecclesiastical courts. 

In America this organization is, as we have 
seen, modified to adapt the Church to the 
conditions of a republic, in which a church 
establishment is unknown. The whole coun- 
try is divided ecclesiastically into dioceses, 
each state constituting ordinarily one dio- 
cese. New York is divided into five. At 
the head of each diocese stands a bishop. 
Each diocese has its own Diocesan Conven- 
tion, composed of the pastors of the several 
churches, and three lay delegates from each. 
This body attends to all the aftairs of the 
diocese. It elects the bishop, and chooses 
a standing committee to act as his council, 
and has power to present him for trial. 
Every three years a General Convention as- 
sembles, consisting of two houses, an up- 
per, or House of Bishops, and a lower, or 
House of Lay and Clerical Deputies.^ Each 
local church is governed in spiritual matters 
by the priest or presbyter, while its tempo- 
ral affairs are intrusted to the vestry (q. v.) 
and church-wardens (q. v.). There were re- 
ported, in 1871, connected wdth the Protest- 
ant Episcopal Church, fifty-two bishops, in- 
cluding assistant and missionary bishops, 
2710 priests or i)resbyters and deacons, 2512 
parishes, 176,686 communicants, with con- 
tributions for missionary and church pur- 
poses amounting to nearly five millions of 
dollars. 

In faith, both the Protestant Episcopal 
Church of America and the Church of En- 
gland hold to a common standard, viz., the 
thirty-nine articles.^ But the former omits, 
while the latter retains, the Athanasian Creed 
as an authorized symbol. The thirty-nine 
articles embody the declaration of belief in 



1 For account of the method in which these revenues 
are appropriated, see Patronage; t^ee also Parish, 
and titles there referred to, and Ciiukoh and State.— 
^ See Convention. — ^ gee Creeds. 



the doctrines of the Trinity, and salvation 
through Jesus Christ alone; the sufficiency 
of the Holy Scriptures as a ground of faith, 
and its superiority to ecclesiastical authori- 
ty ; condemn the Eomish doctrine of works 
of supererogation, purgatory, worship of the 
saints and relics, transubstantiation, and the 
celibacy of the clergy ; define the Church of 
Christ as " a congregation of faithful men in 
the which the pure Word of God is preach- 
ed, and the sacraments be duly administered 
according to Christ's ordinance in all those 
things that of necessity are requisite to the 
same," a definition which leaves undefined 
what are requisite, and therefore has led to 
endless and unsettled disputes ; and disallow 
the office of public preaching or ministering 
of the sacraments, except by such as are call- 
ed to this work by the men who have "public 
authority given unto them in the congrega- 
tion." The tenets on the subject of original 
sin, free-will, and predestination leave the 
controversy between Arminians and Calvin- 
ists unsettled. But practically the majority 
of Episcopalians are probably Arminian in 
their sympathies. Infant baptism is retain- 
ed. Acceptance of these articles is a pre- 
requisite to ordination either as a presbyter 
or a deacon. But for lay membership in the 
Church it is only necessarj^ to accept the 
Apostles' Creed, and enter into Christian cov- 
enant with Christ and the Church. The rite 
of entering the Church is known as confirma- 
tion (q. v.). 

Despite the doctrinal standards of the 
Church, the Episcopalians are divided by 
their theological views into parties. These 
may be considered as consisting of three great 
classes, though there are innumerable minor 
differences. The Church, as we have seen, 
was historically the result of a quasi com- 
promise between the Romish and the Protest- 
ant spirit in England. Those in the Church 
who tend to adopt and maintain the Romish 
views are termed High-Church. They hold, 
as a class, to the doctrine of apostolical suc- 
cession (q. v.), and maintain that the Church 
depends for its validity upon a divine au- 
thority reposed by Christ in the apostles and 
their successors in office, and that all other 
ecclesiastical organizations are schismatic, 
and in so far contrary to the precepts of Je- 
sus Christ. They emphasize the authority 
of the bishops and other clergy, and approach 
very nearly the Roman Catholic doctrine of 
priestly absolution.^ Some of them main- 
tain auricular confession^ as a privilege, if 
not as a duty. They regard baptism (q. v.) as 
a regenerating ordinance, i. e., as possessing in 
and of itself power over the soul of him who 
receives it. Some among them maintain 
the doctrine of con substantiation (q. v.), or 
something. very like consubstantiation, and 
pay to the consecrated bread and wine a 
regard which is hardly distinguishable from 



See AusoLUTioN.— 2 See Confession. 



EPISCOPALIANS 



325 



EPISTLES 



adoration. They employ a number of the Ro- 
man Catholic symbols, especially the proces- 
sion, the lights on the altar, many of thepriest- 
ly vestments, and certain articles of altar 
furniture generally disused in the Episcopal 
Church. The second party, known as the 
Low-Church, or the Evangelicals, embrace 
those who in feeling and opinion repre- 
sent the Protestant sentiment in the Church. 
They approve the Episcopal method of gov- 
ernment, but do not regard apostolical suc- 
cession as essential to church order, and 
some of them reject the doctrine altogeth- 
er. They disavow the divine authority of 
the clergy, and hold to the authority of 
the Church only in a limited sense. They 
attribute to it an ecclesiastical rather than 
a divine authority. Baptism is with them 
only a sign and seal, and the communion 
a commemorative ordinance, and a means 
of grace. They condemn all additions to 
the simple ritual of the prayer-book, and 
the simple vestments of the clergy of the 
earlier Church. And in faith and sym- 
pathy they are in hearty accord with the 
other Protestant evangelical denominations. 
There can hardly be a question in the mind 
of any disinterested spectator that this par- 
ty far more nearly accords with the stand- 
ards of the Church and with its history than 
the other. A third party occupies a position 
midway between these two. It is known in 
England as the Broad-Church party. It is 
composed of those w^ho hold that in an es- 
tablished church there must necessarily be 
allowed the largest liberty of faith and prac- 
tice, because it is an established church. It 
embraces, therefore, men of all opinions, in- 
cluding some w^hose sympathies are in every 
respect with the extreme High-Churchmen ; 
some who are substantially evangelical in 
their views, but opposed to making evangel- 
ical belief a condition of office in the Church ; 
and some of decidedly rationalistic opinions. 
All of the latter class belong to the Broad- 
Church party, whence the name has come to 
signify popularly, though we think errone- 
ously, the rationalistic element — a not in- 
considerable one in the Church of England. 
Of late, both the High-Church and the Low- 
Church parties have been endeavoring in En- 
gland to get the control of the Church.^ 

In this country there is also the same mid- 
dle party, which, however, has no name and 
no organization, because it has no other defi- 



1 Since this article was written, a new organization 
has been formed in the United States, under the title 
of the Reformed Protestant Episcopal Church. It is 
composed of those who belong to the extreme Low- 
Church party, though as yet it includes only a very 
small portion of that party. It has adopted a modi- 
fied Prayer-book, from which all phrases that are 
thought to justify ritualism and Romanism are ex- 
punged. It has also modified the canons of the 
Church, but retains the Episcopal form of govern- 
ment, and substantially its order of service. At this 
writing (June, 1874) it is impossible to say how im- 
portant this movement will become, or what will be 
its effect on the Episcopal Church. 



nite purpose than that of preserving the uni- 
ty of the Church and peace within it. Be- 
tween the two extremes of High-Church and 
Low-Church, one of which is represented by 
a parish in New York where the communion 
is administered every Sabbath with ceremo- 
nies which approximate very closely to those 
of the Roman Catholic mass, and the other 
by a church in the same city in connection 
with which a school has been organized for 
the education of lay preachers, there is ev- 
ery variety of faith and practice. It should 
perhaps be added, that High -Church and 
Low-Church are only popular terms, and in 
their popular sense we have used them. In 
strictness of speech, a High-Churchman is 
one of any denomination who imputes to the 
Church a high degree of authority as a di- 
vine institution; while the term ritualist is 
the more proper term to designate one who 
desires to ingraft on the Episcopal Church 
ritualism borrowed from Rome. All ritual- 
ists are, however, High-Churchmen ; and in 
the Episcopal Church most High-Churchmen 
are, to a greater or less degree, ritualists ; so 
that in popular language the terms are used 
as synonymous, though such use is not strict- 
ly accurate. 

The rites and ceremonies of the Episcopal 
Church, as determined by the rubric, are of 
a simple character. They are always con- 
ducted in the vernacular tongue. The peo- 
ple participate in them. They consist chief- 
ly of prayers, chants, and certain lessons se- 
lected from the O. T. and N. T. See Prayer- 

BOOK. 

Epistles, the term that has been employ- 
ed to designate a large portion of the writ- 
ings of the N. T., including twenty-one out 
of the twenty-seven separate productions of 
which it is composed. Two even out of the 
few not included in this designation also bear 
somewhat of the form of epistolary writings ; 
for both the Gospel of Luke and the Acts of 
the Apostles are prefaced by an epistle to 
Theophilus — probably a personal friend of 
the evangelist. But as the epistolary part 
is confined to the preface, and the body of 
the two productions is altogether historical, 
they are wisely separated from the epistles 
strictly so called. Of these epistles, four- 
teen, if we include Hebrews (q. v.), were in- 
dited by the apostle Paul ; three by the 
apostle John ; two by Peter ; one by James ; 
and one by Jude. The epistles of Paul are 
distinguished from the others, as being ad- 
dressed to particular individuals or church- 
es, while the rest have received the name 
of general or catholic epistles. Though not 
strictly accurate, the division has a sufficient 
basis to rest upon for general reference. The 
Pastoral Epistles is a general title given to 
the epistles to Timothy and Titus, who were 
pastors and bishops ; and these letters large- 
ly consist of directions respecting the work 
of a pastor. 



ERECH 



326 



ESDRAELON 



Erech, a city in the land of Sliinar, and so 
ancient as to be connected with the name 
of Nimrod.^ By Jerome and the Targumists 
this place was identified with Edessa, in the 
north-west of Mesopotamia ; but recent in- 
quiry has taken a different direction. Col- 
onel Taylor, formerly British resident at Bag- 
dad, who devoted great skill and distinguish- 
ed abilities to the geography of the Baby- 
lonian region, satisfied himself that the place 
formerly called Orclioe by the Greeks, and 
now known as Werka, is the true site of the 
ancient city. Werka is situated on the Eu- 
phrates, eighty-two miles south, and forty- 
three east from Babylon, and is celebrated 
for its immense mounds, which are believed 
to be the ruins of Erech. 

Esar-haddon, the sou of Sennacherib, and 
one of the greatest of the kings of Assyria. 
Nothing is really known of him until his ac- 
cession about B.C. 680. He appears by his 
monuments to have been one of the most 
powerful — if not the most powerful — of all 
the Assyrian monarch s. He carried his arms 
over all Asia between the Persian Gulf, the 
Armenian mountains, and the Mediterranean. 
In consequence of the disaffection of Baby- 
lon, and its frequent revolts from former As- 
syrian kings, Esar-haddon, having subdued 
the sons of Merodach-Baladau, who headed 
the national party, introduced the new pol- 
icy of substituting for the former govern- 
ment by viceroys a direct dependence upon 
the Assyrian crown. He is the only Assyri- 
an monarch who actually reigned at Baby- 
lon, where he built himself a palace ; bricks 
from which have been recently found to 
bear his name. His Babylonian reign last- 
ed thirteen years — B.C. 680 to B.C. 667 ; and 
it was doubtless within this space of time 
that Manasseh, king of Judah, having been 
seized by his captains at Jerusalem on a 
charge of rebellion, was brought before him 
at Babylon, and there detained for a time as 
prisoner. As a builder of great works, Esar- 
haddon is particularly distinguished. He 
built in his short reign three palaces and 
thirty temples. [2 Kings xix., 37 ; 2 Chron. 
xxxiii., 11 ; Isa. xxxvii., 38.] 

Esau (hairy), the first of the twin sons of 
Isaac and Rebekah. He received his name 
because of his hairy covering at birth. He 
was a hunter, and was his father's favorite, 
while Jacob (q. v.) was the best-beloved of 
his udother. Caring nothing for the spirit- 
ual blessing which was an inheritance from 
Abraham, he bargained away his birthright 
(q. V.) for a share of the lentil pottage which, 
on coming in hungry from hunting, he saw 
his brother Jacob preparing. At this time 
he received the name Edom (q. v.), which, 
though used but rarely for him personally, 
descended to his posterity and the place of 
their residence. He lost the paternal bless- 
ing, which belonged to him as the elder sou. 



1 Gen. X., 10. 



by the combined strategy of his mother and 
brother. His parents were grieved by his 
marrying two maidens of the Hittites ;^ and 
when Jacob was sent to Padan-aram for a 
wife of his own kindred, Esau sought also to 
please his father, whom he tenderly loved, 
by marrying a daughter of Ishmael. He led 
a roving life, his chief residence being in Seir, 
where he grew rich and powerful. When 
Jacob returned to Canaan, and, fearing that 
the vengeance of Esau might yet be visited 
upon him, sent a humble message to him, 
Esau received him generously. He joined 
with Jacob in burying his father, after which 
we have no further mention of his personal 
history. The story of Jacob and Esau is re- 
ferred to several times in the N. T.^ Although 
Esau was by nature more generous than his 
brother Jacob, his whole career shows an 
entire lack of appreciation of divine things. 
Jacob possessed a more sordid nature, but 
clave to the God of his fathers, and, by his ex- 
perience of suifering, was developed into a 
child of God. Esau's life thus illustrates the 
truth that faith is the true test of character, 
while it also contains a solemn warning to 
those who disregard their spiritual birth- 
right; "for he found no place of repentance, 
though he sought it carefully with tears." 

Eschatology. This word is composed of 
two Greek words, meaning the doctrine of 
last things, and is a theological term em- 
ployed to designate that branch of theol- 
ogy which treats of death, the end of the 
world, and man's future state. Those top- 
ics which belong theologically to Eschatolo- 
gy are treated of in this dictionary under 
their respective titles. See Death; Fu- 
ture State; Immortality; Resurrection; 
Judgment ; Hades ; Intermediate State ; 
Purgatory ; Heaven ; Future Punish- 
ment ; Hell ; Millenarians. 

Esdraelon, the more generally used name 
of the plain or valley of Jezreel, of which it 
is a Greek form. The valley of Jezreel prop- 
erly signifies the branch of the plain of Es- 
draelon between Gilboa and El Duhy, or the 
Little Hermon, a broad deep plain about 
three miles across, which runs from Jezreel 
in an E.S.E. direction to the plain of Jordan 
at Birsan. It was the scene of Saul's defeat, 
Gideon's victory, and Jehu's encounter with 
Jehoram. But probably in Hos. i., 5, and 
certainly under its Greek form Esdraelon, 
and in modern times, this name is given to 
the great plain of Central Palestine, which 
extends from the Mediterranean to the Jor- 
dan, separating the mountain ranges of Car- 
mel and Samaria from those of Galilee. The 
main body of the i)lain is an irregular trian- 
gle. Its base on the east extends from Jentn 
(the ancient Engannim) to the foot of the 
hills below Nazareth, and is about fifteen 
miles long; the north side, formed by the 



1 Gen. xsvi., 34, 35.-2 Kom. ix., 11-13 ; Heb. xi., 20 ; 
xii., 16. 



ESDRAELON 



327 



ESSENES 



and the soutli side, formed by the Samaria 
range, is about eighteen miles. The apex 
on the west is a narrow pass not more than 
half a mile wide, opening into the plain of 
'Akka. It is the ancient plain of Megiddo, 
the Armageddon of Rev. xvi., 16. The river 
Kishon, " that ancient river," so fatal to the 
army of Sisera, drains it, and flows off through 
the pass westward to the plain of 'Akka and 
the Mediterranean. From the base of this 
triangular plain three branches stretch out 
eastward, like fingers from a hand, divided 
by two bleak, gray ridges — one bearing the 
familiar name of Mount Gilboa ; the other 
called by foreigners Little Hermon, but by 
natives Jehel-ed-Duliy. The traveler who ap- 
proaches the plain from Southern Palestine 
is struck at once with its richness, after the 
gray hills of Judah and the rocky mount- 
ains of Ephraim. The vast expanse is open 
and undulating, covered in spring and ear- 
ly summer with magnificent crops of grain, 
where cultivated, with luxuriant grass where 
neglected, and dotted with a few low, gray 
trees, and toward the side with olive-groves. 
But amidst all this fertility there is an air 
of extreme desolation. In the main portion 
of the plain there is not a single inhabited 
village ; and it is ever a prey to the incur- 
sions of Bedouins from the Jordan Valley, 
who often reap the crops which the fellahin 
of the plain have sown. This insecurity has 
always been its chief feature. The old Ca- 
naanitish tribes drove victoriously through it 
in their iron chariots. The nomad Midian- 
ites and Amalekites, those children of the 
East who were as grasshoppers for multi- 
tude, devoured its rich pastures ; the Philis- 
tines long held it, establishing a stronghold 
at Bethshean ,* and the Syrians frequently 
swept over it with their armies. It was the 
great battle - field of Jewish history ; the 
scene of the contest between Sisera and Ba- 
rak, in the south-west of the plain ; between 
Gideon and the Midianites in the valley of 
Jezreel ; between Saul and the Philistines 
at Gilboa, and between Josiah and Pharaoh- 
Necho at Megiddo. Its borders are dotted 
with places of high historic and sacred in- 
terest. On the east we have Endor, Nain, 
and Shunem, ranged round the base of the 
" hill of Moreh ;" then Bethshean and Gil- 
boa, with the well of Harod and the ruins 
of Jezreel at its western base ; on the south 
are Engannim, Taanach, and Megiddon ; at 
the western apex, on the overhanging brow 
of Carmel, is the scene of Elijah's sacrifice ; 
and close by the foot of the mountain runs 
the Kishon, on whose banks the false proph- 
ets of Baal were slain ; on the north, among 
places of less note, are Nazareth and Tabor. 
The modern Syrians have forgotten the an- 
cient name, as they have forgotten the an- 
cient history of Esdraelon ; and it is now 
known among them as Merjibn-'Amer, " the 



plain of the son of 'Amer." [ Judg. iv. ; v. ; 
vi., 1-6 ; vii. ; 1 Sam. xxix., xxxi. ; 1 Kings 
XX., 26 ; 2 Kings xiii., 17 ; xxiii., 29 ; 2 Chron. 
XXXV., 20, 22.] 

Esdras (Books of). The first and second 
books of Esdras, sometimes called the third 
and fourth books, from the fact that Ezra 
and Nehemiah were formerly called the first 
and second, are the first books of the Apoc- 
rypha (q. v.). Of these the first is, for the 
most part, a translation of the genuine Ezra, 
with additions from Chronicles and Nehe- 
miah, and an original story professing to 
give an account of the way in which Darius 
was led to give the Jews permission to re- 
turn and build their city and temple. It is 
supposed to have been written in the second 
century before Christ. The second book of 
Esdras consists chiefly of a series of visions, 
the object of which appears to be to comfort 
the people of God in their afliiction. The 
date is uncertain, some writers placing it in 
the century before Christ, and some regard- 
ing it as written after the Christian era. 

Eshcol (Valley of), a valley or wady in 
the south of Canaan and the neighborhood 
of Hebron, so called from the rich cluster 
of grapes which the Israelitish spies carried 
away from it. It is to this day full of vine- 
yards, and the grapes produced in it retain 
their ancient character. They are the finest 
and largest in the country. [Numb, xiii., 
24.] 

Eshtemoa, a city in the mountains of Ju- 
dah, called also Eshtemoh. It was allotted 
to the priests, and was one of David's haunts. 
In 1 Chron., iv., 17, Ishba is said to be the 
father, i e., founder, or first Hebrew settler, 
of Eshtemoa. . It is still called SemiCa, a large 
village seven miles south of Hebron, where 
are considerable ruins. [Josh, xv., 50 ; xxi., 
14 ; 1 Sam. xxx., 28 ; 1 Chron. vi., 57.] 

Essenes. The great differences which ex- 
ist among scholars concerning this interest- 
ing sect arise from the fact that the sources 
from which alone we have any knowledge of 
them are not accounted trustworthy. Some 
suppose them to have originated in the time 
of the Maccabees, about B.C. 150 ; and they 
have even been considered as identified with 
the Assideans;^ while others trace them back 
to the Eediahites (q. v.). All that is known 
either of the opinions or practices of the sect 
is derived from the writings of Josephus, 
Philo, and Pliny. The two first-mentioned 
authors, being themselves Jews, give a some- 
what highly-colored description of the Es- 
senes. Our Lord during his public minis- 
try, while he openly censured the other Jew- 
ish sects, never mentions the sect of the Es- 
senes, nor does their name occur anywhere 
in Scripture. The name Essene or Esscean, is 
itself full of difficulty. Various derivations 
have been proposed for it, and all are more 
or less open to objection. It seems most 



See CuAsiDiM. 



ESSENES 



328 



ESTHER 



likely that Essene represents ^^ seers," "the 
silent, the mysterious." 

The obscurity of the Essenes as a distinct 
body arises partly from the fact that they rep- 
resented originally a tendency rather than 
an organization. From the Maccabean age 
there was a continuous effort among the 
stricter Jews to attain an absolute standard 
of holiness. Each class of devotees was look- 
ed upon as practically impure by their succes- 
sors, who carried the laws of purity still fur- 
ther. Judas, the earliest Essene who is men- 
tioned, B.C. 110, appears living in ordinary 
society, and there are other indications of 
individuals and congregations in common so- 
ciety ; but by a natural impulse the Essenes 
gradually withdrew from the dangers and 
distractions of business. From the cities 
they retired to the wilderness, to realize the 
conceptions of religion which they formed. 
Simple, plain, and unostentatious, both in 
their dress and manners, they are represent- 
ed as having wandered about from place to 
place w^ithout any fixed residence, carrying 
nothing with them except arms for their 
protection. They held a kind of community 
of goods, and were regulated by strict rules, 
analogous to those of the monastic institu- 
tions of a later date. The candidate for ad- 
mission to their society first passed through 
a year's novitiate, in which he received, as 
symbolic gifts, an axe, an apron, and a white 
robe, and gave proof of his temperance by 
observing the ascetic rules of the order. At 
the close of this probation, his character was 
submitted to a fresh trial of two years ; and 
meanwhile he shared in the lustral rites of 
the initiated, but not in their meals. The 
full membership was imparted at the end of 
this second period, when the novice bound 
himself ''by awful oaths" — though oaths 
were absolutely forbidden at all other times 
— to observe piety, justice, obedience, hones- 
ty, and secrecy. The order itself was regula- 
ted by an internal j urisdiction. Excommuni- 
cation was equivalent to a slow death, since 
an Essene could not take food prepared by 
strangers for fear of pollution. Self-denial, 
temperance, and labor — especially agricul- 
ture — were the marks of the outward life 
of the Essenes, purity and divine commun- 
ion the objects of their aspiration. Slavery, 
war, and commerce were alike forbidden; 
and, according to Philo, their conduct gen- 
erally was directed by three rules — "the 
love of God, the love of virtue, and the love 
of man." In doctrine they did not differ es- 
sentially from strict Pharisees. Moses was 
honored by them next to God. They ob- 
served the Sabbath with singular strictness ; 
and though they were unable to offer sacri- 
fices at Jerusalem, probably from regard to 
purity, they sent gifts thither. At the same 
time, like most ascetics, they turned their 
attention specially to the mysteries of the 
spiritual world, and looked upon the body 



as a mere prison of the soul. They studied 
and practiced with signal success, according 
to Josephus, the art of prophecy, and famil- 
iar intercourse with nature gave them an un- 
usual knowledge of physical truths. They 
asserted with peculiar boldness the absolute 
power and foreknowledge of God, and dis- 
paraged the various forms of mental philos- 
ophy as useless, or beyond the range of man. 
Josephus gives a detailed description of their 
life, which was strict in the extreme. 

The character of Essenism limited its 
spread. Out of Palestine, Levitical purity 
was impossible, for the very land was im- 
pure ; and thus there is no trace of the sect 
in Babylon. The case was different in Egypt, 
where the tendency which gave birth to the 
Essenes found a fresh development in the 
pure speculation of the Therapeutse, with 
whom some have confounded the Essenes, 
But these Alexandrine mystics abjured the 
practical labors which belonged to +he Es- 
senes, and gave themselves up to the study 
of the inner meaning of the Scriptures. The 
impossibility of fulfilling the law naturally 
led them to substitute a spiritual for a lit- 
eral interpretation ; and it was their object 
to ascertain its meaning by intense lal3or, 
and then to satisfy its requirements by abso- 
lute devotion. The " whole day, from sun- 
rise to sunset, was spent in mental disci- 
pline;" and bodily wants were often forgot- 
ten in the absorbing pursuit of wisdom. In 
all its practical bearings Essenism was op- 
posed to the teaching of Christ and the apos- 
tles. The Essenes, like John the Baptist, 
mark the close of the old dispensation, and 
the longing for the new. Like him, they 
proclaimed the necessity for repentance, ref- 
ormation, and personal purity, but did not, 
like him, point to a coming Messiah. After 
the destruction of Jerusalem, the Essenes 
disappear from history. 

Esther (the planet Venus), the Persian name 
of Hadassah (myrtle). She was a Jewess, of 
the tribe of Benjamin. Her ancestor, Kish, 
had been among the captives led away from 
Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar, and her fam- 
ily did not avail itself of the permission to 
return to Palestine under the edict of Cyrus. 
She was an orphan, and was brought up by 
her cousin Mordecai, under whose counsel 
she acted throughout the trying and diffi- 
cult situation so graphically described in the 
book which bears her name. She was a 
woman of great beauty, of unfeigned piety, 
of charming simplicity of character as weU 
as grace of manner, but of a heroism which 
compares well with that of the earlier pe- 
riods of Jewish history. Various attempts 
have been made to identify her with some 
historical personage, especially with Ames- 
tris, wife of Xerxes. As Persian monarchs 
usually married into princely families for 
reasons of state, it seems more probable that 
both she and Vashti were queens in no oth- 



ESTHER (BOOK OF) 



329 



ETHBAAL 




Tumb of Mordecai aud Esther. 

er sense than that they Tvere the favorites, 
and so the qneens of the royal harem. In 
Queen Esther's intercession for her people, 
the divines have found a prophecy, or rather 
a symbol of Christ's intercession for man- 
kind, noting, however, this differencej that 
Christ perished that he might save, while 
Esther saved both herself and her people. 
For hivstory of her life, see Ahasuerus. 

Esther (Book of), one of the latest of the 
canonical books of the O. T,, having been 
written late in the reign of Xerxes, or early 
in that of his son, Artaxerxes Longimanus 
(B.C. 470). Its authorship has been attrib- 
uted to both Mordecai and to Ezra. The 
former is the better opinion, the book con- 
taining internal evidence of having been 
written by an eye-witness of the events re- 
corded. The authenticity and credibility of 
the book have been strongly impugned by 
some critics, chiefly on three grounds : 1. 
That it breathes a spirit narrow, selfish, and 
vindictive, akin to that displayed by the la- 
ter Jews, but wholly alien from that which 
characterizes the acknowledged books of the 
O. T. ; 2. That it narrates some events which 
are so incredible as to appear rather like 
romance than history; 3. That it nowhere 
contains the name of God, being the only 
book in the Bible which is characterized by 
this singular omission. In answer to these 
objections, it is replied: 1. That the histo- 
rian simply but accurately describes the 
actual condition of the Jews at the time of 
the Captivity, without either justifying their 
spirit or indulging in any didactic reflections 
upon it ; 2. That though the events are re- 
markable, they are not more so than many 
well-attested events in history ; and that the 
conduct of Ahasuerus corresponds very near- 
ly with all that we know of the character of 



Xerxes, with whom he is probably to be iden- 
tified f 3. That the omission of the name of 
God is not a defect in a book which con- 
tains a history full of his actual interposi- 
tions, and remarkable for its testimony to 
the value and power of a living faith in him ; 
to which the Jews add that the name was 
purposely omitted because the book was in- 
tended to be read by the heathen, and, for the 
purpose of producing a greater effect upon 
them, was largely transcribed, under divine 
inspiration, from the chronicles of the Medes 
and Persians ; in short, that the book really 
testified more effectually to the greatness and 
goodness of God by omitting any mention 
of his name than by containing it. The ar- 
guments for the authenticity and canonicity 
of the book may be briefly stated as follows : 

1. The minute details given of the great ban- 
quet, of the names of the chamberlains and 
eunuchs, and Haman's wife and sons, and of 
the customs and regulations of the palace, 
betoken that the author lived at Shushan, 
that he was intimately acquainted with the 
private affairs of Esther and Mordecai, and 
that he describes actual historical events. 

2. The style of writing is remarkably chaste 
and simple ; the Hebrew, like that of Ezra 
and parts of the Chronicles, is generally pure, 
with some admixture of Chaldaic and Per- 
sian words ; in other words, while on the one 
hand the style does not savor of romance, 
on the other it has just the characteristics 
whichbelongto the reign of Xerxes. 3. ''The 
fact that the Feast of Purim has come down 
to us from time almost immemorial * * * 
proves as certainly that the main events re- 
lated in the book of Esther happened, as the 
Declaration of Independence and the Fourth 
of July prove that we separated from Great 
Britain and became an independent nation." 
4. Other contemporaneous history confirms 
by a number of striking facts the essential 
historical accuracy of the book. 5. The high 
position which the Jews, always scrupulous 
about admitting any doubtful book into their 
sacred writings, accorded to the book of 
Esther, adds confirmation to its canonicity. 
It is placed by them next to the Pentateuch, 
is read through every year at the Feast of 
Purim, and is emphatically called by them 
MegUlath, " the roll." Luther doubted about 
its place in the canon, but among Protest- 
ant evangelical writers he is almost the only 
one who has done so. For an account of the 
apocryphal additions to the original book 
of Esther, which are found in the Septua- 
gint and Vulgate, the reader is referred to 
M'Clintock and Strong's "Cyclopaedia," art. 
Esther (Apocryphal Additions to the Book of). 

Ethbaal, king of Sidon, and father of 
Jezebel. Josephus represents him as king 
of the Tyrians as well as the Sidoniaus. We 
may thus identify him with Ithobalus, who, 
after having assassinated Pheles, usurped 
1 See Ahasuekus. 



ETHIOPIA 



330 



EUNUCH 



the throne of Tyre for thirty-two years. The 
date of Ethbaal's reign may be given as 
about B.C. 940-908. [1 Kings xvi., 31.] 

Ethiopia (region of hurned faces, i. e., darJc- 
complexioned people), tho, Greek name by which 
the Hebrew Cash is usually rendered. In its 
largest sense, the term Ethiopia sometimes 
denoted all the African lands south of Egypt. 
More definitely, Eastern Ethiopia, or Ethio- 
pia above Egypt, comprised the modern Nu- 
bia, Sennaar, Kordofan, and part of Abys- 
sinia. It was bounded by Egypt on the 
north, Syene being the point of junction ; 
but its other limits are more indeterminate. 
It may, however, be said that it was wash- 
ed on the east by the Red aud Indian seas, 
that on the west it extended to the Libyan 
Desert, aud reached on the south to the Abys- 
sinian highlands. 

But there was a yet more limited sense in 
which the term Ethiopia must sometimes be 
taken, as just the kingdom of Meroe, extend- 
ing from the confluence of the two branch- 
es of the Nile to Egypt. This country was 
closely connected with Egypt, often anited 
with it under the same sceptre.^ The Ethi- 
opians or Cushites were black in color, and 
robust and large in stature;^ and they are 
mentioned with the Egyptians, with the 
Libyans, with Phut or Put, and as the ex- 
treme limit westward of the empire of 
Xerxes.^ Their laud appears to have been 
one of wealth, and to have maintained some 
commercial relations with Palestine. See 
CusH. [Job xx\iii., 19 ; Isa. xhii., 3 ; xlv., 
14.] 

Ethnology {science of nations). Ethnolo- 
gy may be defined as that branch of modern 
science which treats of the various nations 
of the earth with respect to their races, i. e., 
their relative origin, and their linguistic and 
social affinities ; aud it is thus distinguished 
from political geography, which discusses 
their association under their several civil 
governments. The Bible, as the oldest his- 
torical record, incidentally treats of the dis- 
persion of ilnQ nations from one common 
stock. Eeferring the reader to the scientific 
treatises for a general discussion of ethnolo- 
gy as a science, we shall here only briefly in- 
dicate the teaching of the Bible respecting 
the origin and division of the different races 
of mankind. This is afforded chiefly in the 
book of Genesis, which affirms the unity of 
the human race, while it distinguishes the 
three families which sprang from the three 
sons of Noah, viz., the Hamite, the Japheth- 
ite, and the Semitic races. 

I. The Hamite race, which seems first to 
have left the common home, is located in 
Africa and South Arabia, in four branches : 
1. The Cushites, in Ethiopia and the south 



1 2 Chron. xiv.,9; xvi., 8; 2 Kin2:s xvii.,4; xix.,9.— 
2 Isa. xlv., 14; Jrr. xiii., 23. — ^ 2 Chron. xii., 9 ; xvi., 8; 
Est h, i., 1 ; Psa. Ixviii., 31 ; Jer. xlvi., 9 ; Ezek. xxx., 4, 
5,9; xxxviii.,5; Nah. iii., 9. 



! part of Arabia, separated only by the Straits 
of Bab-el-Mandeb. 2. The Egyptians, un- 
der their historic name of Mizraim, with the 
kindred Philistines on the one side, and (prob- 
ably) North African tribes on the other. 3. 
The Libyans (probably), designated by the 
name of Phut. 4. The Canaanites, whose 
tribes are particularly enumerated. The 
mention of Sidon among these indicates that 
the first settlers in Phcenicia were Hamite, 
though the Phoenicians of history were un- 
doubtedly Semitic. In all the countries of 
their abode, the Hamite race seem to have 
been the pioneers of material civilization, 
and the founders of states based on mere 
force. Their enduring monuments are gi- 
gantic buildings, the sculptures upon which 
attest the grossness of their worship of na- 
ture. Everywhere, except in Egypt (aud 
there also at last), they gave way before the 
races of Shem and Japheth, fulfilling Noah's 
prophetic curse, that Ham should be the 
servant of his brethren. Material grand- 
eur yielded to spiritual power, and the act- 
ive energy of political life. 

II. The Japhetic race extends from the Cau- 
casian region to the south-east, over the ta- 
ble-land of Iran ; to the west, over the penin- 
sula of Asia Minor, and the neighboring isl- 
ands as far as Greece (the '' Isles of the Gen- 
tiles ") ; and to the north-west, all round the 
Black Sea. That the tribes enumerated in 
the record were the parents of those which 
overspread all Europe on the one hand, and 
became masters of Northern India on the 
other, admits of no reasonable doubt. 

III. Between the other two, the Semite 
race remained nearer its primeval seats, as 
the destined guardian of the primeval relig- 
ion and traditions. Its nucleus in Armenia 
(probably represented by the name Arphax- 
ad) forms the apex of a triangle resting on 
the Arabian peninsula ; along the east side 
of which we have the Assyrians (Asshur) and 
Elymseans (Elam), the latter of whom gave 
way to the Japhethite Persians ; and on its 
west side the Aramean race (Aram, denoting 
highland) of Northern Mesopotamia and Syria, 
whose Hebrew descendants (Eher) afterward 
possessed the land of Canaan. The middle 
space of the Syrian desert, and the whole 
peninsula of Arabia, is the seat of the Arab 
tribes denoted by Joktan, the son of Eber, 
with whom were afterward mingled other 
Semitic descendants of Abraham. It should 
be added to this simple statement of the eth- 
nology of Scripture, that science confirms the 
opinion that the human race had its origin 
in the East, but that it is still an unsettled 
question whether the whole race sprang from 
one pair, or whether there were different ori- 
gins of at least some of the different races of 
man. See Man. 

Eunuch, the English form of the Greek 

word wliich means simply hed-leeper. Eu- 

I nuchs, therefore, in the strict and proper 



EUPHRATES 



331 



EVAl^GELICAL 



sense, were the persons who had charge of 
the bed-chambers in palaces and hirger 
houses. But as the jealous and dissolute 
temperament of the East required this 
charge to be in the hands of persons who 
had been deprived of their virility, the word 
€unuch came naturally, in common usage, 
to denote generally persons of that condi- 
tion. It was not, however, unusual for eu- 
nuchs to rise to high consideration and influ- 
ence about the court, and to become confi- 
dential advisers of their royal masters or mis- 
tresses ; hence the word appears to have been 
occasionally employed to denote persons in 
such a position, without indicating anything 
of their proper manhood. Thus Potiphar, to 
whom Joseph was sold, is designated " a eu- 
nuch (translated office)' in our version) of Pha- 
raoh's captain of the guard,"^ while, from what 
is afterward stated, there can be no doubt that 
he was a married man. Hence, possibly, the 
eunuch of great authority under Candace, 
queen of the Ethiopians, mentioned in Acts 
viii., 27, was simply a person high in the em- 
ployment of the queen ; and it had been bet- 
ter, perhaps, if the word had been rendered 
chamberlain. The practice of employing ' 
emasculated persons was forbidden to the He- 
brews; nevertheless, eunuchs, in the strict- 
er sense, were frequently employed in later 
times about the kings of Israel and Judah, 
but they were probably foreigners, and not 
native Israelites.^ Eunuchs are to this day 
common in the East. The term is employed 
figuratively by our Lord in Matt, xix., 12. 

Euphrates (ahounding tcater), the largest 
and most important river of Western Asia. 
It has two principal sources in the Armeni- 
an mountains, and flows into the Persian 
Gulf. Its entire course is 1780 miles; and 
of this distance more than two-thirds, 1200 
miles, is navigable for boats. Its greatest 
width is at the distance of seven or eight 
hundred miles from its mouth, and there it 
averages four hundred yards. The annual 
inundation of the Euphrates is caused by the 
melting of the snows in the Armenian high- 
lands, and takes place in the month of May. 
The great hydraulic works ascribed to Nebu- 
chadnezzar had for their chief object the con- 
trolling of this inundation. The Euphrates 
is first mentioned in Scripture as one of the 
rivers of Eden.^ Its celebrity is there suffi- 
ciently indicated by the absence of any ex- 
planatory phrase such as accompanies the 
names of the other streams. It is next men- 
tioned in the covenant made with Abraham, 
where it is designated as the " great river."* 
During the reigns of David and Solomon, 
the dominion of Israel actually attained to 
the full extent promised in this covenant; 
the Euphrates forming one boundary of their 
empire, and ''the river of Egypt" another.^ 



1 Gen. xxxvii., 36.-2 2 Kings ix., 32 ; Jer. xxxviii., 7. 
—3 Gen. ii., 14.— * Gen, xv., IS.— & 2 Sam. viii., 3; 1 
Kings iv., 24; 1 Chrou. xviii., 3. 



Babylon (q. v.) was built upon the banks of 
the Euphrates, and it materially contributed 
to the wealth and resources of that famed city. 

Euroclydon. Interpreters have been much 
perplexed about the meaning of this word, 
which occurs but once in the N. T. The 
most probable supposition is, according to 
Mr. Barnes, that it denotes a wind not blow- 
ing steadily from any quarter, but a hurri- 
cane, or wind veering about to difterent quar- 
ters. Such hurricanes are known to abound 
in the Mediterranean, and are now called Le- 
vanters, deriving their name from blowing 
chiefly in the Levant, or eastern part of the 
Mediterranean. [Acts xxvii., 14.] 

Eutychus (fortunate), a young man at 
Troas who, sitting in a window while Paul 
was long preaching at night, fell, through 
drowsiness, from the third story into the court 
below. The attempt has been made to ex- 
plain away his miraculous restoration to life 
by the hypothesis that he was not killed, 
but only stunned by the fall ; and in support 
of this position Paul's statement is quoted, 
"His life is in him." But in the state- 
ment that he " was taken up dead," there is a 
direct assertion, which can hardly be evaded 
by explaining it, " was taken up for dead," 
or by saying that it expresses the judgment 
of those who took him up ; and it is to be 
noted that Paul does not say " his life is in 
him " till after, in imitation of the ancient 
prophets Elijah and Elisha,^ he fell on and 
embraced him. [Acts xx., 8-12.] 

Evangelical, Evangelist. These words 
are very nearly the same in form as the 
Greek word euaggeJion (good tidings), from 
which they are derived. That Greek word 
is, however, more ordinarily translated by 
the synonymous Anglo-Saxon word gospel, 
i.e., god-spell, a good story. An evangelist is 
primarily any one who is the bearer of good 
tidings; hence the writers of the Evangels 
or Gospels are called the evangelists. The 
same name is applied, in modern phraseolo- 
gy, to any itinerant preacher who travels 
from place to place carrying the Gospel as 
news, in contradistinction from the pastor or 
teacher, who is settled in one place, and in- 
structs the people of a special charge in .the 
truths of the Gospel.^ 

By evangelical is meant that which is 
based upon the four Evangels or Gospels, 
and is in accordance with them. An evan- 
gelical church, or minister, or book, or pa- 
per, is one which maintains the divine au- 
thority of the four Gospels, and the system 
of truth which, according to the common 
sentiment of Protestant Christendom, is con- 
tained therein. The term is also applied to 
that party in the Church of England which 
insists that the Church has no right to main- 
tain or suifer any thing to be maintained 
in her communion but evangelical doctrines.^ 



^ 1 Kings xvii., 21; 2 Kings iv., 34.-2 gee Clergy. 
See Epiboopalians. 



EVANGELICAL 



332 



EVERLASTING 



As an adjective, the term is used in compo- 
sition in defining certain organizations ; as, 
for example : 

I. Evangelical Alliance, the name of 
an association of Christians belonging to the 
evangelical denominations. It is not a un- 
ion of the different denominations, neither 
does it aim to bring about such as its results. 
Its object is only to promote loving, friendly, 
Christian intercourse between the different 
evangelical denominations, and an effective 
co-operation in the efforts to repel common 
enemies and dangers. It is a Christian un- 
ion, not a church union. Its doors are open 
to all who admit the fundamental princi- 
ples of Christianity, without inquiricg into 
the minutisB of their particular confessions. 
These fundamental principles are thus de- 
fined by the Alliance, and the definition is 
given here because it may be properly regard- 
ed as a fair and adequate statement of the 
essential principles held in common by what 
are known as the orthodox or evangelical 
churches. 

" The parties composing the Alliance shall 
be such parties only as hold and maintain 
what are usually understood to be evangel- 
ical views in regard to the matter of doc- 
trines understated — namely : 1. The divine 
inspiration, authority, and sufficiency of the 
Holy Scriptures. 2. The right and duty of 
private judgment in the iuterpretation of 
the Holy Scriptures. 3. The unity of the 
Godhead, and the trinity of persons therein. 
4. The utter depravity of human nature in 
consequence of the Fall. 5. The incarnation 
of the Son of God, his work of atonement 
for sinners and mankind, and his mediatorial 
intercession and reign. 6. The justification 
of sinners by faith alone. 7. The work of 
the Holy Spirit in the conversion and sanc- 
tification of the sinner. 8. The immortality 
of the soul, the resurrection of the body, the 
judgment of the world by our Lord Jesus 
Christ, with the eternal blessedness of the 
righteous, and the eternal punishment of the 
wicked. 9. The divine institution of the 
Christian ministry, and the obligation and 
perpetuity of the ordinances of Baptism and 
the Lord's Supper." 

The members of the Alliance bind them- 
selves to pray zealously for the Holy Spirit to 
descend upon all believers, and they employ 
jointly the morning of the first week-day as 
a season of prayer, as also the first week of 
each year. Branches of the Alliance have 
now been organized in Great Britain, the va- 
rious Protestant communities of the conti- 
nent of Europe, the United States, British 
North America, and the West Indies. An- 
nual conferences are held, in which reports 
are received concerning the religions condi- 
tion of the world, and various themes are dis- 
cussed which concern the interest of the Prot- 
estant churches, denominational and secta- 
rian questions being excluded. Among the 



most important results attained by the Alli- 
ance is the establishment of a week of prayer 
— the first week of January in each year — 
which is now, on the recommendation of the 
Alliance, very generally observed throughout 
Protestant Christendom. 

II. Evangelical Church, the name ta- 
ken by the Established (Protestant) Church 
of Prussia. 

III. Evangelical Association, the prop- 
er name of the body sometimes erroneous- 
ly called the German Methodist Church. It 
was organized at the beginning of the pres- 
ent century by Jacob Albright, in Eastern 
Pennsylvania, and grew out of an attempt 
on his part to introduce certain reforms in 
the German churches. In its mode of wor- 
ship and form of organization it resembles 
the Methodist Church. In doctrine, also, it 
is Arminian; in spirit, evangelical. It re- 
ports 877 ministers, 62,000 church members, 
863 Sunday-schools, and 798 churches. 

IV. Evangelical Church Conference, 
the name of certain periodical meetings of 
delegates of the Protestant State Church in 
Germany. 

V. Evangelical Union, the name of a sect 
in Scotland, more generally known, from 
the name of its founder, as Morisonians. Mr. 
Morison was suspended in 1842 from the 
ministry of the United Secession Church, for 
views believed to be Arminian in character. 
He carried with him some members of his 
own denomination and some of thelndepend- 

] ent churches ; and the result was the organi- 
I zation of a new denomination, Congregation- 
j al in the principles of its government, and 
Arminian in its theological tendencies. 

Eve (life), the name given in Scripture to 
the first woman. The account of her creation 
I from a rib of Adam has given rise to some 
i very singular speculations. The Jewish rab- 
I bis held that man and woman were created 
together as one, but were subsequently sep- 
arated. Whatever is the literal meaning of 
the narrative, it teaches very forcibly and 
j beautifully the duty of one sex toward the 
! other, and the close relationship between 
them, so that neither should despise or treat 
with unkindness the other. " The woman," 
says Mathew Henry, " was made of a rib out 
of the side of Adam ; not out of his head to 
top him, not out of his feet to be trampled 
on by him, but out of his side to be equal 
with him, under his arm to be protected, 
and near his heart to be beloved." Thus 
that respect for the weaker sex, which we 
esteem a mark of the highest refinement, is 
taught by the very act of creation as record- 
ed in the Bible. The Scriptural account of 
Eve closes with the birth of Seth. See Adam ; 
Man. [Gen.ii. ; iii. ; iv.,25.] 

Everlasting. The word aionios, translated 
"everlasting" and "eternal" in the N. T.,is 
one concerning the proper meaning of which 
there has been a great deal of discussion. 



EVES 



333 



EXECUTIONER 



Tliat it does not always mean eternal is 
admitted by the translators, who sometimes 
substitnte other words, as, since the world be- 
gan, and before the world began, in Rom. xvi., 
25, and 2 Tim. i., 9. The Avord aion, from 
which it is derived, frequently means a cer- 
tain specific age or duration of time. Hence 
the attemj)t has been made to deduce the 
conclusion that in those passages in which 
punishment is spoken of as eternal or ever- 
lasting, it is only meant that it shall last 
during a certain long period. We can not 
enter here into a critical discussion concern- 
ing the meaning of the word. Suffice it to 
say, that ordinarily, if not nuiversally, it in- 
dicates a period of time as long as the exist- 
ence of the object spoken of. Thus, in Rom. 
xvi., 25, ''w^hicli was kept secret since the 
utorld or age began" (Greek, aionios), the idea 
is plainly conveyed of an age existing from 
the Creation. So, wherever it is applied to 
the soul, whether used in describing a state 
of happiness or of suflering, it indicates a 
state which will continue as long as the soul 
itself continues to exist. 

Eves or Vigils, the nights or evenings 
before certain holy-days of the Church. In 
primitive times, it was the custom for Chris- 
tians to pass a great part of the nights that 
preceded certain holy-days in religious exer- 
cises ; these were called vigils or watchings. 
One of the most remarkable was the Easter 
vigil, at which time some of the early Chris- 
tians exxjected the second coming of Christ, 
and prepared themselves, by fasting, prayer, 
and other spiritual exercises, for that great 
event. The illuminations on these vigils 
■were often splendid. The night-watchings, 
in all probability, owed their origin to the 
necessity under which the primitive Chris- 
tians lay of meeting by night. When the 
occasion ceased, the custom still contin- 
ued. These nighc-meetings came to be much 
abused, till at length the custom was abol- 
ished. The fasts, however, were retained, 
keeping the former name of vigils'. The 
Church of England has assigned vigils to 
several of her festivals, but has prescribed 
no other observance of them than the read- 
ing of the collect peculiar to the festival. 
There are no vigils recognized in the Protest- 
ant Episcopal Church of America, the table 
of vigils being left out by the revisers. The 
Methodist Episcopal Church observes one 
vigil in the year, the Watch-night, December 
31, in which service is kept up until mid- 
night. 

Evil-merodach, the son and successor of 
Nebuchadnezzar (B.C. 56). His kind treat- 
ment of Jehoiachin is attributed by a Jew- 
ish tradition to a previous prison-acquaint- 
ance. After a short reign of two years, he 
was murdered by Neriglissar, his brother-in- 
law, who seized his throne. [2 Kings xxv., 
27-30.] 

Excomrmmication, the judicial exclu- 



sion of offenders from the religious rites and 
privileges of the ecclesiastical community 
to which they belong. It is the severest pen- 
alty known in church discipline (q. v.). In 
the Jewish Church it was of three kinds; the 
latter only answers to modern exconnnuni- 
cation.^ It is clear, from an examination of 
the N. T., that excommunication in the Apos- 
tolic Church involved no temporal penalty, 
but consisted simply in separation from the 
Church, and that its object was the purifi- 
cation of the Church, and the benefit of the 
offender, who might be restored on repent- 
ance and reformation.^ These princii)les, lost 
sight of in the Middle Ages, have been re- 
stored in the Protestant Church. Excom- 
munication is therein accounted a purely 
spiritual act ; its whole effect being the ex- 
cision of the offender from the spiritual priv- 
ileges of the Church. An exception to this 
may perhaps appear to exist in countries 
where the Church is established by law : but 
even there the civil disabilities involved in 
excommunication are, for the most part, only 
incidental to the sentence. Where church 
membership is a condition of certain polit- 
ical or civil privileges, of course exclusion 
from the Church involves the loss of those 
privileges. Yet that is not attached as a 
part of the punishment, but is only inci- 
dental to it. 

In the Roman Catholic Church there are 
three degrees of excommunication— the mi- 
nor, the major, and the anathema. The mi- 
7wr is inciuTed by holding communion with 
I an excommunicated person ; and absolution 
' may be given hj any priest on confession. 
Priests w^ho have incurred the minor ban 
may administer the eucharist or communion, 
but can not partake of it. The major excom- 
munication falls upon those who disobey the 
commands of the pope, or who, having been 
found guilty of any offense, civil or criminal, 
refuse to submit to certain points of disci- 
pline. It requires a Avritten sentence from a 
bishop after three admonitions. It deprives 
the condemned person of all the blessings of 
the Church in any shape, except that he is 
not debarred from hearing the Word. By 
the twelfth century, the word ban, which in 
ancient jurisprudence denoted a declaration 
of outlawry, had come into ecclesiastical use, 
to denote the official act of excommunica- 
tion. For an account of the third degree of 
excommunication, see Anathema; and on 
the excommunication of entire communities, 
see Interdict. See also Discipline. 

Executioner. This word, in the Bible, 
describes, in the first instance, the office of 
executioner, and secondarily, the general du- 
ties of the body-guard of a monarch. Poti- 
phar was captain of the executioners, and 
resided at the public jail. In ancient times 
the post was one of great dignity, and per- 

» See Discipline.— 2 Matt, xviii,, 18 ; 1 Cor. v. , 2 Cor. 
ii., 1-11. 



EXEGESIS 



334 



EXODUS 



sons of the highest rank and station were 
employed to execute the law. It is still, in 
the East, an office of great responsibility, 
and is intrusted to an officer of the court, 
who has under his command a body of men 
whose duty it is to preserve the order and 
peace of the palace and its precincts, guard 
the royal person on public occasions, and, 
under the direction of their chief, to inflict 
such punishment as the king awards upon 
those who incur his displeasure. The word 
translated executioner in the N. T. desig- 
nates a member of the royal body-guard, 
adopted by Herod in imitation of the Ro- 
mans, and in accordance with Oriental cus- 
toms, and employed to execute his sangui- 
nary orders. SeeCJHERETHiTE. [Gcn.xxxvii., 
36; xL, 3; Mark vi., 27.] 

Exegesis (explanation). This term is ap- 
plied to the explanation or interpretation 
of Scripture; and the term exegetical the- 
ology to that branch of theological science 
which treats of the exposition and interpre- 
tation of the Old and New Testaments. Ex- 
egesis thus includes, or rather for exegesis 
is required a knowledge of the original lan- 
guage, the rules of criticism, and the princi- 
ples of interpretation properly applicable to 
the inspired volume. But for a discussion 
of these rules and principles the reader must 
be referred to the various introductions to 
the Bible, or to special treatises on the sub- 
ject. 

Exhorters, a class of lay persons licensed 
in the Methodist Episcopal Church to ex- 
ho7't, not to preach. The leaders' meeting or 
'class-meeting recommends such persons, and 
the preacher issues the license. The duties 
of an exhorter are "to hold meetings for 
prayer and exhortation wherever opportu- 
nity is affijrded, subject to the direction of 
the preacher in charge, and to attend all the 
sessions of the Quarterly Conference." He 
is subject to an annual examination of char- 
acter in the Quarterly Conference. 

Exodus (The) of the Israelites. The Ex- 
odus of the Israelites from Egypt is a great 
turning-point in biblical history. With it the 
patriarchal dispensation ends, and the law 
begins ; and with it the Israelites cease to 
be a family, and become a nation. The his- 
tory of the Exodus itself commences with the 
close of that of the Plagues of Egypt (q. v.). 
The tradition of the deliverance from Egypt 
has lived on through the centuries in the 
Feast of the Passover, which alone of all 
the Jewish festivals has outlasted the Jew- 
ish polity, and overleaped the boundary be- 
tween the Jewish and Christian communities. 
Enriched with the spoils of their oppressors, 
they commenced their journey under the 
special protection and guidance of God. The 
direct road to Palestine would have led them 
through the territories of the Philistines; but 
their divine guide, in order to spare them 
the perils of war, for which they were at this 



time utterly unprepared, " led them about 
the way of the wilderness of the Red Sea." 

After the departure of the Israelites, Pha- 
raoh, who had been affrighted, but not re- 
ally humbled, determined to pursue them. 
The " six hundred chosen chariots, and [or 
'even'] all the chariots of Egypt, and cap- 
tains over every one of them,"^ were soon in 
motion. There are no infantry mentioned ; 
and the " horsemen " must have been those 
who rode in the chariots, each of which usu- 
ally held two, and sometimes three persons. 
With this army, which, though small, was 
yet formidable to the Israelitish multitude, 
encumbered with women, children, and cat- 
tle, and unused to war, Pharaoh overtook 
the people. The position where he came up 
with them can not be ascertained with cer- 
tainty. But the hypothesis of the ablest of 
Oriental geographers, our own Dr. Edward 
Robinson, lately indorsed by the ablest Egyp- 
tologist in this, if not in any country. Dr. 
J. P. Thompson, seems better to satisfy the 
conditions of the sacred narrative than any 
other. According to that narrative, the Is- 
raelites appeared to Pharaoh to be " entan- 
gled in the land ; the wilderness hath shut 
them in." If their encampment was in the 
vicinity of Suez, precisely this appearance 
would be presented. South of them the 
mountains Jebel Atakah crowd close to the 
sea, cutting off all retreat in that direction. 
Before them was the sea itself, forbidding 
all progress. North and west was P«haraoh's 
host.^ It is not strange that, thus situated, 
the people should be in despair ; for in truth 
their escape would seem hopeless to any one 
that had not invincible faith in the almighty 
power of God. But just now it is, in the 
very hour of their dire distress, that deliver- 
ance comes. "And Moses stretched out his 
hand over the sea ; and the Lord caused the 
sea to go back by a strong east wind all that 
night, and made the sea dry land, and the 
waters were divided. And the children of 
Israel went into the midst of the sea upon 
the dry ground : and the waters were a wall 
unto them on their right hand and on their 
left." This still further confirms the hy- 
pothesis which places the crossing at or near 
Suez. In the indefinite phraseology of the 
Hebrew, an east wind means any wind from 
the eastern quarter, and would include the 
north-east wind, which often prevails from 
this quarter. A strong east wind acting at 
this point upon the ebb tide, would have the 
effect to drive out the waters from the small 
arm of the sea, formerly larger than now, 
which runs up by Suez. The water upon that 
side would remain as "a wall unto them;" 
not necessarily piled up like a wall, but in 
such a way as to protect them from a flank 
attack by the Egyptians, who thus had no al- 
ternative but to abandon their pursuit, or to 



1 Exod. xiv., 7.- 
TUE VVandeeinq. 



See map in art. Wilderness of 



EXODUS 



335 



EXODUS 



follow in the footsteps of the Israelites. Un- 
conscious, perhaps, of the miracle, which was 
wrought through natural means, but means 
divinely employed, and supernaturally in- 
creased in power for the purpose, and una- 
ble, we must remember, to see with any cer- 
tainty what was taking place in the Israel- 
itish camp, from which they were complete- 
ly separated by the pillar, which was a light 
to Israel, but darkness to the Egyptians, 
they followed on in what possibly they re- 
garded as a ford. But no sooner were the 
Israelites fairly through the sea than the 
wind ceased, while the returning tide and 
the accumulated flow of waters which wind 
and tide had driven into the outer sea re- 
turned with irresistible sweep ; " the sea re- 
turned to his strength," and the Egyptians 
were overwhelmed with a destruction so ab- 
solute that '* there remained not so much as 
one of them." 

The question why there seems to have 
been no record or tradition of this miracle 
among the Egyptians, involves the other 
question of the period in history to which 
this event should be assigned. The date of 
the Exodus, according to different chronolo- 
gers, varies more than three hundred years ; 
the dates of the Egyptian dynasties ruling 
during this period of three hundred years 
vary fully one hundred. If the lowest date 
of the beginning of the eighteenth dynasty 
be taken and the highest date of the Exodus, 
both which we consider the most probable 
of those which have been conjectured in the 
two cases, the Israelites must have left Egypt 
in a period of which monuments or other rec- 
ords are almost wholly wanting. 

For events immediately preceding the 
Exodus, see Plagues of Egypt; Passover; 
for succeeding events, see Wilderness of 
THE Wandering. 

Exodus (The Book of). The second book 
of the Pentateuch is designated by the Jews 
by the two initial words, or, more common- 
ly, by the second of them, Shemoth. The 
name by which we commonly distinguish it 
is that attached to it in the Septuagint ver- 
sion, and is a Greek word significant of the 
principal transaction recorded, viz., the de- 
parture of Israel from Egypt. The contents 
of Exodus, though not embracing such a va- 
riety of incidents as Genesis, are of a more 
diversified character, since they are not mere- 
ly historical, but also in great measure leg- 
islative. The close literary connection be- 
tween Genesis and Exodus is clearly marked 
by the Hebrew conjunctive-particle — literal- 
ly " and," but translated in our Bible " now" 
— with which the latter begins, and still more 
by the recapitulation of the names of Ja- 
cob's sons, who accompanied him to Egypt, 
abridged from the fuller account in Gen. xlvi„ 
Yet Exodus has a distinct character. Through 
the former book the broad history of the 
human race was continually narrowing into 



that of a family which should be separated 
from other nations as the chosen depository 
of divine truth, and whose fortunes should 
exhibit the outlines of the divine dealings, 
to be filled up in the future trials and tri- 
umphs of the Church. Branch after branch 
of that family is divided off, till a single nu- 
cleus is reached, to whom the promise of ex- 
tended blessing was committed. The book 
of Exodus takes up the narrative of that 
family so circumscribed, and follows out its 
development in the increase of a household 
into a people, in the consolidation of vague 
promises into an ordinary covenant, with its 
sanctions, and its regulations, and its priest- 
hood, all pointing forward again to some- 
thing still more substantial and more suffi- 
cient, when the teachings of a long minority 
should have ended. 

Referring to the article Pentateuch for 
the general discussion as to the unity, antiq- 
uity, authorship, and credibility of that por- 
tion of Scripture ascribed to Moses, notice 
need be here taken of but one or two special 
points. Exodus is said by skeptics to be of 
a mythic or legendary character, and vari- 
ous parts of it have been declared to be in- 
credible if they are taken as literal narra- 
tives ; such, e. g., as the vast increase of the 
Israelites, the plagues of Egypt, and the pas- 
sage of the Red Sea, which are discussed 
under the respective articles. Plagues of 
Egypt and Exodus. But the real objec- 
tion to each and all of these narratives is 
that they assert or imply supernatural inter- 
ference ; the objections, consequently, have 
force only with those who believe that God 
can not interfere with natural laws, and that 
these, established either by him or by some 
strange power inherent within themselves, 
continue uninterruptedly to govern and con- 
trol the universe.^ The chronology of Ex- 
odus involves two questions — the duration 
of the sojourn of the Israelites in Egypt, 
and the date of their departure. In the He- 
brew text the answers to both questions are 
positive and unambiguous. Exod. xii., 40, 
gives 430 years for the sojourn; Gen. xv., 13, 
gives 400 years for the whole or the greater 
portion of the same period. Again, 1 Kings 
vi., 1, fixes the Exodus at 480 years before 
the building of the Temple in the fourth 
year of Solomon's reign. This statement 
would settle the date of their departure at 
about B.C. 1490. The latter statement, how- 
ever, presents some difficulties. On the one 
hand, it involves a longer period than ap- 
pears to be consistent' with the genealogies, 
especially the genealogy of David; an objec- 
tion which loses its force if we admit the 
omission of several links in the genealogies. 
On the other hand, it involves a shorter peri- 
od than is deduced from notices in the book 
of Judges; an objection met by the prob- 
able hypothesis that many transactions in 
1 See MiBAOLES. 



EXORCISM 



336 



EXTREME UNCTION 



that book may liave taken place at the same 
period in different parts of Palestine. Egyp- 
tian chronology is too uncertain to deter- 
mine the question. The date above given ap- 
pears, on the whole, to be reconcilable vrith 
the facts of history, and to rest on higher 
authority than any other which has been 
proposed. The duration of the sojourn is 
differently estimated. Some, computing the 
430 years from the giving of the promise to 
Abraham,^ make the period of the sojourn 
215 years, on the ground that it would be 
difficult, on the larger calculation, to recon- 
cile the statement that Jochebed was Levi's 
daughter with the fact that she was the 
mother of Moses. Others find great difficul- 
ty in the increase of a patriarchal family 
within 215 years to the great number of the 
Israelites, which amounted to 600,000 males 
at the time of the Exodus ; and choosing the 
less difficulty of admitting the omission of 
an indefinite number of links in the geneal- 
ogies — a fact for which there is positive ev- 
idence in that most important of all geneal- 
ogies, that of our Lord — hold to the longer 
period. It may be possible to reconcile the 
number of the Israelites at the time of the 
Exodus with the shorter period ; but the in- 
crease indicated by that number certainly ap- 
pears far more reasonable if we accept with- 
out any reserve the statement of Moses in 
Exod. xii., 40, made as it is in the most for- 
mal and precise terms, with the express pur- 
pose of fixing the length of the sojourn upon 
the national mind. It needs no elaborate 
calculation to show that in a period extend- 
ing over more than four centuries, a fami- 
ly which counted seventy males with their 
households — probably amounting to many 
hundreds — occupying the most fertile dis- 
trict of Egypt, under circumstances most fa- 
vorable to rapid and continuous increase, 
should become a mighty nation such as they 
are represented in the narrative, and, as crit- 
ics admit, they must have been, to effect the 
conquest of Canaan, and to retain their na- 
tional integrity in the midst of a hostile 
population. 

Exorcism and Exorcist. The belief in 
demoniacal possession, which may be traced 
in almost every nation, has always been at- 
tended by the professed ability on the part 
of some individuals to eject the evil spirits 
from the subjects possessed by them. This 
power was sometimes considered as a divine 
gift, and sometimes thought to be acquired 
by the st udy of m agic. The Jewi sh exorcists 
mentioned in Acts xix., 13, were evidently 
pretenders of that description — " vagabond 
Jews, who took upon them to call over those 
who had evil spirits the name of the Lord 
Jesus " — trading upon a profession they had 
no right to make, and receiving due reward 
of their hypocrisy. Other cases, however, 
are noticed in which the power of exorcising 



1 Exod. xii., 40; Gal. iii., 17. 



seems to have been more legitimately put 
forth, and to have been attended with the 
desired result ; and from other sources than 
our Bible we learn that the practice was 
common among the Jews. Our Lord's reply 
to the Pharisees, " If I by Beelzebub cast out 
devils, by whom do your disciples cast them 
out?"^ implies that such a power, though 
probably restrained within very narrow lim- 
its, was in actual operation. A case is also 
mentioned in Luke ix., 49, in which Christ 
seems to have granted its existence in a 
person who for some reason stood aloof from 
the disciples. But these are exceptional and 
peculiar cases, and it is only in Christ him- 
self and his immediate disciples that the 
power is revealed in its proper vigor. But to 
these Christian miracles, whether performed 
by our Lord or by his more immediate fol- 
lowers, upon whom he bestowed the power 
of casting out devils, the N. T. writers never 
apply the term exorcism or exorcist.'^ 

Toward the end of the third century, an 
order of exorcists was established in the 
Christian Church, which contributed mate- 
rially to the growth of superstition, and led 
to nmch fraud and imposture. A form of 
exorcism also was introduced into the ad- 
ministration of baptism, to formally release 
the convert from the evil spirit. It still ex- 
ists in the Latin ritual, was adopted substan- 
tially by the Lutherans, and was for a long 
time a characteristic badge of the Lutheran, 
as distinguished from the other Reformed 
churches. But neglected by eminent Lu- 
theran divines, it ultimately fell into disuse. 

Experimental Religion, a term employed 
to indicate religion that exists as an actual 
experience, as distinct from that which is 
held simply as an opinion, or practiced ex- 
ternally from some ulterior considerations. 
Thus a man may believe that the human 
race is sinful, that it needs to secure divine 
pardon, and that such pardon can be ob- 
tained only through faith in Jesus Christ, 
and he may actually go through the forms 
and ceremonials of worship and penitence — 
may fast and pray as the Pharisees of old ; 
but he only has experimental religion who 
has really experienced in his heart a sense 
of his own sin and a need of personal par- 
don, and has gone in a humble and contrite 
spirit to his Heavenly Father for the forgive- 
ness of his sins. The phrase might seem to 
imply the idea of a religion which is an ex- 
periment. Its real significance, -however, is 
rather a religion which has sustained the 
test of trial, as opposed to that which is held 
merely as a theory. In the same way the 
term " religious experience " is used to in- 
dicate the actual and practical acquaintance 
with the religious life by a vital trial of it. 

Extreme Unction, one of the seven sac- 
raments of the Church of Rome, by which a 



1 Matt, xii., 27.-2 Matt, x., 8; Mark xvi., 17; Luke 
X., 17-19 ; Acts xvi., 18. 



EYE 



337 



EZEKIEL 



sick person is anointed Tvith sacred oil by a 
priest, under a prescribed form of words, for 
the purpose of liealiug both tlie mind and 
the body. It is only to be administered when 
the sick are in danger of death. The matter 
used in anointing is oil of olives, blessed by 
a bishop ; but a common priest, in case of ne- 
cessity, may consecrate the oil. There are 
seven anointings, one for each of the five 
senses, namely, the eyes, ears, nose, mouth, 
and feet. The anointing in all cases must 
be in the form of a cross, though this is not 
considered essential to the validity of the 
sacrament. The Romanists allege that this 
sacrament was instituted by our Lord, is re- 
ferred to in Mark vi., 13, and again in James 
v., 14, 15. The sacrament of Euchelaion in 
the Greek Church nearly, though not quite, 
corresponds to this ceremony. It is dispensed 
in cases of sickness, but not necessarily in an- 
ticipation of death. 

Eye. In most languages this important 
organ is used by figurative application as 
the symbol of a large number of objects and 
ideas. In the East such uses of the word 
eye have always been uncommonly numer- 
ous, and were abundant among the Hebrews. 
With them the same word denotes ''eye" and 
''fountain," the latter being regarded as the 
" eye " of the landscape, from its brilliancy 
and beauty. As many of the passions find 
ready ex^jression through the eye, they are 
ascribed to that organ itself. Very naturally, 
the eye denotes activity and vigilance, and 
one of the officers of the Persian court was 
called the " king's eye." The practice of put- 
ting out the eyes as a punishment or politic- 
al disqualification, was anciently and still is 
very common in the East. Painting the eye, 
so often alluded to in Scripture, is common 
with Eastern women, and it is the general im- 
pression in Western Asia that this embellish- 
ment adds much to the languishing expression 
and witchery of the eyes. The eyelids and 
eyebrows are painted with an intensely black 




Modern Eo^yptian Lridy, wilh Painted Eyef. (The ves- 
sel for holdius^ the paint, and the probe for applying 
it, are from the monuments.) 

substance called Icolil, which is prepared of 
the smoke-black produced by burning al- 
mond shells OP frankincense. Sometimes an- 
timony and various ores of lead are used. 
The powder is kept in ornamental i)ots, and 
applied to the eye by a small probe of wood, 
ivory, or silver. To lengthen the eye and 
22 



bring it to an almond shape, is also an ob- 
ject of great endeavor. 

Ezekiel {God will strengthen) was one of 
the four greater prophets, and the prophet 
more especially of the Captivity. He was 
carried to Babylon in the captivity of Je- 
hoiachim (q. v.), eleven years before the de- 
struction of Jerusalem. The only certain 
information respecting his life is found in 
his own prophecies. From these we learn 
that he was a priest, the son of Buzi ; that 
he entered ujiou his calling as a prophet in 
the fifth year of his captivity, "in the thir- 
tieth year, in the fourth month "^ (i. e., i)rob- 
ably the thirtieth year from the new era of 
Nabopolassar, father of Nebuchadnezzar, who 
began to reign B.C. 625) ; that he was mar- 
ried and had a house in his place of exile, 
and lost his wife by sudden death f and that 
he was a member of a community of Jewish 
exiles, who settled on the banks of the Che- 
bar, a " river " of Babylonia.^ He was held 
in the highest esteem by his companions in 
exile, and their elders consulted him on all 
occasions. The last date he mentions is the 
twenty - seventh year of the Captivity,^ so 
that his mission extended over a period of 
twenty-two years. Ezekiel is said by tradi- 
tion to have been murdered by a Jewish 
prince whom he had convicted of idolatry, 
and to have been buried in a tomb on the 
banks of the Euphrates. 

The increasing information we have in re- 
spect to the sculptures and inscriptions of 
ancient Babylon throw new light upon Eze- 
kiel's writings, and show how fully their 
characteristics agree Avith the circumstances 
in which he was placed. The imagery un- 
der which his visions appear is derived from 
Babylonian rather than from Hebrew sources. 
One signal exception is remarked. The 
scenery under which he so graphically de- 
scribes the new spiritual temple which God 
was to rear in the latter days,^ is undoubt- 
edly founded upon his familiarity with the 
structure of the Temple at Jerusalem. 

As a writer, Ezekiel is distinguished by 
the stern and inflexible character which be- 
longed to him as a man, and by a devoted 
adherence to the rites and ceremonies of his 
religion. The depth of his matter, and the 
marvelous nature of his visions, make him 
occasionally obscure. His book is divided 
into two great parts, of which the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem is the turning-point ; chap- 
ters i. to xxiv. contain predictions delivered 
before that event, and xxv. to xlviii. after it, 
as we see from xxvi., 2. Again, chapters i. to 
xxxii. are mainly occupied with correction, 
denunciation, and reproof, while the remain- 
der deal chiefly in consolation and promise. 
A parenthetical section in the middle of the 
book (xxv. to xxxii.) contains a group of 



Ezek. 1., 1, 2.-2 Ezek. viii., 1 ; xxiv., 
. — ^ Ezek. viii., 1; xx., 1; xxiv., 1; 
zek. xl.-xliv. 



.., 1.— 4 Ezek. 
5 Ezek. xl.-xliv 



'., 18.— 3 Ezek. 
I ; xxix., 17.— 



EZION-GABER 



338 



EZRA 



prophecies against seven foreign nations, the 
septenary arrangement being apparently in- 
tentional. There are no direct quotations 
from Ezekiel in the N. T., but in the Apoca- 
lypse there are many parallels and obvious 
allusions to the later chapters. 

Ezion-Gaber, or -Geber (the gianfs hacTc- 
hone), a port of Edom on the Elanitic Gulf of 
the Red Sea. It was one of the encampments 
of the Israelites in their journey through the 
wilderness, and was attached to the kingdom 
of David by the conquest of Edom. Solomon 
made it the station of his navy that traded 
to Ophir ; and here Jehoshaphat's fleet was 
"broken "or wrecked. Josephus describes 
Ezion-geber as not far from the city Elana, 
i. e., Elath, and called Berenice. There is 
now no trace of it, and the site can be only 
conjectured. [Numb, xxxiii., 35, 36; Deut. 
ii., 8; 1 Kings ix., 26; xxii., 48; 2 Chron. 
viii., 17; xx., 36, 37.] 

Ezra {help), the celebrated scribe and 
priest descended from Hilkiah (q. v.), the 
high-priest in Josiah's reign.^ Nothing is 
known of his early life, or how he acquired 
the influence he evidently had at the Per- 
sian court. From his own writings, we 
learn that he was residing at Babylon in 
the reign of Artaxerxes Longimanus. Be- 
sides being a priest in virtue of his de- 
scent, Ezra had devoted himself to the 
study of the Word of God, and was much 
employed in writing out copies of it for 
general use, so that he was designated as 
the " scribe," the " ready scribe in the law 
of Moses."'^ The Jewish traditions are full 
of accounts of his services to the Church 
in all the departments of sacred literature, 
so much so, that all critics agree that he 
must have done important work in pre- 
serving and circulating the sacred books. 
The principal works ascribed to him by 
the Jews are, 1. The institution of the 
Great Synagogue ; 2. The settling the can- 
on of Scripture, and restoring, correcting, 
and editing the whole sacred volume ; 3. 
The introduction of the Chaldee character 
instead of the old Hebrew or Samaritan ; 

4. The authorship of the books of Chron- 
icles, Ezra, Nehemiah, and some add Esther ; 

5. The establishment of synagogues. In the 
seventh year of Artaxerxes's reign, B.C. 458, 
Ezra obtained leave to go to Jerusalem with 
a company of Israelites, and to complete the 
work of restoration there, even to the ex- 
tent of putting in force the entire law of 
Moses.^ The journey of Ezra and his com- 
panions from Babylon to Jerusalem occu- 
pied four months. By the king's permis- 
sion, they carried with them gold and sil- 
ver offerings for the worship of God, which 
were committed to the care of twelve 
priests.* One of the first acts of Ezra on 
his arrival in Jerusalem was to break off 



the unholy marriages which the Jews there 
had contracted with the Gentiles.^ This was 
effected in about eight months. With the 
detailed account of this transaction, Ezra's 
autobiography ends abruptly. Whether he 
continued at Jerusalem is a question. It 
seems probable that his commission was tem- 
porary, and that he returned to Babylon. 
Thirteen years after, when Nehemiah was 
appointed governor, we find him again at 
Jerusalem, where he was very active.^ The 
functions he exercised under Nehemiah's 
government were purely of a priestly and 
ecclesiastical character. There is no further 
mention of Ezra in Scripture. Josephus re- 
lates that he died soon after that great feast 
of tabernacles at which he officiated in read- 
ing the law to the assembled people.^ Oth- 
ers represent him as returning to Babylon, 
and dying there at a very advanced age. A 
tomb bearing his name is still shown on the 
banks of the Tigris, about twenty miles above 
its junction with the Euphrates. A special 




1 Ezra vii., 1.— ^ Ezra vii. 
4 Ezra viii., 24U31. 



C— 3 Ezra vii., 11-27. 



Reputed Tomb of Ezra. 

interest attaches to his biography from the 
fact that the first case of preaching, in the 
modern sense of that term, took place under 
his direction, when, in one of the streets of 
Jerusalem, he " stood upon a pulpit of wood " 
made for the purpose, and with the attend- 
ant Levites " read in the book in the law 
of God distinctly, and gave the sense and 
caused them to understand the readiug."* 

The belief of the Jewish authorities, with- 
out any known hesitation or exception, w^as 
that Ezra himself composed the book which 
bears his name. There is no sufficient rea- 
son for questioning this traditionary belief, 
since it is scarcely denied by any one that 
Ezra wrote a part ; nor is there any evi- 
dence against the unity of the composition, 
nor any difficulty which stands in the way of 



1 Ezra X., 10-12. — ^ Neh. viii, — ^ Neh. viii., IS.— 
* Neh. viii., 4, S. 



FACULTIES 



339 



FAITH 



assigning it to the age of Ezra. By taking 
a view of the subjects treated in the book, 
we may easily observe the plan of it, and 
arrive at the conclusion that it is a single 
book, and by one writer ; that it is neither 
a fragment of a larger historical work, as 
some writers affirm, nor a collection of un- 
connected fragments, according to the asser- 
tion of others. It is not, indeed, a connected 
history such as classical or modern histo- 
rians might have given ; but the same may 
be said of the history in the Pentateuch, 
and the books of Joshua, Judges, etc. Like 
them, it is the record of God's dealings with 
the Israelites as his church and people ; so 
that many civil and political details are pass- 
ed over in silence, while the writer dwells 
on other points which might seem of subsid- 
iary importance according to a mere earthly 
standard. A strong point in favor of its ear- 
ly composition is in the fact that its chronol- 
ogy is clear and exact ; while the accounts of 
Jewish affairs under the Persian monarchy, 
as given by Josephus, from apocryx)hal writ- 
ers and other sources unknown to us, present 
extreme confusion and palpable mistakes. 



The book begins with the decree of King 
Cyrus putting an end to the Babylonish cap- 
tivity, and instructing the returning Israel- 
ites to rebuild the Temple and restore the 
worship of Jehovah — B.C. 536. It narrates 
the difficulties and hinderances before this 
was accomplished, in the sixth year of Dari- 
us, the son of Hystaspes — about B.C. 516. It 
passes in silence over the rest of his reign, 
thirty-one years, and the whole of the reign 
of Xerxes, twenty-one years, proceeding di- 
rect to the work of Ezra, who received his 
commission in the seventh year of Artaxerx- 
es Longimanus — B.C. 458-7. And, lastly, it 
records that work — the reconstruction of 
the theocratic state — which Ezra effected so 
completely that he carried the people with 
him in remodeling the family relations by 
the law against intermarriage with certain 
races. If the whole of this work took place 
at about the same time, as most commenta- 
tors believe, the extreme length of time em- 
braced in the narrative is not above eighty 
years ; and the order, though not continuous 
— leaving a blank of almost sixty years — 
is strictly chronological. See Nehemiah. 



F. 



Faculties, a term of the Roman Catholic 
Church law, designating certain ecclesias- 
tical rights which a superior confers upon 
subordinates. The most important faculties 
are those conferred by the popes upon bish- 
ops. The term faculty is used in mental sci- 
ence to indicate the powers or activities of 
the mind, especially by the phrenologists. 

Fair Havens (The), a harbor or road- 
stead off the south coast of Crete, mentioned 
in Acts xxvii., 8, but in no other ancient 
writing. This harbor still retains its old 
Greek name, and is situated four or five 
miles to the east of Cape Matala, and about 
the same distance to the west of Cape Leon- 
da. After passing Cape Matala, the coast 
trends to the north ; hence the danger, if a 
northerly gale sprung up, of the vessel's be- 
ing driven out to sea ; and hence the advice 
given by St. Paul to lie still at the Fair Ha- 
vens, instead of making for Phenice. See 
Paul. [Acts xxvii., 9, 10, 21.] 

Fairs. This word occurs seven times in 
Ezek. xxvii., but nowhere else in the Bible. 
In the last place the original is translated 
" wares," and this is probably the true mean- 
ing of the word throughout. It is difficult 
to understand how " fairs " could " fall into 
the midst of the sea." [Comp. verses 27 and 
33.] 

Faith. The most casual reader of the Bi- 
ble, especially of the N. T., can not fail to 
note the pre-eminent importance which is 
attached to faith. It stands out clearly 
above every other vu'tue, or, rather, is de- 



clared to be the foundation of them all. 
We are "justified by faith." "We walk by 
faith." "Without faith it is not possible to 
please God." It is not strange, therefore, 
that there has been a great deal of discussion 
concerning the meaning of faith ; and as the 
word appears to be used in the Bible in some- 
what different senses, it has been divided and 
subdivided into various sorts or kinds by the 
schoolmen : such, for example, as historical 
faith, intellectual faith, saving faith. These 
distinctions are not, however, noted in the 
Bible ; and without considering the question 
whether it affords a good ground for them, 
we shall disregard them, and content our- 
selves with simply inquiring, firstly. What is 
faith, as the Bible uses that term? and sec- 
ondly. Why should it assume so important a 
place in the Christian system ? 

I. The first of these inquiries is made a 
little more difficult from the fact that we 
have in the English language no verb an- 
swering to the noun faith. The verb (pisteuo) 
is accordingly nearly always translated to 
believe; while the noun (pistis) is translated, 
with but one or two exceptions, faith ; and 
the adjective (pistos) is sometimes translated 
faithful, and sometimes believing. It is per- 
haps due to this circumstance that faith and 
belief have been so often confounded. In- 
deed belief in some form is, perhaps, the 
most commonly received definition of faith. 
Though most theologians, both Protestant 
and Roman Catholic, distinguish between a 
mere intellectual assent to a truth, such as 



FAITH 



340 



FAITH 



one gives to a proposition in geometry, and 
an act of religious faith, still their definitions 
generally involve nothing radically ditfereiit 
from an act of the mind, based either on au- 
thority, on reason, or on the testimony of 
others. Thus the Koman Catholic catechism 
declares that "the word faith signifies not 
so much the act of thinking or opiuioning, 
but it has the sense of a firm obligation (con- 
tracted in virtue of a free act of submission) 
w^hereby the mind decisively and permanent- 
ly assents to the mysteries revealed by God.'" 
Mauy of the Protestant definitions do not 
differ very materially from this definition ; 
for example : 

" The true nature of the faith of a Chris- 
tian consists in this, that it is an assent unto 
truths credited upon the testimony of God 
delivered unto us in the writings of the apos- 
tles and prophets." — Pearson, On the Creed. 

" Faith consists not in ignorance, but in 
knowledge ; and that not only of God, but 
also of the Divine will." — Calyu^^s Institutes. 

" Faith, in its proper elementary charac- 
ter, is belief, and nothing else; and the ex- 
ercise of faith is just a believing exercise. 
It is just a holdiug of the things said in the 
Gospel to be true." — Chalmers. 

"Accurately speaking, faith is an act of 
the understanding, giving credit to the tes- 
timony of the Gospel." — Buck's Theological 
Dictionary. 

" By this [saving] faith, a Christian be- 
lieves to be true whatever is revealed in the 
Word, for the authority of God himself speak- 
ing therein, and acteth differently upon that 
which each particular passage containeth." 
— Westminster Confession of Faith. 

These citations are sufficient to indicate 
that faith has been very largely, if not gen- 
erally, regarded as synonymous with belief, 
the chief difference between the Roman Cath- 
olic and the Protestant definition being that 
one rests that belief upon the authority of 
the Church, the other upon the authority of 
the Word of God. Still, these definitions 
have not given satisfaction. They have not 
appeared to answer all the requirements of 
the Scripture. They have made faith de- 
pend too exclusively upon mental instruc- 
tion, and upon a certain native mental tend- 
ency. It is clear, on the one hand, that 
very good and sincere men might, either 
through erroneous education or natural in- 
credulity, find the exercise of belief in the 
Bible exceedingly difficult, and might be 
troubled with doubts which never perplexed 
others who were nevertheless not so consci- 
entious. It is equally clear that a man might 
believe the testimony of the Word of God, 
and yet deliberately determine not to be 
governed by it. In such a case, certainly, 
his faith would be no virtue, and of no avail. 
These considerations have led some theolo- 
gians to attempt a modification of these defi- 
1 Quoted in Moehler's " Symbolism," Am. ed., p. 117. 



nitions, and to insist that faith involves not 
only an act of the mind, but also one of the 
emotions and of the will. Thus Dr. D wight 
defines faith as " that emotion of the mind 
which is called trust or confidence exercised 
toward the moral character of God, and par- 
ticularly of the Saviour." This definition 
certainly seems to fulfill more of the condi- 
tions of the Biblical use of the word than the 
other. We can understand how one should 
be saved through such a faith, how he should 
walk by such a faith, and how without such 
a faith it would be impossible to please God. 
Yet we think this trust or confidence is rath- 
er a result of faith, than faith itself as it is 
defined in the Bible. 

For it seems strange that there should 
have been among Christians, who maintain 
the divine inspiration and authority of the 
Scripture, so much discussion concerning 
the meaning of the word faith, and so many 
different attempts to define it, when the Bi- 
ble itself contains a very clear and explicit 
definition of faith, and devotes an entire 
chapter to historical illustration of that def- 
inition. "Faith," says the author of the 
Epistle to the Hebrews, " is the substance 
of things hoped for, the evidence of things 
not seen."^ It is evident that this is not 
merely an act of the understanding ; and it is 
made still more clear by some of the illustra- 
tions which follow, that of Moses, for exam- 
ple, who " endured as seeing him who is in- 
visible." A similar definition is afforded in 
terms but slightly different by the apostle 
Paul in writing to the Corinthians, where 
he says, "We look not at the things which 
are seen, but at the things which are not 
seen." By faith, then, in its simplest form, we 
understand to he meant the power, or faculty, or 
habit of realizing unseen realities, and especially 
of communing directly and immediately ivith the 
invisible God. It is not belief in miracles, or 
in the Word of God, or in a historic Christ. 
For "' henceforth know we no man after the 
flesh; yea, though we have known Christ 
after the flesh, yet now henceforth know we 
him no more."^ It is the power of directly 
and immediately perceiving, appreciating, 
and laying hold of the present and unseen 
Christ. The human soul was made to live 
not apart from God, but united to him, and 
drawing constantly its spiritual life from 
him as the branch from the vine. By sin 
we are separated from God, and so lose the 
source of our spiritual life. By faith we are 
reunited to him, and made sons of God once 
more. Thus without faith it is impossible 
to please God ; because a godless life, a life 
out of and away from God, lacks the first 
and fundamental quality necessary to give 
pleasure to him. Thus we are redeemed 
from the power of sin, and enabled to "live 
soberly, righteously, and godly in this pres- 



1 Heb. xi., 1; and see the chapter throughout.— 
2 2 Cor. v., 16. 



FAITH 



341 



FALLOW-DEER 



ent world, looking for that blessed hope, and 
the glorious appearing of the great God and 
our Saviour Jesus Christ." Thus we walk 
by faith, because we walk like Enoch of old 
with God, guided by his Spirit, and inspired 
by his conscious presence. Faith is not a 
knowledge, it is a life ; it is not an act of the 
understanding, it is a power of spiritual ap- 
prehension by which " we have received not 
the spirit of the world, but the Spirit which 
is of God.'" 

II. This interpretation of faith, as that by 
which we receive and reap the benefits of 
the life of God in the soul, explains why it is 
treated in the Bible as the very source and 
fountain of all virtue, as the true test of 
character, the " one thing needful." "Among 
Christians," says Mr. Lecky, " the ideals have 
commonly been either supernatural beings, 
or men who were in constant connection with 
supernatural beings." He is right. The 
very teaching of the Scriptures is this, that 
every man should live in constant and inti- 
mate connection with his heavenly Father ; 
that he is not made to live by bread alone, 
but by every word, or, as the Germans ex- 
press it, by " the all" which proceedeth from 
the mouth of God ; that the Spirit of God 
acts immediately and directly upon the hu- 
man soul, strengthening its courage, quick- 
ening its moral sense, enlightening its judg- 
ment, inspiring all its faculties with peculiar 
power, and enabling it constantly to do, to 
bear, to suffer what elsewise would be far 
beyond its capacities. They measure the 
human soul, not by its inherent powers, 
but by its readiness to receive and profit by 
this divine companionship ; not by its na- 
tive wisdom, courage, or goodness, but by its 
faith. It is this which gives to Hebrew his- 
tory its peculiar charm, and makes it dear 
to thousands of readers who are ignorant of 
Tacitus, of Herodotus, of Plutarch. The 
whole Bible culminates in one word — Im- 
manuel — God with us. The Bible heroes 
are not, in other respects, grander than some 
of the heroes of heathen antiquity. Their 
peculiar characteristic is their susceptibility 
to divine influence. Their goodness is all 
the product of godliness. Their strength is 
their faith — that is, their power or habit of 
laying hold of divine strength and making 
it their own. Through weakness they are 
made strong by the indwelling Spirit of Qod. 
"There is no Marathon, no Regillus, no 
Tours, no Mogarten. All is from above, 
nothing from themselves." Eliezer is not 
celebrated for his own sagacity ; God guides 
him. Joseph does not provide Egypt with 
plenty by his own forecasting ; the prophe- 
cy and tiie plan are God's. Moses is not elo- 
quent ; God is with his mouth. Samson is 
vanquished because his strength is godless ; 
is victorious in the hour when weakness has 
driven him to God. Esther was courageous 
1 1 Cor. ii., 12. 



because God is invincible. In each of these 
cases, and in that of every other Biblical 
hero, the wisdom and power was not in 
the man or woman, but in God. The hero 
is heroic only because by faith he was ena- 
bled to avail himself of guidance and power 
from on high. 

Faith has not lost its power. The soul 
still enjoys this privilege of receiving inspi- 
ration from above. It is not the special pre- 
rogative of a few saints, it is the common 
right of all. It is not an occasional, excep- 
tional gift, it is constant, continuous ; the 
law of our being. It is not a miracle, inter- 
fering with the operations of the human soul ; 
it is the condition of our soul's true life, a 
gift of God^ wrought in the soul — not by its 
own laborious endeavors, but by a simple, 
humble receiving of it from God, whose grace, 
inspiring the soul, endues it with a living 
faith. Faith in Christ is the ground of the 
soul's salvation, because it is in Christ, by 
faith, that God is received into the soul, and 
because " in him we live, and move, and have 
our being." See Justification ; Eegener- 

ATION. 

Fakirs (poor), the name of a mendicant 
order in the East Indies, like the dervishes 
of Persia and Turkey. The origin of fakir- 
ism in India is traced back to mythical 
times, when a powerful rajah having ban- 
ished his son, the latter is fabled to have re- 
solved to lead a vagabond life in the world, 
to beg his bread, and to make proselytes to 
his own manners and customs. The first 
condition of these Indian mendicant monks 
is poverty. He wears a rent robe, such as 
the Mussulmans pretend the ancient proph- 
ets wore. The number of Mussulman and ' 
Hindoo fakirs in India is estimated at more 
than a million, besides whom there are many 
other religious ascetics. Some fakirs live 
isolated, go entirely naked, and sleep upon 
the ground with no covering. They carry a 
cudgel, on which are hung rags of various 
colors, and they traverse the country beg- 
ging and instructing credulous people in re- 
ligion. It is dangerous both to his life and 
money for an unprotected person to meet 
them. The second class of fakirs is com- 
posed of those who unite in companies. 
These are clothed, wearing a fantastic and 
many-colored robe. They choose a chief, 
who is distinguished by having a poorer 
dress than the others, and who has a long 
chain attached to one of his legs. When he 
prays he shakes his chain, and the multi- 
tude press around him, and embrace his feet, 
and receive his counsels and precepts. 

Fallow-Deer, an animal whose flesh might 
be used for food. It was, no doubt, one of 
the antelopes, but it is difficult to determine 
the species. On the whole, it seems proba- 
ble that the animal intended is the large an- 
telope known to geologists as the bubnle, but 
1 1 Eph. ii., 8. ' 



FALSE CHRISTS 



342 



FAMILY 



called by tlie Arabs the '^ bekker-el-wash/' 
or wild cow, since in its general appear- 
ance it much more resembles the ox tribe 
than the antelope. Even at the present day 
this animal is seen near the Red Sea; and 
as, within the memory of man, it had a 
much larger range than now, we may safely 
conjecture that it was found in Palestine in 
sufficient numbers to render it a common 
animal of chase, affording a constant supply 
of food for the royal table. [Deut. xiv., 5 ; 
1 Kings iv., 23.] 

False Christs. In Matt, xxiv., 24, Jesus 
Christ prophetically warns his disciples that 
there shall arise false Christs and false proph- 
ets. Of false Christs it is estimated that no 
less than sixty-four have arisen ; but many 
unimportant persons are included in this es- 
timate, and some, as Mohammed, who can 
hardly be reckoned among the false Christs. 

The first in time of these spurious Christs, 
as well as the most distinguished in power 
and influence, was Cazobi. Being dissatis- 
fied with the state of things under Adrian, he 
placed himself at the head of the Jewish na- 
tion, and proclaimed himself their long-ex- 
pected Messiah. To facilitate his success, he 
changed his name to Barchochab, or Barcho- 
cheba, in reference to the star foretold by Ba- 
laam, which should be sent from heaven to re- 
store the Jewish nation to its ancient liber- 
ty and glory. He chose a forerunner, raised 
an army, was anointed king, and coined mon- 
ey inscribed with his own name. He was, 
however, obliged to retire into the town of 
Either, where he was besieged by an army 
which Adrian sent against him. The city 
was taken, and a dreadful havoc ensued, in 
which five or six hundred thousand Jews 
were slain. 

During the reign of the Emperor Justin- 
ian, a false Messiah arose in the person of 
Julianus, whom the Jews and Samaritans 
set up as their king. Justinian, however, 
having attacked the rebels, killed many of 
them, and taking their pretended Messiah 
prisoner, beheaded him. Again, in the 
twelfth century, several false Messiahs suc- 
cessively arose in different countries. In 
A.D. 1137 one appeared in France, and at 
about the same time another in Persia. Both 
of tliese were for a time successful in attract- 
ing crowds of followers, who, however, were 
speedily dispersed and the impostors slain. 
Soon after a false Messiah arose beyond the 
Euphrates, who founded his pretensions on 
the assertion that he was cured of a lep- 
rosy in a single night. It would appear that, 
in the course of the twelfth century, no less 
than ten false Messiahs arose, and brought 
severe trials and persecutions upon the Jews 
in different parts of the world. 

The most remarkable, perhaps, of the 
whole number was Sabbathai Levi, of Smyr- 
na, who declared himself publicly, a.d. 1648, 
to be Messiah of the house of David, who 



should soon deliver Israel from the dominion 
of Christians and Mussulmans. He, in writ- 
ing, styles himself the only and first-boru 
son of God, the Messias, the Saviour of Is- 
rael. He promised the Jews deliverance and 
a prosperous kingdom. All business was 
laid aside, the poor were provided for by im- 
mense contributions, and nothing talked of 
but their return. Sabbathai was adored by 
the people of Smyrna ; and though he met 
with some opposition, yet he prevailed there 
at last to such a degree that some of his fol- 
lowers proj)hesied, and fell into strange ec- 
stasies ; four hundred men and women proph- 
esied of his growing kingdom ; and young 
infants, who were but just learning to speak, 
i were taught to pronounce Sabatai, Messias, 
and Son of God. The people acted for a 
^ time as those possessed by spirits ; some 
I fell into trances, foamed at the mouth, re- 
i counted their future prosperity, their visions 
i of the Lion of Judah, and the triumphs of 
! Sabbathai. The fame of the false Messiah of 
Smyrna spread rajiidly throughout both Eu- 
; rope and Asia, so that the Jews unwittingly 
fulfilled the declaration of the true Messiah.^ 
; Sabbathai Levi ended by embracing the faith 
of Islam to save his life, and openly profess- 
ed that religion till his death ; some of the 
Jews, however, were so infatuated as to af- 
firm that it was not Sabbathai himself, but 
his shadow, that professed the religion and 
was seen in the habit of a Turk. 

The last false Christ who attracted any 
considerable number of followers was Eabbi 
Mordecai, a German Jew, who set forth his 
claims in 1682. For a time he succeeded in 
deluding many, but the fraud was soon de- 
tected, and he was under the necessity of 
escaping from Italy to Poland, where he was 
lost sight of, and his history from that pe- 
riod is unknown. 

Family. The family was the first organ- 
ization, and is the foundation both of the 
State and of the Church. In fact, for many 
years there was no other state or church 
than that which existed in the family. The 
father was at once monarch and priest. He 
ruled his own household, which, with his 
servants and retainers, often became a very 
considerable community, as in the case of 
Abraham.^ He also conducted all public 
worship, erected altars, and knew no other 
temple than such as was afforded by his own 
tent. His eldest son inherited his position 
and prerogatives,^ and it was not until the 
time of the Exodus that we find any distinct 
account of the political organization of a 
nation, with a distinct government, and the 
formation of a national church, with an or- 
dained order of priests. Though nations 
with a rude political frame-work, based on 
the absolute power of a single monarch, and 
in so far patterned from the family, had 
1 John v., 43.-2 Gen. xiii., 1, 

BlRTHRIGUT. 



xiv., 14.— 3 See 



FAMINE 



343 



FAST 



grown up before that time, even in such 
nations, still the family idea underlay the 
twofold organization of State and Church. 
The tribal distinctions, having their origin 
in the sons of Jacob, were also continued 
down to the latest period of Jewish national 
history. 

The family in the new departure of the 
Christian Church was again the unit of 
which it was composed. The Church serv- 
ices were lu'st held in the private houses of 
individuals, and the Church itself was in a 
large measure composed of Christian house- 
holds.^ The family is thus historically, as 
it is philosophically, the foundation of all 
order, civil and religious. It is the divine 
nursery where children are to be trained in 
habits of obedience, on which their subse- 
quent happiness will depend, and in which 
also they are to be accustomed to those ex- 
ercises of piety and religion which will ren- 
der them useful in later life in the Christian 
Church. The preservation of the family is 
therefore more important than even that of 
the State or the Church (since both dej)end 
upon it), and whatever tends to weaken the 
ties which bind it together, tends not only 
to irreligion, but also to the disorganization 
of all society. 

Famine. Several famines are noted in 
the Scripture history. Two are mentioned 
as occurring in Canaan in the days of Abra- 
ham and Isaac, compelling those patriarchs 
to remove to Egypt and to Gerar. Then 
succeeded that remarkable famine which 
Joseph was enabled to predict, and which 
extended widely over Egypt and various 
other regions. A scarcity in Palestine was 
once occasioned by the invasion of the Mid- 
ianites, and another (or the same) is referred 
to in Ruth i., 1. Others are noted, some- 
times caused by war or by locusts.^ 

In our time, with swift and certain com- 
munication between different countries, so 
that destitution in one is sure to be sup- 
plied by the plenty in another, we can scarce- 
ly comprehend the horrors of an Oriental 
famine. Twice only, in the eleventh and 
twelfth centuries, such a catastrophe is de- 
scribed by Arabian historians in terms which 
give us a full conception of the calamity 
from which Joseph delivered the country. 
The first lasted for seven years ; of the oth- 
er, the most fearful details are given by an 
eye-witness. When the famine began, large 
numbers emigrated. The poor ate carrion, 
corpses, and dogs ; they went even further, 
devouring little children, and this eating of 
human flesh became so common as to excite 
no surprise. A traveler often passed through 
a large village without seeing a single living- 
inhabitant. The road between Egypt and 



1 Acts xvi., 34; Roniaus xvi., 5; 1 Cor. xvL, 19. — 
2 Gen. xii., 10 ; xxvi., 1 ; xli., 53-57 ; Judg. vi., 4-6 ; 2 
Sam. xxi., 1 ; 1 Kings xvii., 1,7; xviii., 2 ; 2 Kings iv., 
38; viii., 1, 2; Lam. v., 10; Joel 1., 10-12, 17, 18; Acts 
xi., 28. 



Syria was like a vast field sown with human 
bodies, or rather like a jilain which has just 
been swept by the scythe of the mower. It 
had become as a banquet-hall for the birds, 
wild beasts, and dogs, which gorged on their 
flesh. These are but a few of the horrors, 
which may well explain to us how " the land 
of Egypt fainted by reason of the famine " — 
how the cry came up year by year to Joseph, 
" Give us bread, for why should we die in 
thy presence ?" 

Fanatic. The ancients gave the name of 
fanatici to those who frequented the tem- 
ples (fana) of the gods, and there uttered 
oracular announcements, or exhibited wild 
antics and gesticulations, under the sup- 
posed inspiration of some demon or spirit. 
Hence the name has come in common usage 
to signify one who acts, especially in relig- 
ious or social matters, in extravagant ways, 
and without the due restraints of reason. 
As such persons are apt to be inflamed 
against whatever opposes their particular 
designs, and to be characterized, therefore, 
rather hj hatred of the supposed evil, than 
by enthusiasm for the supj)osed good, fanat- 
icism has been, though not we think with 
entire accuracy, defined as " enthusiasm in- 
flamed by hatred." It differs from enthu- 
siasm rather in involving the idea that the 
reason is practically dethroned, and the 
mind gives itself wholly up to the possession 
of some one idea, as to a demon or spirit, and 
acts under its inspiration, without prudence 
or a sense of those obligations which spring 
out of other relations in life, and other ob- 
jects than the one to which the fanatic has 
surrendered himself. 

Fast. The only fast ordained by the Mo- 
saic law was that of the Day of Atonement, 
on the 10th of the seventh month, on which 
the people were to afflict their souls. This 
appears to have been ever solemnly kept, 
and was " the fast " mentioned in the narra- 
tive of St. Paul's voyage to Italy.^ But there 
were other fasts afterward instituted on ac- 
count of great national calamities, and these 
appear to have had prophetic sanction. They 
are enumerated as the fasts of the fourth, 
the fifth, the seventh, and tenth months. 
The fast of the fourth month was on account 
of the breaking up of Jerusalem by the ar- 
mies of Nebuchadnezzar. The modern Jews 
couple with this event the breaking of the 
tables of the law by Moses. The fast of the 
fifth month commemorates the burning of the 
Temple and the houses of Jerusalem by Neb- 
uchadnezzar, and afterward by Titus, on the 
same day of the same month. It is now kept 
by the Jews with greater rigor than any 
other. The fast of the seventh month is for 
the murde'r of Gedaliah. That of the tenth 
month was instituted because the Chaldean 
army then laid siege to Jerusalem.^ Ex- 



1 Lev. xxiii., 26-32 ; Acts xxvii., 9. See Atonf.ment 
(Day of).— 2 Jer. xli., 1-10 ; lii., 4, 7, 12, 13 ; Zech. viii., 19. 



FAST 



344 



FAT 



traordinary general fasts were also not unfre- 
quently appointed in consequence of some 
calamity, or to obtain from God the averting 
of some danger/ 

For individual fasts there was no express 
commandment in the Mosaic law. Private 
fasts, however, were not uncommon.^ Af- 
ter the Captivity, the practice of individu- 
al fasting appears to have been stricter and 
more frequent. The Pharisees and others 
made a show of fasting, and believed that 
they purchased God's favor thereby ; the two 
days in the week on which they ordinarily 
fasted being (according to the Talmud) the 
fifth, because Moses that day went up Sinai, 
and the second, because on that day he came 
down. The Jews appear to have joined with 
fasting the putting on of sackcloth, and other 
usual signs of distress. Sometimes they ab- 
stained altogether from food from one even- 
ing to another; while at other times, espe- 
cially when the fasts were of long duration, 
they ate food, but only of the plainest kind. 
Thus Daniel speaks of fasting or mourning 
three whole weeks, and defines his behavior 
more exactly by saying that he ate no pleas- 
ant bread, neither did flesh or wine come 
into his mouth.^ 

The teaching of Christ and his apostles 
carries out very fully that which had been 
already taught by the prophets, that in fast- 
ing itself there is no merit, except as it is 
the expression of genuine repentance, and 
leads to true reformation.* Christ, while he 
fasted himself, and seems to have recognized 
fasting as at least legitimate if not neces- 
sary, by classing it with prayer and alms- 
giving, yet refused to command any fast- 
days, though urged to do so both by the ex- 
ample of the Jewish Church and by his own 
disciples.^ The teaching of the N. T., which 
is in entire accordance with the O. T., is, 
in effect, against set days of fasting — indeed 
against fasting altogether as a ceremonial — 
while both the teachings of Christ and the 
apostles seem to commend it as a prepara- 
tion for spiritual duties, and a natural ex- 
pression of sincere feeling. " Fasting," says 
Dean Alford, '^should be the genuine off- 
spring of inward and spiritual sorrow, of the 
sense of the absence of the Bridegroom in 
the soul — not the forced and stated fasts of 
the old covenant, now passed away. It is an 
instructive circumstance that in the Reform- 
ed churches, while those stated fasts which 
were retained at their first emergence from 
Popery are universally disregarded even by 
their best and holiest sons, nothing can be 
more affecting and genuine than the univer- 
sal and solemn observance of any real occa- 



1 JnAg. XX., 26; 1 Sara, vii., 6; xxxi., 13; 1 Kinc^s 
xxi., 12 ; 2 Chron. xx., .3 ; Ezra viii., 21 ; Esth. iv., 15- 
17; Jer. xxxvi., 9; Joel i., 14. — ^ Exod. xxxiv., 2S ; 
Deut. ix., 0, 18; 1 Sam. i., 7; 2 Sam. i., 12; xii., 16; 1 
Kiiipfs xxi., 27 ; Ezra x., 6 ; Neh. i., 4; Dan. ix., 3; x., 3. 
—3 Dan. X.. 2, 3. — * Comp. Isa. Iviii.. 8-6, with Matt, 
vi., 10-18.— 6 Matt, iv., 2 ; vi., 16-18; Luke v., 33-39. 



sion of fasting placed before them by God's 
providence." 

In the Christian Church fasting early lost 
that free character and spiritual significance 
which belonged to it both in the O. T. and 
the N. T. times ; and for the one fast of the 
Day of Atonement which the laws of Moses 
prescribed, a burdensome system of fasts was 
substituted. By the sixth century it had 
ceased to be a voluntary exercise. In the 
eighth century it was regarded as meritori- 
ous, and the breach of the observance sub- 
jected the offender to the penalty of excom- 
munication. In later times, some persons 
who ate flesh during prescribed seasons of 
abstinence were punished with the loss of 
their teeth. These severities were, however, 
subsequently relaxed, and permission was 
given to use all kinds of food except flesh, 
eggs, cheese, and wine. Afterward flesh 
only was prohibited ; eggs, cheese, and wine 
being allowed. Among the "satisfactory" 
works of " penance " in the Romish Church, 
fasting still goes along with prayer and 
almsgiving. The Church, however, distin- 
guishes between days of fasting and of ab- 
stinence. On the former, but one meal, and 
that not of flesh, is tasted during twenty-four 
hours ; on the latter, flesh only is abstained 
from. In the Greek Church fasting is kept 
with great severity. In the Protestant 
churches it is not made imperative as a con- 
dition of membership, but is generally recom- 
mended as a duty, especially under circum- 
stances of national or individual affliction. 

In the Episcopal and Lutheran churches 
certain days are appointed as fast-days, or 
days of abstinence, which are more or less 
rigorously observed, according to the judg- 
ment and conscience of the individual, some 
persons regarding them with as much strict- 
ness as the Roman Catholic, and others pay- 
ing very little attention to them. In Scot- 
land a yearly fast is generally appointed by 
the kirk session of the Established Church. 
In the other Protestant churches fasts are 
ordinarily observed only on special occa- 
sions, or by special recommendation either 
of the Church or the State authorities. 

Fat, according to the sacrificial ritual of 
the O. T., stood in a close relation to blood. 
Both alike were solemnly set apart to the 
Lord, and were looked upon as so peculiarly 
his, that they were prohibited from ordinary 
use. What is meant by fat appears, from 
the connection, to be fat in a lumpish or sep- 
arate state, not as intermingled with the 
fleshy i^arts of the animal. It was the fat in 
so far as it existed in a separate form, and 
could be without difficulty taken from the 
carcass and consumed — this simply which 
was devoted to the altar, and forbidden as 
ordinary food. The restriction did not pre- 
vent tlie feeding or fattening of sheep and 
cattle for the table.^ In regard to the reason 



Comp. Lev. iii., 17, with 1 Kings iv., 23 ; Luke xv., 23. 



FATHER 



345 



FELIX 



for this appropriation of the fat of slain vic- 
tims to the altar and its prohibition as food, 
there is some difference of opinion. Some 
writers consider that it was prohibited mere- 
ly from sanitary considerations ; others base 
its prohibition upon the fact that the fat was 
the richest part of the animal, and therefore 
belonged to God; while still others think 
the object was to induce the Hebrews to 
cultivate the olive, and depend upon vege- 
table oil rather than upon animal fat. 

Father. This term is very variously ap- 
plied in ScriptTire, and occurs in modes of 
expression which are not quite usual in Eu- 
ropean languages. For, besides the use of it 
common to all languages (1.) of the imme- 
diate male parent; (2.) of the more remote 
parents or ancestors; (3.) of one occupying 
somewhat of the position, and exercising to 
some extent the authority of a father, it 
is also extended (4.) to all who in any re- 
spect might be said to provide for or have 
power over any object or persons.^ For 
example, the inventor of an art was called 
its father, or the father of those who prac- 
ticed it. Jubal was " the father of all such 
as handle the harp and organ," and Jabal 
" the father of such as dwell in tents."^ So 
in regard to cities, Salma is represented as 
the father of Bethlehem, Hareph of Beth- 
gader. 

The place and authority of the father 
stood very high in patriarchal times, and 
were substantially embodied in the legis- 
lation of Moses. While the father lived, he 
continued to represent the whole family, the 
property was held in his name, and all was 
under his superintendence and control. His 
power, however, was by no means unlimited 
or arbitrary ; and if any occasion arose for 
severe discipline or capital punishment in 
his family, he was not himself to inflict it, 
but to bring the matter before the consti- 
tuted authorities.^ But these authorities 
were charged to repress all filial insubordi- 
nation, and with summary judgment put an 
end to its more lawless outbreakings. On 
the other hand, the father, as the head of 
the household, had the obligation imposed 
upon him of bringing up his children in the 
fear of God, making them well acquainted 
with the precepts of his law, and generally 
acting as their instructor and guide.* 

The word father is used in the Bible to 
designate God. The fatherhood of God may 
be said to be the peculiar theology (using 
that term in its restricted sense as the sci- 
ence concerning God) of the Scripture. It 
is hinted at in the O. T.,^ but is brought out 
in its fullness by Jesus Christ, through whom 
we receive the adoption of sons." 

The term father is used by the Roman 



1 Gen. xlv., S; 2 Kins^s v., 13.— ^ Gen. iv., 20, 21.- 
3 Dent, xxi., 18-21.- * Exod. xii., 26, 27 ; Dent, vi., 20- 
25.-5 prov. xxiii., 26 : I.si. i., 2 ; Ixiii., 16 ; Mai. i., 6.— 
^ Matt, v., 9 ; Kom. viii., 15 ; Gal. iv., 6 ; 1 John iii., 1. 



Catholic Church to designate its priests, in 
direct violation of Matthew xxiii., 9. The 
term fathers is also frequently used to de- 
note the early writers of the Christian 
Church. Those nearest the age of the apos- 
tles are called Apostolical Fathers (q. v.). 
St. Bernard, who lived in the twelfth centu- 
ry, is reported to be the last of the fathers. 
Christian theologians after that time treat- 
ed religious matters in a different style, and 
were called scholastics. The writings of 
the Christian fathers contain much that is 
interesting and instructive, particularly as 
throwing light upon the state of sentiment 
and feeling in the early ages of Christianity ; 
but that they possess the slightest authority 
in fixing either the doctrine or practice of 
the Church, all Protestants, with the excep- 
tion, perhaps, of the Tractarians of England, 
confidently deny. The Romish Church, how- 
ever, assigns to the fathers a prominent place 
in their rule of faith. Thus in the creed of 
Pope Pius IV. the Romanist is bound to de- 
clare, " Neither will I ever -take and inter- 
pret them (the Scriptures) otherwise than 
according to the unanimous consent of the 
fathers." The writings of the fathers are 
thus made to occupy a conspicuous place 
in that body of tradition which Rome places 
on an equal footing in point of authority 
with the Bible itself. But, unfortunately, a 
great diversity of opinion exists among the 
fathers as to almost every point of Christian 
doctrine. In fact, unanimity of sentiment is 
not found among them, but the utmost varie- 
ty and even opposition of views. 

Felix (happy). Autonius Felix, a freed- 
man of the Emperor Claudius, also called 
Claudius Felix, was governor of Judea at 
the time of St. Paul's seizure and imprison- 
ment in Jerusalem.^ The precise period of 
his appointment to that province is involved 
in some obscurity (it was probably about the 
year a.d. 52), as is also the exact footing on 
which he first entered on the administration 
of affairs in the East. The accounts of Jo- 
sephus and Tacitus are somewhat discordant. 
But in regard to the character of the man, 
both historians present him substantially in 
the same light. Tacitus, in his graphic style, 
says of him, that he ^' exercised the authori- 
ty of a king, with the disposition of a slave in 
all manner of cruelty and lust." One of the 
most infamous parts of his conduct was his 
seduction of Drusilla, the daughter of Her- 
od Agrippa, who had been married to Azizus, 
king of Emesa. Such was the man before 
whom Paul had to plead his cause, and with 
whom he reasoned of "righteousness, tem- 
perance, and judgment to come." No won- 
der that the judge trembled at the pleadings 
of his prisoner; yet it appears he simply ^ 
trembled ; ^lis convictions on the side of rec- 
titude did not carry him even so far as to in- 
duce him to do justice to the injured apos- 



Acts xxiii. ; xxiv. 



FELLOWSHIP 



346 



FERRET 



tie; and after two years' dallying, he had 
the baseness to leave Paul still hound. We 
know nothing more of him than that he 
was recalled to Rome, and succeeded in his 
government by Festus. But Josei)hus in- 
cidentally notices that Drusilla and the son 
she bore Felix perished together in an erup- 
tion of Mount Vesuvius. 

Fellowship in a college, a station of priv- 
ilege and emolument enjoyed by one who is 
elected a member of any of those endowed 
societies which in the English universities 
are called colleges. The fellowships con- 
fer on their holders the privilege of occu- 
pying apartments in the college, and gen- 
erally, in addition, certain perquisites as to 
meals or commons. Many fellowships are 
tenable for life ; but in general they are for- 
feited, should the holder attain to certain 
preferments in the Church or at the bar, 
and sometimes in the case of his succeed- 
ing to property above a certain amount. 
In general, also, they are forfeited by mar- ^ 
riage. 

Fence. In order to protect the vineyards 
from the ravages of wild beasts, it was cus- 
tomary for the Jews to surround them with 
a wall of loose stones or mud, which was a 
favorite haunt of serpents, and a retreat for 
locusts from the cold.^ Such walls are de- 
scribed by Maundrell as surrounding the 



yard thick. Two rows of these, placed one 
upon another, make a cheap, expeditious, 
and, in this dry country, a durable wall." A 
wall or fence of this kind is clearly distin- 
guished in Isa. V. 5, from the tangled hedge 
mentioned in Mic. vii., 4, which was planted 
as an additional safeguard to the vineyard, 
and was composed of the thorny shrubs with 
which Palestine abounds. 

Ferret. The Hebrew word which has 
been translated ferret in our version of the 
Bible, occurs in a list of unclean creep- 




Thc Gecko. 



ing things which were prohibited as food. 
The etymology of the name, signifying the 
groaner or sigher, points to some creature 
which utters a mournful cry. There is a liz- 




Sheep-fold. 



gardens of Damascus. " They are built of 
great pieces of earth, made in the fashion of 
brick and hardened in the sun. In their di- 
mensions they are each two yards long, and 
somewhat more than one broad, and half a 

1 Psa. Ixxx., 12; Eccles. x., 8; Nah. iii., IT; Matt, xxi., 
33 ; Mark xii., 1. 



ard 'known as the gecko wall-lizard, or fan- 
foot, which is exceedingly plentiful in the 
East, inhabiting the interior of houses, where 
it can find the flies and other insects on 
which it lives. As it creeps along the wall 
by means of its peculiarly-formed, adhesive 
feet, and frequently utters a mournful sound 



FESTIVALS 



347 



FETICHISM 



like the word " geck-o," scholars have con- 
jectured that this may be the auimal in- 
tended. [Lev. xi., 30.] 

Festivals or Feasts, a term denoting cer- 
tain periodically recurring days and seasons 
set aside by a community for rest from the or- 
dinary labor of life, and more or less hallow- 
ed by religious solemnities. Passing by the 
heathen festivals, only a cursory glance can be 
here taken of the Jewish and Christian festi- 
vals, the most important of which are treated 
separately under their respective names. In 
many of them we find the influence of the 
number seven. First and most important 
of all these is the Sabbath, or seventh day. 
The most exalted of new-moon festivals was 
that of the first day of the seventh month — 
the Feast of Trumpets. After a period of 
six years of labor, the earth, too, celebrated 
a Sabbath or Sabbatical Year, and after a 
revolution of seven times seven years came 
the Year of Jubilee. The pre-eminently his- 
torical festivals were the three appointed 
by the law of Moses to be observed annu- 
ally. These were the Feast of Passover, the 
Feast of Pentecost, and the Feast of Taber- 
nacles, at each of which every Jewish male 
was bound to be present. The feasts of Pu- 
rim and of Dedication were post-Mosaic, and 
exclusively historical. The Christian festi- 
vals were for the most part grafted, in the 
course of time, upon the Jewish and Pagan 
ones, but always with a distinct reference 
to Christ and other holy personages. The 
weekly day of rest was changed from Satur- 
day to Sunday, and called the Day of Joy or 
Resurrection, just as the weekly Jewish fasts 
of Monday and Thursday were changed for 
"Wednesday and Friday. Two separate cel- 
ebrations — that of the death, and that of 
the resurrection of our Lord — took the place 
of the Jewish Passover, and constituted East- 
er ; and the Festival of Pentecost, or the 
law-giving at Sinai, became the festival of 
the outpouring of the Holy Ghost, and of 
the inauguration of the new covenant. In 
the course of time two new festivals were 
introduced : Epiphany, which originated in 
the East ; and that of the nativity of Christ- 
mas. Circumcision, Corpus Domini, the 
Festivals of the Cross, of Transfiguration, 
of the Trinity, and many others are of still 
later date. The veneration for Mary as the 
" Mother of God " found its expression in the 
Roman Catholic Church in the consecration 
of many days to her special service and wor- 
ship, such as that of her Presentation, An- 
nunciation, Assumption, Visitation, Immacu- 
late Conception, and many minor festivals, 
over and above the Saturdays, which in some 
places were entirely dedicated to her, that 
the mother might have her weekly day like 
the Son. Besides these, there were intro- 
duced festivals of angels, of apostles, saints, 
martyrs, of souls, ordinations, and the like. 
Celebrated at first with all the simplicity 



of genuine piety, most of these festivals were 
ere long invested with such pomp and splen- 
dor that they surpassed those of the ancient 
Greeks and Romans. Burlesque, and even 
coarse and profane representations, proces- 
sions, mysteries, and night-services became 
connected with them. Their prodigious in- 
crease in number, and the abstinence from 
labor they brought, naturally produced in- 
dolence and licentiousniess among the mass 
of the people. Voices within the Church be- 
came bitter and frequent in denunciation of 
these " pagan practices ;" and after persistent 
and decided efforts, these festive occasions, 
which overspread well-nigh the whole year, 
were reduced in number, and in extrava- 
gance of observance. But the most marked 
change, both in their number and in the 
manner of their celebration, was produced 
by the Reformation. 

The Christian festivals have been various- 
ly divided : into those which occur annually 
at stated times, and those which are specially 
proclaimed; those of greater, and those of 
lesser importance. Another division is into 
weekly and yearly feasts, the latter being 
subdivided into greater and minor, or into 
movable and immovable. The movable feasts 
are those which depend upon Easter, and con- 
sequently do not occur on the same day every 
year. In the English Church the principal 
movable feasts are, besides Easter, the Sun- 
days after Epiphany, Septuagesima Sunday, 
the first day of Lent, Rogation Sunday, i e., 
the Sunday before the Ascension — ^Ascension- 
Day, Whitsunday, Trinity-Sunday, the Sun- 
days after Trinity, and Advent - Sunday. 
There is also a distinction made between 
whole days, half days, and the like. See, for 
special feasts, under their respective titles. 

Festus (joyful). Porcius Festus was ap- 
pointed by Nero to succeed Felix as procura- 
tor of Judea, about a.d. 60 or 61. He is said 
to have been, on the whole, a just and active 
magistrate, clearing his province very ener- 
getically of the robbers and murderers who 
infested it. Before him St. Paul had to 
defend himself, but removed his cause from 
the provincial tribunal by appeal to Caesar. 
Festus administered his government less 
than two years, and died in Judea. [Acts 
xxiv., 27; xxv. ; xxvi.] 

Fetichism, the worship of inanimate ma- 
terial things, as the abodes of spirits. It is 
the lowest form of worship, and is found 
only among the most barbaric tribes, chiefly 
among the savages of Western Africa. It is 
distinguished properly from the worship of 
the sublime objects of natui'e, as the sun, 
stars, moon, etc., and also from idolatry, 
since the manufactured idols are supposed 
only to represent to the senses the immate- 
rial and invisible spirits, in order to assist the 
imagination in apprehending them. It has, 
however, its root in the worship of nature, 
and is a gross and sensual form of pantheism, 



FETICHISM 



348 



FIR 



identifying, as it does, the Divine Spirit, or 
perhaps only inferior spirits, good and bad, 
with the commonest objects. Relics of fet- 
ichism, however, exist even in Christian 
communities in the superstition which at- 
tributes luck and ill luck to common things, 
as, for example, to a horse-shoe nailed Tip 
before the door. The purposes for which fet- 
iches are used in Africa are almost without 
number. One guards against sickness, an- 
other against drought, and a third against 
the disasters of war. Insanity is ciu-ed by 
fetiches, and there is scarcely a single evil 
incident to human life which it is not be- 
lieved may be overcome by this means, pro- 
vided the right kind of fetich be employed. 
They are of various classes, personal, house- 
hold, and national. They are found in a 
great diversity of forms ; but the most usual 
shape is that of the heads of animals or of 
human beings, and almost always supplied 
with a large pair of horns. Among the most 
prominent things which salute the eye of a 
stranger, after planting his feet upon the 
shores of Africa, are the symbols of this re- 
ligion. ' He steps forth from the boat under 
a canopy of fetiches, not only as a security 
for his own safety, but as a guarantee that 
he does not carry the elements of mischief 
among the people. He finds them suspended 
along every path he walks ; at the gate of 
every village, over the door of every house, 
and around the neck of every human being 
whom he meets. They are set up on their 
farms, tied around their fruit-trees, and fas- 
tened to the necks of their sheep and goats, 
to prevent them from being stolen. If a 
man trespasses upon the property of his 
neighbor in defiance of the fetiches set up to 
protect it, he is confidently expected to suf- 
fer the penalty of his temerity at some time 
or other. If he is overtaken by formidable 
malady or lingering sickness afterward, even 
should it be after the lapse of many years, 
he is believed to be suffering in consequence 
of his own rashness. The fetichmen are a 
regular and numerous order, whose whole 
aim is, by a series of artful contrivances and 
deceptions, to acquire and preserve a com- 
plete ascendency over the ignorant and su- 
perstitious people. They take care to sur- 
round themselves with every contrivance 
calculated to inspire awe and fear in the 
minds of those who consult them. Their 
temple is a deep, gloomy recess of the forest, 
where the overhanging foliage is so dense 
that scarcely a single ray of light can pene- 
trate it, and where there is no difficulty in 
concealing the accomplices of their artifice. 
Into this den they convey their dupes blind- 
folded ; and amidst strange unearthly voices, 
which to the bewildered senses of the poor 
terrified idolaters seem at one time to issue 
from the bowels of the earth, and at anoth- 
er time to ruvsh through the air, they make 
their sacrificial offerings and invocations 



to the gods whom they have come to con- 
sult. 

Fifth Monarchy Men, a sect of Millena- 
rians which sprang up in the time of Crom- 
well, differing from other Second Adventists 
in that they held not only to a literal second 
coming of Christ, but that it was their duty 
to inaugurate his kingdom by force. This 
kingdom was to be the fifth and last in the 
series of which those of Assyria, Persia, 
Greece, and Rome were the preceding four ; 
hence their self-assumed title of Fifth Mon- 
archy Men. Their leader was one Thomas 
Venner, a wine-cooper. They formed a plot 
to inaugurate their kingdom in 1657 under 
Cromwell, but were detected, and their 
scheme thwarted. In 1661, under King 
James, they renewed the attempt, and, with 
a band of about fifty armed men, rose in in- 
surrection against the Government. They 
were speedily dispersed, and the. ringleaders 
captured and executed. 

Fig, Fig-tree, a word of frequent occur- 
rence in the O. T. The fig-tree is very com- 
mon in Palestine, so much so that "to sit 
under one's own vine and fig-tree " became a 
proverbial expression among the Jews to de- 
note peace and prosperity.^ 

Whether the leaves employed by Adam 
and Eve with which to clothe themselves 
were those of the ordinary fig-tree, is uncer- 
tain. They are often fastened together at 
the present day for baskets and other uten- 
sils. Figs were sometimes made into cakes, 
and are still sometimes used, as in the case 
of Hezekiah, medicinally. [1 Sam. xxv., 18 j 
XXX., 12 ; Isa. xxxviii., 21.] 

Filio-que {and from the Son). Among the 
curious and unprofitable discussions which 
were so numerous during the Middle Ages, 
was one whether the creed should declare 
"that the Holy Ghost proceeds from the Fa- 
ther" (as in John xv., 26), or whether it 
should add, " and from the Son." This ques- 
tion gave rise to a long and imbittered dis- 
cussion. The highest dignitaries in the 
Church engaged in it. Popes disagreed upon 
it. But the creed was finally settled in the 
latter form by the Western Church; and it 
continues to this day to recite concerning 
the Holy Ghost that he "proceedeth from 
the Father and the Son." This faith has 
also been generally adopted by the Protest- 
ant churches. The Greek Church, on the con- 
trary, rejects it ; and the question whether we 
shall believe that the Holy Ghost proceeds 
from the Father, or from the Father and the 
Son, is one of the chief doctrinal points of 
difference between the Greek and the Roman 
Catholic churches. The controversy on this 
subject is known in ecclesiastical history, 
from the Latin phraseology of the creed, as 
the Filio-que Controversy. 

Fir. This word, in the English Bible, 
probably represents the Scotch fir, the larch, 
1 1 Kin^s iv., 25; Mic. iv.,4; Zech. iii., 10. 



FIRE 



349 



FIRE 



and the cypress, all of whicli are at this day 
found in the Lebanon. The Hebrew implies 
cutting up, as into boards and planks. The 
wood was employed for various purposes, as 
the floors, ceilings, and doors of the Temple, 
for the decks of ships, for spear-shafts, and 
for musical instruments. [2 Sam. vi., 5 ; 1 
Kings vi., 15, 34; 2 Chron. iii., 5; Ezek. 
xxvii., 5.] 

Fire. Fire was of course used for culi- 
nary purposes among the Hebrews, was some- 
times necessary in Palestine for personal 
warmth, and was employed religiously, par- 
tially or entirely to consume sacrifices. There 
can be little doubt that Abel's offering was 
made by tire. Noah is distinctly said to 
have "offered burnt-offerings;" and after his 
time the practice is frequently noticed. But 
no mention is made of tire from heaven for 
these sacrifices till after the giving of the 
law. The sacred fire on the altar was to 
be kept ever burning. This was to consume 
the burnt-offering ; for no common fire was 
to be used for a burnt-offering, or for burn- 
ing incense. It was for the employment of 
" strange," i. e., ordinary fire, that Nadab and 
Abihu (q. v.) suffered.^ Sacred fire was kin- 
dled from heaven on the dedication of the 
Temple.^ Instances also are recorded when 
God vouchsafed supernatural fire at the of- 
ferings of individuals.^ Fire was with some- 
thing of a religious aspect used as a means 
of purification. Hence that which would 
not abide the fire was regarded as worth- 
less. So, idolatrous cities were to be burned 
with fire — a doom executed on certain Ca- 
naanitish cities. And occasionally criminals 
were burned, but not, some have thought, 
among the Hebrews, till death by some oth- 
er mode had been inflicted. 

Fire is also used in the Bible symbolically 
to represent the more distinctive properties 
of the divine nature. In this symbolical use 
of fire, the reference is to its powerful, pene- 
trating agency, and the terrible melting and 
seemingly resistless effects it is capable of 
producing. There is considerable variety in 
the application of the symbol, but the pas- 
sages are all explicable by a reference to this 
fundamental idea. God, for example, is call- 
ed " a consuming fire ;" to dwell with him is 
to dwell " with devouring fire ;" " his eyes 
are like a flame of fire ;" his aspect, when 
coming for judgment, is as if a fire went be- 
fore him, or a scorching flame compassed 
him about.* In these, and many similar 
representations occurring in Scripture, it is 
the relation of God to sin that is more es- 
pecially in view, and the searching, intense, 
all-consuming operation of his holiness in re- 



1 Lev. vi., 9, 13 ; ix., 24; x., 1, 2.-2 2 Chron. vii., 1. 
—3 Nnmb. xxxi., 22, 23; comp. Zech. xiii., S, 9; Deut. 
xii., 3; xiii., 16; Josh, vi., 24; vii., 25; comp. Jer. 
xxix., 22 ; Josh, viii., 28 ; xi., 13 ; Jiide. vi., 21 ; 1 Kings 
xviii., 38; 1 Chron. xxi., 26; 1 Cor. iii., 13-15.— * Psa. 
xcvii., 3 ; Isa. xxxiii., 14 ; Heb. xii., 29 ; 2 Thess. i., 8 ; 
Kev.ii.,lS. 



gard to it. Fire, in its symbolical use, is also 
spoken of as purifying. It is the emblem of 
a healing process effected upon the spiritual 
natures of persons in covenant with God. 
We read not merely of fire, but of a refiner's 
fire, and of a spirit of burning, purging away 
the dross and impurity of Jerusalem.^ Still, 
it is a work of severity and judgment that is 
indicated even in these cases. 

Fire has been used for sacred purposes by 
others than the Jews. On the Saturday of 
the Greek Easter-Week, annually, the Greek 
and Armenian monks in Jerusalem profess 
to perform a miracle — that of kindling the 
holy fire. The ceremony is performed in tlie 
Church of the Holy Sepulchre, which is 
crowded to excess with fanatic pilgrims, 
running, trotting, jumping, galloping to and 
fro the breadth and length of the church. 
A procession of bishops and priests, with 
flags and banners, crucifixes and crosses, 
lighted candles and smoking censers, moves 
thrice round the church, invoking every pic- 
ture, altar, and relic in their way, to aid 
them in obtaining the miraculous fire, which 
makes its first appearance in the holy sep- 
ulchre, and from thence issues through the 
small circular windows and the door, for the 
use of the multitude. The origin of the cer- 
emony has never been traced, and the mode 
of its accomplishment is carefully concealed. 
The worshipers believe that the fire comes 
from above, and that a candle lighted by it 
will insure their entrance into heaven ; and . 
therefore they rush with such frenzy to ob- 
tain a portion of the holy fire, that some are 
frequently found to suffer serious injury, and 
many are killed in the attempt. 

In the Romish Church the ceremony of 
blessing fire is observed at Easter. The fire 
is kindled by sparks struck from a stone, in 
remembrance of Christ as the great Corner- 
stone. All the lights on the altar are pre- 
viously extinguished, that they may be re- 
kindled from the new fire. Imposing cere- 
monies accompany the relighting, and the 
mourning decorations, w^hich on Good-Friday 
symbolize the death of Christ, are removed, 
and brighter colors and the lighted can- 
dles betoken rejoicing over his resurrection. 
Among the ancient heathens fire was held in 
high veneration. A lamp burned constant- 
ly in the Prytaneum at Athens in honor of 
Minerva. Rome worshiped Vesta under the 
form of a perpetual fire. These sacred fires 
were kept burning in a variety of places; 
and the extinction of one of them was re- 
garded as a public calamity, betokening 
some heavy disaster, or even the overthrow 
of the nation itself. These sacred fires were 
renewed at longer or shorter intervals. It is 
generally believed that fire-worship was es- 
tablished by Nimrod. Abraham's birth-place, 
Ur, denotes fire ; and the .Jews have an old 
tradition that Terah and Abraham were ex- 
1 Isa. iv., 4 ; Mai. iii., 2. 



FIRE-PAN 



SCO 



FISH, FISHING 



pelled from Chaldea because they refused to 
worship the lire. See Moloch. 

Fire-pan, one of the vessels of the temple- 
service. The same word is elsewhere ren- 
dered ''snuffer-dish" and "censer." There 
appear, therefore, to have been two articles 
so called ; one, like a chafing-dish, to carry 
live coals for the purpose of burning incense; 
another, like a snuffer-dish, to be used in trim- 
ming the lamps, in order to carry the snuff- 
ers and convey away the snuff. [Exod.xxv., 
38 ; xxvii., 3 ; xxxvii., 23 ; xxxviii., 3 ; Lev. 
X., 1 ; xvi., 12 ; Numb, iv., 14 ; xvi., 6 ; 2 
Kings XXV., 15 ; Jer. lii., 19.] « 

First-fruits. It was but an extension of 
the principle which gave the impress of sa- 
credness to the first-bom of men and beasts, 
to connect with God by a like bond of sacred- 
ness the first products of the field. These 
were accordingly claimed for God ; and that 
not merely in general, but with a considera- 
ble fullness and variety of detail. A sheaf 
of the first-fruits of the barley-crop was of- 
fered in the name of the whole congregation 
at the Feast of the Passover, and in like 
manner two loaves of wheaten bread at the 
Feast of Pentecost. But lest the people 
should deem this a sufficient discharge of 
their obligations to the Lord, it was enacted 
that what was thus done collectively by the 
congregation should be done also by each of 
its families out of the yearly produce which 
the Lord might give them. The first or best 
of the oil, of the wine, of the wheat, of the 
produce of the threshing-floor generally — in- 
deed, all of the first ripe grains and fruits — 
were expressly set apart for offerings to the 
Lord, and were to be given to the priesthood, 
as the Lord's representatives, for their com- 
fortable maintenance. No specific quantity 
or proportion was fixed on ; that appears to 
have been left to the spiritual feeling and 
ability of each individual, and would no 
doubt vary, as the principles of religion 
were very active, or the reverse. Thus a 
stimulus was furnished to zeal and fidelity 
on the part of the priesthood, who could not 
neglect their duty as guides and instructors 
of the people without reaijing the reward of 
their unfaithfulness in diminished supplies 
of first-fruit offerings. The Talmud, howev- 
er, reduced this, like all other things, to def- 
inite rules and measures ; the sixtieth part 
was the least that could be given, while a for- 
tieth or thirtieth was regarded as the proof 
of a willing and liberal spirit. In later times 
the first-fruits were turned into money by 
the distant Jews, and this was sent for con- 
venience instead. 

The offering of the first-fruits was by no 
means peculiar to Israel, but was common 
among the nations of antiquity. With the 
Greeks, Romans, Egyptians, and others, this 
practice seems to have arisen from the feel- 
ing, in accordance with the common instincts 
of humanity, that the first rii)e portions of 



the crop were the best, and were due the gods 
primarily as a token of gratitude, and re- 
motely as a security for the fruitfulness of 
coming harvests. With the Hebrews, how- 
ever, the offering was not a mere acknowl- 
edgment of the God of nature, but connect- 
ed itself with the holiness of God, and stamp- 
ed all the produce with a certain measure of 
sanctity. 

In the ecclesiastical law, first-fruits or an- 
nats means the value of every spiritual living 
for one whole year, which the pope, claim- 
ing the disposition of every spiritual benefice 
in Christendom, reserved out of every living. 
In England these annats, which Henry VIII. 
transferred from the pope to the crown, were 
directed into a fund for the better mainte- 
nance of the poorer clergy, which was called 
Queen Anne's Bounty. [Exod. xxii., 29; 
xxiii., 19; xxxiv., 22, 26, 27; Lev. ii., 12; 
xxiii,, 5, 6, 10, 12, 15, 17, 39 ; Numb, xv., 19, 
21 ; xvlii., 11 ; xxviii., 26 ; Deut. xviii., 4 ; 
xxvi., 2-11 ; Neh. x., 35, 37 ; xii., 44.] 

Fish, Fishiag. In the account of the cre- 
ation, as well as in other passages where an 
exhaustive description of living creatures is 
intended, fish are recognized as one of the 
great divisions of the animal kingdom. The 
word fish is used in Scripture for any inhab- 
itants of the waters ; but there is a kind of 
classification where the great monsters in 
our version — " whales " — including also, per- 
haps, some land, or at least amphibious, crea- 
tures, are distinguished from those moving 
or creeping in the waters — that is, having no 
feet. Fish, likewise, were divided into clean 
and unclean ; those that had fins and scales 
might be eaten, others were considered an 
abomination;^ hence the Jews at this day 
do not eat shell-fish. While the Israelites 
were in Egypt, fish was a common and fa- 
vorite article of diet, for they specified this 
in their murmurings for food in the wilder- 
ness. The Nile abounded in fish, and the fail- 
ure of this source of food by the judgment 
which turned the waters into blood, and de- 
stroyed life therein,'^ must have been griev- 
ously felt by the Egyptians. We may not 
unreasonably suppose that there was a reg- 
ular fish-market at Jerusalem, as we find one 
of the city gates denominated the fish-gate.^ 
Whether fish were bred in ponds and reser- 
voirs has not been conclusively proved. The 
" fish-pools of Heshbon " were, so far as the 
original of the passage informs us, simply 
" pools," and the reference in the passage in 
Isaiah is not very clear.* In the N. T. there 
is mention of fish as readily procured and 
constantly eaten. The curing of them by 
salting was unquestionably known. There 
is mention of fish brought up from Tyre to 
Jerusalem. These could hardly have been 
carried such a distance without being pre- 



1 Gen. i., 20-26 ; Lev. xi., 9-12.— 2 Numb, xi., 5 ; Exod. 
vii., 19-21.— 3 Neh. iii., 3; xii., 39.-4 iga. xix., 8-10; 
Zeph. i., 10. 



FISH, FISHING 



351 



FISH, FISHING 




Fishing Scene. 
. The boat with the fish hanf^ing up to dry in the sun and wind ; on the top of the mast sits a kite. The 
manner in which it shrieks, while waiting for the entrails of the fish, as they are thrown out, is very char- 
acteristically shown in the original painting. The boat is supposed to be close to the shelving bank to 
which they are dragging tlie net. The water is represented by zigzag lines at &, which, to prevent confusion, 
have not been continued over the net. 



served by salt. The fishes, too, which the dis- 
ciples ou two occasions brought to our Lord, 
when he was about to feed the multitudes, 
were probably little fishes which had been 
salted and dried in the sun, and were eaten 
with bread just as we eat cheese or butter.^ 

The most common method of fishing was 
by nets, various kinds of hand and castiug- 
nets, as well as the larger drag-nets, which 
required the use of boats, being employed. 
In the N. T. the etymology of the Greek 
word in almost every case shows clearly 
the kind of net intended. In the account of 
the miraculous draught of fishes, the fact 
that the word used designates the compar- 
atively small casting-net, exhibits the mi- 
raculous element as twofold : first, the com- 
plete filling of the net with large fishes, 
whereas six or seven small fishes 
are the usual complement of a 
casting-net ; and second, the fact 
that the net, which was held 
merely by a single rope, did not 
give way and allow the inclosed 
fish to escape. That net, which 
" gathered of every kiud,"^ is the 
great drag-net, which was often 
so spread as to inclose all the va- 
rieties of fishes inhabiting a large 
circumference of the sea. The 
night was esteemed the best time 
for fishing with the net. Angling 
was a favorite pursuit of the 
wealthy in Egypt, and was fol- 
lowed also by the poor, who could 
not afi:brd a net. The former 
sometimes seem to have taken 
their fishing very comfortably 
in a chair — at least so it is 
judged from representations on the an- 
cient monuments. A more scientific meth- 
od was with the trident or spear, as prac- 
ticed in Egypt in taking the crocodile or 
the hippopotamus.' At the present day 
fishing with the spear is much used in the 
smaller tributary streams of the Jordan. 
The allusions to fishing in the O. T. are of a 



metaphorical character, descriptive either of 
the conversion or of the destruction of the 
enemies of God. In the N. T. the allusions 
are, for the most part, of a historical char- 
acter, though the metaphorical application is 
sometimes made.^ Fish are remarkably pro- 
lific. It may have been as embodying the 
principle of fecundity that fish became ob- 
jects of worship, against which superstition 
the Israelites were warned.'^ The Philistine 
idol, Dagon (q. v.) (little fish), was represent- 
ed by a figure half man and half fish. 

The fish was also the first and most uni- 
versal symbol used by the primitive Chris- 
tians. It came into familiar use as early as 
the second century, and is often found on the 
tombs of Christians in the Catacombs. It 
was frequently used to denote Christ. The 




1 Neh. xiii., 16; Matt, xiv., 15-22; xv., 33-38.-3 Matt, 
xiii., 4T, 4S.-3 Job xli., T. 



An Egyptian Gentleman fishing. 

Greek word for fish is ichthus, the letters of 
which stand in Greek for Jesus Christos Theou 
Uios Saviour, i. e., Jesus Christ, the Sou of 
God, our Saviour. The fish was used to rep- 
resent the scenes and parables where the 
apostles are spoken of as fishers of men, and 
was the emblem of water and the rite of 



1 Eccles. ix., 12; Jer. xvi., 16; Ezek. xxix., 3-5; xlvii,, 
10 ; Amos iv., 2 ; Hab. i., 14; Matt, ix., 19 ; Mark i., 17. 
-2 Deut.iv.,18. 



FITCHES 



352 



FLAX 



baptism. On this account Christians were 
accustomed to call themselves piscicuU, fish- 
es, to denote that they were born again into 
Christ's religion by water. From this sacred 
use of the fish, the font in Christian churches 
was termed a piscina, or fish-pool. The pis- 
cina is still used by the priest in ritualistic 
churches as a basin for washing his hands, 
to symbolize the purity with which he should 
approach the communion. The water in 
which any sacred A'^essel or ornament has 
been washed is also poured into the piscina, 
which is furnished with a drain for the pur- 
pose of carrying away any such fluids. 

Fitches (i. e.. Vetches), the translation in 
our Bible of two Hebrew words, Jmssemeth 
(Ezek. iv., 9), and Tcetsach (Isa. xxviii., 25, 27). 
As to the former, see Rye. The latter de- 
notes, without doubt, the black cummin used 
for both food and medicine. The seed is aro- 
matic, and of a sharp taste. From the readi- 
ness with which the ripe capsules surrender 
their tiny, black seeds, no plant could be 
more suitable for the prophet's illustration. 

Flag. There are two Hebrew words which 
are rendered " flag " in our Bible. The first, 
of Egyptian origin, occurs in Gen. xli., 2, 18, 
where it is translated " meadow," and in Job 
viii., 11. It denotes any green and coarse 
herbage which grows in marshy places. The 
second word, occurring in Exod. ii., 3, 5 ; Isa. 
xix., 6, is that which gives its name in He- 
brew to the Eed Sea, literally, "weedy sea." 
It appears to be used in a very wide sense to 
denote weeds of any kind. See Reed. 

Flagellants {scourgers), a class of people 
who appeared first in Italy in the twelfth or 
thirteenth century, who used the scourge as 
a means of discipline. Amidst the excite- 
ments accompanying the contests between 
the Guelphs and the Ghibellines, the party 
friendly to the pope, and the party friend- 
ly to the emperor, large bodies of men, 
girded with ropes, marched in procession 
through the cities and villages singing 
hymns, and calling upon the people to 
repent. This spectacle produced a great 
sensation; and in other countries, Ger- 
many especially, large bodies of Flagel- 
lants marched through the streets singing 
hymns, and scourging themselves until the 
blood flowed freely. To such an extent did 
the fanatical spirit spread, that both the 
civil and ecclesiastical authorities found 
it necessary to interfere. The public pro- 
hibition of all such processions by Pope 
Clement VI. only roused the Flagellants 
to oppose the dominant church of the 
time. They complained bitterly of its 
corruptions, declaring that the sacraments 
in the hands of a wicked clergj'' had lost 
their validity, and that nothing remained 
but to share in the sufferings of Christ, 
who was so obviously crucified afresh, and 
put to an open shame. Many of these en- 
thusiasts were visited with the most bit- 



ter persecutions, and not a few died at the 
stake, both in the fourteenth and fifteenth 
centuries. The principal tenets of the 
Flagellants were, that the teaching of the 
Romish Church respecting the efficacy of 
the sacraments, purgatory, prayers for the 
dead, and the like, are utterly erroneous; 
and that whoever believes simply what is 
contained in the Apostles' Creed, frequently 
repeats the Lord's Prayer and the Ave Ma- 
ria, and at certain periods lacerates his body 
with scourging, and thus punishes himself 
for the sins he commits, will attain eternal 
salvation. It was chiefly this refusal of the 
Flagellants to receive the dogmas which had 
been ingrafted on pure Christianity by the 
Church of Rome, that drew down the thun- 
ders of the Vatican upon these zealous enthu- 
siasts. 

Flax. It seems probable that the cultiva- 
tion of flax for the purpose of the manufacture 
of linen was by no means confined to Egypt ; 
but that, originating in India, it spread over 
Asia at a very early period of antiquity. 
That it was cultivated in Palestine even be- 
fore the conquest of that country by the Is- 
raelites appears from Josh, ii., 6. The plant 
seems to have been cultivated in much the 
same manner in ancient as in modern Egypt ; 
and the sculptures which represent the steep- 
ing, and the subsequent process of beating 
the stalks with mallets, illustrate the follow- 
ing description by Pliny of the manner of 
its preparation : " The stalks themselves are 
immersed in water, warmed by the heat of 
the sun, and are kept down by weights 
placed upon them, for nothing is lighter than 
flax. The membrane, or rind, becoming 
loose, is a sign of their being sufficiently 
macerated. They are then taken out, and 
repeatedly turned over in the sun until per- 




Flax {Limcm Usitatissivium), 



FLEA 



853 



FLOOD 



fectly dried, and afterward beaten by mallets 
on stone slabs. That which is nearest the 
rind is called tow — inferior to the inner fibres, 
and fit only for the wicks of lamps. It is 
combed out with iron hooks until all the 
rind is removed. The inner part is of a 
whiter and finer quality. After it is made 
into yarn, it is polished by striking it fre- 
quently on a hard stone moistened with wa- 
ter ; and, when woven into cloth, it is again 
beaten with clubs, being always improved in 
proportion as it is beaten.* 

Flea. In the only places in which this 
insect is mentioned in Scripture, David likens 
himself to it while addressing Saul.'^ Fleas 
are abundant in the East ; and though trav- 
elers are very much annoyed by them, the 
inhabitants seem to regard their attacks 
with perfect indifference, considering them 
too insignificant a foe for their notice. Hence 
the expressiveness of David's metaphor. 

Flood. In Gen. vi. to viii. we have an ac- 
count of the threatening of a general de- 
struction of man from the face of the earth, 
the preparation by which a favored family 
should be preserved, and the fulfillment of 
the threatened destruction. The spread of 
ungodliness among men had become so uni- 
versal as to call down a great general judg- 
ment upon mankind. ''God saw that the 
wickedness of man was great in the earth, 
and that every imagination of the thoughts 
of his heart was only evil continually. And 
it repented the Lord that he had made man 
on the earth." "But Noah found grace in 
the eyes of the Lord," and to this "just man " 
the coming judgment was revealed, and di- 
vine directions were given for the construc- 
tion of an ark (q. v.), in which he and his 
family might be preserved. 

At the end of the one hundred and twenty 
years of respite — the greater part of which 
may have been occupied in building the ark — 
Noah is commanded to enter it with his wife, 
and his three sons and their wives. He is to 
take a pair of each kind of animal into the 
ark with him, that he may preserve them 
alive, and is to provide for the wants of his 
living freight stores "of every kind of food 
that is eaten." " Thus did Noah," says the 
chronicler; " according to all that God com- 
manded him, so did he." "And the Lord 
shut him in." From chap, vii., 17, to the end 
of the chapter, a very simple but powerful 
and impressive descrij)tion is given of the 
appalling catastrophe. The narrative is 
vivid and forcible, though entirely wanting 
in that sort of description which, in a mod- 
ern historian or x^oet, would have occupied 
the largest space. From its very simplicity^ 
there is left upon the mind, with peculiar 
vividness, but one impression, that of utter 
desolation. 

The question whether the Flood overspread 

1 Exod. ix., 31 ; Josh. 1i., C; Prov. xxsi., 13.— 2 1 Sam. 
xxiv., 14; xxvi.,20. 

23 



the whole earth, or was confined to that lo- 
cality which was then peopled, has long di- 
vided those who believe that the Mosaic ac- 
count is historically true. The language of 
the narrative seems to imply its universality. 
See, for examjile. Gen. vii., 19. But similar 
expressions are used in Scripture in cases 
where the meaning is evidently limited. See, 
for example. Gen. xli., 57 ; 1 Kings xviii., 10 ; 
Dan. vi., 25 ; Matt, iv., 8. There are scien- 
tific objections of great weight to the theory 
that the whole earth was submerged, Avhich 
do not apply if we suppose that it was only 
the then inhabited portion of it wiiich was 
subjected to the flood. This appears to be 
the better opinion ; nor does the narrative, 
if fairly interpreted, involve any thing more 
than this. The purpose of God was to de- 
stroy the sinful race of Adam. That pur- 
pose would have been effected by a Deluge 
which covered the whole of that portion of 
the globe which may be called the cradle of 
the human race. The words of the narra- 
tive are no stronger than would naturally be 
used to describe such a catastrophe. Wheth- 
er any besides the family of Noah can have 
escaped, is another question. The most nat- 
ural interpretation of the Biblical account 
is that the whole race of man had become 
grievously corrupt since the faithful had in- 
termingled with the ungodly; that conse- 
quently God had decreed to destroy all man- 
kind except one family; that therefore all 
that portion of the earth, perliaps a very 
small portion as yet, into which mankind 
had spread, was overwhelmed by water. The 
narrative of Scripture appears to mean at 
least as much as this. It does not necessa- 
rily mean more. And it is confirmed by a 
universal tradition. In all the races of the 
world there are traditions of a flood which 
destroyed all mankind except one family. 
Foremost among these is the Chaldean. Ac- 
cording to it, Xisuthrus, being warned of a 
flood by the god Cronus, built a vessel, and 
took into it his relatives and near friends, and 
all kinds of birds and quadrupeds. When the 
flood had abated, he sent out birds, which the 
first time returned to him ; but the second 
time returned no more. Judging, then, that 
the flood was abated, he took out some of the 
planks of the vessel, and found that it had 
stranded on the side of a mountain ; where- 
upon he and all his left the ship, and offered 
sacrifice to the gods. The Greek tradition 
is to be found in the well-known classical 
legend of the floods of Ogyges and Deuca- 
liou. The Hindoo tradition represents man 
as warned by a great fish to build a ship, that 
he might be preserved during an imiiending 
deluge. The ship was saved by being lash- 
ed on to the horn of the fish, and was ulti- 
mately landed on a northern mountain. The 
Phrygian story of Anuakos — supposed to be 
Enoch — who foretold the Deluge, is singu- 
larly illustrated by a medal struck at Apa- 



FLOOD 



354 



FLOOD 



mea in the reign of Septimus Severus, on 
which is depicted an ark or chest floating on 
the water. Two people are seen within it, 
and two going out x)f it. On the top of the 
ark a bird perches, and another flies toward 
•it with a branch between its feet. And, sin- 
gularly enough, on some specimens of this 
medal the letters NQ, or NQE, have been 
found on the vessel, as in the accompanying 
cut. In China, Fa-he, the reputed founder 




Coins of Apamea Cibotns, with supposed Eepresenta- 
tious of the Ark. 

of Chinese civilization, is represented as es- 
caping from the waters of a deluge, and, at- 
tended by his wife, three sons, and three 
daughters, re-appearing as the first man of a 
renovated world. The Polynesian islanders 
have distinct accounts of a deluge in which 
a family, eight in number, was saved in a 
canoe. Similar traditions prevailed through- 
out the continent of America. The inhab- 
itants of Mexico had paintings representing 
the Deluge, a man and wife on a raft, a 
mountain rising above the waters, and the 
dove, the vulture, and other birds taking 
part in the scene. The Cherokee Indians 
have a legend of all men destroyed by a del- 
uge, except one family saved in a boat, to 
the building of which they had been incited 
by a mysterious dog. Thus, in every differ- 
ent race of mankind, we find traditionary 
accounts of this great catastrophe, and of 
the miraculous deliverance of a single fami- 
ly. They differ from the account in Genesis 
in their spiritual teaching, making a dog or 
a fish the agent of warning and preserva- 
tion, whereas that inculcates the lesson of 
faith and trust in God. But they combine 
with the account in Genesis to settle beyond 
dispute the historical fact of the Deluge. It 
has indeed been said that because all these 



are myths, so also is the Hebrew story a 
myth. But how can it be explained that in 
all parts of the world peojile have stumbled 
on the same myth, unless it is the tradition 
of an historical fact ? 

Since this article was written and put in 
type, recent investigations have brought to 
light a new and very extraordinary confir- 
mation of the Biblical account of the Flood. 
This is afforded by certain tablets brought to 
light by recent researches in the East, and 
deciphered, after fourteen years of study, by 
Mr. George Smith, of the British Museum, 
one of the most accomplished adepts in read- 
ing these ancient and almost illegible hie- 
roglyphics. Our illustration of a fragment 
of one of these tablets will suffice to give 
our readers some conception of the assiduity 
required by his task. The inscriptions on 
these tablets, as interpreted by Mr. Smith, 
contain the legends of a King Izdubar, who 
is thought to have founded the Babylonian 
monarchy, making Erech his capital. After 
many valiant exploits, he is seized with a 
fear of death, and starts out to find Sisit, or 
Noah, who has attained immortality with- 
out death. After long wanderings, he comes 
in sight of him, but can not approach him 
by reason of an impassable gulf of separa- 
tion. Sisit, however, tells him the story 
of the Flood. He relates how he was com- 
manded to "make a great ship," and de- 
scribes his method of building it, and how, 
when built, he brought into it all his serv- 
ants and the animals ; how, after he was shut 
in, the Flood came, destroying all life from 
the face of the earth ; how the ship or ark, 
on the abatement of the Flood, rested on the 
top of a mount ; and how, " on the seventh 
day, in the course of it, I sent forth a dove, 
and it left. The dove went and searched, 
and a resting-place it did not find, and it re- 
turned. I sent forth a swallow, and it left. 
The swallow went and searched, and a rest- 
ing-place it did not find, and it returned. I 
sent forth a raven, and it left. The raven 
went, and the corpses on the waters it saw^ 
and it did eat, it swam, and wandered away 
and did not return." Then follows the ac- 
count of the disembarkation, the building of 
an altar, and the offering of sacrifice. 

The geological objections to the history 
of the Deluge are chiefly such as the discov- 
ery of loose scoriae on the tops of the extinct 
volcanoes of Auvergne and Languedoc, the 
impossibility of the waters extending fifteen 
cubits above the mountains, and the perma- 
nent distribution of the animal kingdom over 
the different parts of the world. It is said 
the loose scoriae on the mountains of Au- 
vergne and Languedoc must have been 
swept away by a universal flood. But it is 
quite conceivable, even if the Deluge ex- 
tended to those regions and to the tops of 
those hills, that the gradual rise and fall 
of the waters might have left there almost 



FLOOD 



355 



FLOOD 




Part of a Tablet containing the Chaldean Account of the Deluge. 



untouched these remains of volcanic action, 
■which are not so light as has been asserted. 
The difficulty of conceiving of the waters 
rising fifteen cubits above the highest mount- 
ains, is a difficulty in the mind of the object- 
or, not in the text of Scripture, which does 
not necessarily mean that there was such a 
rise. The most serious difficulty in conceiv- 
ing of a flood universal — not only to the 
world inhabited by man, but to the whole 
surface of the globe — is in the history of the 
distribution of the animal kingdom. For 
example, the animals now living in South 
America and in New Zealand are of the same 
tjT)e as the fossil animals which lived and 
died there before the creation of man. It is 
not conceivable that all should have been 
gathered together from their original homes 
into Noah's ark, and have been afterward re- 
distributed to their respective homes. But 
the difficulty vanishes entirely if the sacred 
narrative relates only a submersion of the 
human race and its then dwelling-place ; and 
this sense of the narrative exact criticism 



shows to be possible, perhaps even the most 
probable, irrespective of all questions of nat- 
ural science. 

If it be inquired why God saved man and 
beast in a huge vessel, instead of leaving 
them a refuge on a high hill, or some other 
sanctuary, we inquire perhaps in vain. Yet. 
surely we can see that the great moral les- 
son, the great spiritual truth exhibited in 
the Deluge and the ark, were well worth a 
signal departure from the common course 
of nature and Providence. The judgment 
was far more marked, the deliverance more 
manifestly divine than they would have 
been if trees or hills had been the shelter for 
those to be saved. The great prophetic fore- 
picturing of salvation from a flood of sin by 
Christ, and in the Church of Christ, would 
have lost all its beauty and significance if 
mere earthly refnges had been sufficient for 
deliverance. As it is, the liistory of Noab, 
next after the history of Christ, is that which 
perhaps most forcibly arrests our thoughts, 
impresses our consciences, and yet revives 



FLY, FLIES 



356 



FOOD 



our hopes. A jiTdgment signally executed, a 
mercy wonderfully provided, it is a double 
lesson for all time. 

Fly, Flies. There are two Hebrew words 
which have been translated as "fly." One 
is zehuh, so familiar in the compound word 
Baal-zebub, i. e., lord of flies. This word only 
occurs in two passages/ and is probably a 
generic name for any insect. The other word 
(arob) is applied to the flies which were 
brought as a great plague upon Egypt.^ It 
is probable that some particular species is 
signified by this word, possibly the beetle 
(q. v.), but there is no certainty in the mat- 
ter. Any species, however, would be a suffi- 
cient plague if they exceeded the usual num- 
ber which infest Egypt, and which exist at 
•all times in such myriads as to make the life 
of a foreigner a burden to him. Some idea 
of this plague may be formed from the de- 
scription afforded by travelers of poisonous 
flies found on the Danube. They make their 
ai>pearance during the first great heat of 
summer, in such numbers as to seem like 
large volumes of smoke ; their attacks are 
directed against every species of quadruped ; 
they cover simultaneously every part of the 
animal, and torture him so that he dies in a 
few hours. A similar pest is described as 
infesting parts of Africa. 

Font. The primitive Christians were 
accustomed to wash before entering the 
church, as a symbol of the purity becoming 
the house of God. The vessel or font of 
water which was used for washing was for- 
merly situated outside the church, but in 
j)rocess of time it was introduced into the 




Font, Swaton, Lincolnshire, 1310 (Chambers). 

porch. The baptismal font came into use 
for the purpose of infant baptism, when the 
neglect of stated seasons of baptism had ren- 
dered the larger baptisteries needless. The 
font was usually placed at the west end of 
the church, near the south entrance, to indi- 
cate that baptism was the ordinance of ad- 
mission into the Christian Church. Fonts 
1 Eccl. X., 1 ; Isa. vii., IS.— 2 Esud. viii., 21-31. 



were at one time large, to serve for immer- 
sion ; but as that practice fell into disuse, they 
were reduced to a smaller size. By the can- 
ons of the Church of England, there must be 
a stone font for baptism in every church or 
chapel, but' in Presbyterian and Congrega- 
tional churches there are usually no fixed 
fonts. The blessing or benediction of the 
font is minutely provided for by a regular 
series of prayers and ceremonies in the Ro- 
man missal, and indicates plainly the belief 
of the Romish Church in baptismal regener- 
ation. 

Food. The diet of Eastern nations has 
been in all ages light and simple. As com- 
pared with our own habits, the chief points 
of contrast are the small amount of animal 
food consumed, the variety of articles used 
as accompaniments to bread, the substitu- 
tion of milk in various forms for our liquors, 
and the combination of what we should 
deem heterogeneous elements in the same 
dish, or the same meal. The chief point of 
agreement is the large consumption of bread, 
the importance of which in the eyes of the 
Hebrew is testified by the use of the term 
lecliem, which originally meant food of any 
kind, as a specific name for bread, and also 
by the expression "staff of bread."^ But 
simpler preparations of grain were common. 
Sometimes the husks of the fresh green ears 
were rubbed oft" by the hand, and the grain 
eaten raw. Frequently the kernels were 
carefully picked, roasted in a pan over a fire, 
and eaten as " parched corn." This was an 
ordinary article of diet, particularly among 
laborers and those who had not the means of 
dressing food ; and this practice of parch- 
ing grain is still very common in the East. 
Sometimes the grain was bruised or beat- 
en, dried in the sun, and eaten either mix- 
ed with oil or made into a soft cake or 
" dough." A great variety of articles 
were used to give a relish to bread; it 
was dipped into the light drink, "vine- 
gar," which the laborers drank, or, where 
meat was eaten, into the gravy, which was 
either served up separately for the pur- 
pose, or placed in the middle of the meat- 
dish, as is done by the Arabs.'^ Besides 
cereals, many other vegetables are men- 
tioned, such as lentils (which are still 
largely used by the Bedouins in travel- 
ing, and of which pottage was made), 
\\ beans, leeks, onions, and garlic, Avhich 
were and are still of a superior quality 
in Egypt. Coriander, cummin, mustard, 
anise or dill, mint, and rue were probably 
used as condiments. " Herbs," and " bitter 
herbs," and "juniper-roots," or broom, seem 
to have been eaten onlv in times of scarci- 



1 Lev. xxvi., 26 : Psa. cv., 16; Ezek. iv., 16; xiv.,13. 
—2 Lev. ii., 14-16; xxiii., 14; Nnmb. xv., 20; Deut. 
xxiii., 25; Jndg. vi., 19; RiUh ii., 14; 1 Sam. xvii., IT; 
XXV., IS; 2 Sam. xvii., 28; 2 Kin<rs iv., 42; Neh. x., 
.S7 ; Job vi., 6 ; Ezek. xliv., 30 ; Matt, xii., 1 ; Luke vi., 
1 ; John xxi., 5. 



FOOD 



357 



FOEEST 



ty, and a mere dinner of herbs was consid- 
ered very homely fare.^ Of fruits, figs and 
grapes Avere most abundant. Figs were 
sometimes eaten fresh, but generally dried 
and pressed into cakes. Grapes were eaten 
either fresh, dried as raisins, or pressed like 
the figs into cakes. The '^flagons of Avine" 
in 2 Sam. vi., 19, and the '' summer fruits," 
xvi., 1, were probably cakes of figs. These 
fruit-cakes are to-day a common article of 
diet among the Arabians, and a refreshing 
di'ink is made by dissolving them in water. 
A kind of wine seems to have been obtained 
from pomegranates ; and apples or citrons, 
mulberries, and nuts and almonds, were 
used as food.^ There were some important 
articles of food not included under these 
two classes. Honey abounds in most parts 
of Arabia. The article referred to under 
that name in Gen. xliii., 11, and Ezek. 
xxvii., 17, has been thought to be the dihs, 
or grape -juice boiled down, which is still 
extensively used in the East by the Syrians 
and Arabians. Oil does not appear to have 
been used to the extent we might have an- 
ticipated. Milk and its preparations have 
ever held a conspicuous place in Eastern 
diet, as aftbrdiug substantial nourishment. 
Though used" sometimes in a fresh state, it 
was more generally made into the form of 
the modern lehan, i. e., sour milk. It is this 
to which our Bible gives the name ^' butter."^ 
The Orientals are sparing of animal food. 
Not only does the excessive heat of the cli- 
mate render it unwholesome to eat much 
meat, aud impossible to preserve it, but the 
regulations of the Mosaic law in ancient 
and the Koran*in modern times have tend- 
ed to the same result. The prohibition in 
Gen. ix., 4, against consuming the blood of 
any animal, was more fully developed in the 
Levitical law, and enforced by the penal- 
ty of death. Those portions of the fat of 
sacrifices which were set apart for the altar, 
the flesh of animals of which portions had 
been offered to idols, and all animals classed 
as unclean,* were prohibited ; but with these 
exceptions the Hebrews were permitted the 
free use of animal food. Generally, how- 
ever, they availed themselves of it only in 
the exercise of hospitality, and at festivals, 
whether religious, public, or private. Only 
in royal households was meat in common and 
daily use.^ The animals killed for meat 
were calves, lambs, oxen not above three 
years of age, kids, harts, roebucks, fallow- 
deer, birds of various kinds, and fish which 



1 Gen. XXV., 29-84; Exod. xii., 8; xvi., 31; Numb, 
xi., 5; 2 Sam. xvii., 28; xxiii., 11 ; 2 Kiiiirs iv., 3!); 
Job XXX., 4 ; Prov. xv., 17 ; Ezek. iv., 9 ; Matt, xiii., 31 ; 
xxiii., 23; Luke xi., 42.— 2 Gen. xliii., 11 ; Dent, xxiii., 
24; 1 Sara, xxv., IS; xxx._, 12; 1 Kings x., 27; Sol. 
Song ii., 5; viii., 2; Hos, ix., 10; Hag. ii., 19; Amos 
vii., 14.— 3 Gen. xviii., 8 ; Juclg.v.,25; 1 Sam. xiv., 25; 
2 Sam. xvii., 29; Isa. x.,14; lix.,5; Matt, iii.,4; Luke 
xi., 12.—'* See Unolkanness.— ^ Lev. iii., 9, 10, 16, 17; 
vii., 25, 26; comp. 1 Sam. ii., 16 sq. ; xi., 1 sq. ; Dent, 
xii., 16 ; xiv., 4 sq. ; 1 Sara, xiv., 32 ; 2 Chron. vii., 7. 



had scales and fins. Sometimes a species of 
locust which was esteemed clean was eat- 
en, but it was considered as poor fare. For 
special articles of diet, see under respective 
titles. 

Foot, Feet. There are many cases in 
which the term foot or feet is used figura- 
tively in Scripture. The meaning general- 
ly is plain enough. Others, strange to us, 
are intelligible when the climate and domes- 
tic habits of the Hebrews are remembered. 
Walking barefoot or in open sandals, the 
feet of the traveler were necessarily soiled ; 
hence the custom of offering water for the 
feet, which came afterward to signify gen- 
erally the exercise of hospitality. So the 
shoes were taken off^ out of respect on ap- 
proaching a superior ; and sacred offices seem 
to have been performed barefoot, as they still 
are in all Mohammedan countries. More- 
over, to go barefoot expressed mourning or 
grief. To fall at the feet is to pay homage, 
to follow at the feet, to obey ; to sit at the 
feet, to receive instruction. Watering with 
the foot refers to irrigation by machinery 
moved with the foot. The word foot, or 
feet, is also sometimes used for delicacy's 
sake in describing other parts of the body. 
[Gen. xviii.,4; xix.,2; Exod. iii., 5; Deut. xi., 
10 ; xxviii., 57 ; Josh, v., 15 ; 1 Sam. xxiv., 
3; XXV., 27-42; 2 Sam. xv., 30 ; Isa. xv., 2-4; 
Luke X., 39 ; Acts xxii., 3 ; 1 Tim. v., 10 ; Ee v. 
xix., 10.] 

Footman, a word employed in the English 
Bible in two senses : 1st. generally to dis- 
tinguish those of the soldiers who went on 
foot from those who were on horseback or 
in chariots ; but, 2d. in a more special sense 
in 1 Sam. xxii., 17, only, and as the transla- 
tion of a different term. This passage af- 
fords the first mention of the existence of a 
body of swift runners in attendance on the 
king, though such a thing had been foretold 
by Samuel. This body appears to have been 
afterward kept up, and to have been distinct 
from the body-guard — the six hundred and 
the thirty — who were originated by David. 
It appears by 2 Chron. xxx.,' 6, 10, that in 
' Hezekiah's reign there was an establishment 
of running messengers. The same name, 
! posts, is given to the Persian posts in Esth. 
! iii., 13, 15 ; viii., 14 ; though it appears, from 
I the latter passage, that in the time of Xerxes 
1 the service was performed with mules and 
camels. [1 Sam. viii., 11; 1 Kings xiv., 27; 
! 2 Kings xi., 13.] 

Forest. There is reason to believe that 
tracts of woodland were formerly more fre- 
quent in Palestine than they are now. The 
principal forests mentioned in Scidpture are 
as follows : 1. The forests of cedars in Leb- 
anon,^ formerly far more extensive than at 
present.^ 2. The forests of oaks in Ba- 
shan.^ 3. The wood or forest of Ephraim,'' 

1 1 Kings iv., 33; v., 6, 9, 14.-2 gge Ckbaks.- ^ L«a. 
ii., 13 ; Ezek. xxvii., 6 ; Zech. xi., 2.-4 Josh, xvii., 15-18. 



FORGIVENESS 



353 



FOUNTAIN 



probably very extensive, but not to be con- 
founded with, 4. The wood of Ephraira, east 
of the Jordan, near to the city of Mahauaim.' 
5. The forest of Hareth,'^ probably in the 
south of Judah. 6. The wood in the wilder- 
ness of Ziph,^ south-east of Hebron. 7. A 
nameless wood, through which Saul pursued 
the Philistines,* probably on the slopes lead- 
ing to the Philistine plain. 

Forgiveness. Belief in a forgiving God 
is repeatedly spoken of in the Bible as a pe- 
culiarity of both the Jewish and the Chris- 
tian religions.^ And those who have studied 
the religions of heathenism find no greater 
contrast between them and that of the Bi- 
ble than the fact that the one teaches a God 
ready to pardon, and, as tbe Psalmist ex- 
presses it, ''great in mercy,"^ while the oth- 
er represents the gods as angry, vengeful, 
and hard to be placated. Yet among nom- 
inally Christian theologians the doctrine of 
divine forgiveness is held in very different 
forms. These are principally four : 1. Some 
theologians, chiefly those of the extreme ra- 
tionalistic school, deny that there is any for- 
giveness with God. They declare that the 
idea of forgiveness is inconsistent with the 
immutability of his character and law, and 
that pardon is an impossibility. 2. Another 
extreme is held by a different wing of the 



Roman Catholic Church, and often held in the 
experience, though never in the creeds, of any 
Protestant, is that God forgives us only after 
and partially in consequence of some penance 
suffered and some virtue achieved. To preach 
a free pardon is declared to be dangerous, and 
to pave the way, especially with the more ig- 
norant and degraded, for a larger license to 
sin. 4. The orthodox or evangelical doctrine 
is, that God is indeed always willing to for- 
give, needing no entreaties to be persuaded, 
and possessing no vindictiveness to be ap- 
peased ; but that a substitute for the pun- 
ishment threatened is absolutely essential 
to make such a pardon possible ; that such 
a substitute has been provided by the life 
and death of Christ, and that forgiveness is 
freely offered for his sake.^ 

The duty of forgiveness of our enemies is 
inculcated in many passages, not only by 
Christ and the apostles, but also as far back 
as the Mosaic law. It is required by these 
precepts that we forgive our enemies as God 
for Christ's sake hath forgiven us ; not mere- 
ly abstaining from personal vengeance, but 
returning good for evil, and love for hate 
and injury.^ 

Fountain. The Hebrew word ain, signi- 
fying " eye" as well as '' fountain," refers to 
the water finding its way up to us, in dia- 




Fountain at Beirut. 



same school, who assert that forgiveness is 
free, being based simply on penitence and a 
purpose of reformation, or, as some express 
it, God always forgives the sinner, who has 
only by repentance and reformation to get 
the benefit of the pardon, which is granted 
before it is asked. The only object of pun- 
ishment, according to them, being the refor- 
mation of the offender, his repentance and re- 
form necessarily puts an end to all punish- 
ment. 3. The doctrine avowedly held by the 



1 2SaTn. xviii.,6. SeeEpnRAiM (Woodok).— 2 i Sam. 
xxii., 5.-3 1 Sam. xxiii., 15.—* 1 Sam. xiv., 25, 26.— 
^ Exod. XX., 6; xxii., 27; xxxiii., 19; xxxiv., C; Neh. 
ix., 17 ; Psa. cvi., 1 ; Joel ii., 13 ; Mic. vii., 18 ; Rom. ii., 
4; X., 12; Eph. ii., 4.— » Psa. ciii., 8, margiual. 



tinction from heer, " well," from a word sig- 
nifying to bore, which refers to our finding 
our way down to it. It was one special fea- 
ture in the description of Canaan, that it 
was " a land of fountains," the more allur- 
ing when Israel had so long dwelt in a re- 
gion where they often wanted water. The 
springs in Palestine are now abundant and 
very beautiful, so that we can easily under- 
stand how in the sacred writings they sym- 
bolically express refreshment to the weary, 
and the spiritual blessings, ever fresh and 
ever flowing, which God imparts to his 



1 See Atonement. 
Eph. iv., 32. 



-2 Matt. v.,44r48; Rom. xii., 14; 



FOX 



359 



FRANKINCENSE 



people. In Oriental cities generally, public 
foimtains are frequent. Jerusalem appears 
to have possessed either more than one per- 
ennial spring, or one which had more than 
one outlet. [Deut. viii., 7; Psa. xxxvi., 9; 
Jer. ii., 13 ; Joel iii., 18 ; John iv., 14 ; Rev. 
vii., 17.] 

Fox. The Hebrew word, which is ren- 
dered in the English Bible as " fox," seems 
to be used rather loosely, referring in some 
places to the jackal, and in others to the 
fox. Thus, jackals being gregarious ani- 
mals, it is far more likely that Samson caught 
three hundred of them^ than of foxes, which 
are solitary in their habits, and not easily 
taken. The metaphorical reference in Solo- 
mon's Song, " Take us the foxes, the little 
foxes, that spoil the vines, for our vines 
have tender grapes,"^ may include both the 
fox and the jackal, as both are fond of fruit, 
and display a remarkable appetite for grapes. 
There are two instances in the N. T. where 
the fox is mentioned ; both are figurative 
references made by our Lord himself. The 
one, " Foxes have holes, and the birds of the 
air have nests,"^ alludes to the lodging-place 
of the animal, which is a burrow in the 
earth ; the other, his description of Herod 
as "that fox," is a reference to the cunning 
character of the animal.* 

Franciscans, a celebrated order of men- 
dicant monks which arose in the thirteenth 
century, deriving its name from St. Francis 
d'Assisi, its founder. It was formallj'' ap- 
proved by Honorius III. a.d. 1223, and had 
become very numerous when Francis died, 
A.D. 1226. By way of displaying his humil- 
ity, he called the members of his order Fra- 
terculi, or Little Brothers, which in Italian 
is expressed by FraMcelli, and in Latin by 
Minor es, or Minors. The rule which the 
Franciscans received from their originator 
was to the eft'ect that they were to live in 
common, observe chastity, and yield obedi- 
ence both to the pope and to the superior of 
the order. An indispensable condition of 
admission into the order was, that all ap- 
plicants must sell their whole possessions, of 
whatever kind, and give the proceeds to the 
poor. They were forbidden in the strictest 
manner to receive money either directly or 
indirectly, and while they were to derive 
their subsistence from the labor of their own 
hands, they must receive as wages any thing 
except money. They were imperatively re- 
quired to possess nothing of their own, and 
should the proceeds of their labor be insuffi- 
cient for their maintenance, they must beg, 
and with the alms they collected they must 
help one .inother. Their habit was to con- 
sist of a tunic, a hood, a cord for a girdle, 
and a pair of drawers. 

The order of Franciscans was furnished 
with power to grant indulgences, and thus, 

1 Jude. XV., 4.-2 Sol. Song ii., 15.— 3 Matt, viii., 20. 
—* Luke xiii., 32. 



though professed mendicants, they were in 
possession of ample means of support. This 
privilege rapidly gained for them a wide- 
spread popularity, rendering them powerful 
rivals to the bishops and priests, and also 
to the other monastic orders. The desire of 
some members of the order to relax the se- 
verity of the rule caused for a time a rup- 
ture and much keen controversy ; but, un- 
der the prudent management of Bonaven- 
tura, comparative tranquillity was restored. 
After his death, the dissensions broke out 
with as great violence as ever. In Italy and 
France, as well as in other countries, the 
Spirituals continued to protest loudly against 
the prevailing laxity of opinion and prac- 
tice among the members, until at length, 
under Boniface VIII., they in a measure sep- 
arated themselves from the rest. In 1294, 
some of the Italian Spirituals were allowed 
by Coelestin V. to form a new and separate 
community,^ professing to strip themselves 
of all possessions and all property, accord- 
ing to the original arrangement of St. Fran- 
cis. This distinct society, however, was sup- 
pressed by Boniface VIII. ; but various asso- 
ciations continued to exist in Italy in spite 
of the pope, and from that country they 
spread over the greatest part of Europe, con- 
tending earnestly against the corruptions of 
the Church of Rome, down even to the time 
of the Reformation. The Franciscans, as 
well as their rivals, the Dominicans, proba- 
bly from the very fact of their being mendi- 
cant monks, acquired great reputation and 
vast influence in every country where they 
were found ; and, accordingly, they were ob- 
jects of the utmost jealousy, and even ha- 
tred, among all ranks of the clergy as well 
as in the universities. The great privileges 
which they enjoyed above the other orders 
of monks gave them such power that they 
were able to undermine the ancient disci- 
pline of the church, and to take into their 
own hands to a large extent the manage- 
ment of all religious concerns. Such was 
the extent of their popularity, that they 
were the favorite preachers and chosen con- 
fessors of the people in every European coun- 
try which had embraced the Christian faith. 

The Franciscans came into England in the 
reign of King Henry III,, while their founder 
was still alive. The first establishment of 
the order was at Canterbury. In the afiitir 
of the divorce which Henry VIII. sought, 
he was violently opposed by the Franciscan 
monks, and accordingly this order was the 
first which was banished from the kingdom 
at the time of the Reformation. Above two 
hundred of them were thrown into prison. 

Frankincense (lehonah) is a resin which 
exudes spontaneously, or is obtained by in- 
cision, from several species of Bosivellia — 
a genus belonging to the natural order of 
Amyrdacece, or incense - trees. Bosivellia ser- 
' See Fratkicelh. 



FEATRICELLI 



360 



FRIENDS OF GOD 



rata grows to a height of forty feet, and is 
found in Amboyna and in mountainous dis- 
tricts of India. Its resin, known as Indian 
olibanum, has a balsamic smell, and burns 
with a bright flame and fragrant odor. Bos- 
tvellia pajyyrifera occurs on the east coast of 
Africa, in Abyssinia, about 1000 feet above 
the sea -level. Its resin, the olibanum of 
Africa and Arabia, usually occurs in com- 
merce in brownish masses, and in yellow- 
tinted drops or " tears," not so large as the 
Indian variety. This last is still burned in 
Hindoo temples under the name of "rhun- 
da" and"liiban," the latter evidently iden- 
tical with the Hebrew '^ lebonah ;" and it is 
exported from Bombay in considerable quan- 
tities for the nse of Greek and Roman Cath- 
olic churches.* 

The sacred incense of the Hebrews was 
compounded of stacte (or storax), galbanum, 
anycha, and frankincense, in equal propor- 
tions, and mingled with salt, as the original 
imports in the margin of our authorized ver- 
sion rightly rendered " salted.'" This com- 
position it was unlawful for private persons 
to imitate. It was reserved for the worship 
of Jehovah, and the quantity consumed on 
the altar morning and evening must have 
diffused a grateful atmosphere around the 
worshipers. 

Fratricelli, Fraticelli, or Fratelli, a Latin 
or Italian diminutive denoting little broth- 
ers. The term has been applied to so many 
different sects that its use by the writers of 
the Middle Ages is confusing. It was tirst 
applied to a sect of Franciscans which arose 
in Italy about the year 1294, who professed 
to observe the rule of St. Francis more strict- 
ly than the rest of the order, and therefore 
possessed no proi^erty either individually or 
collectively, but derived their whole subsist- 
ence from begging. They assumed to them- 
selves a distinct head or leader, and regarded 
Pope Celestin V. as their legal founder, deny- 
ing that Boniface and all the occupants of the 
Holy See who opposed them were true pon- 
tiffs. Although the word Fratricelli was 
sometimes used in the thirteenth century as 
a term of reproach among the Italians, be- 
ing applied to those who assumed the ap- 
pearance of monks, while they did not be- 
long to any monastic orders, yet, as applied 
to the stricter Franciscans, it was coveted as 
a term of honor by those who chose a life of 
the severest poverty. See Franciscans. 

Free Congregations, an organization of 
advanced German Rationalists and oppo- 
nents of Christianity who have formally se- 
ceded from the state churclies. The Union 
acts with the "Alliance of Freethinkers" (a 
German society in New York), and a num- 
ber of" Free Men's Associations " in different 
parts of this country. Similar societies ex- 
ist in France, Italy, Belgium, and Holland. 

Free-Love. If by this term it were only 



1 Exod. XXX., 34, 35. 



meant that love is free, the doctrine would 
be denied by none. It is really used, how- 
ever, to signify that the marriage relation 
should depend,- not upon any legal obliga- 
tions of a permanent character, but upon the 
love of the two parties, so that it should be 
dissoluble at the pleasure of either party. In 
its more modern forms, it rests upon the idea 
that marriage is a union of souls alone, that it 
is a spiritual relation, and that, accordingly, 
w^lien the souls are no longer united, when 
dislike and aversion take the place of mutu- 
al love, the marriage is at an end, and the le- 
gal relation which remains is a crime against 
the laws of nature, and therefore of God. 
According to the teachings of Jesus Christ,* 
however, the essential bond of marriage con- 
sists not in the unity of the spirit and soul, 
but in the fact that the wedded pair become 
one flesh — one, i. e., in their earthly relations 
and life. The unity of the soul and spirit, 
w^hich hallows, and sanctifies, and blesses it, 
is recognized in, but does not constitute, mar- 
riage. For a consideration of the Scriptural 
grounds of divorce, see Divorce. 

Free Religious Association, the name of 
an Association established in Boston, United 
States, in May, 1867. The constitution adopt- 
ed at the first meeting declared the objects 
of the Association to be avowedly to pro- 
mote the interests of pure religion, to en- 
courage the scientific study of theology, and 
to increase fellowship in the spirit. It pos- 
sesses no creed, each member being responsi- 
ble only for his own opinions, and individ- 
uals of all doctrinal views being invited to 
participate in the discussions. It is com- 
posed almost entirely, however, of persons 
outside the evangelical or orthodox churches. 

Friar {brother), a term common to monks 
of all orders, founded on the idea of a kind 
of brotherhood jjresumed between the relig- 
ious persons of the same monastery. The 
term is, however, commonly confined to 
monks of the mendicant orders (q. v.). In a 
more particular sense the term friar is ax)- 
X)lied to such monks as are not priests, those 
in orders being usually dignified with the 
ai^pellation of " father." 

Friends of God. In the fourteenth cen- 
tury, a spirit of mysticism i^ervaded nearly 
all Western Germany, which brought under 
its influence all ranks and classes, and led 
ultimately to the formation of an extensive 
but unorganized brotherhood, the so-called 
Friends of God. This name, by which they 
were known, was not intended to designate 
an exclusive party or sect, but simply to 
denote that the members claimed to have 
reached that stage of siiiritual life at which 
they were actuated by disinterested love to 
God, such as they considered was indicated 
by the words of our Lord in John xv., 15. 
Their distinguishing doctrines were self-re- 
nunciation, the complete giving un of self to 



Matt, xix., 5. 



FRIENDS (SOCIETY OF) 



361 



FRIENDS (SOCIETY OF) 



the Avill of God, the coutiiiuous acti\dty of 
the Spirit of God iu all believers, the possi- 
bility of intimate union between God and 
man, the worthlessness of all religion based 
upon fear or the hope of reward, and the 
essential equality of the laity and clergy, 
though, for the sake of order and discipline, 
the organization of the Church was held to 
be necessary. They recommended the con- 
scientious discharge of all duties required 
by the Church, but pointed constantly from 
external things to the hidden depths of the 
religious life. In tlie course of time there 
arose in these Christian societies two parties 
widely differing from each other — a theistic 
and a pantheistic party; the first considering 
it necessary to unite the contemplative with 
the practical in actual life, while the other re- 
garded it as the highest perfection to attain 
a pantheistic quietism that despised all act- 
ive labor. From the Friends of God sprang 
the Brethren of the Common Lot, the Brethren 
of the Free Spirit,^ and similar societies, which 
tended powerfully to train the public mind to 
more correct views of divine truth, and thus 
operated as useful forerunners of the Refor- 
mation. 

Friends (Society of), the proper designa- 
tion of a sect of Christians, better known to 
the general community by the name Quak- 
ers. Their founder was George Fox, born 
at Drayton, iu Leicestershire, in 1624, who 
at first followed the occupation of a shoe- 
maker, but afterward devoted himself to the 
propagation of what he regarded as a more 
spiritual form of Christianity than j)revailed 
iu his day. He traveled at first through 
England and Scotland, and subsequently vis- 
ited the Barbados, where his sympathies 
were awakened for the slaves, and he was 
led to take that decided anti-slavery ground 
which the Friends have ever since consist- 
ently maintained. In 1677, he visited the 
continent with William Penn and Robert 
Barclay, and assisted in organizing the Year- 
ly meeting of Friends in Holland. He final- 
ly died in January, 1691, at the age of sev- 
enty-seven. Without learning, he possessed 
marvelous gifts of genius, and yet greater 
gifts of spiritual power. While he lived, his 
refusal to comply with the fashions of the 
world, his jirotests against all forms and cer- 
emonies, into which religion had unquestion- 
ably too much degenerated, and his iteration 
and reiteration of the doctrine of the uni- 
versality of the gift of the Holy Spirit, drew 
down upon him bitter persecutions. But 
subsequent ages have reversed the judgment 
of his contemporaries. He is declared by 
Coleridge to be an "uneducated man of 
genius," and by Gov. William Livingstone 
" to have done more without learning to- 
ward the restoration of real unadulterated 
Christianity, and the extirpation of priest- 
craft, superstition, and unavailing rites and 



1 See Bretuken. 



ceremonies, than any other reformer in Prot- 
estant Christendom with it." " When I first 
read George Fox's life," says Mr. Spurgeon, 
" I could think of nothing but the Sermon on 
the Mount. Fox seemed an incarnation of 
it, and his teachings just a repetition of the 
Master's teachings, and just an explanation 
of the primary i)rinciples of Christianity." 

In spite of severe and cruel persecutions, 
the Society of Friends succeeded in estab- 
lishing themselves both in England and 
America. They have, indeed, never been nu- 
mericall}^ powerful, liaving, it is said, at no 
time exceeded 200,000 members ; but the pu- 
rity of life which from the beginning has so 
honorably distinguished them as a class, has 
unquestionably exercised a salutary infiu- 
ence on the public at large, while in respect 
to certain great questions affecting the in- 
terests of mankind, such as war and slavery, 
they have originated opinions and tenden- 
cies which are no longer confined to them- 
selves, but have widely leavened the mind 
of Christendom. In America, about the year 
1827, a schism took place in the Society of 
Friends, which is now divided into two or- 
ganizations, known, the one as the Ortho- 
dox Friends, the other as the Hicksites, from 
their leader, Elias Hicks. The question 
which of these bodies more nearly represents 
the original views of George Fox and the 
early Friends is one in dispute, each claim- 
ing to be nearest in practice and doctrine. 

I. Orthodox Friends, a. Doctrine. — It 
is in the spirit, rather than in the letter of 
their faith, that the Orthodox Friends differ 
from other evangelical Christians. They as- 
sert their belief in the great fundamental facts 
of Christianity, and even in the substantial 
identity of most of the doctrinal opinions 
which they hold with those of other evan- 
gelical denominations. The epistle address- 
ed by George Fox and other Friends to the 
Governor of Barbados in 1673 contains a 
confession of faith not differing materially 
from the so-called Apostles' Creed, except 
that it is more copiously worded, and dwells 
with great diffuseuess on the internal work 
of Christ. The declaration of Christian doc- 
trine given forth on behalf of the Society in 
1693, expresses a belief iu what is usually 
termed the Trinity, in tlie atonement made 
by Christ for sin, in the resurrection from 
the dead, and in the doctrine of a final and 
eternal judgment. The Friends also main- 
tain the inspiration of the Scrij)tures, the 
depravity of human nature in consequence 
of the Fall, and the other characteristic doc- 
trines of the orthodox or evangelical faith. 
But in general, the Society of Friends, in 
the expression of their belief, have avoided 
the technical phraseology of other Christian 
churches, restricting themselves to the words 
of Scripture itself, as far as that is possible. 
Their habit of allowing to each individual tlie 
I full freedom of the Scriptures, has, of course. 



FRIENDS (SOCIETY OF) 



362 



FRIENDS (SOCIETY OF) 



rendered it all the more difi&cult to ascertain 
to what extent individual minds among the 
Society may have differed in their mode of 
apprehending and dogmatically explaining 
the facts of Christianity. Their principal 
distinguishing doctrine is that of the ** Light 
of Christ in man," on which many of their 
outward peculiarities as a religious body 
are grounded. The doctrine of the " Inner 
Light" is founded on the view of Christ 
given by John, who in the first chapter of 
his gospel describes Christ as the ''life" and 
" light of men," " the true light," " the light 
that lighteth every man that cometh into 
the world." This doctrine, as held by the 
Orthodox Friends, can hardly be termed a 
peculiarity of their creed, since it does not 
in theory differ from the doctrine of the 
Holy Sj)irit as held by all evangelical Chris- 
tians. But while in the seventeenth century 
the divinity of Christ was warmly insisted 
on by the Christian Church, partly in conse- 
quence of the controversies with the Arians 
and Sociuians, the doctrine of the personal 
presence of the Holy Spirit was ignored, if 
not denied. The teachings of George Fox 
were characterized by nothing, perhaps, so 
much as the prominence he gave to this 
doctrine ; and it is the xii'onai^ience of the 
doctrine, rather than any peculiar form of 
it, which distinguishes the theology of the 
Friends from that of other evangelical de- 
nominations. 

&. Practice. — The Friends do not consider 
human learning essential to a minister of 
the Gospel, and look with distrust on the 
method adopted by other churches for ob- 
taining it. They believe that the call to 
this work is "not of men, but by Jesus 
Christ, and God the Father ;" and that it is 
bestowed irrespective of rank, talent, learn- 
ing, or sex. Consequently, they have no the- 
ological halls, professors of divinity, or class- 
es for students. Further, as fitness for the 
ministry is held to be a free gift of God 
through the Holy Spirit, so, they argue, it 
ought to be freely bestowed; in support of 
which they adduce the precept of the Sav- 
iour, '^ Freely ye have received, freely give."^ 
Hence those who minister among tliem are 
not paid for their labor of love, but, on the 
other hand, whenever such are engaged away 
from home in the work of the Gospel, they 
are, in the spirit of Christian love, freely en- 
tertained, and have all their wants supplied. 
In short, the Friends maintain the absolute- 
ly voluntary character of religious, or at 
least churchly obligations, and that Chris- 
tians should do all for love, and nothing for 
money. Their mode of conducting public 
worship likewise illustrates the entireness 
of their dependence on the " Inner Light." 
They meet and remain in silence until they 
believe themselves nu)ved to speak by the 
Holy Ghost. Their prayers and praises are. 



for the most part, silent and inward. The 
doctrine of the " Inner Light " has also led 
1 the Friends to reject the ordinances of Bap- 
tism and the Lord's Supper, as these are ob- 
served by other Christians. They believe 
Christian baptism to be a sj)iritual one only; 
1 in support of which they quote, among other 
j passages, the words of John the Baptist : ''I 
j baptize you with water, but one mightier 
' than I cometh ; he shall baptize yon with 
the Holy Ghost and with fire."^ Similarly 
I they regard the rite of the Eucharist. It is, 
j say they, inward and spiritual, and consists 
not in any symbolical breaking of bread and 
j drinking of wine, but in that daily commun- 
ion with Christ through the Holy Sxurit, and 
through the obedience of faith, by which the 
believer is nourished and strengthened. For 
the same reason, viz., that the teaching of the 
Spirit is inward and spiritual, the Friends 
ignore the religious observance of days and 
times, with the exception of the Sabbath, 
which some at least among them regard as 
of perpetual obligation. The taking or ad- 
ministering of oaths is regarded by Friends 
as inconsistent with Scripture, particularly 
with Matt. Y., 34, and James v., 12. In En- 
gland they have refused to pay tithes for 
the Established Church, on the ground that 
to do so is to support an un-Christian meth- 
od of Church government. They have con- 
sistently protested against war in all its 
forms. They regard the profession of arms 
and fighting not only as diametrically op- 
posed to the general spirit of Christ, but as 
positively forbidden by his precepts. And 
wliile they acknowledge that temporary ca- 
lamities may result from adopting the j)rin- 
ciple of non-resistance, they have so strong 
a faith in its being essentially the law of 
Christ, that they believe God can and will, 
by his providence, justify a literal mainte- 
nance of precepts which to the rest of the 
Christian world seem to be intended to in- 
culcate a spirit of good-will and kindness, 
rather than to prohibit all appeal to force. 
They have been from verj" early times ear- 
nest opponents of slavery in all its forms. As 
early as 1652 the Friends of Warwick, R. I., 
imposed a fine on those who refused to liber- 
ate their slaves ; and, thirty-six years after, 
the Friends of Germantown and Philadel- 
phia presented a memorial against slavery 
and the slave-trade. It was in Pennsylva- 
nia, where their principles had acquired the 
greatest power, that the shackles of the slave 
were first broken. In respect to other points 
of morals the Friends are very scrupulous. 
They object to balls, gaming-places, horse- 
races, and play-houses. The printed epistle 
of London Yearly Meeting of 1854 contains 
a warning against indulging in music, espe- 
cially that which goes by the name of sacred 
music, and denounces musical exhibitions, 
such as oratorios, as essentially a " profana- 



1 Mutr. X. 



Luke iii., IG. 



FRIE]ST)S (SOCIETY OF) 



363 



FRIENDS (SOCIETY OF) 



tion" — the tendency of these things being, 
it is alleged, " to withdraw the soul from 
that quiet, humble, and retired frame in 
which prayer and praise may be truly offer- 
ed with the spirit and with the understand- 
ing also." They object, besides, to ''the 
hurtful tendency of reading plays, romances, 
novels, and other pernicious books." 

c. Discipline. — By the term discipline, the 
Friends understand " all those arrangements 
and regulations which are instituted for the 
civil and religious benefit of the Christian 
Church." The necessity for such discipline 
soon began to make itself felt, and the re- 
sult was the iustitution of certain meet- 
ings or assemblies. These are four in num- 
ber : the first, the Preparative meetings ; sec- 
ond, the Monthly meetings ; third, the Quar- 
terly meetings ; and fourth, the Yearly meet- 
ings. The first are usuallj^ composed of the 
members in any given place, in which there 
are generally two or more Friends of each 
sex, whose duty it is to act as overseers of 
the meeting, taking cognizance of births, 
marriages, burials, removals, the conduct of 
members, etc., and reporting thereon to the 
Monthly meetings, to whom the executive 
department of the discipline is chiefly con- 
fided. The Monthly meetings are also em- 
powered to approve and acknowledge min- 
isters, as well as to appoint "serious, dis- 
creet, and judicious Friends, who are not 
ministers, tenderly to encourage and help 
young lainisters, and advise others, as they, 
in the wisdom of God, see occasion." They 
also execute a variety of other duties. The 
Quarterly meetings are composed of sever- 
al Monthly meetings, and exercise a sort of 
general supervision over the latter, from 
Avhom they receive reports, and to whom they 
give such advice and decisions as they think 
right. The Yearly meeting consists of rep- 
resentatives of the Quarterly meetings. Its 
function is to consider the entire condition 
of the Society in all its aspects. It receives, 
in writing, answers to questions it has pre- 
viously addressed to the subordinate meet- 
ings, deliberates upon them, and legislates ac- 
cordingly. To it exclusively the legislative 
power belongs. Though thus constituted 
in a manner somewhat analogous to that of 
the Presbyterian order, yet any member of 
the Society may attend and take part in the 
proceedings. There are fifteen independent 
Yearly meetings of Friends ; and societies 
are established in Great Britain and Ireland, 
France, Germany, Norway, Canada, the Uni- 
ted States, Australia, and New Zealand. The 
total number is variously estimated at from 
120,000 to over 200,000,' of whom between 
10,000 and 13,000 are in Great Britain, 15,000 
in Canada, and the remainder chiefly in the 
United States. 

II. HiCKSiTES. — Those Friends popularly 
known as Hicksites are generally regarded 
as denying the miraculous conception, the 



divinity and atonement of Christ, and the 
divine authority of the Scriptures. From a 
full statement of their doctrinal views by 
one of their number, published in M'Clin- 
tock and Strong's " Cyclopaedia,"^ we judge 
that this statement does them injustice. 
On the contrary, they claim to hold the 
doctrines of the early Friends as expound- 
ed by Fox, Penn, Pennington, and Barclay. 
They maintain the authenticity and author- 
ity of the divine Scriptures, while they 
reserve the title Word of God to the " spir- 
itual influence or medium by which the 
Most High communicates his will to man." 
They define the authority of the Scriptures 
by reference to the Scriptures themselves, 
and especially to Rom. xv., 4 ; and 2 Tim. iii., 
15-17. They deny that guilt is or can bo 
transmitted, but apparently do not deny that 
tendencies to guilt are inherited. They lay 
great stress on the doctrine of the "inner 
light," and define the divinity of Jesus Christ 
by the declaration that " the most full and 
glorious manifestation of the divine Word, 
or Logos, was in Jesus Christ, the immacu- 
late Son of God, who was miraculouslj^ con- 
ceived and born of a Virgin." They do not 
appear to recognize the doctrine of a vica- 
rious atonement,^ but explain the necessity 
for Christ's death by the statement that it 
was requisite in order to remove the enmi- 
ty from man's heart. They have six Year- 
ly meetings connected by epistolary corre- 
spondence, but independent in regard to dis- 
cipline. The aggregate membership is esti- 
mated to be about 35,000. 

HI. PR0GRES8I^^E Friends. — A religious 
society first formed in 1853, in Chester Coun- 
ty, Pennsylvania, growing out of a division 
in one of the Monthly meetings of the (Hicks- 
ite) Friends. It opens its doors to all who 
recognize the equal brotherhood of the hu- 
man family, without regard to sex, color, or 
condition, and who acknowledge the duty 
of defining and illustrating their faith in 
God, not by assent to a creed, but by lives 
of personal purity, and works of beneficence 
and charity. It disavows any intention of 
binding its members together by agreement 
as to theological opinions, and declares that 
it seeks its bond of union in "identity of 
object, oneness of spirit in respect to the 
practical duties of life, the comnnmion of 
soul with soul in a common love of the beau- 
tiful and true, and a common aspiration af- 
ter moral excellence." It disclaims all dis- 
ciplinary authority, whether over individual 
members or local associations ; sets forth no 
forms or ceremonies ; and makes no provis- 
ion for the ministry as an order distinguish- 
ed from the laity. Practically it embraces 
only those of rationalistic tendencies, who, 
however, in addition to the light of reason, 
recognize the inner or spiritual light which 

1 Art. Friends (No. 2), vol. iii., pp. C70-673.— 2 See 
Atone-ment. 



FROG 



364 



FUNERAL RITES 



comes from personal communion with God, 
while they deny the authority of the Scrip- 
tures as a rule of faith and practice. It is 
chiefly known hy a Yearly meeting, which 
includes x>ersons living in places widely dis- 
tant from each other, and which is often at- 
tended and addressed by individuals in per- 
sonal sympathy with its aims and spirit, hut 
not in direct connection with it as members. 
But there are also local associations in dif- 
ferent parts of the country which are in 
spirit and character in accordance with this 
Yearly meeting, though, by the very nature 
of the principles of the Progressive Friends, 
not subject to its control. 

Frog. Plentiful as is the frog throughout 
Egypt, Palestine, and Syria, it is rather re- 
markable that in the whole of the canonical 
books of the O. T. the word is mentioned 
only thrice, and each case in connection with 
the same event — the second plague sent upon 
Egypt. The species was probably the green, 
or edible, frog, which is so well known for 
the delicacy of its flesh. This is believed to 
be the only aquatic frog of Egypt, and there- 
fore must be the species which came out of 
the river into the houses. Except a purely 
symbolical reference in Revelations, there is 
no mention of frogs in the N. T. [Exod. viii., 
1-15; Psa. Ixxviii., 45; cv., 30; Rev. xvi., 
13.] 

Fuller, a person whose business it is to 
cleanse and whiten cloth. This business 
was carried on without the walls of Jerusa- 
lem, probably because of the offensive smells 
occasioned by it. There was a "fuller's 
field" near Jerusalem. The exact site of it 
is not known. There was also a fuller's 
fountain, Enrogel (q. v.), to the south-east, 
and no doubt in these places the fullers plied 
their occupation. The cloth was trodden or 
beaten with heavy clubs in water, with which 
some alkaline substance had been mixed, 
as potter's clay, or marl, or urine. Nitre 
also, and fuller's soap, are mentioned as em- 
ployed for cleansing purposes, and the juice 
of some saponaceous plants and vegetable 
ashes were also probably used. See Soap. 
[Jer. ii., 22 ; Mai. iii., 2 ; Mark ix., 3.] 

Funeral Rites. The treatment of the 
lifeless body has not always been the same 
in every age, but has varied both in different 
ages and in different countries. Burial is 
in all probability the oldest, and, among all 
antiquity, the customary mode of disposing 
of corpses. Among the Israelites it was the 
only mode. And the ruins of necropolises, 
and tombs of the Egyptians, Babylonians, 
and Persians prove that those peoples buried 
their dead. Yet the custom of burning the 
dead can be traced back to a remote antiqui- 
ty. It was a well-known custom among the 
Greeks, though in no age altogether preva- 
lent. The body was phiced on the top of a 
pile of wood called pyra, or pyre, and fire 
being apx^lied, it was consumed to ashes. 



From Plomer it seems that animals, and even 
captives or slaves, were burned along with 
the dead body in some instances, in which it 
was designed to show honor to the deceased. 
When the pile was burned down, the fire was 
quenched by throwing wine upon it, after 
which the bones were carefully collected by 
the relatives, washed with wine and oil, and 
deposited in urns, which were sometimes 
made of gold, but generally of marble, ala- 
baster, or baked clay. This last ceremony 
received the name of the ossilegium. Among 
the Romans it was customary to burn the 
bodies of the dead before burial. If the 
place of burning happened to be near the 
place of burial, it was called hustum; if at a 
disiauGe, ustrinum. The practice does not ap- 
pear to have been adopted generally among 
the Romans until the later times of the re- 
public, but under the empire it was the uni- 
versal mode of disposing of the dead. The 
introduction of Christianity led to its speedy 
disappearance, so that in the fourth century 
it had fallen into complete disuse. Burning 
the dead prevailed in ancient Scandinavia 
and the north of Europe at a very early pe- 
riod, and the practice was followed by the 
ancient Britons. The ashes of the deceased 
were carefully collected in an urn or small 
stone chest, and deposited in low hilly 
mounds not over a yard high, called har- 
rows. Among the ancient heathen there 
were buried with the urns and ashes of the 
deceased small glass or earthen vessels, call- 
ed lachrymatories, which contained the tears 
which surviving friends or relatives wept for 
the dead. In modern times the dead are 
still burned in various heathen countries.* 
The Hindoo sects of India generally prefer 
burning to burial, and until lately widows 
were allowed to undergo voluntary crema- 
tion on the funeral piles of their husbands. 
To the woman who does this the name Suttee 
is given, and the term is also used to denote 
the horrid rite itself, which is approved and 
encouraged in the sacred books by promises 
of glory and blessedness in a future state. 
This practice was prohibited by the British 
Government in 1829-'30, but is still under- 
stood to be secretly, though rarely, observed 
in districts remote from British authority. 
There are two instances in sacred history of 
tlie burning of dead bodies : the one in the case 
of Saul and his sons, whose bodies were prob- 
ably so mangled as to preclude their receiv- 
ing royal honors; the other appears to refer 
to a season of pestilence, and the burning was 
probably one of the sanitary measures adopt- 
ed to prevent the spread of the contagion.'^ 
But throughout their history as a nation the 
Israelites observed the practice of burial. No 



1 This practice, called Cremation, has recently (1S74) 
been inaugurated in the United States and Great Brit- 
ain, on sanitary grounds. A company has been organ- 
ized in New York City, which proposes to construct 
a furnace for burning the dead.— ^ 1 Sam. xxxi., 12 ; 
Amos vi., 10. '' 



FUNERAL RITES 



365 



FURNACE 



sooner had the breath departed than the 
nearest relative hastened to close the eyes 
of the deceased, and to salute the lifeless 
body with a parting kiss. The corpse was 
then washed entirely with warm water, 
some say, that it might appear clean before 
God, but others, with more reason, that it 
was a precaution to guard against prema- 
ture interment, and that it enabled the oint- 
ments and xierfumes to enter easilj^ into the 
pores thus opened. Few higher tokens of 
respect could be paid to the remains of a 
departed frieud than a profuse application 
of costly perfumes. Among certain classes 
elaborate and costly processes were bestow- 
ed upon the corpse, the origin of which is to 
be traced to a fond and natural, though fool- 
ish desire to retard the process of decompo- 
sition. Nowhere was this done with so re- 
ligious care and in so scientific a manner as 
among the ancient Egyptians,who so embalm- 
ed dead bodies that mummies are still found 
which must have existed for many thousand 



' in Italy the Jews simply mingle the water 
with which they wash the corpse with dried 
roses and camomile. 

After receiving the preliminary attentions, 
the body was enveloped in the grave-clothes. 
Sometimes this consisted of nothing more 
than the ordinary dress, or linen folds wrap- 
ped round the body, and a napkin about the 
head. In other cases a shroud was used, 
and was plain or ornamental, according to 
taste or other circumstances. Sometimes the 
dead were anointed and dressed in so sump- 
tuous a manner that the families were im- 
poverished by the expense. Thus i^repared, 
the body was deposited in an upper cham- 
ber in solemn state, open to the view of all 
visitors.^ 

From the moment of decease, the mem- 
bers of the family, especially the women, 
broke forth into loud and wild lamenta- 
tions, in which they were soon joined by 
their friends and neighbors, who, on hearing 




Conveying Mummies on a Sledge. 



years. The bodies of Jacob and Joseph were 
prepared for burial in this eminently Egyp- 
tian way, which on both occasions was doubt- 
less executed in a style of the greatest mag- 
nificence.^ We know not whether this ex- 
pensive method of embalming was imitated 
by the earlier Hebrews ; but we know that 
in later ages they observed a simpler and 
more expeditious, though a far less efficient 
process. It consisted in merely swathing 
the corpse with numerous folds of linen, and 
sometimes a variety of stuifs, and anointing 
with an aromatic mixture, of which aloes 
and mjTrh were* the chief ingredients. Nor 
can we be certain that the great abundance 
of perfumes they provided were used in the 
common way of anointing the corpse. They 
might have served to prepare a bed of spices, 
in the ashes of which the body might be de- 
posited. This was done in the case of princes 
and very eminent personages. For wicked 
princes, however, the people made no such 
burnings, and hence the honor was denied to 
Jehoram.^ In the East, where perfumes are 
plenty, this practice is still continued ; but 



1 See Emcalming.— 2 2 Chron. xvi., 14 ; xxi., 19 ; Jer. 
xxxiv., 5. 



numbers that Mark describes it as a tumult. 
Frequently professional mourners were call- 
ed in, and the effect of their mournful re- 
frains was sometimes heightened by instru- 
mental music. Thus in intervals of solemn 
silence, broken by vocal and instrumental 
strains suited to the occasion, the time was 
passed until the corpse was carried forth to 
the grave.^ The period between death and 
burial was, and still is, much shorter among 
Oriental nations than custom sanctions in 
our country. In general, a long delay in the 
removal of a corpse would be attended with 
much inconvenience on account of the heat 
of the climate, and particularly among the 
Jews, from the circumstance that every one 
who came near the chamber was unclean for 
a week. There are two instances in sacred 
history where burial followed immediately 
after decease.^ 

For a general account of the various meth- 
ods of expressing respect and grief for the 
dead, see Mourning; for the ceremonies 
connected with burial, see Burial. 

Furnace. There are various words so 



' Acts ix. 
Matt, ix., 23 



37.-2 2 Chron. xxxv., 2.'>t Jer. ix., 17; 
Mark v., 38.-3 Acts v., G, 10. 



FURNITURE 



366 



FUTURE PUNISHMENT 



translated in our EnglisTi Bible. Sometimes 
a baker's oven is indicated;^ sometimes a 
smelting or calcining furnace f sometimes a 
refining furnace, metaphorically applied to 
a state of trial.^ The furnace was used 
among Persians as a means of inflicting cap- 
ital punishment.* 

Furniture. The furniture of Eastern 
dwellings, especially in the earlier ages, was 
simple ; the poorer classes had few but ab- 
solutely necessary articles. The chamber 
which the rich woman of Shunem furnished 
for Elisha was deemed amply provided — with 
'' a bed, and a table, and a stool, and a can- 
dlestick."^ Mats or skins were probably oft- 
en used to recline upon ; and these, with a 
mattress spread upon them, served for a bed. 
The whole could easily be rolled up ; hence 
our Lord's command to " take up " the bed 
and carry it to the house.^ The apartments 



which appears to be not wholly founded in 
Scripture, since it is characteristic of other 
than Christian nations. It is rather found- 
ed, probably, on that inherent sense of jus- 
tice which recognizes the necessity of some 
punishment in the future to right the wrongs 
of the present.^ The doctrine is not denied 
by the Universalists as a class, nor even by 
all those who reject the Christian revelation, 
and substitute reason as their authority in 
religion. It is, indeed, only denied by two 
classes — those mystics who hold with the 
Gnostics that the evil principle is situated in 
the body, and that hence all sin will drop off 
and disappear with the body, and those who 
think that all punishment is administered by 
divine justice in this life, either by the oper- 
ation of general laws, or the action of spirit- 
ual Providence. Neither of these opinions^ 
however, have at auy time gained any very 




luierior of Aucieut Koom. 



even of the wealthier would seem empty to 
a European eye ; nevertheless the luxuri- 
ous had rich carpets, couches or divans, and 
sofas ; and sometimes the frames of these 
were inlaid with ivory, and the coverings of 
tapestry and fine linen carefully perfumed.'' 
At the present day in Palestine, silver spoons 
are used by the richer people, but they have 
neither knives nor forks. And if any of 
them try to imitate European customs, the 
knives, forks, and spoons are rusty ; the 
plates, dishes, and glasses ill-assorted, dirty, 
badly arranged, and not in sufficient quan- 
tity ; the chairs are rickety, and the table 
stands on legs rickety and perilous. 

Future Punishment. Belief in some pun- 
ishment in another life for the sins commit- 
ted in this is nearly universal. It is a belief 



1 Gen. XV., 17 : Neh. iii., 11 ; xii., 38 ; Isa. xxxi., 9. — 
9 Gen. xix., 28 ; Exod. ix., 8, 10 ; xix., 18.— ^ Dent, iv., 
20; 1 Kings viii., 51; Prov. xvii., .B; xxvii., 21; Isa. 
xlviii., 10; Jer. xi., 4; Ezek. xxii., 18.— ^ Jer. xxix., 
22; Dan. iii., 22, 23.- ^ 2 Kino;s iv., 10-13.-8 Exod. 
xxii., 25-27; Dent, xxiv., 12, 18 ; Matt, ix., 6.—'' Prov. 
vii., 10,17; Amos vi., 4. 



wide acceptance, and they are now almost 
utterly unknown. Two important ques- 
tions concerning future punishment have 
arisen, however, and at various times agi- 
tated the Christian Church. They relate to 
(1.) the character and (2.) the duration of 
the punishment. Without debating, we 
shall give briefly the opposing opinions on 
these two questions. 

I. Character. — Passing by the opinions of 
those who believe that thfe future punish- 
ment of the wicked is annihilation,^ the 
opinions concerning the character of fu- 
ture punishment may be divided into two 
great classes. Formerly the prevailing opin- 
ion was that the punishments of the lost 
were directly and immediately inflicted by 
God. A certain literal interpretation was 
given to the terrible imagery of the Scrip- 
tures. Some of the ancient fathers main- 
tained that there was a literal fire, in which 
the bodies of the condemned suflered inex- 
pressible tortures. Others, who did not in- 
1 See Judgment (Day oi').- 2 See ANNiuiLATiOiSiSTS. 



FUTURE PUNISHMENT 



367 



FUTURE PUNISHMENT 



sist upon so literal a rendering, still main- 
tained that the language of the Bible very 
explicitly indicated not only positive punish- 
ment, but also indicated that this jjunish- 
ment was something positively inflicted by 
God.^ The other view, of which Origen was 
the first expositor, and which has never since 
his day ceased to have adherents in the 
Christian Church, is that the language of 
the Scripture is wholly symbolical ; that the 
sentence, and the only sentence pronounced 
against the impenitent is, '^ He that is un- 
just, let him be unjust still ; and he that is 
filthy, let him be filthy still f and that the 
fire that is not quenched, and the worm that 
dieth not, are only expressive images indica- 
tive of the self-inflicted torments necessarily 
borne by one who is left to a life of continu- 
al and increasing sin. The pangs of ungrat- 
ified appetites and of awakened remorse, it 
is said, are not too vividly portrayed by such 
imagery, terrible as it is. 

II. Duration. — The question of duration 
has for centuries agitated the Christian 
Church. With a few notable exceptions, the 
almost uniform judgment of the orthodox 
Church is, that the punishment of the final- 
ly impenitent is eternal. Among those who 
hold a diflerent view, regarding it as tempo- 
rary — though lasting perhaps for a long 
time — there is also a division, some thinking 
that it ends in annihilation, others that it 
ends in the reform and restoration of the 
sinner. The latter are called Restorationists, 
or sometimes, though less accurately, Uui- 
versalists. Those who hold the doctrine of 
the final restoration of all mankind to puri- 
ty, holiness, and the divine favor, rest their 
belief chiefly upon three arguments — the na- 
ture of God, the design of punishment, and 
the testimony of Scripture. They assert 
that the doctrine of eternal punishment does 
not consort with the perfect love of God ; that 
it indicates a hard, vengeful, and unappeasa- 
ble deity ; that it belongs to an age in which 
God was portrayed rather as a God of justice 
than as a God of love ; that temporary sufler- 
ing he permits, because it works out in the 
sufferer a greater good ; but that it is incon- 
ceivable that he should permit endless suf- 
fering, which in the nature of the case can 
do no good to the sinner, who by the very 
hypothesis can not be reformed or improved 
by it. They declare that the true design of 
all punishment is the reformation of the of- 
fender ; that it differs from revenge only in 
this, that the end of the one is the sinner's 
own welfare, while the object of the other is 
the gratification of a malignant passion ; that, 
in thenature of the case, eternal punishment 
can not accomplish the true design of pun- 
ishment, and thus can not be conceived of as 
inflicted under God's perfect government. 
They afltbrd various interpretations to those 



1 Matt. viii. 
xxii., 11. 



passages of Scripture which seem to declare 
the endlessness of future punishment, for a 
detailed account of which the reader nnist 
be referred to their treatises and commen- 
taries ; and they refer, in support of their po- 
sition, to such declarations as that God will 
not keep his anger forever, and has no pleas- 
ure in the death of the ^wicked; to those 
passages which represent the benefits flow- 
ing from Christ's redemption as being equal 
to the evils which flow from Adam's sin ; 
and to certain passages which they regard 
as teaching directly the doctrine of final res- 
toration.^ They also maintain that the com- 
mon symbol employed to indicate future pun- 
ishment — fire — indicates a punishment at 
once transitory and purifying in its charac- 
ter. 

Those who hold to the doctrine of eternal 
punishment deny both the positions of the 
Restorationists. They deny that the doc- 
trine of eternal punishment is inconsistent 
with the character of a perfect God. They 
say that God is a God of justice as well as 
of love, and that his justice must be satisfied 
either by the punishment of the oflender, or 
by an acceptable atonement; or, phrasing 
the same thought diflferently, they declare 
that love seeks the greatest good of the 
greatest number; and that since the welfare 
of the universe depends on the final exclusion 
from heaven of the incorrigibly wicked, God 
will not hesitate to do so, could not hesitate 
to do so, and be just to those who are filial 
and obedient. They deny that the true ob- 
ject of punishment is the reformation of the 
oflender. This they declare, on the contra- 
ry, to be merely an incident of punishment, 
though an important one ; its true object be- 
ing the protection of the innocent from fu- 
ture crimes of the criminal, or from similar 
crimes on the part of others. They rest the 
doctrine of eternal punishment, as a positive 
belief, chiefly on three grounds — the nature 
of God, the nature of man, and the testimony 
of the Bible. 1. God, they say, is a God of 
justice, and can not but look with infinite 
abhorrence on every kind of sin. This fact, 
too often ignored, and never fully compre- 
hended by us, on account of our own sinful- 
ness, finds expression in such declarations 
of Scripture as speak of the wrath, the an- 
ger, the fury, the jealousy of God — expres- 
sions that can not be eliminated from the 
Bible without violating its integrity, nor 
from our conceptions of God without doing- 
violence to the testimony afforded by our 
own experience of indignation against fla- 
grant iniquity. This sense of justice requires 
for sin some adequate punishment, and no 
punishment is adequate except that which 
is eternal. It is true that God is also a God 
of mercy. In nothing is this more clearly 
shown than in the atonement which he has 



12; xviii., 34; Eev. xix., 20.— 2 Eev. > Psa. ciii., 8, 9; Ezek. xviii., 32; Rom. v., 13-21; 1 

Cor. XV., 22 ; Eph. i., 8-10 ; Col. i., 19, 20. 



FUTUEE STATE 



368 



FUTUEE STATE 



made for sin. But there is no other way by 
^Yhich he can both be just and the j ustifier of 
the guilty ; and hence there is and can be no 
other way of redemption from his just indig- 
nation than through the cross of Christ. 2. 
Man's nature is such that sin necessarily car- 
ries with it sufferiug. The laws of God or 
nature are enacted for man's happiness, and 
include those principles which are necessary 
to his welfare. If he obeys them, he is hap- 
py ; if he disobeys, he is necessarily misera- 
ble. Every disobedience tends to produce 
a liaoit of disobedience ; and thus the longer 
the sinner continues in sin, the more fixed he 
becomes in sin, and the more certain and in- 
exorable becomes his punishment. It is self- 
inflicted. In this life, it is true, there is re- 
vealed a way in which he may be ransomed 
from the chains which he thus forges on him- 
seK — a way by which, being born again, he 
may commence his life anew; but there is 
no revelation of any such redemption beyond 
the grave, and no ground on which any hope 
of such a redemption can be built. 3. On 
the contrary, the Scripture itself, while it 
contains no revelation of any future redemp- 
tion, contains very clear and explicit denials 
of such a doctrine. It declares, in express 
terms, that the siuner shall be punished with 
''everlasting destruction from the presence 
of the Lord," and sums up the punishment of 
the impenitent and the reward of the right- 
eous in language which, if it indicates the 
eternity of the one, no less indicates the eter- 
nity of the other.^ While these and kindred 
passages teach the doctrine in explicit terms, 
it is taught scarcely less clearly in the para- 
bles of Christ by sjTnbolic language. The 
tares are burned up ; the bad fish are cast 
away ; the barren fig-tree is hewn down ; 
the unforgiving servant is sentenced to im- 
prisonment till he shall pay all — a perpetual 
imprisonment. Between Dives and Lazarus 
a great gulf is fijxed which no one can com- 
pass.^ 

It is right to add, that while we have en- 
deavored to state the grounds of the restora- 
tionists as adequately as our brief space will 
permit, and have taken our statement from 
their own best authorities, we can see no 
ground upon which any one who accex)ts the 
Bible as the inspired Word of God can base 
any hope of a restoration beyond the grave 
of those who reject the Gospel of Christ 
here. 

Future State. Belief in a state of exist- 
ence beyond the grave appears to be very 
nearly universal ; not only this, there appears 
to be a general agreement concerning certain 
great fundamental truths, such as that there 
will be a divine judgment pronounced upon 



1 2 Thess. i., 9; Matt, xxv., 46. The Greek word 
traut^lated everlaafhig and eternal, in tliis passage, is 
the same. See Everi-a.sting.— ^ Matt, xii., 30, 4S ; 
xviii., :-?4; Luke xiii., 0; xvi., '26; comp. Psa. 1., 22; 
Dan. xii., 2; Matt, iii., 12; Mark ix., 43-4S; John iil., 
36; Rev. xxi.,27. 



men, and future rewards given to the right- 
eous, and future punishments inflicted upon 
the wicked. To give any thing like a com- 
plete survey of the difterent opinions enter- 
tained respecting the future state by differ- 
ent religions would require much greater 
space than our limits allow ; but we may 
give a glimpse of them nnder certain gener- 
al classes, referring the reader, for more pre- 
cise information concerning particularpoints, 
to their appropriate titles. 

1. The doctrine oi ahsorpt'ion seems to come, 
practically, very near a denial of any future 
existence. It is the doctrine of Brahmanism, 
or Hindooism, that the last and highest state 
of the future is the absorption of the individ- 
ual soul in the essence of Brahm. Its advo- 
cates, however, deny that absorption is syn- 
onymous with annihilation. It is described 
as a state of quiescence, the oblivion of all 
the faculties, an impersonal existence, the 
felicity of which consists in the perfect free- 
dom from all sensation. Thus this doctrine 
is not in form a denial of future existence, 
and those who hold it regard absorption as 
only the peculiar privilege of the few. 2. 
Somewhat analogous to the doctrine of ab- 
sorption, in its practical denial of conscious 
immortality, is the doctrine of transmigra- 
tion of souls, or metempsychosis. This doc- 
trine has been held from the earliest ages, 
and among many nations, as the Egyptians, 
Hindoos, Persians, Greeks, and Eomaus, and 
African and American aborigines. It was 
held in the Middle Ages by certain heretical 
sects, and has even been defended by some 
modern philosophers. According to this the- 
ory in its various forms, the soul at death 
enters into some new organism — a tree, rep- 
tile, fish, beast, bird, man ; its habitation de- 
pending upon its character and previous life. 
Thus, even the doctrine of transmigration of 
souls does not deny, but affirms the doctrine 
of future rewards and punishments. 3. A 
very common notion concerning the future 
state among barbaric nations is one which, 
so to speak, projects the present into the fu- 
ture, and which conceives the dead as con- 
tinuing in another life the employments 
which occupied them here. Thus the In- 
dians buried their weapons in the grave, that 
the -warrior might have them in his future 
hunting-grounds ; the heaven of the Kamt- 
schatkan is supplied with strong, fat dogs, 
and the huntsman never pursues his toil in 
vain ; the Esquimaux' heaven is in a sunny 
clime, whose waters are never congealed, 
and where the reindeer, the whale, and the 
walrus abound. This sensuous imagination 
sometimes leads to genuine poetry, as with 
the Patagonians, who say that the stars are 
their translated companions, the milky way 
a field where the departed hunt for ostrich- 
es, and the clouds the feathers of the ostrich- 
es they kill. 4. A doctrine borrowed, as it 
ai)pears to the writer, from barbaric imagi- 



GA-AL 



369 



GAD 



nation, at all events conforming somewhat 
to it, is embodied, to some extent, in the the- 
ology of Swedenborg, and still more in that 
of modern spiritualism, so called. Accord- 
ing to the latter, the dead continne in an- 
other life the same employments which they 
maintained here — a doctrine which is some- 
times carried out in extravagances so ex- 
traordinary as to be ludicrous. 5. As nations 
have grown in culture, the idea of a divine 
judgment, followed by two distinct states of 
rewards and punishments, has become more 
clearly defined. The day of judgment is gen- 
erally believed not to take place until the 
end of the world ; hence various hypotheses 
have been entertained concerning the inter- 
mediate state. It is clear that the Greeks 
and Romans believed in one common abode 
of the departed, and yet it is clear that they 
believed in puuishment s inflicted by the gods 
upon the wicked ;^ and, on the other hand, 
that the good, or at least their heroes, became 
the companions of their gods. Thus they 
seem to have believed in a heaven, a hell, 
and an intermediate state. Nevertheless, 
for our knowledge of Greek and Roman be- 
lief we depend largely upon the Greek and 
Roman poets ; and it is difficult to say how 
far the representations of Homer and Virgil 
should be regarded as indicative of the re- 



ligious faith of their age, and how far it is to 
be considered as only a pictorial representa- 
tion like that afforded by Dante's " luferno," 
or Milton's " Paradise Lost." 6. There has 
been a great deal of discussion on the ques- 
tion, what does the Bible teach concerning 
the future state of man ? There has been the 
more room for discussion, because its teach- 
ing is confessedly, in trope and symbol, capa- 
ble of various interpretations. Certain great 
truths, however, clearly underlie its teach- 
ings — viz. : that the soul is immortal ; that 
it exists in the future in a bodily organiza- 
tion which differs widely from its present 
one, and which is nevertheless capable of 
being in some sense identified with it ; that 
after death follows a day of judgment, in 
which all men shall be judged for the deeds 
done in the body ; and that, following this 
judgment, the righteous will enter into a 
state of felicity with their Lord, while the 
impenitent will be banished from his pres- 
ence in punishment. For a further exami- 
nation of the special subjects connected with 
the Future State, see Death ; Immortality ; 
Resurrection ; Judgment ; Intermediate 
State; Purgatory; Hades; Hell; HEi»v- 
en; Future Punishment. For views of 
special sects and religions, see under their 
respective titles. 



G. 



Ga-al {loathing), the son of Ebed, who ex- 
cited the inhabitants of Shechem to resist 
Abimelech. His revolt seems to have been 
an attempt, on a limited scale, to get rid of 
the Israelitish ascendency, by stirring up the 
old Canaanitish spirit of nationality. The 
attempt, however, failed ; the party of Ga-al 
were defeated by Abimelech, and his retreat 
into Shechem was cut off by Zebul. Whither 
he fled, or what ultimately became of him, 
•we are not told ; but the Shechemite revolt 
which he headed only issued in the destruc- 
tion of the Canaanitish interest in the place; 
for the peoi^le themselves, who adhered to 
Ga-al and the stronghold of their god, were 
burned to ashes. [Judg. ix., 26-52.] 

Gabbatha {platform). This word occurs 
only in John xix., 13, as the Hebrew title of 
the place where Pilate sat down in the judg- 
ment-seat at the time of Christ's trial. It 
appears to have been a tesselated pavement 
outside the prietorium, or judgment-hall, on 
which the tribunal was placed, and from 
which the governor pronounced final sen- 
tence. 

Gabriel {man of God), a name borne by 
one of the angels of God, dispatched on be- 
neficent errands to men in different ages of 
the Church. It was he that was commis- 
sioned to expound the visions to the prophet 



1 See Tartaeus. 
24 



Daniel ; it was he that announced to Zacha- 
rias the birth of John, Messiah's forerunner, 
and to Mary the incarnation of the Messiah 
himself. By the Mohammedans Gabriel is 
regarded with profound veneration. To him, 
it is affirmed, a copy of the whole Koran was 
committed, which he imparted in successive 
portions to Mohammed. He is styled in 
the Koran the Spirit of Truth, and the Holy 
Spirit. [Dan. viii., 16 ; ix., 21 ; .Luke i., 19, 
26.] 

Gad {a troop, and also good fortune). 1. Ja- 
cob's seventh son, the first-born of Zilpah, 
the maid of Leah, and the head of one of the 
twelve tribes. Of Gad as an individual we 
know nothing, except what is written of him 
in common with the other sons of Jacob. 
Along with them we are to understand that 
he took part in the transactions connected 
with the selling of Joseph into Egypt, and 
the later transactions which led to the set- 
tlement of the whole family of Jacob in that 
land of temporary protection and support. 
At the time of the descent into Egypt seven 
sons are ascribed" to him. 

At the first census in the wilderness, the 
descendants of Gad had multiplied to forty- 
five thousand six hundred and fifty. They 
were attached to the second division of the 
Israelitish host, following the standard of 
Reuben, and camping on the south of the 



GAD 



370 



GADARA 



tabernacle.^ The alliance between the tribes 
of Reuben and Gad was doubtless induced by 
the similarity of their pursuits. Of all the 
sons of Jacob, these two tribes alone returned 
to the land which their forefathers had left 
iive hundred years before, with their occupa- 
tions unchanged. After the conquest of Ca- 
naan, they went back across the Jordan to 
'' the high places of the earth, that they might 
eat the increase of the fields;" "suck honey 
out of the cliff, and oil out of the flinty rock ;" 
enjoy the " butter of kine and milk of sheep 
with fat of lambs, and rams of the breed of 
Bashan, and goats, . . . and the pure blood of 
the grape."^ They knew not, as we know, 
that they turned their backs upon a settled 
life and civilization, their faces toward wan- 
dering and the desert. 

It is not easy to give exactly the limits 
of the portion of Gad. It must have com- 
prised the central trans - Jordanic districts, 
the mountains of Gilead, extending to Jazer 
and Heshbon southward, and to the Aroer 
that faced Rabbah of Amman — the river of 
Gad^ being probably the Aruon — south-east ; 
westward it abutted on the Jordan, and ran 
up the Arabah, or Jordan Valley, in a nar- 
row strip, to the edge or extremity of the 
Sea of Chinnereth or Lake of Gennesaret ; 
it reached to Mahanaim northward, being 
bounded by Manasseh ; while eastward no 
limit is distinctly assigned. Gad has a more 
distinctive character than Reuben — some- 
thing of the lion-like aspect of Judah.* The 
members of it required such qualities, for 
their position in the land of Gilead peculiar- 
ly exposed them to inroads from the wan- 
dering Arabs. But they kept their grounds 
against these, and, it would appear, somewhat 
encroached upon the neighboring tribe of 
Manasseh, for they are mentioned in 1 Chron. 
v., 11, as having extended their dwellings as 
far as Salchah, which had originally been as- 
signed to Manasseh.^ Beyond this general 
activity, nothing remarkable is noticed re- 
specting them in sacred history. The tribe 
furnished no judge, ruler, or prophet, as far 
as we know, to take a distinguished and 
prominent place in the affairs of the cov- 
enant, and it is but too probable that their 
distance from the centre of worship opera- 
ted unfaA^orably on the tone and temper of 
their minds in a religious point of view. In 
the division of the kingdom, Gad of course 
fell to the northern state of Israel, and was, 
with the Israelites, carried into captivity by 
Tiglath-pileser ; and it is the mournful la- 
ment of Jeremiah that Ammon occupied the 
lost cities of Gad. We hear no more of Gad 
save in some utterances of prophecy.^ 

2. A prophet, called " the king's seer," who 



1 Nnmb. i., 12 ; ii., 24, 25; iii., lO-lC— ^ Dent, xxxii., 
13, 14.— 3 2 Sam. xxiv., 5.-4 Gen. xlix., IJ) ; Dent. 
xxxiii., 20; 1 Chron. xii., 8, 15— ^ Deut. iii., 10, 18.— 
« I Kings xxii. ; 2 Kinsrs viii., 2S, 20; ix., 14; x., 3.-? ; 
xvi., 20; 1 Chron. v., 20; Jer, xlix., 1; Ezek. xlviii., 
27, 28, 34 ; Eev. vii , 5. 



joined David when he was in hold through 
fear of Saul. It was he that was afterward 
sent with a message to the king, on the un- 
justifiable numbering of the people, requir- 
ing him to choose one of three modes of di- 
vine judgment — famine, pestilence, or war. 
He is also said to have written the acts of 
David, and to have taken part in the ar- 
rangement of the Levites for the musical 
services. But this is all we know of him. 
His parentage and tribe are not recorded, 
and no notice is taken of his death. [1 Sam. 
xxii., 5 ; 2 Sam. xxiv., 11-25 ; 1 Chron. xxi., 
9-13 ; xxix., 29 ; 2 Chron. xxix., 25.] 

Gadara, a town sixty stadia, or nearly 
eight Roman miles, from the town of Tibe- 
rias. It is spoken of by Josephus as the 
capital of the district called Persea. It stood 
on an elevation, was well fortified, and is 
even called by Polybius the strongest city 
in those parts. After having been destroy- 
ed during the wars which the Jews had to 
wage with the Syrian kings, it was restored 
by Pompey, and was added by Caesar Au- 
gustus to the dominions of Herod, as a spe- 
cial token of favor on account of Herod's 
loyalty and munificence. It was, however, 
a Grecian rather than a Jewish city; and 
after Herod's death it was, on that account, 
assigned to the prefecture of Syria. Yet that 
there must have been a considerable Jewish 
population in it is evident from its having, 
at an earlier period, been fixed on by Gabin- 
ius, the Roman governor, as one of the five 
cities in which he placed councils for the 
management of Jewish affairs. At the out- 
break of the Jewish war against Rome, it 
was seized by the insurgents, but was re- 
captured by Vespasian, with terrible slaugh- 
ter, and the city itself, with the surrounding 
villages, reduced to ashes. It appears, how- 
ever, to have been again rebuilt ; for in the 
early centuries it is mentioned as the seat of 
a Christian bishop, who represented it in the 
councils both of Nice and of Ephesus. The 
ruins of Um Keis are all that now remain of 
the ancient Gadara. They occupy a space of 
about two miles in circumference, and traces 
of fortifications are to be seen all around. 

The word Gadara does not occur in the 
Bible, but undoubtedly gave its name to the 
country described as the country of the Gad- 
arenes, where the demoniac was cured, and 
the swine destroyed. This miracle is de- 
scribed by Mark and Luke as occurring in 
the land of the Gadarenes,^ while Matthew 
describes it as occurring in the land of the 
Gergesenes.^ The explanation of the seem- 
ing contradiction is probably as follows : The 
city of Gadara is three hours to the south of 
the southern shore of the lake, and could 
hardly have been itself the scene of the mir- 
acle recorded. But directly on the shore of 
the lake Dr. Thomson has discovered the ru- 
ins of the ancient city of Chersa, or Gersa. 



Mark v., 1 ; Luke viii., 26.-2 Matt, viii., 28. 



GALATIANS 



371 



GALBANUM 



This town, so insignificant that it has es- 1 
cuped the attention of previous travelers, 
\vas unknown to the Roman world. Mark 
and Luke, therefore, who wrote for the Gen- 
tiles, described the miracle as occurring in : 
the country of the Gadarenes — a description 
which would have been readily comprehend- 1 
ed, since Gadara was one of the chief Roman 
cities of Palestine, and widely known. Mat- j 
thew, who was a tax-gatherer on this very 
shore, and familiar with every village and 
hamlet, and who wrote for Jewish readers, 
described it as occurring in the country of 
the Gergesenes — thus fixing to their minds 
its locality more definitely. 

Galatians. The Galatians were, in their 
origin, a stream of that great Celtic torrent 
which poured into Greece in the third cen- 
tury before the Christian era. Some of these 
invaders moved on into Thrace, and appear- 
ed on the shores of the Hellespont and Bos- 
porus, when Nicomedes I., king of Bithynia, 
being then engaged in a civil war, invited 
them across, to help him against his brother 
Zyboetas. Having accomplished this object, 
and strengthened by the accession of fresh 
hordes from Europe, they overran Bithynia 
and the neighboring countries, until, after 
forty years of predatory excursions. Attains 
I., king of Pergamus, succeeded in checking 
their nomadic habits, and confined them to 
a fixed territory. They settled in a district 
previously Phrygian, which obtained from 
them the name of Galatia, or, from their mix- 
ture with the Greeks, Gallo-Grsecia. This 
country was subdued by the Romans B.C. 
189. At the end of the republic, it appears 
as a dependent kingdom ; at the beginning 
of the empire, a.d. 26, as a province, which 
may be roughly described as the central re- 
gion of the peninsula of Asia Minor, with 
the provinces of Asia on the west, Cappa- 
docia on the east, Pamphylia and Cilicia 
on the south, and Bithynia and Pontus on 
the north. These Eastern Gauls preserved 
much of their ancient character, and some- 
thing of their ancient language. 

It is no mere fancy which discovers in the 
expressions of St. Paul's epistle^ indications 
of the character of that remarkable race of 
mankind which all writers have described 
as susceptible of quick impressions and sud- 
den changes, with a fickleness equal to their 
courage and enthusiasm, and a constant lia- 
bility to that disunion which is the fruit of 
excessive vanity ; that race, which has not 
only produced one of the greatest nations of 
modern times, yet most fickle and unfortu- 
nate — the French — but which, long before 
the Christian era, wandering forth from their 
early European seats, burned Rome and pil- 
laged Delphi, and founded two empires ; one 
in Northern Italy, more than co- extensive 
with Austrian Lombardy, and another in 
Asia Minor. 



Gal, i., 6, 7 ; iii., 1 ; iv., 14, 15 ; v., 7, 15. 



It is difflcult at first sight to determine in 
what sense the word Galatia is used by the 
writers of the N. T., if, indeed, it is always in 
the same sense. In the Acts of the Apostles 
the journeys of St. Paul through the district 
are mentioned in very general terms. It 
seems most probable, however, that Galatia, 
as used by St. Luke, signifies not the Roman 
province of that name, but the land occupied 
by the Gauls, and that the Epistle to the 
Galatians would be more literally and cor- 
rectly termed '' the Epistle to the Gauls." 

Galatians (Epistle to the). Of all the 
Epistles which bear the characteristic marks 
of Paul's style, this one stands foremost. Its 
authorship has never been doubted, and is 
sustained by quotations from it found in 
the earliest fathers. It was written to the 
churches of Galatia, the inhabitants of which 
were Gauls in origin. Their character, a« 
shown in this epistle, agrees remarkably 
with that ascribed to the Gallic race by all 
writers.^ They received the apostle at his 
first visit with extreme joy, and showed him 
every kindness ; but were soon shaken in 
their fidelity to him and the Gospel, and 
began to transfer their allegiance to false 
teachers, especially to Judaizing teachers, 
who had followed, as well as preceded, the 
apostle in Galatia, and had treated slight- 
ingly his apostolic office and authority. The 
object, then, of the epistle was (1.) to defend 
his own apostolic authority, and (2.) to ex- 
pose the Judaistic error by which they were 
being deceived. Accordingly, it contains 
two parts, the apologetic (chaps, i., ii.), and 
the polemic (chaps, iii.-v., 12). These are 
naturally followed by a hortatory conclusion 
(chap. Y., 13, to end). In style, this epistle 
takes a place of its own among those of 
Paul. It unites two seemingly contradictory 
qualities of his remarkable character : sever- 
ity and tenderness ; both the attributes of 
a man of strong and deep emotions. Noth- 
ing can be more solemnly severe than its 
opening, and chap, iii., 1-5, nothing more 
touchingly affectionate than some of its ap- 
peals, e. g., iv., 18-20. Of all Paul's epistles 
it is that which most clearly sets forth the 
liberty of the sons of God in the Gospel, in 
contrast to the bondage of those who remain 
under the law. 

Galbanum, one of the perfumes employed 
in the preparation of the sacred incense. The 
galbanum of modern commerce is brought 
chiefly from India and the Levant.- It is a 
resinous gum, of a brownish -yellow color, 
and strong, disagreeable smell, usually met 
with in masses, but sometimes found in yel- 
lowish tear-like drops. The ancients be- 
lieved that when burned the smoke of it was 
efficacious in driving away serpents and 



1 Comp. Caesar, B. G. iv., 5: "Fearing the weakness 
of the Gauls, becauj^e they are fickle in taking up plans, 
and ever fond of innovating, he thought uo trust should 
be put in them." 



GALILEE 



372 



GALILEE 



gnats. If the modern galbanum "be the true 
representative of the ancient drug of the 
same name, it may at first sight appear 
strange that a substance which, when burn- 
ed by itself, produces a repulsive odor, should 
be employed in the comxiosition of the sweet- 
smelling incense for the service of the taber- 
nacle. But we have the authority of Pliny 
that it was used, with other resinous ingre- 
dients, in making perfumes among the an- 
cients; and the same author tells us that 
these resinous substances were added to ena- 
ble the perfume to retain its fragrance long- 
er. [Exod. XXX., 34.] 

Galilee (circle). This name seems to have 



strangers, and for this reason Isaiah gives to 
the district the name " Galilee of the Gen- 
tiles."' It is probable that the strangers 
increased in number, and became, during 
the Captivity, the great body of the inhabit- 
ants. Extending themselves also over the 
surrounding country, they gave to their 
new territories the old name, until at length 
Galilee became one of the largest provinces 
of Palestine. In the time of our Lord, all 
Palestine west of the Jordan was divided 
into three provinces — Judea, Samaria, and 
Galilee.^ The latter included the whole 
northern section of the country, including 
the ancient territories of Issachar, Zebulun, 




The Sea of Galilee. 



been originally confined to a little " circuit " 
of country round Kedesh-Naphtali, in which 
were situated the twenty towns given by 
Solomon to Hiram, king of Tyre.' They 
were then, or subsequently, occupied by 
1 Josh. XX., 7; 1 Kings ix., 11. 



Asher, and Naphtali. It extended from the 
Mediterranean to the Jordan Valley, and 
from the base of Mount Carmel and the hills 
of Samaria to Phoenicia and the Lebanon 



Isa. ix., 1 ; Matt, iv., 15 — * Acts ix., 31 ; Luke xvii., 



GALILEE 



373 



GAMALIEL 



range. Josephns defines its boundaries, and 
gives a tolerably full description of its scen- 
ery, products, and population. He says tbe 
soil is rich and well cultivated; fruit and 
forest trees of all kinds abound ; numerous 
large cities and populous villages, amount- 
ing in all to no less than two hundred and 
forty, thickly stud the whole face of the 
country ; the inhabitants are industrious 
and warlike, being trained to arms from 
their infancy. 

Galilee has been not inaptly termed the 
New England of the Holy Land. Cool 
breezes from the snow -clad peaks of the 
Lebanon fan the country which they over- 
look ; the hills are thickly wooded ; silvery 
streams water its verdant glades ; wild flow- 
ers in abundance fill the air with their fra- 
grance ; the walnut, palm, olive, and fig cov- 
er its southern slopes ; the dwarf oak, inter- 
mixed with tangled shrubberies of haw- 
thorn and arbutus, clothes its northern hills ; 
fertile upland plains, green forest - glades, 
wild, picturesque glens, with the beautiful 
Lake Tiberias embosomed in the midst of 
romantic mountain scenery, combine to ren- 
der Galilee one of the richest and most beau- 
tiful sections of Palestine, if not of the Ori- 
ental world. Such, at least, was its aspect 
during the life of Christ ; while its towns 
and villages, once busy, though now desert- 
ed and in ruins, added the charm of indus- 
try and life. Its scenery, its avocations, and 
its history, combined to give its inhabitants 
a character very diflferent from that of the 
haughty inhabitants of Judea. From the 
days of Hiram, king of Tyre, they had in- 
termingled more or less with their heathen 
neighbors. They intermarried with them. 
Their land lay directly across the track of the 
commerce between the East and the West. 
Mineral springs of real or fancied virtue near 
the southern coast of the Sea of Gennesaret 
rendered it the summer resort of wealthy 
Eomans, the watering-place of all Pales- 
tine. The simple husbandmen of the hills 
and the fishermen of the lake were indiffer- 
ent to the rigid formalism which flourished 
only in more immediate proximity to the 
Temple. Eeligious prejudice was therefore 
unavailing to prevent that intercourse with 
the Gentile which self-interest tended so 
strongly to promote. Hence Galilee was not 
only the scene of the greater portion of 
Christ's public ministry, but also the scene 
of his greatest popularity. Most of the 
events and teachings recorded in the first 
two gospels took place in Galilee. Most of 
those recorded by John took place in Judea. 
The differences in the two provinces ac- 
count, in part, for the great difference no- 
ticeable both in the teaching ascribed to him 
and the reception accorded to him.^ His 
central doctrine, that the kingdom of God 
was open to the Gentiles, was naturally not 
1 See Judea. 



so obnoxious to the Galileans as to the Ju- 
deans. All the apostles except Judas Iscar- 
iot were either Galileans by birth or resi- 
dence, and as such they were despised, as 
their Master had been by the proud Jews.' 
It appears also that the pronunciation of 
those Jews who resided in Galilee had be- 
come peculiar, probably from their contact 
with their Gentile neighbors.^ After the de- 
struction of Jerusalem, Galilee became the 
chief seat of Jewish schools of learning, and 
the residence of their most celebrated rab- 
bis. The National Council, or Sanhedrim, 
was taken for a time to Jabneh, in Philistia, 
but was soon removed to Sepphoris, and af- 
terward to Tiberias. Eemains of splendid 
synagogues still exist in many of the old 
towns and villages, showing that from the 
second to the seventh century the Jews were 
as prosperous as they were numerous. 

Galilee, a name given to a particular por- 
tion of a church in England, which is sepa- 
rated from the rest of the building. It is 
generally situated toward the west end. 
Sometimes, as Dr. Hook informs us, it was a 
gallery for seeing processions, sometimes a 
porch for penitents, and for placing the corpse 
before burial. The galilee is only found in 
the oldest churches. 

Gall. This word is used in translating 
two Hebrew words, one of which is also 
translated hemlock. The one word signifies 
the gall of the animal system, either of the 
human body or that of asps.^ The other 
word signifies a vegetable poison the nature 
of which is involved in uncertainty. Some 
identify it with the poppy, others with the 
Euphorbias, a milky weed, while others con- 
sider it a general term given to a variety of 
unwholesome plants. For an account of the 
draught offered to Christ at his crucifixion 
said by Matthew to be mingled with gall, 
see Crucifixion. [Job xvi., 13 ; xx., 14, 25 ; 
Psa. Ixix., 21 ; Jer. viii., 14 ; Matt., xxvii., 34.] 

Gallic. The person of that name referred 
to in Acts xviii., 12-16, was a brother of the 
eminent philosopher, Seneca, was adopted 
into the family of the rhetorician, Lucius 
Junius Gallio, and was thenceforth desig- 
nated Junius Annaeus Gallio. He was pro- 
consul of Achaia under the Emperor Clau- 
dius, about A.D. 53 and 54, when St. Paul was 
accused before him. He resigned his post 
because the climate was injurious to his 
health. He is described as a man of singu- 
larly amiable character, " whom," says Sene- 
ca, " there is none that does not love a little, 
even those who have not the power of lov- 
ing more." The manner of his death is va- 
riously stated. Winer thinks he was put to 
death by Nero ; Eusebius says he committed 
suicide. 

Gamaliel {recompense of God). There are 
in Jewish history two important rabbis of 

1 John i., 46; vii., 52; Acts i., 11; ii., 7.— ^ Matr. 
xs;vi.,,73; Mark xiv., TO.— ^ Job xvi., 13; xx., 14, 25. 



GAMES 



374 



GAMES 



this name — Gamaliel I., and Ins grandson, 
Gamaliel II. The former only is mentioned 
in Scripture. He was the preceptor of the 
apostle Paul, and by his moderate counsels 
prevented at one time the persecution of the 
apostles. Constitutionally moderate in view 
and timid in action, he occupied a position 
midway between the two factions into which 
the Pharisees (q. v.) were divided. He had 
neither the breadth of view nor the moral 
courage to unite with the Christians in at- 
tempting to substitute spiritual obedience 
for the spirit of legalism which constituted 
the essence of the religion of the Pharisees, 
but he endeavored to mitigate somewhat the 
absurd rigors of their traditions. Thus he 
decreed that all persons called on the Sab- 
bath to assist in repelling hostile invasions, 
or at inundations, or fires, or the falling down 
of houses, or even at child-birth, might walk 
two thousand paces in any direction ; and he 
decreed to the heathen poor the same right 
to glean as that possessed by the Jews. He 
acquired such a reputation among the Jews, 
that it is a rabbinical proverb, "With the 
death of Gamaliel the reverence for the law 
ceased, and purity and abstinence died away." 
Yet his famous interposition on behalf of the 
apostles has given him an undeserved repu- 
tation among Christian writers. He did not 
plead for religious toleration, but only for a 
temporiziug jjolicy, and this upon principles 
of the Caldese fatalism. To the Christian 
student his character is only important as 
it throws light upon the influences under 
which his pupil Paul was brought up. Chris- 
tian tradition asserts that he was finally 
converted and baptized by St. Peter and St. 
Paul ; but the Jewish authorities are more 
probably right in asserting that he died as he 
lived, a Pharisee. [Acts v., 33-40 ; xxii., 3.] 

Gaines. This word does not occur in Scrip- 
ture, though frequent reference is made to 
ancient games. Of private games, the prin- 
cipal among the Jews were music and dan- 
cing, especially on occasions of festivity, 
such as weddings, the weaning of children, 
sheep-shearing, and the harvest-home. Pub- 
lic games do not occupy a prominent place 
in Jewish life. They seem to have been ex- 
clusively connected with military sports and 
exercises, and even of these the notices are 
few and brief. It was probably in this way 
that the Jewish youth were instructed in 
the use of the bow and of the sling.^ Allu- 
sion to what would seem to have been a kind 
of war-dance, such as we read of in different 
countries, seems to be made in 2 Sam. ii,, 14, 
where Abner proposes that the young men 
should arise and "play" before the two 
armies. 

The most noted games in Greece were the 
Olympian, the Pythian, the Nemean, and the 
Isthmian ; at the last of which St. Paul was 
perhaps present on his first visit to Corinth, 



1 Jndg. xx., 16 ; 1 Sam. xx., 20, 30-C5 ; 1 Chrou. xii., 2. 



near to which city they were held. The 
chief contests here were leaping, running, 
quoit -playing, hurling the spear, wrestling, 
and boxing. The preparatory exercises of 




Aucient Boxers, 
the candidates were painful and long con- 
tinued ; a particular diet was enforced, and 
the training immediately before the struggle 
was under the inspection of officers appoint- 
ed for the purpose. To this hard prepara- 
tion reference is made by Paul in 1 Cor. ix., 
25 ; probably, also, in 1 Tim. iv., 8. Then, 
when the day was come, a^ herald proclaimed 
the opening of the games ; an impartial per- 
son sat as judge,^ whose authority decided 
every question, and assigned the crown to 
the victor. Numbers flocked to witness the 
spectacle, and sat on raised seats at the sides 
of the oblong area, called the stadium, fix- 
ing their earnest gaze upon the competitors, 
whose names and country were announced by 
the herald, and whose success was applaud- 
ed by the vast crowd of observers.'^ Certain 
regulations were prescribed, the breach of 
which, by affording an unfair advantage, 
would disqualify for the prize.^ The apos- 
tle alludes thereto when he describes his 
jealous care lest, having proclaimed the con- 
test to others, he himself, being a competitor, 
should be rejected as unworthy of the crown.* 
The prize in the Olympian games was a 




Aucient Wrestlers 



wreath of wild olive ; in the Isthmian, of pine- 
leaves or parsley ; in the Pythian, of laurel or 
of palm, or beach ; in the Nemean, of olive or 
parsley ; branches of palm, too, were placed in 
the victor's hands. But these crowns, so tran- 
sient, were prized most highly, and the name 
of one who conquered became illustrious. 



1 2 Tim. iv., 8.-2 Heb. xii. 
* 1 Cor. ix., 26, 27. 



Tim. ii., 5.— 



GARDEN 



375 



GARDEN 



St. Paul borrows figures from both the 
boxiug aud racing of the Greeks. He repre- 
sents his own body as the adversary upon 
whom he was to plant his blows. And they 
were delivered with force and precision, not 
at random into the air. In the race, too (the 
metaphor being taken from the foot-race, 
though there were also chariot aud horse 
races), the apostle ran not with vague un- 
certainty, but as making steadily for the 
mark in view. He brings vividly before our 
minds the earnestness of the competitor, hav- 
ing cast off every incumbrance, holding on 




Aucient Foot-race. 

his course uninterruptedly, his eye fixed on 
the distant goal, unmindful of the space al- 
ready passed, and stretching forward with 
bent body. Equally vivid are his references 
to the competitor's perseverance, his joy at 
the completion of the course, his exultation 
as he not only receives but actually grasps 
the crown which had been set apart for the 
victor.^ 

Besides these games, in which men might 
engage or not at their will, there were con- 
tests to which they were condemned for the 
amusement of the heathen multitudes. These 
compulsory contests had a mournful signifi- 
cance for the early Christians, who were re- 
peatedly thrown to the beasts in the amphi- 
theatres. Paul may allude to these contests 
in 1 Cor. xv., 32, though the allusion is prob- 
ably a figurative reference to the mob which 
he encountered at Ephesus. Some other ref- 
erences to them may, however, be found scat- 
tered throughout his writings.'^ 

Garden. The Hebrews delighted in flow- 
ers and green fields, in groves and planta- 
tions, in orchards and gardens. The two 
hundred and fifty botanical terms which oc- 
cur in the original of the O. T. are enough 
to prove this. No collection of classical au- 
thors of the same extent, and not professed- 
ly treating of husbandry, could furnish so 
long a list ; and it must be remembered that 
all these terms occur incidentally in their 
laws, their poetry, and their history. Trees 
and flowers enhanced the enjoyment or re- 
lieved the gloom of almost every scene of 
Jewish life. Like many of our American 
towns, their cities were sometimes adorned 
and shaded by trees growing beside the wa- 
ter-courses ; the vine was trained along the 



walls of their houses, the courts usually re- 
joiced in some spreading sycamore or tere- 
binth. In cool and fragrant bowers, the rab- 
bis loved to collect their disciples. The 
grain, newly heaped on the threshing-floor, 
seems to have been occasionally decorated 
with lilies, or some equally graceful garland. 
On high occasions, the pathways of conquer- 
ors and distinguished jiersouages were strew- 
ed with branches in blossom or the leaves 
of the palm, and a fresh charm was added 
to their feasts by beautiful and fragrant 
flowers. Even to the grave this propensity 
followed them. As the modern Egyptians 
deck the tombs of their kindred with palm- 
leaves, and the Turks and Syrians plant 
myrtle in their cemeteries, so the Jews 
garnished sepulchres by planting or strew- 
ing flowers upon them. When Abraham 
bought the field of Machpelah for a burial- 
place, special mention is made of the trees 
which were upon it, and by far the most 
memorable of earth's sepulchres was in the 
garden of a Jew.^ 
I To no nation of antiquity was the garden 
; so essential as to the Egyptians. At their 
feasts, each guest was presented with a nose- 
gay, and the board was crowned with flow- 
ers. Flowers grew in the courts, and in pots 
and vases throughout the apartments. Their 
pleasure - grounds or gardens were laid out 
j in straight lines, with great regularity, with 
I terraces, arbors of trellis - work, and ponds 
I stored with fish or water-fowl. Indeed, the 
coiTutry mansion of an ancient Egyptian 
I must have approached to modern sumptuous- 
ness. The representation of an Egyptian 
j garden, with its variety and abundance of 
vegetables, is an admirable commentary upon 
the complaints and murmurings of the Is- 
1 raelites in the desert.^ At a later period of 
j their history, the Jews sojourned for two 
generations in Babylonia, and from those 
''hanging gardens," which were one of the 
seven wonders of the world, may have re- 
ceived some hints applicable to the terrace- 
culture so general on the hills of Palestine. 
A great proportion of Palestine was laid 
out in gardens and vineyards, especially in 
the neighborhood of cities. According to Jo- 
sephus, the environs of Jerusalem were al- 
most all devoted to gardens ; but it appears 
from the rabbins that, for sanitary reasons, 
there were no gardens within the walls ex- 
cept a few plantations of roses, which had 
existed since the days of the prophets. 

In Scripture, we have indications of various 
inclosures which occasionally bear the gen- 
eral name of garden. We read of a " garden 
of nuts," i. e., nut-bearing trees, and an '' or- 
chard of pomegranates," and continually of 
vineyards and olive-yards. There were or- 
chards where various sorts of trees were 



1 Acts XX., 24; Phil, iii., 12; 1 Tim. vi., 12, 19; 2 
Tim. iv., 8; Heb. xi., 26; xii., 1, 2 — 2 gee, for exam- 
ple, 1 Cor. iv., 9, aud 2 Cor. i., 9. 



1 2 Kings xxi., IS, 26; Psn. cxxviii., 3; Sol. Song 
vii., 12 ; Isa. i., 29 ; Ixv., 3 ; Ixvi., IT ; Matt, xxvi., 36 ; 
John xviii., 1 ; xix., 41, 42.— 2 Numb, xi,, 4r-6. 



GARDEN 



376 



GAELIC 




Ancieut Egyptian Garden. 



reared together, and which sometimes con- 
tained trees more valued for foliage than for 
fruit — "trees of emptiness/' like the plane, 
the terebinth, and the mulberry. Gardens of 
herbs and kitchen-gardens are also mention- 
ed. Among the culinary vegetables of the 
Hebrews Avere gourds, cucumbers, melons, and 
aromatic herbs ; nor were they likely to omit 
the onion and the garlic. Like most Oriental 
nations, they were fond of perfumes, and there- 
fore odoriferous plants occupied the chief 
place in the flower-gardens of ancient Pales- 
tine. This is abundantly illustrated by the 
impassioned address of the bride of Solomon, 
the imagery of which was probably suggest- 
ed by Solomon's own gardens.^ The site of 
these is still shown in the Wady Urtas, about 
an hour and a quarter south of Bethlehem. 
The " king's garden," repeatedly mentioned, 
appears to have been near the Pool of Siloam, 
where the valleys of the Kedron and of Hin- 
nom meet.'' But of all the gardens of Pales- 
tine, none is possessed of associations more 
sacred and imperishable than the garden of 
Gethsemane, beside the oil-presses on the 
slopes of Olivet. 

In modern times the gardens of the East 
are generally arranged with little taste, and 



1 Sol. Song iv., 12-15; v., 1 ; vi., 2; comp. Nnmb. 
xi., 5; Deut. xi., 10; Josh, xxiv.,13; 1 Kint^s xxi.,2; 
Isa. i., 8; Luke xiii., 19.— ^ 2 Kings 



Eccles. ii., 4-6 ; 

XXV., 4; Jer, xxxix., 4 



lii.. 7. 



kept with little care, but their productions 
are for the most part identical with those 
yielded in the palmy days of Palestine. Like 
the garden of cucumbers of Isa. i., 8, any val- 
uable plantation still needs a lodge for the 




A Locliie. 



watchman till the crop is secured, when the 
sbed is forsaken by its keeper, and the poles 
fall down or lean every way, and the green 
boughs with which it is shaded are scat- 
tered by the wind, leaving only a ragged, 
sprawling wreck. Now that her country is 
desolate, there could not be a more vivid em- 
blem of the daughter of Zion ; but the ama- 
zing capabilities of the soil, under irrigation 
and industry, help us to recall the luxuri- 
ance of the iiast. 

Garlic, one of the Egyptian plants for 
which the Israelites murmured, and for 
which the Jews still have great fondness. 



GATE, GATE-WAY 



377 



GATE, GATE-WAY 



It abounded in Egypt — a fact evidenced from 
a statement of Herodotus that it was one of 
the substances for feeding the laborers who 
were employed in building the Pyramids. 
[Numb, xi., 5.] 

Gate, Gate --way. Gates and doors are 



ed.^ Intended for security, they were com- 
posed of durable materials. Sometimes gates, 
or at least doors, seem to have been made of 
stone. That they were occasionally of wood 
is evident from the attempt of Abimelech 
to burn the gate of the fortress he was at- 




Gate of City. 



the entrances to inclosed places, cities, and 
buildings, the latter term — doors — being 
more generally applied to houses. The 
gates and gate-ways of Eastern cities an- 
ciently held, and still hold, an important 
part, not only in the defense, but in the 
public economy of the place. Vaulted, 
shady, and cool, they were places of pub- 
lic resort. Persons are, therefore, repre- 
sented as sitting, or as being likely to be 
met with there in passing in and out.^ 
Markets were occasionally held at the 
gate, but rather of country produce than 
of manufactured goods.^ Courts of justice, 
solemn assemblies, pageants, etc., were also 
at the gates.^ Sacrifices appear to have 
been offered to idols, or in heathen cities at 
or without the gates. Over them were cham- 
bers, and probably recesses or places adapt- 
ed for the business usuallv there transact- 



tacking.'^ They were generally two-leaved, 
plated with metal, and, with the gate-ways, 




1 Geu. xix., 1 ; xxiii., 10 ; xxxiv., 20, 24; 1 Sam. iv., 
13, 18; 2 Sam. xv., 2; Neh. viii., 1, .3; Psa. Ixix., 12; 
Prov. i., 21.— 2 2 Kin^s vii., 1, 17, 18, 20; Neh. xiii., 19, 
20, 21.— 3 Deut. xvi., 18 ; xxi., 19 ; xxv., 7 ; Josh, xx., 4 ; 
Rnth iv., 1-12; 2 Sam. xix., 8; 1 Kincrs xxii., 10; 2 
Chron. xviii., 9; Job xxix., 7; Psa. cxxvii., .5; Prov. 
xxii., 22; xxiv.,7; xxxi., 23; Jer. xvii,, 19; Lam. v., 
4; Amos v., 12; Zech. viii., 16. 



Common Oriental D(jor. 



were often highly ornamented. This was 
especially true of those of palaces on which, 



1 2 Sam. xviii., 24 ; 2 Kinor.* xxiii., 8 ; Acts xv., 13.- 
2 Judg. ix., 52 ; comp. Neh. i., 3 ; ii., 17. 



GATE, GATE-WAY 



378 



GATE, GATE-WAY 



as well as on tlie doors of private houses, is 
found much richness of decoration. They 
were ordinarily hung on pivots, generally of 
the same material as the gate itself, and 
were secured by bolts or bars and locks,^ 
and in an unsettled state of society were or- 
dinarily closed ; hence the throwing of them 
open signified peace or triumph.^ There were, 
however, wickets to afford a passage when 
the great gate was shut. There was some- 
times an inner and an outer gate f and tow- 
ers or other works were constructed to de- 
fend them. In these watchmen were placed, 
in order to detect the approach of a foe.^ 
Enemies were, of course, anxious to possess 
themselves of the gates, and when these were 
occupied a town was usually regarded as 
taken. ^ Thus they sometimes represent the 
city itself.^ In ancient times, as now, these 



(18) First-gate;^ (19) Gate Geunath ;^ (20) 
Essenes'-gate.^ To these should be added 
the following gates of the Temple : Gate Sur,* 
called also Gate of Foundation f Gate of the 
Guard, or behind the guard,^ called the High- 
gate ; • Gate Shallecheth.^ 

In the Middle Ages, seven of the princi- 
pal gates of Jerusalem are mentioned, four 
of which are still in existence, three being 
closed. One of these three is the famous 
Golden Gate, so called from its supposed con- 
nection with one of the ancient gold-plated 
gates of the Temple, which is said to have 
been solidly wallecj up by the Mohammed- 
ans, because of a tradition that through it 
the Christians would some day take x)os- 
session of the city. The gates of the Tem- 
ple were massive, made of fir, adorned with 
carved work, and overlaid with gold, those 








Portal of Ancient Assyrian Palace. 



city gates had particular names, generally 
derived from some accidental circumstance 
connected with them ; e. g., the numerous 
gates of ancient Jerusalem were named as 
follows: (1) Gate of Ephraim;'' this is prob- 
ably the same as the (2) Gate of Benjamin.® 
If so, it was 400 cubits distant from the (3) 
Corner-gate f (4) Gate of Joshua, governor, 
of the city 1^" (5) Gate between the two walls;" 
(6) Horse-gate ;^^ (7) Eavine-gate, i.e., open- 
ing on the ravine of Hinnom ;'^ (8) Fish- 
gate;'* (9) Dung-gate;'' (10) Sheep-gate;'" 
(11) East-gate;'^ (12) Miphkad;'® (13) Fount- 
ain-gate;'^ (14) Water-gate;'" (15) Old- 
gate ;'' (16) Prison -gate;"' (17) East -gate 
(perhaps should be rendered the Sun-gate);'^ 



1 Dent, iii., 5 ; Jndg. xvi., 3 ; 1 Sam. xxiii., 7 ; 1 Kings 
iv., 13; 2 Chron. viii., 5; Neh. iii., 3, 6, 13, 15; Psa. 
cvii., 16; cxlvii., 18; Isa. xlv., 1, 2; Jer. xlix., 31; 
Ezek. xxxviii., 11.— 2 Psa. xxiv., 7; Isa. Ix., 11 ; Rev. 
xxi.,25.— 3 2Sam. xviii.,'24.— * 2 Kings vii., 10; ix.,17; 
Neh. xiii., 22; Esth. iii., 2; Jer. xxxv., 4; xxxix., 4.— 
6 Deut. xxviii., 52, 57; Jer. xxxix., 3.— « Gen. xxii., 17; 
xxiv., 60; Dent, xii.,12; Jndg. v., 8; Rnth iv.,10; Psa. 
Ixxxvii., 2; cxxii., 2.—'' 2 Chron. xxv., 23; Neh. viii., 
16; xii., 30.— 8 Jer. xx., 2; xxxvii., 13; Zech. xiv., 10. 
— » 2 Chron. xxv., 23; xxvi., 9; Jer. xxxi., 38; Zech. 
xiv.,10.— 1« 2 Kin.2:s xxiii., 8.— i' 2 Kings xxv., 4; Jer. 
xxxix.. 4.— '2 2 Chron. xxiii., 15; Neh. iii., 28; Jer. 
xxxi., 40.— 13 2 Chron. xxvi., 9; Neh. ii., 13, 15; iii., 
13._i4 2 Chron. xxxiii., 14; Neh. iii., 3; Zeph. i., 10. 
15 Neh. ii., 13; iii., 13.— is Neh. iii., 1, .32; xii., .39.— 
IT Neh. iii., 29.— i" Neh. iii., 31.— 19 Neh. xii., 37 — 
20 Neh. xii., 37.— 2» Neh. xii., 39.-22 ^eh. xii., 39.— 
23 Jer. xix., 2. 



of the oracle being of olive-wood, similarly 
carved and overlaid.^ 

The term "gates "is sometimes used figu- 
ratively. The phrase " gates of hell," that is, 
of hades, or the abode of the dead, in Christ's 
remarkable promise in Matt, xvi., 18, is 
thought by some commentators to be equiv- 
alent to the machinations, or counsels, of 
death, because in the gates of the city delib- 
erative councils were held in time of war. 
But it seems more reasonable to suppose that 
this promise is to be interpreted, that his 
people shall not be held as prisoners under 
the iiower of death ; that he will burst its 
gates, and give them deliverance ; and of 
this he gave assurance by his OAvn victory 
when he rose from the grave, burst the bars 
of death, and o})ened the way to life from the 
dead for all his followers. The figurative ex- 
pression to exalt the gate, i. e., to have the 
opening of the gate-way lofty, implies osten- 
tation, which is likely to provoke envy, and 
therefore leads often to destruction. [Job 
xxxviii., 17 ; Prov. xvii., 19 ; Isa. xxxviii., 
18.] 



1 Zech. xiv., 10.-2 Joseph., Bell. Jnd., lib. v., 4, 5 2. 
—3 Joseph., Bell. Jnd., lib. v., 4, § 2.—* 2 KinG:s xi., 6. 
—5 2 Chron. xxiii., 5.-6 2 Kings xi., 6, 19.— ^ 2 Kings 
XV., 35; 2 Chron. xxiii., 20; xxvii., 3. — ^ 1 Chron. 
xxvi., 16. — 8 1 Kings vi., 31-35; 2 Kings xviii., 16; 
Ezek. xii., 23-25. 



GATH 



379 



GEBA 



Gath, one of the five royal cities of the 
Philistines, and the native place of the giant 
Goliath. It occupied a strong position on 
the border of Judah and Philistia. The key 
to both countries, it passed through consid- 
erable vicissitudes of fortune, was the scene 
of frequent struggles, and was often cap- 
tured and recaptured, but appears to the last 
to have been a place of some strength and 
importance. It is first mentioned as a place 
in which some of the giant Anakim remain- 
ed. It was one of the points to which the 
Israelites pushed their conquests after the 
great day of Mizpeh, and is familiar to the 
Bible student as the scene of one of the most 
romantic incidents of David's life.^ In the 
reign of Jehoash, king of Judah, it was taken 
by the Syrians, and seems then to have been 
brought again under Philistine occupation. 
It was afterward captured and dismantled 
by Uzziah, who possibly did not retain pos- 
session, as in the prophecies of Amos and 
Micah it is regarded as a Philistine city. 
The date of the encounter between the Ben- 
jamites and the men of Gath, mentioned in 
1 Chron. viii., 13, is not easy to determine. 
The site of this celebrated city is unknown, 
and men most competent to judge differ in 
their conclusions. The most probable opin- 
ion is, perhaps, that it stood upon the con- 
spicuous hill, irregular in form, and about 
two hundred feet high, which is now called 
Tell-es-Sdfieh, upon the side of the plain of 
Philistia, at the foot of the mountains of Ju- 
dah, ten miles east of Ashdod, and about the 
same distance south by east of Ekron. [Josh, 
xi., 22; xiii.,3; ISam.vi., 17; vii., 14 ; xvii., 
4, 23 ; xxi., 10-15 ; 2 Kings xii., 17 ; 1 Chron. 
xviii., 1 ; 2 Chron. xi., 8 ; xxvi., 6 ; Amos vi., 
2; Mic. i., 10.] 

Gath-hepher, called also Gittah-hepher,^ 
the birthplace of Jonah, a town on the bor- 
der of Zebulun, not far from Japhia, now 
Yafa. An ancient ruin, called Jiftah, is iden- 
tified by a probable tradition as Gath-hepher. 
It is situated near the plain of Turan, on the 
road from Nazareth to Tiberias. 

Gaza (sfroyig, fortified), one of the five 
princely cities of the Philistines, which, un- 
like Gath, has withstood the desolations of 
many generations, and continues to the pres- 
ent time a comparatively thriving and well- 
peopled city. It may be regarded as one of 
the oldest cities in the world, since it is men- 
tioned in Gen. x., 19, as one of the border 
towns of the Canaanites. Like Gath, it was 
also one of the seats of the giant Anakim 
that were prior even to the Canaanites. It 
was included in the lot of Judah, and is said 
to have been taken by the tribe, though it is 
clear that they did not attempt to drive out 
the original inhabitants, nor did they inter- 
fere with the regular government, but were 
content with some nominal fealty. Subse- 
quently it became the scene of Samson's 



1 1 Sam. xxi., 10-15 2 jygtj. xix., 13. 



mournful captivity and last triumph. Af- 
terward it had its full share in the varying 
fortunes of the Philistine territory, and had, 
ever and anon, to endure sieges which fre- 
quently brought it to the brink of ruin. The 
key of Palestine to the Egyptians, the key 
of Egypt to the Syrians, it was the scene 
of many a severe conflict.^ That it was a 
strongly fortified place, as its name imports, 
is sufficiently proved by its five months' re- 
sistance to the arms of Alexander the Great. 

In the Gospel Age, it appears to have been 
a place of some importance ; it was among 
the cities given by Augustus to Herod, as a 
mark of imperial favor, and after his death 
it was assigned to the province of Syria. It 
became the seat of a Christian church, the 
name of whose bishop is frequently mention- 
ed in the records of the ancient councils. But 
for centuries after the Christian era, idola- 
try retained a strong hold on the place, and 
as many as eight heathen temples are said 
to have existed in it at the beginning of the 
fifth century. The present Arabic name of 
the city is Ghuzzeh, and its population is es- 
timated at from fifteen to eighteen thousand, 
mainly Mohammedans. It is about three 
miles from the sea, situated partly on an ob- 
long hill of moderate height, and partly on 
the lower ground. The climate of the place 
is almost tropical, but it has deep wells of 
excellent water. Around the city, on the 
north, east, and south, are numerous gardens, 
hedged with prickly pear, and exceedingly 
fertile. Many palm-trees are scattered about 
the city, while beyond the gardens to the 
north lies an extensive olive-grove. Thus 
it will be evident that the expression in the 
message to the evangelist Philip, "Go to- 
ward the south unto the way that goeth 
down from Jerusalem unto Gaza, ivhich is des- 
ert,""^ the " which " refers not to the city, but 
to a part of the way leading to it. And that 
portion of the road which lies between Eleu- 
theropolis and Gaza passes through a region 
which is without villages, and might fitly be 
called desert. 

Geba, a city of Benjamin (otherwise call- 
ed Gaba), afterward allotted to the priests. 
It was here that in the early part of Saul's 
reign the Philistines had " a garrison." It 
marks the scene of an exploit of Jonathan, 
where a narrow pass is described between 
two rocks ; one over against Michmash, the 
other over against Geba (not Gibeah, as in 
the English Bible). Exactly in accordance 
with the description in the Bible is the po- 
sition of the modern village of Jeha, which 
stands picturesquely on the top of its steep- 
terraced hill, on the very edge of the great 
Wady Smveinit, looking northward to the op- 
posite village, which also retains its old name 



1 Josh. X., 41 ; xi., 21, 22; xiii., 3 ; xv., 4T; Judg. i., 
18; iii., 3; xiii., 1; xvi. ; 1 Sam. vi., 17; xiv.,52; xxxi., 
1; 2 Sam. xxi., 15; 1 King? iv., 24; 2 Chrou. xxi., IG; 
xxvi., G; xsviii., 18.— 2 Acts viii., 26. 



GEBAL 



380 



GENEALOGY 



of Mukhmas. It was from Geba to Gazer, or 
Gezer, that David's pursuit of the Philistines 
extended ; the place was fortified by Asa, and 
is mentioned as the northern limit of the 
kingdom of Judah. The name repeatedly 
occurs elsewhere. [Josh, xviii., 24 ; xxi., 17 ; 
1 Sam. xiii., 3; 2 Sam. v., 25; 1 Kings xv., 
22 ; 2 Kings xxiii., 8 ; 1 Chron. vi., 60 ; viii., 
6 ; 2 Chron. xvi., 6 ; Ezra ii., 26 ; Neh. vii., 
30 ; xi., 31 ; xii., 29 ; Zech. xiv., 10.] 

Gebal, a proper name, occurring in Psa. 
Ixxxiii., 7. There is some difference of opin- 
ion respecting its locality; but the better 
opinion is that it is the Gebal of Ezekiel, 
a maritime town of Phoenicia. From the 
fact that its inhabitants are written "Gib- 
lians " in the Vulgate, and Biblians in the 
Septuagint, we may infer their identity with 
the Giblites spoken of in connection Avith 
Lebanon by Joshua, and that of their city 
with the "Biblus" (or Byblus) of x)rofane 
literature, a city on the borders of Phoenicia 
north of the river Adonis. It is called Jebail 
by the Arabs, thus reviving the old Bibli- 
cal name. [Psa. Ixxxiii., 7 ; Ezek. xxvii., 9 ; 
Josh, xiii., 5.] 

Gedaliah {made great hy Jehovah), son of 
Ahikam, was a governor appointed by Neb- 
uchadnezzar, after the destruction of Jerusa- 
lem, to preside over the remnant in Judea. 
The prophet Jeremiah was under his pro- 
tection at Mizpeh. Gedaliah was murdered 
two months after his appointment by Ish- 
mael, and his death was afterward observed 
as a national fast. [2 Kings xxv., 22-25; 
Jer. xl., 6 ; xli., 1-5 ; Zech. vii., 5 ; viii., 19.] 

Gehazi {valley of vision), the name of the 
servant of Elisha.^ He appears for a time 
to have enjoyed the entire confidence of his 
master, and some suppose he was intended 
to be Elisha's successor, as Elisha was Eli- 
jah's. It was Gehazi who suggested the 
most fitting mode of recompensing the kind- 
ness of the Shunamite woman f and when 
the same Shunamite came some years after- 
ward to Carmel to inform Elisha of what 
had befallen her son, it was Gehazi who re- 
ceived from the prophet his wonder-working 
staff, with instructions to go in his name and 
lay it upon the face of the child. Though 
this proved ineffectual, it manifestly beto- 
kened on Elisha's part entire confidence in 
the character and intentions of Gehazi. But 
when Elisha steadfastly refused to accept 
any of the gifts Naaman had brought from 
Syria, Gehazi thought it a piece of false del- 
icacy on the part of his master, and has- 
tened after Naaman, to secure a portion of 
the treasures before they were entirely out 
of reach. He had the audacity to go in his 
master's name and beseech a little money 
and apparel, to bestow upon two sons of 
the prophets that he pretended had come 
to them in want. The device succeeded, 
and he received even more than he ask- 



2 Kings iv., 12.— ^ 2 Kiugs iv., 14. 



ed; but, on returning, he was met by the 
stern reproof of Elisha for the sinful course 
he had taken, and, at Elisha's word, had the 
leprosy of Naaman adjudged to him as a pen- 
alty.^ The subsequent history of Gehazi is 
involved in uncertainty. He is mentioned as 
relating Elisha's works to King Joram when 
the Shunamite, whose son Elisha had restored 
to life, came petitioning for her house and land 
after her seven years' absence in Philistia. 
This has been thought to indicate that, after 
true repentance, the leprosy must have been 
cured, and Gehazi restored to Elisha's serv- 
ice ; but this is very uncertain. [2 Kings 
iv. ; v.; viii., 1-6.] 

Gems. Gems or precious stones are fre- 
quently alluded to in the Holy Scriptures. 
They were known, and very highly valued, 
in the earliest times. The onyx-stone, fine 
specimens of which are still of great val- 
ue, is expressly mentioned by Moses as be- 
ing found in the land of Havilah. "Onyx- 
stones, and stones to be set, glistering stones 
and of divers colors, and all manner of pre- 
cious stones" were among the articles collect- 
ed by David for the Temple.^ The Tyrians 
traded in precious stones supplied by Syria,^ 
and the robes of their kings were covered 
with the most brilliant gems. The art of 
engraving on precious stones was known 
from the early times. The twelve stones of 
the breast-plate were engraved each one with 
the name of one of the tribes.* The two onyx 
(or sardonyx) stones which formed the high- 
priest's shoulder-pieces were engraved with 
the names of the twelve tribes, six on one 
stone and six on the other, " with the work 
of an engraver in stone like the engraving of 
a signet.^' Precious stones are used in Scrip- 
ture in a figurative sense, to signify value, 
beauty, durability, etc., in those objects with 
which they are compared.^ The following 
are the names of the principal gems, as they 
occur in our version ; for a discussion of 
their character, the reader is referred to these 
titles: Agate; Amethyst; Beryl; Carbun- 
cle ; Chalcedony ; Chrysolite ; Chryso- 
PRASE, or Chrysoprasus ; Diamonds ; Em- 
erald; Jacinth; Jasper; Ligure; Onyx; 
Euby; Sapphire; Sardine, or Sardius; 
Sardonyx; Topaz. 

Genealogy. Genealogical registers are the 
oldest medium through which history has 
been handed down. They furnish the frame- 
work and casing of history, in the names 
and numbers of which they largely consist. 
In all nations, even from the earliest times, 
such genealogical writings seem to have been 
carefully preserved. Even in the patriarch- 
al age we find traces of them ; and so impor- 
tant were they accounted among the ancient 
Hebrews, that a special set of officers, called 
Shoterim, were set apart for the purpose of 

1 2 Kings v., 27.-2 1 Chron. xxix., 2.-3 Ezek. xxvii., 
16.—* Exod. xxviii., 17-21.— ^ Lam. iv., 7; Isa. liv., 11, 
12; Rev. iv.,S; xxi., 10-2L 



GENEALOGY 



381 



GENERATION 



keeping them. The promise of the land of 
Canaan to the seed of Abraham, Isaac, and 
Jacob successively, and the separation of 
the Israelites from the Gentile world ; the 
expectation of a Messiah to spring from the 
tribe of Judah ; the exclusively hereditary 
priesthood of Aaron, with its dignity and 
emoluments ; the long succession of kings in 
the line of David ; and the whole division 
and occupation of the land upon genealog- 
ical principles by the tribes, families, and 
houses of fathers, gave a peculiar importance 
to the science of genealogy among the Jews. 
The vast increase of the Hebrew population 
during their residence in Egypt rendered 
genealogical records absolutely necessary. 
The care of these records was intrusted first 
to the 8Tioterim or scribes, and afterward to 
the Levites. In later times they were kept 
in the Temple. Some confusion with regard 
to particular families must have crept into 
them during the Babylonish captivity ; but 
that the whole was reduced to complete or- 
der on the return of the Jews to Palestine, 
is very evident from the care with which 
genealogical descents are traced in the first 
book of Chronicles. So carefully was the 
pirrity of lineage maintained with regard to 
the priesthood, that after the Captivity those 
who could not produce their genealogical de- 
scent were excluded from the sacred office. 
According to Josephus, the Jews had an un- 
interrupted succession of high-priests for two 
thousand years preserved in their records, 
and Jerome declares that the Jews knew the 
genealogies from Adam to Zerubbabel as in- 
timately as they knew their own names. 
These records continued to be kept till near 
the destruction of Jerusalem. That they 
perished at that time, however, there can be 
little doubt. And it is not a little remarka- 
ble tliat the great end for which such genea- 
logical records were kept having been ac- 
complished in the coming of the Messiah, 
and there being no further necessity for 
them, the Jews have now utterly lost their 
ancient genealogies. 

Just notions of the nature of the Jewish 
genealogical records are of great importance 
with a view to the right interpretation of 
Scripture. It must, however, be remember- 
ed that these records have respect to polit- 
ical and territorial divisions, as much as to 
strictly genealogical descent, and that all 
who are called "sons" of a certain patriarch 
or chief father are not necessarily his very 
children. If any one family or house became 
extinct, some other would succeed to its 
place, called after its own chief father; 
and hence a census of any tribe drawn up 
at a later period would exhibit different 
divisions from one drawn up earlier. The 
same principle must be borne in mind in in- 
terpreting any particular genealogy. Again, 
when a pedigree was abbreviated, it would 
naturally specify such generations as would 



indicate from what chief houses the person 
descended. As regards the chronological 
use of the Scripture genealogies, it follows 
from the above view that great caution is 
necessary in using them as measures of time, 
though they are invaluable for this purpose 
whenever we can be sure that they are com- 
plete. The Jewish genealogies have two 
forms : one giving the generations in a de- 
scending, the other in an ascending scale. 
Examples of the descending form may be 
seen in Ruth iv., 18-22, or 1 Chron. iii. ; of 
the ascending, in 1 Chron. vi., 33-43 ; Ezra 
vii., 1-5. Females are named in genealogies 
when there is any thing remarkable about 
them, or when any right or property is trans- 
mitted through them. [See Gen. xi., 29; 
xxii., 23 ; xxv., 1-4 ; xxxv., 22-26 ; Exod. vi., 
23 ; Numb, xxvi., 33 ; 1 Chron. ii., A, 19, 35, 
50.] 

Genealogy of Jesus Christ. There are 
two genealogies of Jesus Christ given in the 
gospels: one by Matthew, chapter i., the oth- 
er by Luke, chapter iii. The differences be- 
tween them are very material, and have been 
noted by skeptics for the purpose of throwing 
discredit on the statement of the evangelists 
tliat Jesus was a descendant of David. The 
theory that one is the genealogy through 
Mary, and the other through Joseph, is now 
generally supplanted by the other that both 
are genealogies of the latter; that the gene- 
alogy of Matthew is not according to lineal 
descent, but according to the line of regal 
succession from Solomon; and that in ac- 
cordance with national and Scriptural usage, 
and possibly for the sake of facilitating 
memory, it is recorded in an abridged and 
also symmetrical form, while the genealogy 
of Luke exhibits the natural descent from 
David through Nathan. The evidence that 
Jesus is of the seed of David does not in any 
case rest upon these genealogies of his puta- 
tive father, but upon the direct statements 
of the evangelists, of Paul, and of Christ him- 
self^ 

General, in the Roman Catholic Church, 
the supreme head, under the pope, of the ag- 
gregated communities throughout Christen- 
dom belonging to a religious order. The of- 
fice of general in most orders is held for three 
years ; in that of the Jesuits it is for life ; but 
in all, his election must be confirmed by the 
pope. The general is exempt from episco- 
pal jurisdiction, being subject to the imme- 
diate jurisdiction of the pope himself. He 
resides in Rome, where he enjoys certain 
privileges, the most important of which is 
the right to sit and vote with the bishops in 
a general council of the Church. 

Generation. The primary meaning of one 
of the Hebrew words thus translated is revolu- 
tion; hence, period of time. From this ab- 
stract general idea of an indefinite period of 



1 Matt, xii., 35^T; Luke i., 2T, 32; Acts xiii., 23; 
Kom. i., 3. 



GENERATION (ETERNAL) 



332 



GENESIS 



time either past or future, come the more 
special uotions of a definite period of time, 
and an age or generation of men, and the 
concrete idea of the men of an age or time. 
From this last, drojjping the idea of time, 
generation comes to mean a class or race of 
men, e. g., of the righteous or the wicked. 
Hence sometimes it indicates simply a na- 
tion, as in Matt, xii., 39-45, where the de- 
nunciation is not merely of the age, but of 
the Jewish people ; and in Matt, xxiv., 34, 
where the prophecy is not that the then ex- 
isting generation of men should not ''pass 
away before the day of judgment, but that 
the Jewish nation should be preserved 
throughout all future changes of time and 
circumstance" — a prophecy which has been 
singularly fulfilled. The word has also in 
our Bible the following secondary meanings : 
first, a genealogical register ; second, a fami- 
ly history, since early history among the Ori- 
entals is drawn so much from genealogical 
registers ; and third, a history of the origin 
of thiDgS as well as persons, e. g., of the earth. 
See Genealogy. [Gen. ii., 4 ; v., 1 ; vi., 9 ; 
XV., 16 ; XXV., 19 ; Dent, xxiii., 3, 4, 8 ; xxxii., 
7 ; Psa. xlv., 17 ; Ixxii., 5 ; xcv., 10 ; Prov. 
XXX., 11-14 ; Isa. liii., 8 ; Iviii., 12 ; Luke xi., 
29-32 ; xvi., 8 ; Acts ii., 40 ; Heb. iii., 10.] 

Generation (Eternal), a j)hrase used in 
the medieval theology in the attempt to de- 
fine the relations of the Son to the Father in 
the Trinity. The early fathers, however, ob- 
jected to the phrase. It gave rise to errors 
and misconceptions, and never conveyed 
probably any clear or distinctive idea of a 
matter quite beyond the apprehension of the 
human intellect. By common consent, it has 
fallen into disuse among modern theologians. 

Grenesis. The first book of the Bible is 
named in the Hebrew canon Breshith, "in 
the beginning," from the word with which it 
commences, afld by the Septuagint, Genesis 
as well, and indeed chiefly in the sense of 
"origination" or "production," as in its 
more common Biblical acceptation of "gen- 
eration" or " genealogy." The Greek title is 
exceedingly appropriate to the contents of 
the work, which show it truly to be a Gene- 
sis, as well of the material universe as of man 
and of all history. But more particularly 
this book is an account of the origin of the 
Hebrew nation, the seed of Abraham, in their 
character of the divinely designated channel 
of redemption to the human race fallen in 
Adam. The unity of design is very manifest 
throughout. Moses was emjiloyed to mold 
and form a simple and i)reviously enslaved 
people into an organized nation, to give them 
a code of laws civil and ecclesiastical. The 
infant people was to be a theocracy (the germ 
of a greater theocracy than itself), guarded 
and isolated for fifteen centuries, till its pur- 
pose should be accomplished in the found- 
ing of the Church of Christ. It Avas obvious, 
therefore, that he who had to write the ear- 



liest chapters of its history should begin by 
tracing down its descent from those who had 
from the first been the depositaries and wit- 
nesses of the truth. Adverse criticism, how- 
ever, which has been busy in trying to dis- 
locate all portions of the Pentateuch, to dis' 
prove its unity, and shake the evidence for 
its Mosaic origin, has been signally busy in 
so dealing with Genesis. Referring to the 
article Pentateuch for the general discus- 
sion as to the unity, antiquity, and author- 
ship of the group of books ascribed to Mo- 
ses, it is only necessary to notice in this ar- 
ticle the special objections which are urged 
against this one book. 

It was suggested long since that Moses 
may have had before him " documents of 
various kinds coming down from the times 
of the patriarchs, and preserved among the 
Israelites, which he collected, reduced to or- 
der, worked up, and, where needful, filled in." 
A conjecture of this kind was neither un- 
natural nor irreverent. It is very probable 
that, either. in writing or by oral delivery, 
the Israelites possessed traditions handed 
down from their forefathers ; and it is con- 
sistent with the wisdom of Moses, and not 
inconsistent with his divine inspiration, that 
he should havei preserved and incorporated 
with his own work all such traditions, writ- 
ten or oral, as had upon them the stamp of 
truth. Indeed the theory that Moses, in 
compiling Genesis, made use of such tradi- 
tions existing among the people, is one of 
the two theories held to-day by Bible stu- 
dents in general, the other being that the 
material was given him, not through exist- 
ing tradition, but by direct revelation from 
God. The next step taken by criticism was 
that the names of God, Elohim and Jehovah, 
occurring in the book of Genesis, may dis- 
tinguish respectively the documents or mem- 
oirs from which Moses compiled his histo- 
ry, and that there were a considerable num- 
ber of documents, the chief two being the 
Elohistic and the Jehovistic. This theory 
has been proposed in many different forms, 
some believing that there was one Elohist 
and one Jehovist document ; others that there 
were more than one Elohist and many Jeho- 
vists. Another step has been to suggest 
that the ditferent documents, often, as it is 
alleged, giving different versions of the same 
story, have been carelessly and unskillfully 
put together. And a further still has been to 
deny that Moses could be the author either 
of the Elohist or the Jehovist document, or 
even the compiler and redactor ; the whole 
being a later work, attributed by skeptics 
variously to Samuel, to Hilkiah, to Jeremiah, 
or even, still later, to Ezra, or some survivor 
of the Captivity, and sometimes even to a 
collection of the labors of all. The grounds 
on Avhich this destructive criticism is chiefly 
based, are as follows : There appear to be two 
versions of the history of the Creation — the 



GENESIS 



383 



GENESIS 



first, from Gen. i., 1, to Gen. ii., 3, in whicli 
only the name Eloliim occurs ; the other, from 
Gen. ii. onward, in which the name of Jehovah 
occurs iu combination with Elohim. Again, 
there appear two accounts of the Flood, 
which it is alleged, though interlaced in the 
book of Genesis, may be disentangled. These 
also are characterized respectively by the 
same difference in the names of God. Similar 
phenomena are said to prevail throughout 
the book of Genesis, and even throughout 
the Pentateuch ; but "these are the two most 
observable. Then comes the well-known 
passage in Exod. vi., 3, where the Most High 
says to Moses that he was known to the 
fathers by the name of El-Shaddai, trans- 
lated in our version God Almighty, but by 
the name Jehovah he was not known to 
them ; whence the introduction of the name 
Jehovah in the history of Adam, Noah, Abra- 
ham, etc., is argued to be a proof of later au- 
thorship. It may be well, then, to show : 

I. That the book of Genesis is not an 
ill-digested collection of fragmentary docu- 
ments, but a carefully - arranged narrative, 
with entire unity of purpose and plan. 

II. That the use of the names of God is nei- 
ther arbitrary nor accidental, but is consist- 
ent throughout with the Mosaic authorship, 
and the general scope of the history. 

1. First, then, though the organic struc- 
ture of the book may be somewhat obscured 
by the modern division into chapters and 
verses, as it was of old by the Jewish divis- 
ion of the Pentateuch into sections, care- 
ful examination will show that the arrange- 
ment is methodical and orderly from first to 
last. Beginning with a general introduction, 
wherein the creation of the universe is re- 
lated iu language of simple grandeur, and 
very possibly in words handed down from 
the remotest antiquity, the book consists of 
a series of genealogical histories. The first 
of these is called "the generations of the 
heavens and the earth,'" the others being 
the respective histories of the different fami- 
lies of man, especially of the ancestors of Is- 
rael, from Adam to the death of Joseph. The 
great divisions of the book will be found to 
be: 

1. The "Introduction"— from cliap.i.,1, to chap.ii., 
3. 

2. "The generations of the heavens and the earth," 
beginning with chap, ii., 4, and extending through ttie 
history of the fall to the birth of Seth— chap. iv. 

3. " The book of the generations of Adam " — chap. 
V. to vi., S. 

4. "The generations of Noah," giving the history of 
Noah's family till his death— from vi., 9, to end of ix. 

5. " The generations of the sons of Noah," giving 
an account of the overspreading of the earth — x.,1, 
to xi., 9. 

6. " The generations of Shem," the line of the prom- 
ised seed, down to Abram, Nahor, and Haran, the 
sons of Terah— xi., 10, to 26. 

7. "The generations of Terah," the father of Abra- 
ham, from whom, also, in the female line, the family 
was traced through Sarah and Eebekah — xi., 27, to 
XXV., 11. 

S, " The generations of Ishraael"— xxv., 12-lS. 



1 Gen. ii.,3. 



9. "The generations of Isaac," containing the his- 
tory of Isaac and his family from the death of his fa- 
ther to his own death— xxv., 19, to end of xxxv. 

10. "The generations of Esau " — xxxvi., 1-8. 

11. "The generations of Esau in Mt. Seir" — ^xxxvl., 
9, to xxxvii., 1. 

12. "The generations of Jacob," giving the history 
of Jacob and his sons to his own death and the death, 
of Joseph— xxxvii., 2, to end of 1. 

Some of these sections relate only to col- 
lateral branches, and are brief. The larger 
sections have within them subdivisions which 
are carefully marked and arranged. As a 
rule, in each of these successive sections, the 
nairative is carried down to the close of the 
period embraced ; and at the beginning of 
each succeeding portion a brief repetition of 
so much as is needed of the previous account 
is given, and with it very often a note of 
time. These recapitulations and notes of 
time, which occur even in the smaller sub- 
sections of the history, are very characteris- 
tic of the whole book, and are had recourse 
to wherever perspicuity of narrative seems 
to require. A consideration of even this brief 
review of the divisions of Genesis will show 
that it is not a loosely compacted structure, 
carelessly or clumsily thrown together by 
some one who found a variety of heterogene- 
ous materials, and determined to mass them 
all as one, but that it was drawn up care- 
fully, elaborately, and with distinct unity 
of purpose ; whether from pre-existing docu- 
ments or not, it matters comparatively little 
to inquire. 

2. The names by which the Supreme Be- 
ing is called in the O. T., and especially iu 
Genesis, are chiefly two — Elohim and Jeho- 
vah ; the one generally rendered God, the 
other Lord. The name Elohim, from the 
Arabic root, " to fear," is the simple generic 
name of God — " The Mighty." It is a plural 
form applied to God, as comprehending in 
himseK the fullness of all power, and all the 
attributes Avhich the heathen ascribe to their 
several divinities. It may also, perhaps, be 
regarded as affording by its form a hint of 
the doctrine of the Trinity. Still, the word 
is a title rather than a name. It is applied 
to false gods as well as to the true. The 
heathen nations round about the Israelites 
would have recognized the existence and di- 
vinity of the Elohim. Jehovah, on the con- 
trary, is as clearly a proper name as Jupiter 
or Vishnu. Eloliim and Jehovah are, there- 
fore, as distinguishable as deiis and Jupiter ; 
the difference being only in this, that where- 
as the worshipers of Jupiter admitted a mul- 
titude of gods, the worshipers of Jehovah, on 
the other hand, believe in no Elohim except 
Jehovah. We may see at once, then, that 
there may be good reasons for expecting the 
title Elohim to be chiefly employed in some 
passages, while the proper name, Jehovah, 
would be chiefly employed in others. For 
instance, in the general accoimt of the Cre- 
ation, it is very natural that Elohim — the 
Mighty One, the God of creation and provi- 



GENESIS 



384 



GENNESARET (SEA OF) 



dence — should be the word in use. So, where 
foreigners, people of heathen nations, as Ha- 
gar, Eliezer of Damascus, the Egyptians, are 
introduced, it is most natural that the word 
Elohim should be more frequent than Jeho- 
vah, unless where some distinct acknowl- 
edgment of Jehovah is intended. But the 
contrary is the case when the history of the 
chosen people or their ancestors is specially 
concerned, and the stream of the theocracy 
traced down from its fountain-head; then 
the special name of him who did not refuse 
to be called their God would be of more fre- 
quent use. This, if kept clearly in view, 
will explain many of the so-called Elohistic 
and Jehovistic passages in Genesis. Anoth- 
er thing to be noted is this: the Semitic 
tongues, especially the simpler and more 
ancient forms of them, deal much in repeti- 
tion; and where our modern Aryan languages 
would put a pronoun, they very frequently 
repeat the noun. From these habits, when 
in any one chapter or section we find either 
the word Elohim or the name Jehovah, we 
are very likely to find the same frequently 
recurring. In consequence of this, the sev- 
eral passages will, to a European eye, look 
as if they were strongly marked either by 
the title Elohim or the name Jehovah. For 
instance, in the first account of the Creation, 
in which it is said the word Elohim occurs 
thu'ty-five times, the thirty-five are in effect 
reducible to one ; and the passage is scarcely 
more marked as Elohistic by the name Elo- 
him occurring thirty -five times than if it 
had occurred but once; for its having oc- 
curred once would inevitably lead to its con- 
tinued and frequent recurrence. 

The most important passage, however, 
quoted in support of the theory that Genesis 
was composed by different authors, is Exod. 
vi., 2, 3, which reads in our Bible, " God 
spake unto Moses, and said unto him, I am 
the Lord : and I appeared unto Abraham, 
unto Isaac, and unto Jacob, by the name of 
God Almighty; but by my name Jehovah 
was I not known to them." From this it 
has been argued, that the person who record- 
ed these words of God to Moses would never 
have written a history of still earlier times 
in which the name Jehovah should be intro- 
duced, not only in the narrative, but in the 
mouths of the various speakers from Eve 
downward ; and that, while the parts of Gen- 
esis which are characterized by the title Elo- 
him may probably be attributed to Moses, all 
the parts in which the name of Jehovah pre- 
dominates were added afterward, and must 
be due to some one who was not aware of the 
incongruity of introducing Jehovistic lan- 
guage into a history of events and speeches 
prior to the revelation of the name Jehovah. 
It is clear, however, to Hebrew scholars that 
the form and derivation of the name Jehovah 
points to a pre-Mosaic origin, and to the exist- 
ence in ancient Hebrew of such a name, which 



must have come down from a time prior to the 
separation of the Hebrews from their kindred 
Aramaeans, i. e., not later than the time of Abra- 
ham. In fact, the name could not have been 
originated among the Hebrews at any peri- 
od of history from the descent into Egypt to 
the Captivity of Babylon ; and as it undoubt- 
edly exists in Hebrew writings prior to the 
Captivity, so it must have originated before 
the time of Joseph. We must conclude, then, 
that the name of Jehovah was not unknown 
to the patriarchs ; nor do the words of Exo- 
dus necessarily mean that it was. Strictly 
and naturally interpreted, these words im- 
ply, " I manifested myself to the patriarchs 
in the character of El-Shaddai, the Omnip- 
otent God, able to fulfill that which I had 
promised ; but as to my name, i. e., my char- 
acter and attributes of Jehovah, I was not 
manifest to them." In other words, nothing 
more is implied by this passage than the un- 
doubted fact that God was chiefly known to 
the patriarchs as El-Shaddai — i. e., the Al- 
mighty One. There is nothing inconsist- 
ent with it in the opinion that he was also 
known, though not so widely or generally, 
by the name of Jehovah ; nor in the belief 
that the sacred historian, writing an account 
of God's dealings with his people, should fre- 
quently employ the later name, that which 
God had chosen himself to distinguish clear- 
ly the true God from the false gods (elohim) 
of the heathen. 

We have devoted the principal part of this 
article to an examination of modern criti- 
cism, because the ordinary arguments for the 
authenticity of Genesis only indirectly af- 
fect the positions of this destructive skepti- 
cism. We can not, however, bring this arti- 
cle to a close without noting the argument 
for the antiquity and truthfulness of the book 
of Genesis, derived from the graphic nature 
of the accounts which it gives of the simple 
life of the patriarchal age. It is hardly pos- 
sible that an author, even in the time of. 
Samuel, and quite impossible that one in the 
time of Solomon, or Josiah, or Ezra, could 
have written the history of the forefathers 
of his race with all the truthfulness, all the 
simplicity, and all the accuracy of detail to 
be found in the book which is called the 
First Book of Moses. Moses had every con- 
ceivable qualification for writing it. The 
writer of after times who could have pro- 
duced that book must have been himself a 
wonder unsurpassed by any of those wonders 
which he is supposed to have devised and re- 
corded. 

For such special objections as are urged 
against the account of the Creation, the 
Flood, etc., the reader is referred to the arti- 
cles under those titles. 

Gennesaret (Sea of). About thirty-five 
miles south of Mount Hermon lies the Sea of 
Gennesaret, also called the Sea of Galilee, of 
Chinnereth, or Chinneroth, and the Lake of Ti- 



GENNESARET (SEA OF) 



385 



GENNESARET (SEA OF) 



herias. It is in size and shape somewhat 
similar to Lake Lucerne iu Switzerland, Loch 
Lomond in Scotland, or our own Winuipiseo- 
gee ; thirteen miles in length, from four to 
six miles in width, and one hundred and six- 
ty-five feet in depth in its deepest part. Ly- 
ing nearly seven hundred feet below the 
surface of the Mediterranean, in a valley ex- 
cavated by volcanic action in the solid rock, 
and entirely sheltered by surrounding hills, 
its climate is, and its productions were, those 
of an almost tropical nature. The palm-tree 
flourished along its banks, and grapes and 
figs ripened ten months in the year. Upon 
the east the hills of naked rock crowd close 
to the water's edge, forbidding easy access 
to the inhospitable wild 
which stretches, still but 
little known, east of the 
valley of the Jordan. 
But on the north the 
Upper Jordan pours its 
waters into the sea 
through a plain of great 
natural fertility, and on 
the Wjest a beach of va- 
rying width, well water- 
ed by spriugs from the 
surrounding hills, af- 
forded in the time of 
Christ a home for a busy 
population. This beach 
widens toward the north 
into a plain of consider- 
able size, into which four 
mountain springs, whose 
affluence the heat of 
summer then seldom im- 
poverished, pour their 
fertilizing waters, and 
whose rich and once 
well-cultivated soil pro- 
duced a luxuriance of 
growth that gave to it 
its name of the Garden 
of Princes ; in Greek, 
Gennesaret.^ It is a 
plain about three miles long and one broad,^ 
and, though now covered with thorn-bushes, 
gives evidence of having once possessed a 
marvelous fertility, such as may well have 
occasioned, if it did not fully justify, the ex- 
travagant description of Josephus. No less 
than six cities of considerable size were 
crowded along thirteen miles of coast-line 
on this western and north-western shore. 
Upon this narrow strip of land, and on the 
surrounding hill-sides, the most fertile farms 
and vineyards of all Northern Palestine sup- 
ported an industrious peasant population. 
The innumerable fish with which its clear 
waters abound aiforded avocation for hun- 
dreds of fishermen, and supplied the country 



for many miles around. Lying directly on 
the route between Damascus and the Medi- 
terranean, nearly all the commerce between 
the east and the west passed along its north- 
ern shores. From the southern end of the 
western shore some warm mineral springs 
afforded to the Roman special advantage for 
his much-esteemed bath, and constituted the 
Sea of Galilee, the summer resort of the 
wealthy, the watering-place of all Palestine. 
Thus within a few miles' radius were found 
all classes — the farmer, the fisherman, the 
traveling merchant, the half- heathen tax- 
gatherer, the Roman soldier, and the courte- 
san who always follows the army and court. 
An occasional caravan is all that is now 




1 Matt, xiv., 34: Mark vi., 53. See, for illustration, 

art. Galilee.— 2 So Robiuson and Porter. Stanley, 

however, calls it five miles wide, and six or seven long. 

25 



Sea of Geuuesaret. 

left of the commerce between East and West 
which once enlivened these shores. A single 
crazy fishing-boat is the solitary survivor of 
the fleets that once covered the lake. Of 
the cities which were once crowded along 
the western and north-western shore of this 
most populous centre of the most populous 
district of Palestine, the town of Tiberias 
and the wretched little village of Migdel 
(ancient Magdala), are all that are left. The 
ruins that strew the plain of Gennesaret wit- 
ness to the populousness of the past, but do 
not clearly indicate the situations of the 
cities of Dalmanutha, Chorazin, and Caper- 
naum. Though the plain of Gennesaret still 
retains something of its ancient fertility, the 
fruits of the past are gone, and the unculti- 
vated hill-sides are as barren of vegetation 
as of inhabitants. 



GENTILE 



GETHSEMANE 



Gentile. The words Gentile and nation 
are interchangeably used in the Bible in 
translating the same original word. It sig- 
nifies those who were not Hebrews, and as 
they were aliens from the worship, rites, and 
privileges of Israel, the word acquired a hos- 
tile meaning. In the N. T. the Gentiles are 
often spoken of as Greeks, and the word is 
used by Paul not only to denote the uncir- 
cumcised in opposition to the Israelites, but 
generally those who are ignorant of the true 
God, and devoted to idolatry. See Heathen; 
Idolatry. 

Gerar, a Philistine town of great antiqui- 
ty. It lay between Kadesh and Shur, and 
consequently toward the extreme south-west 
of the land of Canaan, near Beersheba. That 
it was in those early times a more than usu- 
ally fertile region, may be inferred from its 
having been resorted to both by Abraham 
and Isaac in a time of famine. It appears 
also to have been in existence in the com- 
paratively later periods of Israelitish his- 
tory, being mentioned in the wars of Asa. 
But it must have relatively decreased in im- 
portance, as it never occurs again, nor is it 
once mentioned in the history of the warlike 
operations that were carried on between the 
Israelites and the Philistines after the period 
of the conquest. Its exact site is uncertain. 
[Gen. xxi. ; xxvi., 20-23 ; 2 Chron. xiv., 14.] 

Gerizim, a mountain in close proximity 
to Shechem, and opposite Ebal. According 
to the Samaritan tradition, it was here that 
Abraham went to sacrifice his son Isaac; 
here that Melchizedek met the patriarch; 
here that Jacob built an altar, and at its 
base dug a well, the ruins of which are still 
shown. They also maintain that it was on 
this mount, not on Ebal, as in our Scriptures,^ 
that the altar was erected by Joshua on 
which the words of the law were inscribed. 
Although some Christian scholars think that 
there is ground for the first belief, it is gen- 
erally discredited by careful observers of the 
locality, who regard Mount Moriah as the 
spot where Isaac would have been offered 
up but for the interference of Jehovah.^ It 
is probable that all these traditions are pro- 
duced by a desire to maintain the sacred 
character of a mount which at the time of 
Christ contested with Jerusalem^ the right 
to be regarded as the holy place, and is still 
so regarded by the Samaritans, as is that 
city by the Jews, and Mecca by the Moham- 
medans. 

German United Evangelical Church, 
the name given to the largest of the Protest- 
ant churches in Germany. It was formed in 
1817, at the instance of King Frederick Wil- 
liam III., by a union of the Lutheran and 
the Reformed churches under one govern- 
ment and worship. The proposal for union 
started by the king was first adopted in Nas- 



1 Josh, viii., 30; Deut. xxvii., 4. — ^ See Mokiah.- 
3 Johu iv., 20. 



sau. In the Palatinate of Ehenish Bavaria, 
the union was effected in 1818 ; in Baden, in 
1821 ; in Rhenish Hessia, in 1822 ; in Wiirtem- 
berg, in 1827. But Saxony, Hanover, Bava- 
ria Proper, and Mecklenburg were too exclu- 
sively Lutheran, while Switzerland was too 
exclusively Reformed, to require any such 
change as the union contemplated, and there- 
fore matters continued as before. The Prot- 
estants of Austria also still exist in two sep- 
arate branches — the Church of the Helvetic 
Confession, and the Church of the Augsburg- 
Confession. For a detailed account of the 
ecclesiastical organization of the Protestant 
churches in the various Germanic States, see 
M'Clintock and Strong's " Cyclopaedia/' art. 
Austria, Prussia, etc. 

G^rshonites, one of the great families of 
the Levites, descendants of Gershon. When 
the census was taken in the wilderness, the 
number of their males above a month old was 
seven thousand five hundred; those between 
thirty and fifty, two thousand six hundred 
and thirty. The Gershonites appear to have 
held the middle rank of the three families 
of Levites. It was their duty, when the tab- 
ernacle was moved, to carry the coverings 
and hangings. When they reached Canaan, 
thirteen cities were allotted to them out of 
the territory of Issachar, Asher, Naphtali, 
and Eastern Manasseh. Several eminent 
men were, in later times, of this family, as 
Asaph, and their service was duly arranged 
in the days of David. [Numb, iii., 17-26 ; 
iv., 22-28, 38-41 ; vii., 7 ; x., 17 ; xxvii., 57 ; 
Josh, xxi., 6, 27-33; 1 Chron. vi.; 39-43; xxiii., 
7-11; 2Chron.xxix., 12.] 

Geshur (bridge), a small principality of 
Syria, allotted to the tribe of Manasseh, but 
not for some time subject. It was ruled 
in David's time by Talmai, whose daughter 
David married. Thither, to the protection 
of his father-in-law, Absalom fled after the 
murder of Amnon. This district adjoined 
Bashan, and was probably the same as that 
now known as the Lejah. It is described as 
singularly wild and rugged in its character, 
and inhabited by a horde of savages as wild 
as the scenery in the midst of which they 
dwell. Their inhabitants were in Biblical 
history known as Geshuri or Geshurites. 
[Deut. iii., 14 ; Josh, xii., 5 ; xiii., 12, 13 ; 2 
Sam. iii., 3 ; xiii., 37 ; xiv., 23, 32 ; xv., 8 ; 1 
Chron. iii., 2.] 

Gethsemane (oil-press), a place where oil 
from the olives growing in the neighbor- 
hood was wont to be made ; in Gospel histo- 
ry rendered forever sacred and memorable 
by the sufferings of our Lord. The descrip- 
tions given by the evangelists of this spot 
are singularly brief and general. John is 
the most specific, who sa3"s, Jesus " went 
forth with his discijiles over the brook Ke- 
dron, where was a garden, into the which he 
entered, and his disciples." Not even here, 
however, is the locality closely defined ; and 



GETHSEMANE 



387 



GETHSEMANE 



putting all together, we learn no more from 
the sacred penmen than that Gethsemane 
was a garden — by which is probably to be 
understood a sort of orchard — on the farther 
side of the brook Kedron, and somewhere 
about the foot of the Mount of Olives. The 
traditionary site — fixed on, it is supposed, at 
the visit of Helena, the mother of Constan- 
tine, in a.d. 326 — places it a very little be- 
yond the Kedron (one hundred and forty-five 
feet), and quite near to the Church of the 
Virgin Mary, alleged to have been built over 
her tomb. It is well planted with olive- 
trees, and those of so old a growth that they 
are believed to be the same that stood there 
in our Saviour's time ; in virtue of which per- 
suasion, the olives, and olive-stones, and oil 
which they produce, became a very valuable 
commodity. There can, indeed, be no cer- 
tainty as to the precise age of the trees ; 
but it is admitted by 
all travelers that the 
eight which still stand __^— 

upon the spot in ques- 

tion bear the marks of ^ 3_ 

a venerable antiquity, - — =— ^ 
having gnarled trunks 
and a thin foliage, and 
so decayed as to re- 
quire to be propped 
up with heaps of 
stones against their 
trunks, in order to 
prevent their being 
blown down by the 
wind. Some years 
ago the plot of ground 
was bought by the 
Latin Church ; and, 
having been inclosed 
by a wall, the interior 
is laid out in walks 
and flower-beds after 
the fashion of a mod- 
ern European garden. 

A series of rude pictures is hung up along the 
face of the wall, representing different scenes 
in the history of Christ's passion, such as the 
scourging, the mockery of the soldiers, the 
sinking beneath the cross, and the like. 
The best scholars are, however, of opinion 
that this traditional site is too near the main 
thoroughfare to afford the condition of re- 
tirement which belonged to the true Geth- 
semane, which, however, was probably not 
far distant ; and it is generally believed by 
Protestant observers that there are no data 
from which it is possible to determine that 
site with accuracy. Indeed this may be said 
to be true of nearly all the traditional sites 
in the Holy Land. They rest, largely, in the 
stories of priests, who are pecuniarily inter- 
ested in maintaining the popular belief in 
them. Oar cut represents the traditional 
Gethsemane shown to modern travelers by 
the priests as the site of our Saviour's ago- 



nized struggle ; but it must be regarded by 
the reader as simply a view of what would 
be pointed out to him if he were such a tour- 
ist, and as a representation of the general 
features of the region. 

Many attempts have been made to analyze 
the experiences of Jesus Christ in the Garden 
of Gethsemane. All such attempts assume, 
however, a knowledge of the character and 
internal life of the Saviour greater than we 
possess. Apart from the struggle which 
the man Christ Jesus must have undergone, 
there was an unutterable and inexplicable 
agony endured by him, both at this hour 
and in the last hour upon the cross, when 
'' the Lord laid on him the iniquity of us all." 
There are times in the experience of almost 
every soul when it has had to bear the bur- 
den of its own past sins, and found the load 
scarcely endurable. To bear this burden for 




The Gethsemane of Tradition. 

humanity, to feel in one hour the whole load 
of all past and future transgressions of the 
human race settling down upon a soul whose 
divine purity trembled with horror at the 
lightest thought of sin, may well have pro- 
duced an experience of which it is far be- 
yond the power of the human soul to con- 
ceive. 

In the account of this agony, Luke alone, 
who, it is to be remembered, was a physi- 
cian, makes use of the remarkable expres- 
sion, "And being in an agony, .... his 
sweat was, as it were, great drops of blood 
falling down to the ground."^ This expres- 
sion has led to a great deal of discussion 
among critics. Some of them have main- 
tained that it only indicates the size of the 
drops of sweat ; but the better opinion ap- 
pears to be that of Alford, that the sweat 
was colored with blood. Mr. Stroud has 
1 Luke xxii., 44. 



GEZER 



388 



GIBEAH 



shown' that such bloody sweat is not un- 
known to the medical faculty. In certain 
cases of great mental conflict, the palpitation 
of the heart is so greatly increased, and 
the circulation of the blood so accelerated, 
that the pressure becomes very great on the 
blood-vessels, and results sometimes in a 
hemorrhage, and sometimes in an exuding 
of the blood, which mingles with and discol- 
ors the perspiration. There are only a few 
such cases on record ; but they are enough to 
show that the bloody sweat experienced in 
the Garden of Gethsemane was not an im- 
possible, nor even a miraculous phenomenon, 
aujd to throw light upon it as an indication 
of the degree of the agony experienced. They 
also connect this hour of agony with the 
death npon the cross. Alone it would have 
been sufficient to cause his death, had he not 
been supernaturally strengthened to sustain 
it f and when it was followed by the with- 
drawal of God's countenance, and a new 
sense of the burdeu of sin laid upon him in 
the hour of the crucifixion, it may well have 
resulted in a rupture of his weakened heart, 
causing instant death. See Crucifixion. 

Gezer, an ancient city of Canaan, whose 
king, Horam, or Elam, coming to the assist- 
ance of Lachish, was killed, with all his peo- 
ple, by Joshua. It formed one of the land- 
marks on the south boundary of Ephraim. 
It was allotted, with its suburbs, to the Ko- 
hathite Levites, but the original inhabitaiits 
were not dispossessed ; and even down to the 
reign of Solomon the Canaanites were still 
dwelling there, and paying tribute to Israel. 
Ewald takes Gezer and Geshur to be the 
same. Its exact site is uncertain. Once it 
is called Gob, and twice Gazer. [Josh, x., 
33; xii.,12; Judg.i.,29; 2 Sam. v., 25; xxi., 
18; 1 Kings ix., 16; 1 Chron. vi., 67 ; vii.,28; 
xiv., 16; XX., 4.] 

Giants. Giants are first spoken of in Gen. 
vi., 4, under the Hebrew name Nephilim. 
We are there told that "there were Nephilim 
in the earth," and that afterward the "sons 
of God" (q. v.), mingling with the beautiful 
"daughters of men," produced a race of vio- 
lent and insolent Gihhorhn, " mighty men." 
All that Scripture indicates as regards this 
race Of giants is, that they existed before the 
Flood, having a share in the flagitious events 
that precipitated the Deluge. They were, 
however, thought by the Israelites to have 
again appeared in the giant race of the Ana- 
kim (q. v.).^ The other word identified with 
giants in the O. T. is Rephaim (q. v.), which 
seems originally to have been a proper name. 
Besides the Anakim and Rephaim, we are 
told of two others that belonged substantial- 
ly to the same class, the Emim (q. v.) and 
Zamzummim or Zuzim (q. v.). Very little 
specific information is given us, either of the 
races that thus distiiictively bore the name 



1 "Physical Cause of Christ's Death."— 2 Comp. 
Matt, xxvi., 38, with Luke xxii., 43.-3 Numb, xiii., 33. 



of giants, or of any individuals of their num- 
ber. We know that they exceeded in stat- 
ure and robustness the tribes that dwelt 
around them ; but distinctions of this sort are 
always relative, and possibly the actual size 
and bodily strength of the giants of Scrip- 
ture did not greatly surpass what is often 
found in individuals, and even in whole fam- 
ilies, in modern times. In those rude and 
comparatively unsettled days, when so much 
depended upon personal strength and valor, 
there was the greatest inducement for those 
who possessed such properties in any mark- 
ed degree to cultivate them to the uttermost, 
and render them as far as possible an heredi- 
tary distinction. But with the development 
of civilization, mere animal strength and cor- 
poreal stature come to be relatively of less 
avail. And so it was only in the infancy 
of the world that the simply giant races 
could maintain the ascendency. 

Gibbethon (lofty place), a town originally 
of the Philistines, but afterward assigned to 
the tribe of Dan. So late as the times of Na- 
dab and Baasha it still belonged to the Phi- 
listines ; and it was while engaged there in 
a vigorous siege that Baasha, one of Nadab's 
officers, smote his master, and took possession 
of the throne. Nothing is known of its exact 
site. [Josh, xix.,44; 1 Kings xv., 27; xvi.,15.] 

Gibeah (hill), the Hebrew word for "hill," 
which, like most words of this kind, gave its 
name to several towns and places in Pales- 
tine which were probably on or near a hill. 

1. Of the places that bore this name, the 
most noted was called Gibeah-of-Benjamin, 
sometimes also Gibeah-of-Saul. It was the 
birthplace of Saul, and his residence after 
he became king ; the scene of the execution 
of Saul's sons, and the singularly touching 
manifestation of the maternal tenderness of 
Rizpah, the mother of two of the victims. 
Gibeah was also the scene of still more 
mournful and distressing tragedies at an 
earlier period ; the atrocity perpetrated upon 
the concubine of the Levite, and the de- 
structive war that ensued between Benjamin 
and the other tribes. It was then a " city," 
with the usual open street or square, and 
contained seven hundred chosen men. The 
account of this affair forms one of the dark- 
est spots of Israelitish history; and not only 
Gibeah, but the whole tribe of Benjamin 
came by it to the very brink of destruction. 
By the time of Saul, however, Gibeah must 
have attained to a considerable prosperity 
and importance. It was situated on what 
is now called Tuleil-el-Fftl, the " hill of the 
heans,^' a conspicuous eminence four miles 
north of Jerusalem, to the right of the road on 
the way to Ramah and Bethel. No remains 
exist of the ancient city, unless a confused 
heap of earth and stones can be called such.^ 



» Judg. xix.-xxi. ; 1 Sam. x., 26; xi., 4; xiii. ; xiv. ; 
xxiii., 19; xxvi., 1 ; 2 Sam. xxi. ; xxiii., 29 ; Hos. v., 
8,9; X., 9. 



GIBEON 



389 



GIDEON 



2. The GiBEATH of Josh, xviii., 28, is gen- 
erally supposed to be identical with this Gib- 
eah of Saul and Benjamin ; but the Hebrew 
construction, as well as other reasons, would 
favor the idea that Gibeath belongs to the 
following nameKirjath, and denotes the hill 
adjoining that town, afterward mentioned in 
connection with the preservation of the ark 
in Abinadab's house.* 

Gibeon (belonging to a hill, i. e., hill city), a 
large and noted city of the Hivites, whose 
inhabitants obtained terms of peace by craft 
from Joshua and the Israelites, and thus es- 
caped the fate of Jericho and Ai. Taking 
old clothes on their persons, and dry and 
moldy bread in their bags, they professed 
to come from a far country, led by report of 
the wonderful things done by Israel, to seek 
an alliance with them. So craftily did the 
Gibeonites play their part, that the proposal 
was agreed to before the chiefs of the con- 
gregation of Israel had any suspicion of the 



town. The children of Gibeon, or, as it is 
written in Ezra ii., 20, Gibbar, who returned 
from the Babylonish captivity were proba- 
bly descendants of the inhabitants of Gib- 
eon.* 

Gibeon lay within the territory of Benja- 
min, and, with its suburbs, was allotted to 
the priests, of whom it became a principal 
station. It was a place of importance, as 
the key to the pass of Beth-horon, and was 
probably well fortified during all the better 
days of Israelitish history. It still retains 
its ancient name almost intact, el- Jib, and is a 
village on a rocky hill five or six miles north 
of Jerusalem, a little west of the main north 
road. The many remains of ancient build- 
ings, scattered irregularly over the broad 
summit of the hill, testify to its former im- 
portance. Round it is spread one of the 
richest and finest plains in Central Pales- 
tine, meadow -like in smoothness and ver- 
dure, and dotted with vineyards and qlive- 




Map of the Scene of Joshua's great Battle at Gibeon, 



artifice. It was resolved that the covenant 
should be religiously preserved ; but to mark 
the sense entertained of their conduct, the 
Gibeonites were to serve as hewers of wood 
and drawers of water for the tabernacle of 
the Lord forever.^ Joshua defended them 
when the neighboring kings resolved to pun- 
ish them for their submission to Israel. And 
here was the scene of the famous miracle 
when Joshua commanded, "Sun, stand thou 
still upon Gibeon ; and thou, Moon, in the 
valley of Aijalon."^ In later times Saul vio- 
lated this covenant, and in a fit of enthusi- 
asm or patriotism devised a general massa- 
cre, and succeeded in putting many of them 
to death. This crime was expiated many 
years after by giving up seven men of Saul's 
descendants to the Gibeonites, who hung 
them or crucified them " before Jehovah " — 
as a kind of sacrifice — in Gibeah, Saul's own 



1 1 Sam. vii., 1 ; 2 Sara, vi., 3, 4.-2 Josh. ix. ; comp. 
xi., 19.— 3 Josh. X. See Josuua. 



groves. It is well supplied with water, for 
there is a copious fountain in the vale south- 
east of the village, and a considerable pond 
in the wet season in the plain below. This 
was probably the " pool " where Joab and 
Abner fought, and the "great waters " where 
Jonathan came up with Ishmael. [Josh, 
xviii., 25 ; xxi., 17 ; 2 Sam. ii., 12-24 ; iii., 30 ; 
1 Kings ii., 28-34 ; Jer. xli., 12.] 

Gideon (impetuous warrior), the son of Jo- 
ash, of the tribe of Manasseh, and a famous 
warrior of the period in Jewish histojy of 
the Judges. It was in an era of great na- 
tional degradation and distress that the char- 
acter of Gideon was formed. The nation 
seemed, indeed, to be upon the very eve of 
utter extinction. The Israelites having lost 
faith in God, and the manly courage founded 
on it, offered but feeble resistance to the in- 
creasing forays of the Bedouin Arabs, from 
whose incursions they had never been whol- 
1 Josh. X. ; 1 Sam. xxi., l-'J ; Neh. vii., 25. 



GIDEON 



390 



GIDEON 



ly free. At length Arabians, Amalekites, 
and Midianites made common cause against 
those whom they regarded as a common 
prey, if not as a common foe, and, crossing 
the valley of the Jordan, planted their en- 
campments along the hill-sides of Manasseh 
and Ephraim. Each year the fattening herds 
and ripening grain invited their incursions. 
They swept through the whole land like a 
host of locusts or a fierce consuming fire. 
The frightened Israelites, not daring to resist 
— indeed quite unable in their own strength 
to do so — fled to the mountain fastnesses, and 
witnessed in despair the despoiling of their 
homes. For seven years this operation had 
been repeated, till the laud was far worse 
than famine-stricken. To the desperate peo- 
ple no choice seemed left but death from 
starvation in the mountains, or death from 
the Bedouin swords upon the plains. And 
still the warnings of Moses and Joshua were 
never brought to mind ; still the worship of 
Baal and Ashtaroth supplanted that of Je- 
hovah. Gideon's father's fields and herds 
had suffered, in the universal devastation. 
In some hopless attempt at defense, or more 
hopeless attempt at reprisal, his brethren had 
been captured and put to death. In solitude,, 
this youngest son, left to be the only stay 
of his father's old age, was beating out by 
hand a little wheat saved from the remorse- 
less Arab hordes. He had constructed a 
rude threshing-floor in one of those primi- 
tive wine-vats which Nature had provided 
in the cavernous hills of Palestine — an aper- 
ture in the limestone, half chasm, half cave. 
Although he designates his family as poor in 
Manasseh, and himself as least in his father's 
house, it would appear that his father was a 
man of some means as well as influence. He 
liad erected at his own expense an altar to 
Baal, and put by the side of it one of those 
rude images of Ashtaroth, carved in wood, 
Avhich witnessed at once to the degradation 
of Israel's worship and the licentiousness of 
Israel's manners. Gideon himself OAvned a 
retinue of slaves, and had already attained 
no little honor in his tribe, if, indeed, his 
past exploits had not made him known for 
a mighty man of valor throughout the na- 
tion. A man of courage, yet of caution, he 
had not wholly lost faith in God; but he 
bitterly recalls Israel's achievements when 
Joshua led them against these same barbari- 
an hordes at whose feet they are now crouch- 
ing, as he plies the flail in his rude thresh- 
ing-floor, and wishes that he might thus beat 
the oppressors of his nation with an aveng- 
ing arm. So employed, he was startled by 
a salutation close beside him, '' The Lord is 
with thee, thou mighty man of valor." His 
answer is the utterance, in caustic irony, of 
his previous meditations.^ Like his proto- 
type Moses, he begs to be excused from the 
mission given to him ; but by a miracle his 



Jndg. vi., 12-14. 



angelic visitor is revealed to him, and Gideon 
accepts the divine commission. Without de- 
lay he rises, summons ten of his most trusty 
servants, and, while the not distant city of 
Ophrah is still wrapped in sleep, casts down 
the heathen altar, cuts down the heathen 
idol — not the grove,^ as our English version 
improperly renders it — erects on this very 
spot a rude altar to the God of his fathers, 
and mingles with the light of early dawn 
the fires of his first true sacrifice. From this 
time forth his position is publicly taken. In 
the name of the almost forgotten Jehovah he 
conducts henceforth his entire campaign. 

The people, awaking to find their altar 
cast down and their idol ruthlessly destroy- 
ed, demand, with angry imprecations, the 
death of the impious iconoclast; but from 
demanding his head, they pass, by one of 
those transitions of popular feeling which are 
as inexplicable as they are common, to clam- 
orously crowning him as their leader, while 
at the same time he receives a new name, 
derived from his father's successful interces- 
sion for his life, Jerubbaal — ** Let Baal plead." 
There gathers about him an army of thirty- 
two thousand men. The Midianites, hear- 
ing this note of war, concentrate their forces 
to prepare for the conflict. One hundred 
and twenty thousand strong, they encamp 
on the hills that overlook the plains of Es- 
draelon. Gideon's faith falters. His forces 
are quite inadequate. His men are ill equip- 
ped, untrained, unused to war. Going to 
God for help, he is re-assured by the miracle 
of the fleece. But God will still further try 
him. He is reminded to issue the proclama- 
tion which the laws of Moses required to be 
made on the eve of every campaign.^ The 
sight of their foe in battle array is sufficient 
to dampen the military ardor of many of 
Gideon's raw recruits, and a third of his lit- 
tle army avail themselves of his permission 
to retire. Still too many remain, and, by 
divine command, a further test excludes all 
but three hundred. The rest return to their 
tents to await the result. That night, Gid- 
eon, accompanied only by his armor-bearer, 
creeps across the valley to the very edge 
of the heathen tents to reconnoitre. God 
has promised that he shall hear what will 
strengthen his courage. He overhears a 
dream whose interpretation augurs well for 
his cause, and, impatient now for the conflict 
to begin, he beckons to his armor-bearer, and 
the two creep stealthily away. He divides 
his little troop into three companies, the usu- 
al division of the Hebrew army. He gives 
to each a trumpet. He furnishes each with 
a peculiar torch, which burns with a dull, 
smouldering light that blazes up in a sudden 
illumination when waved through the air. 
To conceal it more eflectually, he orders the 
burning end to be covered with an earthen 
pot. This torch of Gideon is still carried 
1 See Grove.— 2 Dent, xx., 8. 



GIDEON 



391 



GIFTS (OF TONGUES) 



as a dark lantern by the niglit-police of 
Cairo. These preparations occupy proba- 
bly the succeeding day. In the silence and 
darkness of the night, they steal across the 
valley of Jezreel, and environ the sleeping 
camp. As Gideon gives the appointed signal, 
tlie earthen jars are broken and cast upon 
the ground; the torches, waving through 
the air, illume the hill-sides with a lurid 
light ; the three hundred trumpets sound 
simultaneously the charge ; the war - cry, 
"The sword of the Lord and of Gideon," 
echoes among the hills. The startled Mid- 
ianites spring from their tents, and, thrown 
into inextricable confusion, in the delirium 
of excitement turn their swords upon each 
other, and Israel witnesses the slaughter of 
her foes without sharing in it. The Arabs 
flee through the darkness for the ford of 
Bethabara. Their road lies through the land 
of Ephraim. Its men of war, answering the 
call of Gideon's heralds, gather at the ford. 
The chief Midianitish kings have already 
passed over. Two of their subordinate 
sheiks are, however, captured, and their 
heads are brought as trophies to Gideon, 
who, with his three hundred men, pursues 
the flying Arabs far into their own desert. 
Though faint with two nights of watching 
and a long and rapid march, he rests not till 
he has captured their chiefs, Zebah and Zal- 
munnah, and avenged the death of his own 
brethren by the execution of their murderers. 
Thence returning in triumph, he summarily 
punishes the towns of Succoth and Penuel 
for their cowardly and insulting refusal to 
help in the pursuit of the fleeing enemy. 

The end of Gideon's career did not alto- 
gether fulfill the promise of the beginning. 
He declined, it is true, the office of king of- 
fered to him and to his family by the grate- 
ful Israelites, nor is there any reason to be- 
lieve that he returned to the idolatry of the 
past ; but the ephod which he placed in his 
city of Ophrah, if not an idol, as some have 
supposed, became a snare and a scandal to 
his family and to Israel. He lived to an 
advanced age, had seventy sons, besides one 
by a concubine; and finally, dying peace- 
fully, was buried in the sepulchre of his fa- 
ther. So effectual was his victory, that for 
forty years the land enjoyed rest from its 
enemies ; the memory of his acts was pre- 
served to the latest period of Jewish history, 
and his faith in God is mentioned in the N. 
T. as an incentive to the followers of Christ.^ 
His life is a symbol as well as a history, and 
affords a striking exemplification of the 
truth, of which, however, secular history af- 
fords also many others scarcely less striking, 
that God is not always on the side of the 
strong battalions, and that in the world's 
conflicts " one with God is a majority." 
[Judg. vi.-viii. ] 



1 1 Sam. xii., 11 ; Psa. Ixxxiii., 11 ; Isa. ix., 4; x., 
Heb. xi., 32. 



Gifts (of Tongues). It is evident that 
in the apostolic times the Church was the 
recipient of certain extraordinary powers 
which have not belonged to it since. They 
are referred to in many passages, though the 
clearest description and classification of 
them is that contained in 1 Cor. xii. and xiv. 
They resolve themselves into two classes: 
(1.) those which relate to healing,^ and (2.) 
the gifts of teaching.^ The gifts of healing 
are sufficiently considered under the general" 
title of miracles (q. v.), for they do not seem 
to differ from other miracles. The other 
gifts are of two kinds, the gift of prophecy 
and the gift of tongues. By the gift of 
prophecy is simply meant the gift of speak- 
ing under the direct inspiration of the Holy 
Spirit, and is discussed under the title 
Prophets. The gift of tongues is more dif- 
ficult to be understood. The most impor- 
tant passages relating to it are Mark xvi,, 
17 ; Luke xxi., 15 ; Acts ii., 3-21 ; x., 46 ; xix., 
6 ; 1 Cor. xii., 8-28 ; xiii., 1 ; xiv. ; 1 Pet. iv., 
11. From these passages the following con- 
clusions may be deduced. 

The gift in question was something new 
in the apostolic age.^ It was regarded as 
in a special manner a gift of the Spirit, and 
was generally closely connected with that 
of prophesying.* Yet it was distinct from 
prophecy in being rather the utterance of 
the feeling than of the understanding, and 
in being not always intelligible to the by- 
stander, or even to the speakers themselves.^ 
It seems, indeed, to have accompanied a 
trance or ecstasy, which in moments of 
great religious fervor, especially at the mo- 
ment of conversion, seized the early believ- 
ers ; and this fervor vented itself in expres- 
sions of thanksgiving, in fragments of psalm- 
ody or hymnody, and prayer, which to the 
speaker himself conveyed an irresistible 
sense of communion with God, and to the 
by-stander an impression of some extraordi- 
nary manifestation of power, but not neces- 
sarily any instruction or teaching, and some- 
times even having the appearance of wild 
excitement. It was the most emphatic sign 
to each individual believer that a power 
mightier than his own was come into the 
world ; and in those who, like the apostle 
Paul, possessed this gift in a high degree, 
" speaking with tongues more than they all," 
it would, when combined with the other more 
remarkable gifts which he possessed, form 
a fitting mood for the reception of God's se- 
crets, and of " unspeakable words, which it 
is not lawful for man to utter."® But a diffi- 
culty arises when we ask. What was the spe- 
cial form which these outpourings of devo- 



1 Mark xvi., 18; Jas. v., 14, 15.— 2 Matt, x., 20 ; John 
xvi., 13 ; Rom. xii., 6, 7, 8 ; 1 Cor. vii., 40; xii., 8-10; 
Eph. Iv., 7, 11 ; 1 Pet. iv., 10, 11.— 3 Mark xvi., 17 ; Acts 
ii., 7, 12; x., 46; xix., 6.— < Acts ii., 4; x., 44, 46, 47; 
xix., 6 ; comp. Acts ii., 17-21 ; xix., 6 ; 1 Thess. v., 19.— 
5 Acts ii., 13, 15 ; 1 Cor. xiv., 2, 4, 6, 13, 14, 16, 19, 23.— 
1 Cor. xiv., 18; 2 Cor. iv., 4. 



GIFTS (OF TONGUES) 



392 



GILBOA 



tion and these prophetic trances assumed? 
The stress laid in Acts ii. on the variety of 
nations assembled at the Day of Pentecost, 
and the expression "every man heard them 
speak in his own language/' can hardly be ex- 
plained on any other supposition than that 
the writer meant to describe that, at least to 
the hearers, the sounds spoken seemed to be 
those of distinct languages and real dialects. 
Still there is no positive evidence of its hav- 
ing been ever used as a means of instruct- 
ing foreign nations, or of superseding the ne- 
cessity of learning foreign languages. Prob- 
ably in no age of the world has such a gift 
been less needed. The chief sphere of the 
apostles must have been within the Roman 
Empire, and within that sphere, Greek or Lat- 
in, but especially Greek, must have been ev- 
erywhere understood. Even on the Day of 
Pentecost, the speech of Peter, by which the 
first great conversion was effected, seems to 
have been in Greek, which probably all the 
nations assembled would sufficiently under- 
stand ; and the speaking of foreign dialects 
is nowhere alluded to by him as any part of 
the event which he is vindicating and de- 
scribing. The Epistles, in like manner, were 
all written in Greek, though many of them 
are addressed to the very nations whose 
presence is described in the Acts on that oc- 
casion, the people of Judea, Cappadocia, Pon- 
tus, Asia, Phrygia, and the dwellers at Rome. 
When the Lycaonians addressed Paul and 
Barnabas in the speech of Lycaonia, there is 
no mention of Paul and Barnabas answering 
them in that language. A very ancient tra- 
dition describes Peter as employing Mark for 
an interpreter. Irenseus, who alone of the 
early fathers alludes to the gift of tongues, 
and that in a manner which seems to imply 
diversity of language, was himself obliged 
to learn the Gaulish language. And lastly, 
chap. xii. of First Corinthians, which con- 
tains the fullest account of this gift, is incon- 
sistent with such a supposition. The Church 
of Corinth is described as full of speakers 
with tongues, and yet evidently no work of 
conversion was going on by that means, nor 
is there any allusion to such a work as a pos- 
sible object for the gift. 

At various times since the apostolic age, 
the gift of tongues has been claimed by cer- 
tain individuals. The earliest of these man- 
ifestations was the alleged ecstatic state of 
the Montanists at the close of the second cen- 
tury. The paroxysms which attended the 
preaching of Wesley furnish an instance in 
later times. Another, more nearly to the 
point, was the utterance of strange sounds 
among the persecuted Protestants of the 
south of France, at the beginning of the 
last century, commonly called the " Prophets 
of Cevennes." But the most important of 
these manifestations, as the one claiming 
the most direct connection with the apostol- 
ical gifts, was the so-called "gift of tongues " 



in the followers of Mr. Irving, about 1831- 
1833.^ These phenomena were certainly very 
remarkable. Thus an instance is recorded 
of one whose natural voice was very inhar- 
monious, yet, when as it was termed " under 
the influence of the Spirit," he could pour 
forth a rich strain of melody, of which each 
note was musical, and uttered with great 
sweetness and power of expression, with a 
gradually increasing velocity, though perfect 
distinctness of utterance ; and with all this 
apparently breathless haste, there was not 
the slightest agitation of body or mind. On 
the contrary, there was perfect tranquillity 
and composure — the very opposite to the least 
degree of excitement. 

In respect to the gift of tongues in the 
apostolic age, Paul's declaration that he him- 
self spake with tongues "more than they 
all," when combined with his other quali- 
ties, is a guarantee that the apostolical gift 
of tongues was not imposture or fanaticism. 
But, on the other hand, his constant lan- 
guage respecting it is no less a guarantee 
that gifts such as these were the last that 
he would have brought forward in vindi- 
cation or support of the Gospel which he 
preached. He acknowledged the fact, he 
claimed the possession, of this extraordinary 
power ; and yet he was endowed with the 
wisdom and the courage to treat it as always 
subordinate to higher gifts of wisdom, grace, 
aryl love.^ 

Gilboa {'bubbling fountain), a mountain 
range on the eastern side of the plain of Es- 
draelon, rising over the city of Jezreel. Of 
the identity of Gilboa with the ridge which 
stretches eastward from the ruins of Jezreel, 
no doubt can be entertained. At the north- 
ern base, half a mile from the ruins, is a large 
fountain, called in Scripture both the " well 
of Harod" and the "fountain of Jezreel,"^ 
and it was probably from it the name Gilboa 
was derived. The range of Gilboa extends 
in length some ten miles from west to east. 
The sides are bleak, white, and barren ; they 
look, in fact, as if the pathetic exclamation 
of David, " Ye mountains of Gilboa, let there 
be no rain upon you, neither dew, nor field 
of offering,"'* had proved prophetic. The 
greatest height is not more than 500 or 600 
feet above the plain. Their modern local 
name is Jebel Fukiiah, and the highest point 
is crowned by a village called Wezar. 

Peculiar interest attaches to this mountain 
range because of the famous battle between 
Saul and the Philistines — sealing the fate of 
the former, and ending in the transfer of his 
crown to David. The Philistines appear to 
have gathered all their strength for a final 
effort ; and, having marched up the sea-coast, 
to have encamped, like the Midianites, in 
that part of the plain properly called " the 
valley of Jezreel." On the opposite side. 



1 See Catholic AroRToi.ic Oiidroii.— "■^ 1 Cor. xii.; 
xiii.— 3 Judg. vii., 1 ; 1 Sam. xxix., 1.— * 2 Sam. i., 21. 



GILEAD 



393 



GIRDLE 



nearly on the site of Gideon's camp, on the 
rise of Mount Gilboa, hard by the '' spring of 
Jezreel," was the army of Saul ; the Israel- 
ites, as usual, keeping to the heights, while 
their enemies clung to the plain. It was 
while the two armies were in this position 
that Saul made, in secrecy, his adventur- 
ous journey by night over the shoulder of 
the ridge ou which the Philistines were en- 
camped, to visit the witch at Endor, situated 
immediately on the other side of the range, 
and immediately facing Tabor. Large caves, 
which, at least to modern notions, accord 
with the residence of the necromancer, still 
perforate the rocky sides of the hill. The 
onset took place the next morning. The 
Philistines instantly drove the Israelites up 
the slopes of Gilboa ; and however far the 
rout may have carried the mass of tlie fugi- 
tives down the valley to the Jordan, the thick 
of the fight must have been on the heights 
themselves; for it was "on Mount Gilboa" 
that the corpses of Saul and his three sons 
were found by the Philistines the next day. 
It is worthy of notice, as a corroboration of 
the Scripture narrative, that all the places 
designated in the Scriptural narrative of 
this battle, excei^t possibly one of them, 
are still found to exist under their ancient 
names, and to occupy precisely the situa- 
tion with reference to each other which the 
requirements of the history imply. [Judg. 
vii., 1 ; 1 Sam. xxviii., 4 ; xxix., 1 ; xxxi., 1 ; 
2 Sam. i., 6 ; xxi., 12, 21 ; 1 Chron. x., 1, 8.] 

Gilead (a hard, rocky region), a mountain- 
ous region, bounded on the west by the Jor- 
dan, on the north by Bashan, on the east by 
the Arabian plateau, and on the south by 
Moab and Ammon ; though the name seems 
sometimes to have been applied generally to 
the whole trans-Jordanic territory.^ It is 
sometimes called "Mount Gilead," sometimes 
" the land of Gilead," and sometimes simply 
" Gilead ;" but a comparison of the several 
passages shows that they all mean the same 
thing. As is usual in Palestine, the name de- 
scribes the physical aspect of the country. 
Gilead proper fell partly to the lot of Gad, 
partly to Manasseh. Its mountains are to be 
seen from nearly all the hills and table-lands 
of Western Palestine, and seem to form an un- 
broken ridge, bounding the view to the east- 
ward. Its forests and pastures seem to have 
kept alive iu its inhabitants, who were a 
branch of the tribe of Manasseh, that wild 
and nomad character, which was soon lost 
by the tribes to the west of the Jordan, while 
its exposure to the attacks of external ene- 
mies nurtured their warlike spirit, and its 
isolation from the rest of the Holy Land 
kept them in the background of the history 
of God's people. Two remarkable men came 
from its forests: Jephthah, the victorious 
captain, who paid his daughter as the price 



1 Gen. xxxi., 21, 25; xxxvii., 25: Dent, iii., 12-17; 
Numb, xxxii., 1, 29 ; Judg. xx., 1 ; Psa. Ix., 7. 



of his ambition, and Elijah the Tishbite, the 
sole antagonist on Mount Carmel of Baal's 
four hundred prophets. It was to Gilead 
that Abner conveyed Ishbosheth, as sure of 
support among such a people, and David 
himself took refuge there iu Absalom's rebell- 
ion. And to its mountains, iu obedience to 
their master's prophetic bidding, the Chris- 
tians fled from the siege of Jerusalem, and 
found at Pella a refuge from the calamities 
which befell their countrymen.^ 

The mention of Mount Gilead in Judges 
vii., 3, as if there were a mount of that name 
west of the Jordan, has created a difficulty. 
Some would read Gilboa instead of Gilead ; 
others would make it not Gilboa, but still a 
place or mountain west of the Jordan ; while 
others still infer that since it was from Gil- 
ead that the Midianites had passed over into 
Western Palestine, they would be driven 
back through Gilead, and that the fearful 
were, for this reason, bidden to depart from 
that region, as likely to be the theatre of 
war. The Gilead of Hosea vi., 8, is proba- 
bly Ramoth-Gilead ; but it may be that the 
whole province is intended thereby. 

Gilgal (a rolling away). Several places 
with this name are mentioned in the Bible. 
The principal one is the place where the Is- 
raelites first encamped iu Canaan, and where 
they had for some time their head-quar- 
ters. It received its name from the circum- 
cising of the people there, apparently at 
or near some hill, when the reproach of 
Egypt is said to have been rolled away. Gil- 
gal was at the eastern extremity of the dis- 
trict of Jericho, near the Jordan, in the low 
hot plain. It does not appear that a city was 
built here ; yet Gilgal continued long a place 
of rendezvous, and perhaps a sanctuary ; and 
it was here that the men of Judah met Da- 
vid ou his return from the country beyond 
Jordan after the defeat of Absalom. In 
later times Gilgal was a seat of idolatry. It 
may be added that, in describing the frontier 
of Benjamin and Judah, it is once called Geli- 
loth. Its exact site can not now be identi- 
fied. It was probably near the present little 
village of Biha. [Josh, iv., 19, 20 ; v., 1-11 ; 
2Sam.xix., 15, 40.] 

Girdle, an essential article of dress in the 
East, and worn both by men and women. It 
was sometimes made of leather,^ like that 
worn by the Bedouins of the present day, 
sometimes of linen, embroidered with silk, 
or with gold and silver thread,^ and was fre- 
quently studded with gold and precious 
stones or pearls. It was fastened by a clasp 
of gold or silver, or tied in a knot, so that 
the ends hung down in front. The military 
girdle was worn about the waist, the sword 
or dagger being suspended from it.* Gird- 



1 See Jud?. xi., 1; 2 Sam. ii., 8, 9; xvii., 22, 24; 1 
Kiiif^s xvii., 1 ; Matt, xxiv., 16.— 2 2 Kings i., 8 ; Matt. 
iii., 4.-3 Jer. xiii., 1; Ezek. xvi., 10; Dan.x., 5; Rev. 
i., 13 ; XV., 6.—* Judg. iii., 16; 2 Sam. xx., 8; Psa. xlv., 3. 



GIRDLE 



394 



GLASS 




4 5 e 

Ancient Girdles : 1, 3, Egyptian ; 2, Persipolitan ; 4, 5, 
Assyrian. 

ing up the loius, so as to confine the loose 
dress, denotes preparation for any active ex- 
ertion ; and hence, metaphorically, of the 
mental powers/ In times of mourning, gir- 
dles of sackcloth were worn as marks of hu- 
miliation and sorrow.^ In consequence of 
the costly materials of which girdles were 
made, they were frequently given as pres- 
ents.^ They were, and still are, used among 
the Arabs as pockets and purses, one end of 
the girdle being folded back for the pur- 
pose.^ The girdle worn by the priests 

about the close-fitting tunic^ is described by 




The linen Girdle of the Priests. 

Josephus as made of linen so fine of texture 
as to look like the slough of a snake, and 
embroidered with flowers of scarlet, purple, 
blue, and fine linen. It was about four fiu- 



1 2 Kings iv., 29; Job xxxviii., 3; 1 Pet. i., 13.— 
2 Isa. iii., 24; xxii., 12. — ^ 1 Sam. xviii., 4; 2 Sam. 
xviii., 11.—'* Matt, x., 9 ; Mark vi., 8.-5 Exod. xxviii., 
39 ; xxxix., 29. 



gers broad, and was wrapped several times 
round the priest's body, the ends hanging 
down to the feet. The curious or embroid- 
ered girdle of the ephod referred to in Exod. 
xxviii., 8, was made of the same materials 
and colors as the ephod — that is, of " gold, 
blue, and purple, and scarlet, and fine 
twined linen." Josephus describes it as 
sewn to the breastplate. After passing 
once around, it was tied in front upon the 
seam, the ends hanging down. 

The girdle has descended from ancient to 
modern times. In the East, the dervishes 
are said to wear girdles of the same de- 
scription as that of John the Baptist. To 
6, unloose one's girdle is, among the Orient- 
als, a special mark of affection and con- 
fidence. In the Church it was formerly em- 
ployed to bind the alb of the priest around 
the waist. In the Roman Catholic priestly 
vestments,^ the flat girdle has been exchanged 
for the long cord with tassels. It is to the 
girdle, as that which at once completes and 
holds together all the dress that Paul refers 
in bidding the Colossians *' above all these 
things, put on charity, which is the bond of 
perfectuess."^ 

Girgashites, one of the tribes in possession 
of Canaan before the entrance of the children 
of Israel. Their locality is not distinctly in- 
dicated, but they are named in such a con- 
nection, that they are supposed to have in- 
habited the central part of Western Pales- 
tine. [Gen. XV., 21 ; Dent, vii., 1; Josh, iii., 
10; xxiv., 11 ; 1 Chron. i., 14 ; Neh. ix., 8.] 
Glass. The manufacture of this substance 




Glass BoLtles and Jugs. (From the Tombs of Egypt.) 

was known at a very early period. Glass 
bottles of elegant design have been met with 
in Egyptian monuments more than four thou- 



See Vestments.— ^2 Col. iii., 14. 



GLEBE 



395 



GNOSTICS 



sand years old ; and in the paintings of Beni 
Hassan are depicted the various processes of 
ghiss-blowing as practiced nearly forty cen- 
turies ago.' Glass, consequently, must have 
been known to the Israelites, and yet it is cer- 
tainly not more than once mentioned in the 
O. T. Our translators render the word there'^ 
" crystal." In the N. T. it is occasionally re- 
ferred to as indicating a bright, transparent 
substance. But it is singular that, though 
in frequent use, and though some modes of 
working glass were practiced by ancient art- 
ists, of which modern workmen are igno- 
rant, it was not generally employed for mir- 
rors, which were made of metal. See Mir- 
rors. [Exod. xxxviii., 8 ; Job xxxvii., 18 ; 
Isa. iii., 23 ; 1 Cor. xiii., 12 ; 2 Cor. iii., 18 ; 
Jas. i., 23; Rev. iv.,6; xv., 2; xxi., 18.] 

Glebe, in England the land belonging to 
a parsonage. Glebe -house is the common 
designation in Ireland of the parsonage. 

Gloss, Glossary. A gloss is a note ap- 
pended to any word or phrase for the pur- 
pose of interpretation or illustration. " Sa- 
cred glosses" are such notes appended to 
words or phrases occurring in the Scriptures. 
A glossary is a collection of such explanatory 
notes properly arranged. It was the cus- 
tom of the copyists of the Bible to add such 
glosses either in the margin or between the 
lines. These sometimes became incorpora- 
ted by subsequent copyists with the text. 
To detect and eliminate these glosses, and 
so restore the text to its original purity, is 
one of the most difficult problems of criti- 
cism. 

Gnat, an insect mentioned only in the pro- 
verbial expression used by our Lord, which, 
however, should read, '' strain out a gnat." 
It is probable that the Saviour here refers to 
the insect as it exists in its g7'uh or larva form, 
before it appears in the form of a gnat. Wa- 
ter is then its element, and those who were 
nice in their drink would take pains to strain 
it out. Hence the proverb. [Matt, xxiii., 
24.] 

Gnostics (from the Greek word gnosis, 
knowledge), a general term applied to vari- 
ous heretical sects which arose at an early 
period in the Christian Church. Their name 
signified their claim to possess a peculiar 
and higher knowledge of the mysteries of 
religion, by which they asserted that they 
were enabled to give to the Word of God a 
peculiar and spiritual interpretation. Their 
philosophy really grew out of an attempt, 
possibly unconscious, to accommodate tlie 
simple teachings of the Bible, and especially 
of the N. T., to the mystical and dreamy phi 
losophy of the Orient. To enter into any de- 
tailed explanation of their various theories 
would far exceed our limits. For this, and 
a history of Gnosticism, the reader is referred 
to M'Clintock and Strong's '' Cyclopaedia," ar- 
ticle Gnosticism : and for an account of va- 



1 See art. Egypt, p. 302.— 2 Job xxviii., IT. 



rious Gnostic sects, to the descriptions there 
given under their respective titles. Here we 
shall only attempt to indicate the essential 
points in Gnostic philosophy — points which, 
with some modifications, all, or nearly all, 
Gnostic sects held in common. 

The starting-point of Gnosticism was the 
old question, so often asked but never an- 
swered. How could a finite world proceed 
from an infinite Creator — how an imperfect 
and sinful world from a perfect and holy 
Creator — how a material world from a pure- 
ly spiritual Creator ? This question was ren- 
dered more difficult by the assumption com- 
mon to nearly if not quite all Gnostic sects, 
that the material world was evil, and the 
root of evil, while the immaterial principle 
in man was pure, and good, and holy. As the 
first step toward the solution of this prob- 
lem came the doctrine of emanations. Ac- 
cording to this doctrine, which exists as the 
foundation of Hindoo mythology and the 
system of Zoroaster, the Supreme Being ex- 
ists, as Brahm (q. v.) is believed to exist, as 
a being x)nre and simple, free from all limit- 
ations, and to Avhom not even mental activ- 
ity is imputed. From this being there pro- 
ceeds an overflowing of the divine, an out- 
streaming as of light; not a conscious and 
deliberate act of God, but an emanation ne- 
cessitated by the very fullness of his nature. 
But what is thus given off departs more and 
more from the perfect original, and thus 
gradually degenerates. These emanations 
give rise to an order, or to orders, of spiritu- 
al beings, who are termed aeons. They par- 
take of the divine nature, and preside over 
the destinies of the world. These teons are of 
various ranks, and receive various titles, as 
" the only-begotten Son," the ''Word," "Life," 
" Light." It is thought by some scholars 
that John, especially in the first chapter of 
his gospel, has reference to these Gnostic 
opinions, and that he employs the phraseolo- 
gy of Gnosticism in order to correct its er- 
rors. From these seons again proceeded oth- 
er inferior orders of spirits, particularly Dem- 
iurge or Demiurgus, the Creator of the visi- 
ble world out of eternal matter. Ignorant 
of the Supreme God, and even of the higher 
aeons, inferior himself, and possessing only 
material substances out of which to con- 
struct his world, it was necessarily a de- 
graded and fallen world. And this charac- 
ter was further accounted for by the mere 
fact that in it matter and spirit were inter- 
mixed — matter being necessarily evil. This 
Demiurgus was supposed to be the God of 
the Israelites, and his laws were declared to 
be low and imperfect. Unable to show man 
how he could work his way up from the low 
state in which he was created to the higher 
state, Demiurgus could do nothing for man's 
redemption. This was reserved for one of 
the aeons, who descended to the earth to pro- 
mulgate a more perfect law, and open the 



GOAD 



396 



GOAT 



way for man to ascend from his fallen con- 
dition to the bosom of the Father, i. e., to be 
absorbed again finally in the Divine Essence. 
This aeon is Christ; though as to whether 
Christ really possessed a human body which 
the aeon inhabited, or whether the seon only 
possessed the semblance of a human body, 
the Gnostics were not agreed. Neither were 
they agreed in their practice. Some of them 
practiced rigid austerities and asceticisms, as 
a means of conquering the flesh and putting 
it to death ; while others, holding that the 
flesh was dropped oft' at death, and that the 
Spirit was unimpaired by its vices and dis- 
eases, gave a free rein to licentiousness. 

Such were the general principles of the 
Gnostic sects, so far as they can be said to 
have had any principles in common. They 
are implicitly if not directly condemned, not 
only in the first chapter of John's gospel, al- 
ready referred to, but in several passages in 
Paul's epistles.^ By the second century they 
had begun to separate into sects, which differ- 
ed from each other, however, mainly only in 
details that can hardly be considered impor- 
tant to the general reader. Of these Gnos- 
tic sects, the most important are the Abelites, 
Bardesaiaists, Basilideans, Cainites, Carpo- 
cratians, Cerinthians, Docetae, Elcesaites, Eu- 
cratites, Marcionites, Marcosians, Saturni- 
ans. Ophites or Serpentiniaus (so called be- 
cause they worshiped the serpent, which they 
regarded as an impersonation of heavenly 
wisdom), Ptolemaites, Sethites, and Valen- 
tinians. 

Goad, an instrument used by plowmen, 
still commonly to be seen in Palestine. It is 
a strong pole eight or ten feet long, with a 
pointed prick at one end to urge on the oxen, 
and a kind of chisel at the other to clear the 
plowshare from earth and weeds, and to cut 
the roots and thorns that catch or choke the 
plow. In Eccles. xii., 11, the words of the 
wise are compared to goads, because they di- 
rect into the right path, and stimulate the 
idle ; and in Acts ix., 5 ; xxvi., 14, the resist- 
ance of a soul contending against his own 
better sense of what is right, is compared to 
an ox kicking against the plowman's goad. 

Goat, a well-known animal, important in 
sacred history. Goats constituted a large 
part of the Hebrew flocks, as through them 
the people obtained the products of portions 
of their varied and broken country, other- 
wise useless. The sheep gathered the rich, 
succulent grass, which grows upon the wide 
and fertile plains, while the goats climbed 
throughout the hilly and craggy districts 
browsing upon the scanty herbage and bush- 
es of the mountain side ; and from the gath- 
erings of both the people were 8upj)lied with 
milk and flesh for food, wool and hair for 
clothing, and horns as instruments of praise 
and rejoicing. The young male kid of the 



1 See, for example, Col. ii., IS ; 1 Tim. iv., 1-4 ; 2 Tim. 
il., 16-18. 



goat supplied the flesh most commonly in 
use among the people. When the angel 
visited Gideon, " he went in and made ready 
a kid." Eeference to the kid as ordinary 
food, contrasted with the fatted calf, which 
was kept for feasts of more than ordinary 
magnificence, is found in our Saviour's par- 
able of the prodigal son.^ There appear to 
be several varieties of the common goat at 
present bred in Palestine and Syria; but 
whether they are identical with those rear- 
ed by the ancient Hebrews it is impossible 
to say. The hair of some varieties is thick 
and rough, and can only be made into coarse 
cloths, while others, of which the mohair 
goat and the cashmere goat are familiar ex- 
amples, furnish a staple of surpassing deli- 
cacy and fineness. The goats'-hair curtains of 
the tabernacle were no doubt of one of these 
fine varieties, as it is classed among the cost- 
ly ofi'erings for the sacred building.^ The 
"water-vessel" or "bottle" of Scripture was 
usually made of goat-skin. Probably the 
sacks of the Gibeonites, and those which Jo- 
seph's brethren took with them to bring 
corn from Egypt, were of the same material. 
The ancient Israelites used kneading-troughs, 
which were simply circular pieces of goat- 
skin, which could be laid on the ground when 
wanted, and rolled up and carried away when 
out of use. Thus, the fact that " the people 
took their dough before it was leavened, 
their kneading-troughs being bound up in 
their clothing upon their shoulders,"^ need 
cause no surprise. In sacrifices, the goat 
was in nearly as much requisition as the 
lamb, and in one — celebrated on the great 
Day of Atonement* — the goat was specif- 
ically mentioned as the only animal which 
could be sacrificed.^ The goat is used as a 
prophetic symbol, both in the O. T. and the 
N. T.® Sheep and goats, though of the same 
flock, never mingle together. Even when 
they are gathered into one fold by one shep- 
herd, they instinctively divide into separate 
companies. Our Lord refers to this well- 
known habit in his description of the last 
day. The same image is employed by the 
prophet Ezekiel.'^ 

Wild Goat. — There is a Hebrew word, 
signifying, according to its etymology, " the 
climber," which occurs four times in our Bi- 
ble ; rendered tlu-ice " wild goats," and once 
"roe."^ This, there can* be little doubt, is 
the Arabian ibex, or beden, which is special- 
ly formed for climbing, its fore-legs being 
shorter than the hinder. The word trans- 
lated "devils" in two passages,^ referring to 
" sacrifice unto devils," is one of the ordinary 
terms for a goat, signifying hairy ; and the 
prohibition may refer to the worship of the 



1 Lnke xv., 29, 30.~2 Exod. xxxv., 23; xxxvi., 7.— 
3 Exod. xii., 34.—* See Atonement (Day of). — ^ Lev. 
xvi., 5-2S.— « Dan. viii., 5-21 ; Ezek. xxxiv., 17; Matt. 
XXV., 32, 33.—'' Ezek. xxxiv., 17: Matt, xxv., 32, 33.— 
8 1 Sam, xxiv., 2 ; Job xxxix., 1 ; Psa. civ., 18 Prov. v., 
19 » Lev. xvii., 7 ; 2 Chron. xi., 15. 



GOD 



397 



GOLD 



goat, whicli prevailed in Egypt, and was ac- 
companied by the foulest rites. But it may 
also denote, as our translators seem to think 
it does, the worship of evil spirits. 

God. The arguments for the existence of 
a God are such, that belief in some Supreme 
Being is almost universal. It is true that 
some religions, which are wide-spread, ap- 
proach very nearly to Atheism. This is the 
case with both Buddhism and Brahmanism, 
especially the former ; and Confucianism, if 
it can be called a religion, is, in theory at 
least, almost utterly godless. Yet belief in 
a God was speedily ingrafted on Buddhism, 
Buddha himself being raised by his followers 
to the rank of one ; and in Confucianism, a 
species of hero-worship affords an imperfect 
substitute for the recognition and worship of 
a supreme and perfect God. For any detail- 
ed arguments for the existence of a God, the 
reader must necessarily be referred to the 
treatises on the evidences of religion. They 
may be very briefly though imperfectly sum- 
marized as follows : The mind is compelled 
by the law of its own being to conceive of 
some absolute and infinite Best. This abso- 
lute and infinite Best is God. It is compel- 
led to believe that every effect has a cause. 
The Great First Cause of all things is God. 
It feels the need of some divine father, legis- 
lator. Lord — some one on whom it may lean, 
to whom it may turn. As nature abhors a 
vacuum, so the soul the idea of a godless uni- 
verse. And this instinctive demand for a 
Supreme Being demonstrates that one exists. 
The almost universal faith of all nations and 
times in a God, demonstrates the reason- 
ableness of a conviction which is too wide- 
spread and deep-seated to be an error. There 
is an intuitive knowledge of God. We know 
that he is, not because experiments or dem- 
onstrations prove it, but because our minds 
instantly recognize the fact, as we recognize 
that two and two are four, or that things 
equal to the same thing are equal to each 
other. In other words, belief in God is ax- 
iomatic. So convincing are these various ev- 
idences, that it is not too much to say that 
intelligent atheism has now no existence in 
Christendom. 

The attributes of God are usually defined 
as eternity, immutability, independence, om- 
nipresence, omniscience, omnipotence, wis- 
dom, holiness, justice, and benevolence or 
love. Some of these subjects are treated 
under their respective titles. See also Je- 
hovah. 

Godliness. The prophet Micah declares 
that all religious duty consists of three ele- 
ments, "to do justly, and to love mercy, and 
to walk humbly with thy God." It is this 
last " walking with God," as illustrated by 
the brief but significant biography of Enoch,^ 
that the Bible designates by godliness ; a 
term denoting the habit of mind which re- 
1 Geu. v., 21-24. 



fers every thing to him as to a Father, and 
in every thing seeks to conform to his will. 
It is this which constitutes the first and fun- 
damental virtue, that on which all others de- 
pend, and is nearly synonymous with piety, 
and differs from faith (q. v.) mainly in the 
fact that the one indicates a power or exer- 
cise of the soul, and the other a habit of life. 
[Mic.vi.,8; Tit.ii., 12.] 

Golan (exile), a city of Bash an, in the ter- 
ritory of the half-trilje of Manasseh, but as- 
signed to the Levites, and appointed one of 
the three cities of refuge east of the Jordan. 
It is mentioned but four times in Scripture, 
and its very site is now unknown. It gave 
its name to the surrounding province of 
Gaulonitis, which extended from the Yar- 
muk in the south to the fountains of the Jor- 
dan, or the confines of Dan and Csesarea Phi- 
lippi in the north, and from the Jordan on 
the west to the Hauran on the east. This 
province corresponds to the modern Jauldn, 
which is the Arabic form of the Hebrew Go- 
lan. It is filled with the ruins of a hundred 
and twenty - seven cities and villages, and 
must anciently have been very populous. 
The most noted towns were Golan, Hippos, 
Gamala, Bethsaida or Julias, Seleucia, and 
Sogane. The greater part of Gaulonitis to 
the east and south is a flat and fertile table- 
land, well -watered, and clothed with luxu- 
riant grass. The western slopes, seen from 
Tiberias, are barren mountain sides furrow- 
ed by ravines. The hills of the mountain 
range on the north-west are clothed with no- 
ble forests, chiefly of evergreen oak, and ex- 
hibit varied and pleasing scenery. [Deut. 
iv., 43 ; Josh, xx., 8 ; xxi., 27 ; 1 Chron. vi., 
7L] 

Gold. Gold comes into very early notice 
in Scripture. It appears to have been known 
and prized in primeval times. Abraham is 
recorded to have been rich in gold, and gold- 
en ear-rings and bracelets were among the 
presents which he sent by his servant when 
commissioned to go in search of a wife for 
Isaac. In subsequent times, frequent men- 
tion is made of the employment of gold 
among the Israelites, large quantities of 
which at certain periods are said to have ex- 
isted. It was used profusely in the construc- 
tion of the tabernacle, and subsequently in 
the temple. The exact amount indicated 
by the twenty-nine talents said to have been 
employed is uncertain ; but as to the plen- 
tifulness of the mineral there can be no 
doubt. It has been the constant taste of 
the Asiatics to employ their gold, not so 
much in coinage as in ornaments of every 
sort, and embroidery. The thrones of their 
princes, the furniture of their palaces, and 
especially all that belongs to the service of 
the royal table, from the time of Solomon 
to the present day, have been fashioned of 
massive gold ; their weapons have been also 
thus decorated, and dresses or carpets em- 



GOLDEN NUMBER 



398 



GOSHEN 



broidered with gold have been at all times 
among the most valued commodities of the 
East. The chief countries mentioned in the 
Bible as producing gold are Arabia, Sheba, 
and Ophir. 

Golden Number. In the early Church, 
there were many and long disputes concern- 
ing the day in any given year on which 
Easter should fall, the Eastern and Western 
churches not agreeing on the particular day 
for the celebration of the festival. To re- 
move these difficulties, the Council of Nice 
came to a decision, from which the following 
rule was framed, viz. : " Easter-day is always 
the first Sunday after the full moon which 
happens upon or next after the twenty- first 
day of March ; and if the full moon happens 
upon a Sunday, Easter-day is the Sunday af- 
ter." If the solar year exactly corresponded 
with the lunar, the time of the paschal moon 
would be liable to no variation, and Easter 
would fall on the same day of every year ; 
but as the lunar year is shorter than the so- 
lar by eleven days, it follows that the pas- 
chal moon must, for a course of years, always 
happen at a different period in each succes- 
sive year, and the time of Easter may vary 
from the 22d of March to the 25th of April. 
Hence the adoption by the Council of Nice 
of the Metonic Cycle, which reckons that at 
the end of nineteen years the moon returns 
to have her changes on the same days of the 
solar year and of the month on which they 
happened nineteen years before, and that by 
the use of a cycle consisting of nineteen 
numbers, the changes of the moon for every 
year may be found out without the use of 
astronomical tables. The numbers of this 
cycle were written in the calendar in letters 
of gold; or, according to another account, 
the Metonic Cycle of nineteen years was orig- 
inally engraved in letters of gold on marble 
columns. Hence the name of Golden Num- 
ber. The rule for finding the golden num- 
ber for any particular year is, "Add 1 to the 
number of the year, and divide by 19 ; the 
quotient gives the number of cycles, and the 
remainder gives the golden number for that 
year ; and if there be no remainder, then 19 
is the golden number, and that year is the 
last of the cycle." 

Goliath {splendor), the famous giant of 
Gath, slain by David. From a careful ex- 
amination and comparison of the passages 
of Scripture given in the note,^ it would ap- 
pear that there was a giant in Gath (whose 
name of Rapha' seems to connect him with 
the Rephaim [q. v.] mentioned in Gen. xiv., 
5), who had five sons — Goliath, Ishbi-benob, 
Saph or Sippai, Lahmi, and a fifth whose 
name is not given, but who is distinguished 
as having six fingers on each hand and six 
toes on each foot. Goliath was slain by Da- 



1 1 Sam. xvii. ; 2 Sam. xxi., 1.5-'22 : 1 Chron. xx., 4-S. 
—3 So the margin reads in 2 Sam. xxi., 16, IS, 20 ; 1 
Chrou. XX., 4, 6. 



vid, Ishbi-benob by Abishai, Saph by Sibbe- 
chai, Lahmi by Elhanan, and the fifth by Jon- 
athan, David's brother. The height of Go- 
liath is variously estimated. Our English 
version, following the Hebrew, fixes it at six 
cubits and a span, i e., eleven feet four and 
a half inches ; Josephus and the Septuagint 
read four cubits and a span, L e., seven feet 
ten and a half inches. Even on this compu- 
tation he would be, as Josephus calls him, a 
" truly enormous man." His strength is in- 
dicated by his armor, his coat of mail weigh- 
ing over one hundred and fifty pounds, and his 
spear's head, of iron, nineteen pounds avoir- 
dupois. See Arms, Armor, and Weights 
and Measures; for place of conflict, Elah 
(Valley of) ; for brief account of the bat- 
tle, David. 

Gomorrah (submersion), one of the five cit- 
ies of the plain, apparently next in impor- 
tance to Sodom. It was, with the others, 
subdued and plundered by Chedor-laomer, 
and delivered by Abraham. It shared the 
destruction of Sodom, as it had shared its 
sin. See Cities of the Plain. [Gen. x., 19 ; 
xiii., 10 ; xiv., 1-16 ; xviii., 20 ; xix., 24-29.] 

Good-Friday. The sixth day of the week 
before Easter was probably called, by way 
of eminence, Good -Friday, because on that 
day Jesus Christ was believed to have ob- 
tained for his people all real good by his 
atoning death upon the cross. This day was 
observed in the ancient Christian Church as 
a strict fast. The customary acclamations 
and doxologies were omitted, and no music 
was allowed but of the most plaintive de- 
scription. No bell was rung for divine wor- 
ship on this day. None bowed the knee in 
prayer, because by this ceremony the Jews 
reviled Jesus.^ Neither was the kiss of char- 
ity used on this day, because with a kiss Ju- 
das betrayed his Lord. The sacramental el- 
ements were not consecrated on Good -Fri- 
day, but a portion for the use of the priest was 
reserved from the day before ; the altars were 
divested of their ornaments, and black veils 
and draperies were used to cover them ; and 
the Gospel of John was read, because he was 
a witness of our Lord's passion. The Saxons 
were accustomed to call Good-Friday by the 
name of Long-Friday, probably because of 
the long fastings and services practiced on 
that day. See Easter. 

Goshen. 1. A district or province in Egypt 
which was assigned to the fiimily of Jacob, 
and which the Israelites occupied till their 
deliverance from bondage. It is usually 
called the " land of Goshen," and appears to 
have borne the name of ^' the land of Rame- 
ses," unless this be the name of a district of 
Goshen. The district itself is nowhere cir- 
cumstantially described, nor even definitely 
indicated in Scripture, but the results of an 
examination of Biblical evidence are that 
the land of Goshen lay between the eastern 



1 Matt, xxvii., 



GOSHEN 



399 



GOSPEL 




Map of the Land of Goshen and its "Vicinity. 



part of tlie ancient Delta and the western 
border of Palestine ; that it bordered upon the 
Eiver Nile, or one of its mouths ; that it was 
scarcely a part of Egypt Proper, and was in- 
habited by other foreigners besides the Israel- 
ites ; that it was a pasture-land, especially 
suited to a shepherd-people, and sufficient for 
the Israelites, who there prospered, and were 
separate from the mainbody of the Egyptians. 
These indications seem to indicate the mod- 
ern Wady-t-TumeyMt, the valley along which 
anciently flowed the canal of the Eed Sea, as 
being the ''land of Goshen."^ 

2. The name occurs three times in Joshua 
— twice as the name of a district, and once as 
a city. The city is connected with the hill 
country of Judah, and the land of Goshen is 
simply mentioned as being in the south 



1 Gen. xlv., 10; xlvi., 29, 34; xlvii., 4, 6, 11; Exod. 
iL,3; Numb, xi.,5. 



country. Whether the two stood related to 
each other as town and country, or were in 
separate localities, is not known.^ 

Gospel. This word is derived from the 
Anglo-Saxon god and spel, signifying good 
tidings. It is very appropriately used, there- 
fore, to indicate that message of mercy which 
proclaims to mankind the mode of recon- 
ciliation with God through Jesus Christ. 
The word is never used in the Bible for a 
written document or narrative ; but at an 
early period it very naturally began to be ap- 
plied to the books in which the personal his- 
tory of Christ and his words are contained. 
The date of these accounts is involved in 
some uncertainty, and skeptical critics have 
maintained that a part of them was com- 
posed subsequent to the apostolic age ; but 
it is the belief of all Christian scholars, 



1 Josh. X., 41 ; xi., 16 ; xv., 51. 



GOSPEL 



400 



GOSPEL 



founded, we think, on ample evidence, that 
they were all composed during the latter 
half of the first century : those of St. Matthew 
and St. Mark, some years before the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem ; that of St. Luke, probably 
about A.D. 64 ; and that of St. John, toward 
the close of the century. Before the end of 
the second century, there is abundant evi- 
dence that the four gospels, as one collec- 
tion, were generally used and accepted ; and 
as matter of literary history, nothing can be 
better established than their genuineness.^ 

In examining these four records of the life 
of Christ, almost the first thing we notice is 
the distinctness in contents and character of 
the first three gospels from the last. Matthew 
and Mark confine themselves exclusively to 
the events which took place in Galilee ; Luke 
also gives a glimpse of Christ's ministry in 
Perea ; John alone describes his life in Ju- 
dea. The distinction in character is yet 
more striking. The three synoptical gos- 
pels, as they are sometimes termed, are al- 
most exclusively confined to a narrative of 
Christ's life and teachings without comment. 
'They do not claim to be the work of eye 
witnesses, and are so only in part. John, on 
the contrary, writes as an eye-witness, and 
with an avowed doctrinal purpose. It is, he 
says, that his readers " might believe that 
Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God."^ This pe- 
culiarly characterizes John's gospel through- 
out, and gives it a more philosophical, and in 
some sense a more spiritual cast, than that 
of the other three. The most ordinary, and 
we think the most natural and rational, ex- 
planation of this radical difi'ereuce between 
John and the synoptical gospels is that he 
wrote after they had written, and with their 
gospels before him, and in order to supply 
what they had omitted.^ Still, this is very 
far from being certain, and is doubted by 
some excellent scholars. 

In the other three gospels there is a great 
amount of agreement. If we suppose the 
history that they contain to be divided into 
sections, in forty-two of these all the three 
narratives coincide. This applies only, it is 
true, to general coincidence as to the facts 
narrated ; yet there are some passages either 
verbally the same, or coinciding in the use 
of many of the same words. Various theo- 
ries have been proposed to account for this 
phenomenon : 1. The first and most obvious 
suggestion would be, that the narrators made 
use of each other's work. Accordingly, many 
have endeavored to ascertain which gospel 
is to be regarded as the first; which is copied 
from the first ; and which is the last, and 
copied from the other two. But the theory 
in its crude form is in itself most improba- 
ble; and the wonder is that so much time 
and learning have been devoted to it. It 



1 See, for a consideration of their authenticity, etc., 
under their respective titles.— ^ John xx., 31.—' See 
John (GosrEL of). 



assumes that an evangelist has taken up the 
work of his predecessor, and, without sub- 
stantial alteration, has made a few changes 
in form, a few additions and retrenchments, 
and then has allowed the whole to go forth 
under his name. 2. The supposition of a 
common original from which the three gos- 
pels were drawn, each with more or less 
modification, would naturally occur to those 
who rejected the notion that the evangelists 
had copied from each other. But if all the 
evangelists had agreed to draw from a com- 
mon original, it must have been widely, if 
not universally, accepted in the Church ; and 
yet there is no record of its existence. If 
the work was of high authority, it would 
have been preserved, or at least mentioned ; 
if of lower authority, it could not have be- 
come the basis of three canonical gospels. 
3. There remains the hypothesis that all 
originated in part from one common oral 
source ; and this view we think to be the one 
now most generally adopted by advanced 
Christian scholars. Our statement of it is 
condensed from Dean Alford's " Prolegome- 
na" to the N.T. The apostles were witness- 
es of the resurrection of the Lord Jesus. In 
this consisted their especial office and work. 
And what this testimony included we learn 
from the conditions of apostleship propound- 
ed by Peter himself in Acts i., 21, 22 : that in 
order to its being properly given, an apostle 
must have been an eye and ear witness of 
what had happened from the baptism of John 
until the ascension, i. e., during the whole 
official life of our Lord. With the whole of 
this matter, therefore, was his apostolic tes- 
timony concerned. And we are consequent- 
ly justified in assuming that the substance 
of the teaching of the apostles consisted of 
their testimony to such facts, given in the 
Holy Ghost and with power. It is a strong 
confirmation of this view, that Luke himself 
in his preface refers to this original apostol- 
ic narrative as the source of the various nar- 
rations which many had taken in hand to 
draw up, and states his object in writing to 
be, that Theophilus might know the cer- 
tainty of those sayings concerning which he 
had been already instructed.^ It is another 
confirmation of the above view of the tes- 
timony of the apostolic body, that Paul 
claims to have received an independent 
knowledge by direct revelation of at least 
some of the fundamental parts of the gospel 
history,^ to qualify him for his calling as an 
apostle. It is supposed, then, that the apos- 
tles, in virtue not merely of their having 
been eye and ear witnesses of the evangelic- 
al history, but especially of their office, gave 
to the various churches their testimony in a 
narrative of facts ; such narrative being mod- 
ified in each case by the individual mind of 
the apostle himself, and his sense of what 
was requisite for the particular community 
1 Luke i., 1-4.— 2 1 Cor. xi., 23 ; xv., 3; Gal. i., 12. 



GOSPEL 



401 



GOVERNOR 



to Tvhicli he was ministering. While they 
were together, and chiefly engaged in in- 
strnctingthe converts at Jerusalem, such nar- 
rative would naturally be for the most part 
the same, and expressed in the same, or near- 
ly the same words ; coincident, however, not 
from design or rule, but because the things 
themselves were the same, and the teaching 
naturally fell, for the most part, into one 
form. This common substratum of apostol- 
ic teaching — never formally adopted by all, 
but subject to all varieties of diction and ar- 
rangement, addition, and omission, incident 
to transmission through many individual 
minds, and into many diiferent localities — is 
believed to have been the original source of 
the common part of our three gospels. 4. 
There is still a fourth hypothesis which 
should be stated. This is, that Christ spoke 
in Greek ; that the different evangelists re- 
ported him independently; but reporting the 
same words, these accounts are of necessity 
substantially repetitions of each other in 
many cases. There is this much to confirm 
this theory, that the most notable agreements 
are in the reports of the addresses, especially 
of our Lord. 

While there are certain resemblances in 
detail in the three synoptical gospels, there 
are certain characteristic features which be- 
long to and distinguish each. Referring the 
reader to the articles on the several gospels 
for a fuller account of these, we may here 
sum them up in Bishop Ellicott's brief but 
admirable note.* '' (1.) In regard of the ex- 
ternal features and characteristics, we are 
perhaps warranted in saying that (a) the 
point of view of the first gospel is main- 
ly Israelitic ; of the second. Gentile ; of the 
third, universal ; of the fourth, Christian : 
that (h) the general aspect, and, so to speak, 
physiognomy of the first, is mainly Oriental ; 
of the second, Roman ; of the third, Greek ; 
of the fourth, spiritual : that (c) the style 
of the first is stately and rhythmical; of 
the second, terse and precise ; of the third, 
calm and copious ; of the fourth, artless and 
colloquial : that the most striking charac- 
teristic of the first is symmetry ; of the sec- 
ond, compression ; of the third, order; of the 
fourth, system : that (c) the thought and 
language of the first are both Hebraistic; 
of the third, both Hellenistic ; while in the 
second the thought is often occidental, 
though the language is Hebraistic ; and, in 
the fourth, the language Hellenistic, but 
the thought Hebraistic. (2.) Again, in re- 
spect of subject-matter and contents, we may 
say, perhaps (a), that in the first gospel we 
have narrative ; in the second, memoirs ; in 
the third, history; in the fourth, dramatic 
portraiture : (&) that in the first we have 
often the record of events in their accom- 
plishment ; in the second, events in their de- 
tail ; in the third, events in their connection ; 

1 Ellicott's " Life of Christ," p. 40, note. 
26 



in the fourth, events in relation to the teach- 
ing springing from them: that thus (c) in 
the first we more often meet with the notice 
of impressions ; in the second, of facts ; in 
the third, of motives ; in the fourth, of words 
spoken : and that, lastly (d), the record of 
the first is mainly collective, and often an- 
tithetical; of the second, graphic and cir- 
cumstantial ; of the third, didactic and re- 
flective ; of the fourth, selective and supple- 
mental. (3.) We may conclude by saying 
that, in respect of the portraiture of our 
Lord, the first gospel presents him to us 
mainly as the Messiah ; the second, mainly 
as the God-man ; the tliird, as the Redeemer ; 
the fourth, as the only-begotten Son of God." 
For a consideration of the inspiration of the 
gospels, see Inspiration ; for a discussion 
of their origin and authenticity, see under 
their respective titles. 

Gospeler, a name given to the priest who 
formerly in the Communion Service of the 
Church of England read the Gospel, stand- 
ing at the north side of the altar. A similar 
officer, called an Epistoler, was also appoint- 
ed to read the Epistle. Gospelers was also 

a term of reproach ai^plied both before and 
at the time of the Reformation, to those who 
encouraged the circulation of the Scriptures, 
and adhered strictly to the doctrines of the 
Gospel in opposition to the traditions of the 
Church. 

Governor. This word is used in our Bi- 
ble with considerable latitude, as implying 
persons of rank, or those who exercised in- 
dependent or delegated authority, civil or 
ecclesiastical, in a kingdom, a province, a 
town, or a household. It is the representa- 
tive of no less than ten Hebrew and four 
Greek words, some of them very nearly syn- 
onymous, and all implying one or other of 
the prerogatives or qualifications belonging 
to a ruler or chief. It designates (1.) the 
chief of a family or tribe ; (2.) a ruler in his 
capacity of lawgiver and dispenser of justice ; 
(3.) a ruler considered especially as having 
power over the persons and property of his 
subjects; (4.) a prominent personage, what- 
ever his capacity. It is applied to the king, 
as the military and civil chief of his people, 
to the general of an army, to the head of a 
tribe, and to an officer of high rank in the 
palaces of the lord high chamberlain. It is 
given to the petty chieftains who were trib- 
utary to Solomon, to the military command- 
er of the Syrians, the Assyrians, the Chal- 
deans, and the Medes.^ Under the Persian 
viceroys during the Babylonish captivity, 
the land of the Hebrews, like the other prov- 
inces under the dominion of the Persian king, 
appears to have been portioned out among 
"governors," who were inferior in rank to 



1 Gen. xxiv., 2; Josh, xii., 2; 2 Sam. v., 2; vi., 21 ; 

1 Kings XX., 24 ; 2 Kings xviii., 24 ; 1 Chroii. xxix., 22 ; 

2 Chron. ix., 14 ; xix., 11 ; xxviii., 7 ; xxxii., 21 ; Psa. 
CV., 20 ; Jer. li., 23, 28. 



GOZAN 



402 



GRASS 



the satraps. It is impossible to determine 
the precise limits of their authority, or the 
functions which they had to perform. They 
were intrusted with the collection of the 
king's taxes, were supported by a contribu- 
tion levied upon the people, and technically 
termed " the bread of the governor,'' and 
were probably assisted in discharging their 
official duties by a council. The *' governor " 
beyond the river had a judgment-seat at Je- 
rusalem, from which probably he administer- 
ed justice Avheu making a progress through 
his province.^ In the N. T., the word gov- 
ernor is applied to the Roman procurator of 
Judea, to the director of a marriage -feast, 
to the ethuarch, who, as the vassal of the 
king, held Damascus, to the trustees of the 
property of a minor, and to the steersman 
of a ship. The procurator represented the 
emperor, had the power of life and death, 
held the office at the emperor's will, and usu- 
ally was appointed only over the imperial 
provinces.'^ 

Gozaii, the tract to which the Israelites 
were carried away captive by Pul, Tiglath- 
pileser, and Shalmaneser, or, possibly, Sar- 
gon. It has been variously placed; but it 
is probably identical with the Ganzanitis of 
Ptolemy, and the Mygdonia of other writers. 
It was in Northern Mesopotamia, on the Ka- 
bour, an affluent of the Euphrates, and prob- 
ably adjoining Haran.^ The river mention- 
ed in 1 Chron. v., 26, probably ran through 
this district. [1 Chron. v., 26 ; 2 Kings xvii., 
6; xviii., 11.] 

Grace. The word translated in the N. T. 
grace is also variously translated " accepta- 
ble," " benefit," " favor," " gift," -'joy," '' lib- 
erality," " pleasure," " thanks," and " thank- 
worthy." This fact will of itself sufficient- 
ly indicate that the word possesses various 
shades of meaning. They are all, however, 
etymologically derived from the one root- 
idea. Primarily, whatever gives pleasure to 
another is an act of grace. From this pri- 
mary idea are derived the various meanings ' 
which the word bears in the jST. T., the chief 
of which are said by Dr. Robinson, in his 
Lexicon of the N. T., to be the following : 1. j 
Grace of external form, maimer, or language ;* | 
2. Grace in feeling or disposition, the good- ' 
will which inclines one to do a kindness to 
another, and hence, especially, the favor or 
good-will of God toward men f 3. The kind- | 
ness actually resulting from this feeling of i 
favor or good- will — hence a gift, an alms, or 
any benefit conferred, and especially the spir- | 
itual gifts conferred by God on man through 
Jesus Christ.® 4. The feeling of good-will 
or kindness awakened by favors shown — 



1 Ezra iv., 7, 14; vi,, (>, S; viii., 3(5 ; Neh. ii., T, 9; 
iii., 7; v., IS ; xii., 20.—^ For Goveruor of the Feast, 
see Banqukt. Matt, xxvii., 2, 11, 14; John ii., S, 9; 2 i 
Cor. xi., \V2 ; Gal. iv., 2 ; Jas. iii., 4.-3 Isa. xxxvii., 12. 
— 4 Lnke iv., 22.— s Luke ii., 40; Acts ii., 47 ; Kom. i., 
7: 1 Cor. i., 3; 2 Cor. i., 2.-8 John i., 14; v., IG; 1 
Cor. xvi., 3 ; 2 Cor. viii., 4, G, 7, 19 ; Kom. iv., 4. 



and hence the feeling of gratitude, and so its 
expression in thanks.^ By the doctrine of 
grace is meant that the gifts of God, and es- 
pecially his pardoning and redeeming love, 
are bestowed on man purely from God's own 
infinite kindness and good- will, and with- 
out any merit or desert on the part of man. 
See Mercy. [Rom. iii., 24 ; Eph. ii., 8-10.] 

Grail (Holy). The poetry of the Middle 
Ages makes unmerous mention of the Saint 
Gral (in old French, San Grenl), a vessel said 
to have been made of precious stone, and en- 
dowed with wonderful virtues. According 
to the legend, the vessel was brought to the 
earth by angels, and kept first by them, then 
by a company of knights, commanded by a 
king, in a temple built expressly for it, at 
the summit of the unapproachable mountain 
Montsalvage. The legend was developed in 
the early part of the twelfth century by the 
addition of Arabic, Jewish, and Christian el- 
ements, and became a favorite theme for po- 
ets. In 1170 it had become confounded with 
the legends of Arthur of the Round Table 
by the Troubadours of Northern France. In 
the legend of the Round Table, the Holy 
Grail is considered as the vessel used by 
Christ at the Last Supper, and in it Joseph of 
Arimathea is said to have caught the blood 
that fell from the side of Christ. 

A costly cup was really found by the first 
crusaders at Ciesarea, and allotted to the Gen- 
oese, who brought it to Genoa, from whence 
it was afterward transported to Paris. It 
is claimed that on every Good- Friday there 
comes into the Grail, from heaven, a holy 
wafer, which is intended as the food for many ; 
thus the Grail aftbrds a sort of continuation 
of the miracle of feeding the multitude.^ It 
provides food and drink in abundance for the 
initiated, but to them alone is it visible. It 
can not be obtained by violence, but is to be 
received by fiiitli. The wanderings of the 
Saint Grail, which came from the East to 
the West, afterward to return again to the 
East, are thought to point the Church to the 
duty of missionary enterprise. The various 
legends founded upon the Holy Grail have 
suggested poems in many languages, in an- 
cient as well as modern times, and a study 
of these poems gives much information con- 
cerning the theology of past times. 

Grass. This word is used in the Bible 
to translate several Hebrew words. In the 
Scripture, as in connnon language, it is a 
general word, not restricted to botanical 
grasses. There are in the Bible some refer- 
ences to grass, the proper understanding of 
which seems to require a knowledge of the 
special characteristics in Palestine. Thus 
the " grass on the house-tops " nuxy still be 
seen springing ui> in the rainy season, and 
withering away in the first weeks of sun- 
shine. So, also, the flowers and grasses which 

» Lnke vi., 32-.^4; xvii., 9; 1 Tim. i., 12; 2 Tim. i.,3. 
—2 Matt. XV., 32. 



GREAT SEA 



403 



GREECE 



spriDg up suddenly on the southern slopes 
of the Judeau hills are blasted by the scorch- 
ing sirocco of the desert, and withered in a 
day. [Psa. xc, 5, 6; xcii., 7; ciii., 15; cxxix., 
6 ; Isa. xxxvii., 27 ; Jas. i., 10, 11.] 

Great Sea, the title ordinarily given in 
Scripture to the Mediterranean Sea. It is 
also called the "uttermost,oT utmost,oT hinder" 
sea/ the "sea of the Philistines,""'^ or simply 
" the sea."^ It washes the western shore of 
Palestine, and extending thence along the 
coasts of Greece, Italy, and Franco to Spain 
on the north, and Egypt and Libya on the 
south, is frequently alluded to in Scripture. 
Its chief interest to the Biblical student is 
the fact of its connection with the life and 
labors of the apostle Paul. [Numb, xxxiv., 
6 ; Josh, i., 4 ; ix., 1 ; xv., 12, 47 ; xxiii., 4 ; 
Ezek. xlvii., 10.] 

Greece. Greece was a country in the 
south-east of Europe, lying between 36° and 
40° north latitude. It is sometimes described 
as containing the four provinces of Macedo- 
nia, Epirus, Achaia or Hellas, and Pelopon- 
nesus, but more connuouly is understood to 
comprise the two latter. Except upon its 
northern boundary, it is surrounded on all 
sides by the sea, which intersects it in every 
direction, and naturally gives to its popula- 
tion sea-faring habits. It is also a mountain- 
ous country, abounding in eminences of great 
height, which branch out and intersect the 
land from its northern to its southern ex- 
tremity, and form the natural limits of many 
of the provinces into which it is divided. 
At the Isthmus of Corinth it is separated 
into two great divisions, of which the north- 
ern was called Grecia intra Peloponnesum, and 
the southern, the Peloponnesus, now called 
the Morea. The mountain and the sea are 
thus the grand natural characteristics of 
Greece ; and their great influence on the char- 
acter of its inhabitants is evidenced in the 
religion, poetry, history, and manners of the 
people. The country has always been fa- 
mous for the temi)erature of its climate, the 
salubrity of its air, and the fertility of its 
soil. 

The authentic history of Greece begins 
with the first Olympiad, B.C. 776. There is 
no doubt that the country had been inhab- 
ited from very remote periods of antiquity ; 
but in the traditions which have come down 
to us of these ancient times, fact is so min- 
gled with fable, that it is impossible with 
certainty to distinguish the false from the 
true. The founding of Argos and Sicyon is 
thought to have been so far back as B.C. 
1986 and B.C. 2089, and i)resuppose still ear- 
lier settlements of the country by tribes 
whose names are wholly lost. These peri- 
ods of remote antiquity derive very consid- 
erable confirmation from a chapter in the 



1 Dent, xi., 24; Joel ii., 20; Zech. xiv., 8 2 Exod. 

xxiii., .-'.l.— 3 Geu. xlix., 13 ; 1 Kings iv., 20 ; Psa. Ixxx., 
11; cvii., 23. 



Book of Genesis, which gives us in a few 
verses more trustworthy information about 
the early distribution of the nations of the 
earth than we derive from any other sources. 
It is from Javan, Gen. x., 2, one of the sons 
of Japheth, that the Hebrew name of Greece 
is derived. Among the four sons of Javan 
"were the isles of the Gentiles divided." 
The Hebrew word here translated " isles " 
means all those lands westward of Judea 
which were reached by sea from that coun- 
try, and the description specially points out 
Greece, the first great land reached by sea 
from the coasts of Asia after penetrating the 
archipelago in the ^gean Sea. This west- 
ern migration of the grandsons of Noah is 
fixed by Gen. xi., 1-8, as subsequent to the 
building of Babel and the confusion of lan- 
guages. The building of Babel is usually 
placed about B.C. 2200, which agrees suffi- 
ciently with the early dates claimed for the 
first settlements in Greece. Henceforward 
we meet with no reference to Greece in the 
Bible until we find special allusions to it by 
the prophets as a slaveholding country, inti- 
mately connected by commerce with Tyre, 
as destined after its conquest by Alexander 
to form the third of the four great monarch- 
ies of the ancient world, and as foreordained 
to receive from Jerusalem the blessedness of 
the new covenant which God was to estab- 
lish with the Gentiles.' 

The earliest accounts of the inhabitants 
of Greece represent them in a very barba- 
rous state — little, if at all, superior to those 
whom we call savages at the present day. 
The usual causes produced this relapse from 
the civilization they left behind them in 
Asia; and tribal war, like that among the In- 
dians, was x>robably the chronic state of the 
primitive Grecians. But in time the civili- 
zation of the East followed them. From 
Asia Minor, Phoenicia, and Egypt, came laws 
and letters, and with them the forms of idol- 
atrous worship into which the learned priest- 
hood had perverted the monotheism of Noah. 
During the period of mingled legend and 
history, Greece seems to have begun to exer- 
cise a foreign influence, and exchanged mo- 
narchicalforrepublican forms of government. 
But the period of its great leading j)osition 
as a political power extends from B.C. 776 to 
B.C. 300 — from the beginning of its real his- 
tory to the end of that generation of men 
which accompanied Alexander to the Per- 
sian war. It is to this period that the great- 
er number of references to Greece in the 
Hebrew proi)hets refer. The influence of 
Greece upon the propagation of the Gosi)cl 
was of the most important kind; but, in its 
preparation of the human mind for the Gos- 
pel, that influence was rather indirect than 
direct. Neither the idolatrous yet beautiful 
system of Greek mythology, nor its i)hiloso- 



• Isa. Ixvi., 19; Ezek. xxvii., 13; Dan. viii., 5, 21 ; 
Joel iii., 6. 



GREECE 



404 



GREECE 




Map of Aucieut Greece. 



pliy, created a disposition to receive the doc- 
trines of the Gospel. The preaching of the 
Cross was to the Greeks foolishness, as it was 
to the Jews a stumbling-block.^ But in an 
indirect way the influence of Greece upon 
the world produced results of the most im- 
portant kind on the success of the Gospel. 
The progress of her arms, the diffusion of 
her colonies, the power of her literature, 
combined to stamp Grecian intellect and the 
Grecian language upon the human race. By 
means of the first two she diffused through 
the world a language of unequaled power, 
and a literature which has to this day charm- 
ed the imagination and exercised the intel- 
lect of the most cultivated nations of the 
earth. With greater truth than can be said 



1 Cor. i., 24. 



of any other language, ancient or modern, it 
may be said of the Greek in the days of the 
apostles that it was a universal language. 
From the Adriatic to the Euphrates and 
the Nile, men spoke and thought in the Gre- 
cian tongue. Asia was covered with Grecian 
cities ; and where the armies of Alexander 
had marched, there they brought and left 
the knowledge of their majestic speech. 
Throughout the Roman Empire, while the 
Latin was maintained in the administration 
of the civil and military government, Greek 
was the natural idiom of science and letters ; 
and in Rome itself the Senate resounded 
with Greek debates. Even among the bar- 
barous Gauls, Grecian letters had found their 
way, and the Macedonian speech was heard 
among the Indians and Persians. When St. 



GREEK CHURCH 



405 



GREEK CHURCH 



Paul writes epistles for the information and 
edification of the Christian churches, it is in 
this tongue he writes, addressing Rome, Eph- 
esus, and Galatia in the same language as 
the Grecian cities of Corinth and Thessalo- 
nica. In this tongue Mark writes his Ro- 
man gospel; Peter addresses the churches 
scattered through Pontus, Galatia, Cappa- 
docia, Asia, and Bithynia ; and James com- 
municates with the twelve tribes scattered 
abroad.^ Among the foreign Jews of the Ro- 
man Empire there can he little if any ques- 
tion that Greek was the spoken language. 
They consulted the oracles of God in the 
Septuagint version. How far the Greek 
language was used among the Jews in Pal- 
estine, is still a question among learned men ; 
but that it was cultivated to a considerable 
extent, is granted by all. It is most proba- 
ble that in Jerusalem, peopled by inhabit- 
ants of unmixed Jewish descent — the head- 
quarters of Judaism — Hebrew (the Arame- 
au dialect) was most used and loved. On the 
other hand, Hebrew was less generally un- 
derstood and spoken, and Greek was the pre- 
vailing language of all classes in Samaria 
and Galilee ; the former of which was peopled 
chiefly from districts wholly unacquaiuted 
with the Hebrew, and ever prone to adopt 
foreign and Grecian customs, and the latter 
surrounded on every side, and penetrated by 
a Gentile and Greek-speaking population. It 
was to those Jews scattered among the Gen- 
tiles, who spoke the Greek language and 
used in their synagogues the Greek transla- 
tion of the O. T. called the Seiituagint, that 
the name Hellenists, or, as it is in our Bible, 
Grecians, was given. 

So widely prevailing in the apostles' days 
was Grecian influence and the Grecian lan- 
guage, that Greeks in the N. T. becomes 
equivalent, or almost so, to Gentiles in the 
O. T. ; and Paul, in his Epistle to the Corin- 
thians, divides mankind into Jews, Greeks, 
and believers ; while elsewhere he makes the 
Jew and the Greek to embrace the human 
family over the whole face of the earth. ^ 
Thus the empires of the world unconsciously 
perform their part in bringing about God's 
will. Babylon and Persia both did theirs 
before Greece. Judaism was meant for one 
nation ; and the language which preserved 
its history and laws was confined to that 
nation, and died out even among them. The 
Gospel was meant for all nations, and conse- 
quently required a universal language. Such 
a language Greece nursed and gave to the 
world. 

Greek Church (The), taken in its widest 
sense, comprehends all those Christians, fol- 
lowing the Greek, or Greco - Slavonic, rite, 
who receive the first seven general councils, 
but reject the authority of the Roman pon- 
tifi", and the later councils of the Western 



1 1 Pet. ]., 1 ; Jas. i., 1.— 3 Rom. iii., 9 ; x., 12 ; 1 Cor. 
i., 21-23 ; X., 32. 



Church. The Greek Church calls itself 
''the Holy Orthodox Catholic and Apostol- 
ic Church;" and it includes three distinct 
branches — the church within the Ottoman 
empire, subject directly to the patriarch of 
Constantinople ; the church in the kingdom 
of Greece; and the Russo-Greek church (q. 
v.), in the dominions of the Czar. 

The history of the Greek Church may be 
said to date from the days of Constantine ; 
though the complete organization of the 
Church, as distinct from that of Rome, did 
not take place till a much later day. In a.d. 
324, Constantine, under whom Christianity 
was first publicly recognized as the religion 
of the Roman Empire, founded the new cap- 
ital of his dominions, Byzantium, or Con- 
stantinople. The Bishop of Rome — the old 
capital of the empire — and the Bishop of 
Constantinople — the new capital — began at 
once to contend for precedence. In the sec- 
ond General Council, the Bishop of Constan- 
tinople was assigned a place next to the Bish- 
op of Rome, and by a decree of the Council 
of Chalcedon they were both declared to be 
of equal rank. For several centuries this 
personal controversy between rival ecclesias- 
tics continued, until, in the eighth century, 
theological elements added to its bitterness. 
The Eastern Church took ground against the 
use of images in Christian churches, as un- 
lawful and idolatrous. Pope Gregory 11. de- 
nounced and persecuted those who attempt- 
ed the removal of such images. Next en- 
sued the famous ^Zio-gwe controversy (q. v.). 
The Roman Church insisted that the Holy 
Ghost should be described as proceeding from 
the Father and the Son ; and this phraseol- 
ogy was determined on, and inserted in the 
creed known as the Nicene Creed, by the 
Council of Nice, the last in which the East- 
ern and Western churches were united. The 
Eastern churches rejected this phraseology, 
rejected also the council, which they refused 
to recognize as ecumenical,^ and retained the 
phraseology of John xv., 26 — " which pro- 
ceedeth from the Father." From this time 
the breach between the Eastern and West- 
ern churches continued to widen. In the 
ninth century Photius, patriarch of Constan- 
tinople, and Nicholas I., pope of Rome, ex- 
communicated each the other, with the con- 
currence of councils, each of which, of course, 
denied the legality and authority of the oth- 
er. The separation of the two branches of 
the church was not, however, completed till 
the eleventh century, when Michael Cellu- 
larius, patriarch of Constantinople, revived 
in all their strength the accusations which 
had been so often made against the doctrines 
and practices of the* Romish Church, com- 
plaining more especially that, in the celebra- 
tion of the eucharist^ the Romanists made 
use of unleavened bread. The pope, indig- 
nant at the conduct of Cellularins, forthwitli 



See iliCJUMENIOAI, Cuunoil. 



GREEK CHURCH 



406 



GREEK CHURCH 



issued against him a sentence of excommu- 
nication. Through the influence of the Em- 
peror, a reconciliation was attempted ; but 
the negotiations were altogether fruitless ; 
and at length, by a solemn written anathe- 
ma, which was placed on the great altar of 
St. Sophia, Cellularius and all his adherents 
were cut off from the fellowship of Rome. 
The whole Eastern Church was thus virtually 
excommunicated ,* and the Greek and Roman 
churches continue to this day in a state of 
complete separation from each other. Vari- 
ous attempts have been since made to effect 
a reunion of the churches, but without suc- 
cess. 

The Greek Church comprised within its 
ancient limits, anterior to the Mohammedan 
conquest, Greece — properly so called — the 
Peloponnesus, Eastern Illyricum, the Islands, 
and Asia Minor ; as also Syria and Pal- 
estine, Arabia, Egypt, and parts of Mesopo- 
tamia and Persia. But with the first tri- 
umph of the Koran, the Church of Constan- 
tinople, by degrees, lost almost all her terri- 
tory in Asia and Africa. By the separation 
of the Russian branch — partially in the sev- 
enteenth, and completely in the beginning 
of the eighteenth, century — and by that of 
the new kingdom of Greece, on occasion of 
the revolution, its importance has been still 
more diminished. 

Faith and Practice. — Each of the three di- 
visions into which the Greek Church has 
separated possesses a distinct organization ; 
but the faith and practice of all are substan- 
tially identical. In general, it may be in- 
ferred, from the fact that the Greek Church 
receives the first seven councils, that, on all 
the controversies regarding the Trinity and 
Incarnation, it is agreed with the Western 
churches, with the exception of the proces- 
sion of the Holy Ghost from the Father and 
the Sou, in which it is at issue not only with 
the Romanists, but, it may be said, with the 
entire body of Western Trinitarians. While 
the Greeks reject the papal claim to suprem- 
acy and doctrinal authority, they agree with 
Romanists iu accepting, as the rule of faith, 
not alone the Bible, but also the traditions 
of the Church — that is, what are believed 
to be the unwritten revelations of our Lord 
and of the apostles, preserved by the testi- 
mony of the fathers, among whom they re- 
gard with special veneration Basil, Gregory 
of Nazianznm, and Chrysostom. They ad- 
mit the seven sacraments as received by the 
Roman Church— -viz.. Baptism, Confirmation, 
Eucharist, Penance, Extreme Unction, Holy 
Orders, and Matrimony;^ but in the rites 
used by them in the administration of these 
sacraments, there are considerable discrep- 
ancies from the Roman rite. They adminis- 
ter baptism by a triple immersion ; confirma- 
tion is administered in immediate connection 
with baptism, even in the case of infants ; 



1 Sec under these titles. 



and it is administered by priests, and not, as 
among the Romanists, by bishops exclusive- 
ly. As to the eucharist, the Greeks admit 
the real presence of Christ, the transubstan- 
tiation of the elements, and the propitiatory 
sacrifice. But they differ from Roman Cath- 
olics in the use of leavened bread, in admin- 
istering the communion in both kinds, and 
in administering it in this form even to chil- 
dren. In the sacrament of penance, they 
recognize, like the Romanists, auricular con- 
fession, priestly absolution, and penitential 
works ; and although they differ from the 
latter as to the use of indulgences, they ad- 
mit the principle upon which their use is 
founded, and even their applicability to the 
dead. They recognize the excellence of vir- 
ginity, and the fitness of its observance by 
those engaged in the ministry, so far as to 
prohibit marriage altogether to bishops (who 
are always chosen, in consequence, from the 
monastic clergy) ; to forbid priests or dea- 
cons to contract marriage after ordination ; 
to forbid all, without exception, a second 
marriage, or marriage with a widow ; and to 
require of married priests that they shall 
live separate from their wives during the 
time when they are actually engaged in 
church services. But they not only permit 
married candidates to be advanced to dea- 
conship and priesthood, but even require, as 
a general rule, that they shall be actually 
married before they can be admitted to or- 
ders. While admitting marriage to be a sac- 
rament, they hold it to be dissoluble in case 
of adultery, and they regard fourth mar- 
riages as utterly unlawful. On the condi- 
tion of souls after death, they do not admit, 
with Roman Catholics, a purgatorial fire; 
but they admit the principle of the inter- 
mediate state of purgation, and the practice 
of prayer for the dead. They also admit the 
intercession of saints, and the lawfulness of 
invoking them — especially the Holy Virgin 
Mary — and of honoring their shrines and rel- 
ics. They do not permit the use of graven 
images, with the exception of that of the 
cross ; but they freely receive and multiply 
pictures, which they hold in high honor, and 
on which they lavish the most costly orna- 
ments of gold, jewels, and other precious 
things. In their belief of the merit of good 
works — and especially of fasting — they go 
even farther than Roman Catholics. Besides 
four yearly fasts — the forty days of Lent; 
from Pentecost to the Feast of Peter and 
Paul ; the fifteen days before Assumption- 
Day ; and the six weeks before Christmas — 
tliey observe the Wednesdays and Fridays 
throughout the year as fasts. In splendor 
of ceremonial, they are not inferior to the 
Westerns. Instrumental music, it is true, is 
forbidden in the churches; but singing is 
universally in use. In public prayer, the 
kneeling posture is used only at Pentecost ; 
at ordinary times the people stand, the body 



GREEK CHURCH 



407 



GUILDS 



being turned toward the East. The use of 
the sign of the cross is habitual among them. 
The monastic institute has subsisted in the 
Greek Church from the earliest times ; and 
numerous convents, of both sexes, are dis- 
persed over the East, which follow almost 
exclusively the rule of St. Basil. The abbot 
is called Hegumenos ; the abbess, Hegumene : 
if several convents be subject to a single ab- 
bot, he is called Archimandrite. Both monks 
and nuns are bound by vows of celibacy. 
With both, manual labor is a matter of relig- 
ious obligation. The nuns, like their. West- 
ern sisters, apply themselves to the care of 
the sick, and to the education of the young. 

Organization. — The Greek Church in the 
Turkish Empire has remained subject to the 
patriarch of Constantinople, who from the 
beginning enjoyed a continued but precari- 
ous protection from the Sultan, and even 
held, as regarded his own flock, a civil pre- 
eminence. But, in return for this civil sta- 
tus, the Porte claimed and exercised the right 
of appointing, and also of deposing, the pa- 
triarch — a right which was habitually exer- 
cised as a matter of purchase and sale, and 
which led to the grossest simony, not only 
in the candidates for the patriarchate, but in 
the entire ecclesiastical system. For a long 
time the metrox^olitan of Russia (afterward 
patriarch) and the bishop of the modern 
khigdom of Greece were directly subject to 
the patriarch of Constantinople ; but both 
churches are now independent. For an ac- 
count of the origin and constitution of the 
Russian Greek Church, the reader is referred 
to the article, Russo-Greek Church. The 
church in Greece was organized at the time 
of the revolution, being linally and officially 
perfected a.d. 1833, on a plan in great part 
borrowed from the constitution of the Rus- 
sian Church. The governing body is, as in 
the Russo-Greek Church, the so-called "Holy 
Synod," which consists of five members, who 
are ordinarily archbishops or bishops, but 
may also admit iuto their number one or 
two priests or monks. This synod is the su- 
preme ecclesiastical tribunal, and, in name 
at least, is independent in spiiitual matters ; 
but as it's members are all named by the 
crown, and hold office but for a year, it is 
practically a state instrument : moreover, two 
officials of the crown have a right to assist, 
although without a vote, at all its delib- 
erations. The synod elect bishops ; but the 
crown has the right of confirming and grant- 
ing investiture. 

TJiG United Greek Churcli comprehends those 
Christians who, while they follow the Greek 
rite, observe the geueral discipline of the 
Greek Church, and make use of the Greek 
liturgy, are yet united with the Church of 
Rome — admitting the double procession of 
the Spirit and the supremacy of the Roman 
l)ontiff, and accepting all the doctrinal de- 
cisions — subsequent to the Greek schism — 



which have force as articles of faith in the Ro- 
man Church. The United Greeks are found 
chiefly in Southern Italy, in the Austrian do- 
minion, in Poland, and in the Russian Em- 
pire. In Italy, they are computed at 80,000 ; 
in Austria, at about 4,000,000 ; and in Po- 
land, about 250,000. In Russia, it is difficult 
to ascertain what their number is. The 
usage of the United Greek Church as to the 
law of celibacy is, with the consent of the 
Roman pontiffs, the same as among the oth- 
er Greeks. They are also permitted to ad- 
minister communion under both kinds. See 
Russo-Greek Church. 

Gregorian Chant. Pope Gregory the 
Great established a form for the administra- 
tion of the sacraments ; collected, arranged, 
and improved the chants which had already 
been used for centuries before his time ; and 
established a musical school to teach chant- 
ing at Rome, in which he took great interest 
up to the time of his death. He gave les- 
sons himself ; and the bed in which he con- 
tinued to chant in the midst of his last ill- 
ness was preserved with great veneration, 
in the palace of St. John Lateran, for a long 
time, together with the whip with which he 
used to threaten the young clerks and sing- 
ing-boys when they sang out of tune. Some 
of the familiar tunes used by all Christians 
— as Hamburg and Olmiitz — are arrange- 
ments of Gregorian chants. 

Grove, a word used in the English Bible, 
with two exceptions, to translate the He- 
brew term Asherah.-^ Almost all modern 
interpreters agree that an idol or image 
of some kind must be intended, and not 
a grove. In the religions of the ancient hea- 
then world groves play a prominent part. 
In old times, altars only were erected to the 
gods; and trees and groves were the first 
temples. 

Guelphs and Ghibellines, two religio- 
political factions of the thirteenth century, 
which filled Italy with civil wars and blood. 
The former took part with the pope; the 
latter with the emperor. 

Guilds. In the Middle Ages, religious 
clubs, or mutual benefit societies, embracing 
men and women, were established in near- 
ly every parish church. They kept yearly 
feasts, supported hospitals, and collected alms 
for their sick and poor. On certain anni- 
versaries they met at a common altar, wear- 
ing livery, gowns, and hoods — usually of 
two colors — and the badge of their patron 
saints. Kings, nobles, and benefactors were 
admitted as lay members in the monasteries, 
and as honorary members in the parish so- 
cieties. The members promised fidelity to 
the guild rules, and obedience to the supe- 
riors. Of late, the ritualists in the Angli- 
can Church are endeavoring to revive the 
guilds, and quite a number have been re-es- 
tablished. 



1 See AsuTOKETH. 



HABAKKUK 



408 



HADES 



H. 



Habakkuk {an ertibrace). No information 
is possessed of this prophet but what is pure- 
ly apocryphal. There is considerable differ- 
ence of opinion respecting the time in which 
he flourished ; some placing him in the first 
years of Manasseh ; others, in the period of 
the exile ; others, in the reign of Jehoiachin, 
B.C. 608-604. This last opinion seems best 
supported, since the Chaldeans are spoken 
of as being upon the point of invading Ju- 
dea, but not as having actually entered it.^ 
The book treats of the wickedness of the 
Jews, which demanded punishment ; the in- 
fliction of this punishment by the Chaldeans; 
the destruction of the latter in their turn ; 
and contains an ode composed by the proph- 
et in anticipation of the consequent deliver- 
ance of his people. Its position immediate- 
ly after Nahum is most appropriate, setting 
forth the judgments of God inflicted by and 
upon the Chaldeans, just as the latter treat- 
ed of those to be inflicted upon the Assyri- 
ans. The two prophets take up separately 
what Isaiah had expatiated upon at large. 
In point of general style, Habakkuk is uni- 
versally allowed to occupy a very distin- 
guished place among the Hebrew prophets, 
and is surpassed by none of them in dignity 
and sublimity. He works up in his own pe- 
culiar manner whatever he may occasional- 
ly have in common with previous writers, 
and is no servile copyist or imitator. His 
figures are well chosen, and fully carried out; 
his expressions are bold and animated ; his 
descriptions graphic and pointed. The par- 
allelisms are, for the most part, regular and 
complete. The lyric ode contained in chap- 
ter iii. is justly esteemed one of the most 
splendid and magnificent within the whole 
compass of Hebrew poetry. 

Hadad {joy). One so called, of the Edomite 
race, is mentioned as among the enemies of 
Solomon, in 1 Kings xi., 14. He belonged to 
the seed-royal ; and when a mere child, had 
escaped from the terrible slaughter inflicted 
by the army of David uuder Joab, by being 
carried into Egypt. He was there treated 
with much respect by the existing king, and 
was ultimately married to the sister of Tah- 
panhes the queen. On hearing of the death 
of David, he obtained leave of Pharaoh to 
return to his own country, doubtless with 
the view of making an effort to regain the 
ascendency which his family had lost. We 
have no particular account of his operations ; 
yet it is clear that under him the scattered 
forces of Edom must have rallied so far as to 
prove a dangerous rival to Israel. [1 Kings 
xi., 14-25.] 

Hadad-ezer ( HftfZad/or a Jielper), also writ- 



1 Hab. i., 5, 0. 



ten Hadar-ezer, a Syrian king, whose capital 
was Zobah, and one of the most active and 
formidable of the foreign enemies of David. 
The wars waged with this king called forth 
in a peculiar manner both the faith and the 
heroic energy of David, as appears particu- 
larly from Psa. Ix., which was composed in 
reference to them, and also from the num- 
bers that are reported to have fallen on the 
field of battle. Three deadly conflicts are par- 
ticularly mentioned between them, in each 
of which David was successful ; and the last 
was so decisive, that the other kings who 
had joined with Hadad-ezer fell off from him, 
and entered into terms of peace with Israel. 
[2 Sam. viii., 3, 5 ; x., 18, 19.] 

Hades (perhaps out of sight). This word 
does not occur in our English Bible ; but 
does in the original, and would have been 
a more appropriate translation in many pas- 
sages, both of the O. T. and the N. T., than 
the word hell, which is ordinarily used. Ha- 
des signifies the dwelling-place of the dead, 
the abode where — certainly according to 
Greek and Roman mythology, and apparent- 
ly according to Hebrew belief — ^the spirits 
of the departed were gathered. According 
to the prevailing Hebraic opinion — at least 
in O. T. times — it was a deep and dark abode 
in the centre of the earth, having within it 
depths on depths, and fastened with gates 
and bars. Here were assembled the spirits 
of the dead, and evil spirits ; and here, too, 
the shadows not only of men, but also of 
trees and kingdoms.' While all the depart- 
ed were gathered here, still they were class- 
ed according to their spiritual condition on 
earth. Divine retribution jiursued the wick- 
ed; w^hile the righteous had hope in his 
death.^ But until the clearer revelation of 
the N. T., this hope was vague and undefined, 
and often expressed itself in questionings 
like that of Job : " If a man die, shall he live 
again ?"^ In the time of Christ, however, 
this faith had become crystalized in a more 
definite form. Hades was divided into hell 
and paradise ; the former a place of punish- 
ment ; the latter, of reward. A general res- 
urrection was expected by the Pharisees — 
i. e., the orthodox Jews — on the advent of 
the Messiah, who would call all the right- 
eous from the under-world, while the wick- 
ed would be thrust back to remain there in 
a perpetual imprisonment. The doctrine of 
hades as held by the Greeks and Romans 
was encumbered with many fantastic no- 
tions, partly theological, partly poetic, for 

1 Numb, xvi., 30; Dent, xxxii., 22; Job x., 21, 22; 
xi., 8; xvii., 16; Psa. Ixxxvi., 13; Ixxxix., 48; Prov. 
ix., 18; xxiii., 14; Isa. xxxviii., 10; Ezek. xxxi., 14- 
18; xxxii. — 2 Deut. xxxii., 22; Psa. xlix., 14; Prov. 
xiv., 32; Isa. xiv. ; Amos ix., 2.— ^ Job xiv., 14. 



HADJI 



409 



HAIR 



an account of wliicli the reader must be re- 
ferred to the mythological dictionaries. See 
Future State ; Purgatory ; Intermediate 
State ; Tartarus ; Hell. 

Hadji, or El-Hhagg, a title given to a Mos- 
lem who has performed the pilgrimage to 
Mecca and Mount Arafab. He is not enti- 
tled to be called Hadji until he has gone 
round the Kaabah at Mecca seven times, 
kissing the black stone each time. It is also 
indispensable that he should have visited 
Mount Arafab, six hours distant, on which 
Abraham is believed by the Mussulmans to 
have offered up his son. 

Hagar (flight), the bond -maid and subor- 
dinate wife of Abraham. She was an Egyp- 
tian by birth, and her history shows that she 
possessed the haughty pride and impetuous 
passions of her race. Abraham was child- 
less, and Sarah, in accordance with an Ori- 
ental custom, offered to Abraham her favor- 
ite maid, who thus became Abraham's second 
wife. Sarah's subsequent jealousy drove her 
from her master's tent, and she fled into the 
Avilderness, probably hoping to find her way 
back to Egypt. It was a dangerous and 
hopeless undertaking, and, obeying the di- 
rection of the angel of the Lord, she aban- 
doned it, and went back to become again, 
not the wife of Abraham, but the maid of 
Sarah, and to wait with patience of hope till 
her boy, Ishmael, should grow up to take the 
right to which she doubtless regarded him 
as entitled as Abraham's first-born — rather, 
as his only son ; for, in the fourteen years 
that elapsed, all expectation of another son 
was given up. Even Sarah herself laughed 
at the bare suggestion. When Isaac was 
born, it would seem that Hagar did not sur- 
render her expectation that Ishmael would 
retain his position as the first-born. But 
when the time of weaning came, Abraham 
publicly recognized Isaac as his heir with 
the accustomed Oriental ceremonies. Sarah, 
rendered indignant by the mocking of Ish- 
mael, demanded that both mother and son 
should be cast out. Abraham reluctantly 
consented ; and again Hagar, now accompa- 
nied by her boy, started for the nearest ha- 
ven — Egypt. Ishmael's strength speedily 
gave out; the water in the leathern bottle 
was soon exhausted ; faint, foot-sore, and con- 
sumed with the internal fever which not in- 
frequently attacks the traveler through these 
desert sands, his death drew nigh : his moth- 
er withdrew a little from his side, because 
she could not bear to witness his sufferings. 
But he had not forgotten the faith of his fa- 
ther. In answer to his prayer — not to hers 
— God revealed a well of water close at hand, 
and the two were saved from death. Of 
Hagar's subsequent history we know noth- 
ing but that, at a later day, she provided 
Ishmael with a wife from Egypt. 

The story of Hagar and Ishmael is not 
only full of a romantic beauty which has 



made it a favorite theme with the poet and 
the painter, but is also full of spiritual sig- 
nificance to the Christian. It bears strong 
testimony against polygamy ; it teaches God's 
providential care of his people ; it affords an 
illustrious example of answer to prayer ; it 
constitutes a touching evidence that, when 
we are most alone, God sees and sympathizes 
with us ; and it is employed by Paul, in Gal. 
iv., 22-31, allegorically, to illustrate the dif- 
ference between the children of the Gospel 
and those under the law. [Gen. xvi. ; xxi. ; 
XXV., 12.] 

Haggai (festive). It is generally supposed 
that this prophet was among the Hebrew 
exiles who returned with Zerubbabel and 
Joshua, the high-priest, from Babylon, B.C. 
536, when Cyrus granted them their liberty, 
and ordered them to be furnished with what 
was necessary for the restoration of the tem- 
ple at Jerusalem. His book itself vouches 
for the fact that he prophesied in the reign 
of Darius Hystaspis,^ who ascended the Per- 
sian throne B.C. 521. Having been interrupt- 
ed in building the Temple, by Smerdis, the 
Jews became in some measure indifferent 
to the work ; and when Darius came to the 
throne, instead of vigorously recommencing 
their labors, the more influential persons 
among them pretended that, as the prophe- 
cy of the seventy years applied to the Tem- 
ple as well as to the captivity in Babylon, 
and they were only yet in the sixty-eighth 
year, the proper time for rebuilding it had 
not arrived ; and they gave their whole at- 
tention to the erection of splendid mansions 
for themselves.^ To rouse them from their 
selfish indifference to the claims of religion, 
Haggai and Zechariah were commissioned, 
in the second reign of Darius, B.C. 520, to de- 
liver to them appeals from Jehovah. These 
appeals had the desired effect, and the work 
proceeded with vigor. The book is made 
up of five messages, which were all deliver- 
ed, at successive periods, within the short 
space of three months. They are so exceed- 
ingly brief, that they are, not without rea- 
son, supposed to be only a summary or epit- 
ome of the original discourses. The style of 
Haggai is not distinguished by any pecul- 
iar excellence ; yet he is not destitute of 
pathos and vehemence when reproving his 
countrymen for their negligence, and ex- 
horting them to the performance of duty. 

Hair is frequently mentioned in Scripture ; 
and in scarcely any thing has the caprice of 
fashion been more strikingly displayed than 
in the various forms Avhich the taste of dif- 
ferent countries and ages has prescribed for 
disposing of this natural covering of the 
head. The Greeks let their hair grow to a 
great length. The early Egyptians, who 
were proverbial for their habits of cleanli- 
ness, removed the hair as an incumbrance, 
and shaved even the heads of young chil- 



Hag. 



Hag. i., 4. 



HAIR 



410 



HAM 



dren. Different from the custom both of the 
Greeks and the Egyptians, that of the He- 
brews was to wear their hair generally short, 
and to check its growth by the application 




Egyptian Manner of wearing the Hair. 

of scissors only. The priests, at their in- 
auguration, shaved off all their hair, and, 
when on actual duty at the temple, were 
in the habit, it is said, of cutting it every 
fortnight. Exceptions to this prevailing 
fashion are, however, found in the Naza- 
rites,^ whose hair, from religious duty, was 
not to be cropped during the term of their 
vow ; in young persons, who, during their 
minority, allowed their hair to hang down 
in luxuriant ringlets on their shoulders; and 
in such effeminate persons as Absalom.'^ The 
Hebrews deprecated nothing so much as 
baldness ; to which, indeed, so great igno- 
miny was attached, that, 
whether a man was desti- 
tute of hair or not, " bald- 
head" became a general 
term expressive of deep 
and malignant contempt.^ 
Tlie prevailing color of 
hair among the Hebrews 
was dark — "locks bushy 
Assyrian Manner of aud black as a raven " be- 
weanng the Han-. . x- i • ,1 -, 

* mg mentioned, in the de- 

scription of the bridegroom, as the perfec- 
tion of beauty in mature manhood.* Hence, 
the appearance of an old man with a snow- 
white head in a company of younger Jews — 
all whose heads, like those of other Eastern 
people, were jet-black — a most conspicuous 
object — is beautifully compared to an al- 
mond-tree, which in the early part of the 
year is in full blossom, while all the others 
are dark and leafless. 

With regard to women, the possession of 
long and luxuriant hair is allowed by Paul 
to be an essential attribute of the sex — a 
graceful and modest covering provided by 
nature; and yet the same apostle elsewhere^ 
concurs with Peter'' in guarding women pro- 
fessing godliness against the pride and pas- 
sionate fondness often displayed in the elab- 
orate decorations of the head-dress. The 
Hebrew women bestowed astonishing pains 
in arranging their long hair. Sometimes 
they twisted it round on the crown of the 




1 Nnmb. vi., 5.-2 2 Sam. xiv., 26.-3 2 Kings ii., 23. 
— •* Sol. Song v., 11.— 5 1 Tim. ii., 9.— « 1 Pet. iii., 3. 



head, where, and at the temples, by the aid 
of gum, they wrought it into a variety of 
fanciful devices — figures of coronets, harps, 
wreaths, diadems, emblems of public temples 
and conquered cities, being formed by the 
mimic skill of the ancient friseur. Some- 
times they plaited it into an incredible num- 
ber of tresses, which hung down the back, 
and which, when necessary, were lengthened 
by ribbons so as to reach to the ground, and 
were kept at full stretch by the weight of 
various wreaths of pearls and gold fastened 
at intervals down to the extremity. 

Dyeing the hair was not unknown in an- 
cient times. We have no mention of it in 
Scripture ; but according to Josephus, Herod 
dyed his gray hair. The practice of shaving 
the head after the completion of a vow must 
have created among the Jews a necessity for 
the special trade of a barber. The instru- 
ments of his work were probably, as in mod- 
ern times, the razor, the basin, the mirror, 
and perhaps, also, the scissors. Like the Le- 
vites, the Egyptian priests were accustomed 
to shave their whole bodies. 

Hallel {praise), certain psalms which Avere 
sung by the Jews on very solemn occasions. 
The Hallel was divided into the great and 
the lesser Hallel; the former being under- 
stood to be Psalm cxxxvi., and the latter 
comprising six psalms, from Psalm cxiii. to 
Psalm cxviii. inclusive. The Hallel was 
used on the three principal feasts of the 
Jewish Church — Passover, Pentecost, and 
Tabernacles ; as also at every new moon, and 
on the Maccabean feast of the Dedication. 
On the three great feasts, it formed part of 
the temple-service. It was chanted by the 
Levites while the Paschal lambs were being 
slain in the court of the Temple, and at the 
Paschal Feast of each household — a part be- 
fore the feast, and the remainder while the 
guests were partaking the fourth, or final 
cup. There can be little doubt that our 
Lord and his disciples sang the latter part 
of this hymn, i. e., Psa. cxviii., in concluding 
the Last Supper. 

HalleliiJELh, two Hebrew words — l}aUel 
andjah — meaning " Praise the Lord." They 
are so translated in the Psalms. The word 
occurs but once in the English Bible, and 
then in the Greek form, as Alleluia. [Psa. 
civ., 35 ; cv., 45 ; cvi., 1 ; Rev. xix.] 

Ham (hot). One of the sons of Noah, from 
whom the earth, after the Deluge, was peo- 
pled. He is expressly designated as the 
younger son of Noah, implying that he was 
the youngest of the family, being the young- 
er relatively to the other two. He had four 
sons — Cush, Mizraim, Phut, and Canaan. 
The first three traveled southward ; and from 
them chiefly sprung the tribes that peopled 
the African continent, as Canaan became the 
father of the tribes that principally occupied 
the territory of Phoenicia and Palestine. Of 
Ham himself we know nothing, excepting 



HAMAN 



411 



HANDICRAFT 



the one disgraceful incident wliicTi was the 
occasion of a prophetic curse upon one of the 
large and wicked families of Ham's descend- 
ants. [Gen. ix., 20-27.] 

Haman {celebrated, or perhaps Mercury), 
the chief minister of Ahasuerus (which see 
for his history). He is declared by Scrip- 
ture to have been an Agagite^ — that is, 
probably of Amalekite descent. Jewish tra- 
dition reports him to have been a descend- 
ant of that Agag whom Samuel slew,^ and 
attributes his bitter hostility to their race 
to that supposed fact. In character he was 
a fair representative of an unprincipled 
Oriental courtier. He was cunning, vain, 
cowardly, and vengeful. He secures by a 
trick, from the king, the decree which the 
king would never have given if he had un- 
derstood its import, as evidently he did not f 
sends out the order for the destruction of 
thousands of industrious and inoffensive citi- 
zens, and sits down to rejoice over the dead 
with a drinking bout ; elated by his pros- 
perity, entertains no doubt that he is the 
one whom the king delighteth to honor, and, 
by suggesting the triumph which Ahasuerus 
intends for Mordecai, indicates his own fond- 
ness for display; falls easily into the net 
which Esther has laid for him, and proves 
his abject and groveling cowardice when his 
wickedness is disclosed, and the capricious 
monarch turns against him.* He is held in 
such detestation to the present day by the 
Jews, that, in some synagogues, when his 
name is read at the Feast of Purim, it is the 
custom of the congregation to stamp, and 
hiss, and clench the fist, and cry out, ^' Let 
his name be blotted out!" What the name 
of Benedict Arnold is in American, that the 
name of Haman is in Jewish history. 

Hamath {fortification, citadel). An an- 
cient city and province of Syria, in existence 
at the time of the conquest of Canaan, and 
in later times of such importance that it is 
called " Hamath the Great." The city was 
situated on the Orontes, at the northern ex- 
tremity of the Lebanon range, about sev- 
enty-six miles north-east of Tripoli, and 
eighty-one south from Aleppo. The "enter- 
ing in of Hamath " is often mentioned as the 
boundary of the dominion of Israel on the 
north. There is some difference of opinion 
as to the piSl^t indicated by this expression. 
It was probably about thirty miles beyond 
Baalbec, where the two Lebanon ranges ter- 
minate, opening on the wide plain which be- 
longed to Hamath. In David's time Hamath 
appears to have formed the seat of an inde- 
pendent kingdom. In the age of Solomon, 
it appears to have formed part of the ex- 
tensive dominion of Israel. Along with the 
whole of that part of Syria, it fell under the 
sway of the King of Assyria, and then under 
that of the King of Babylon. Hamath is now 



Esth. iii., 1, 10; viii., 3,5; ix., 24.-2 \ Sam. xv., 32,33. 
' Esth. vii., 5.—* Esth. iii., 15 ; v., 12 ; vi., C ; vii., 7, 8. 



one of the larger cities of the Turkish Em- 
pire, and is supposed to contain about thir- 
ty thousand inhabitants, of which two thou- 
sand five hundred belong .to the Greek 
Church. The modern town is built in the 
narrow valley of the Orontes, and on both 
sides of the river, whose banks are fringed 
with poplars. Four bridges span the riv- 
er, and a number of huge wheels, turned by 
the current, raise the water into aqueducts, 
which convey it to the houses and mosques 
of the town. There are no antiquities in it. 
The mound on which the castle stood is in 
the midst of the town ; but the castle itself, 
materials and all, has completely disappear- 
ed. The houses are built in the Damascus 
style, of sun-dried bricks and wood. Though 
plain and poor enough externally, some of 
them have splendid interiors. The city car- 
ries on a considerable trade with the Bed- 
ouins. [Numb, xiii., 21 ; xxxiv., 8 ; Josh. 
xiii.,5; 2 Sam. viii., 9; 2 Kings xiv., 28; 2 
Chron. viii., 4 ; Isa. xxxvii., 13 ; Amos vi., 2.] 

Hamor (he-ass). The father of Shechem, 
and head of the Hivite tribe, that held jjos- 
session of the fertile district of Shechem at 
the time of Jacob's return from Mesopota- 
mia. Nothing is recorded of him personal- 
ly, except the judicious and prudent part he 
took in endeavoring to avert the evil conse- 
quences of his son's rash and sinful behavior 
in respect to Dinah, rendered unavailing by 
the still greater rashness and iniquity of 
Simeon and Levi, to which Hamor and many 
of his tribe fell victims. But the name of 
Hamor was long kept up in connection with 
the tribe, and, generations afterward, was 
even used as a sort of watch-word with the 
Hivite remnant, when rising in revolt against 
the dominant Israelites. In the reference 
made to the transaction by Stephen, the 
name is given in the Greek form, Emmor. 
[Gen. xxxiii., 19; xxxiv.; Josh, xxiv., 32; 
Judg. ix., 28 ; Acts vii., 16.] 

Hampton Court Conference. A confer- 
ence appointed by James I. at Hampton 
Court in 1603, in order to settle the disputes 
between the Puritan party, and the domi- 
nant High-church party, in the Church of 
England. It lasted for three days, and re- 
sulted in a few alterations in the liturgy, biit 
in the entire failure of the objects sought 
by the Puritan party in the Church. It was, 
indeed, a conference only in name. 

Handicraft. The varied culture Avith which 
the Israelites came in contact in Egypt must 
have contributed greatly to their knowledge 
of the practical arts of life, and they exhib- 
ited no little skill during the w^auderings in 
the wilderness ; but the pursuits of war, and 
the absorption of the energies of the nation 
in gaining the land which had been given to 
them, probably led to their falling off in the 
arts of peace, and to a low condition as re- 
gards handicraft.^ A comparatively settled 
1 1 Sam. xiii., 20. 



HANDICRAFT 



412 



HANDICRAFT 



state of society, and contact with the mari- 
time and commercial Phoenicians, revived 
the skill in, and added greatly to the knowl- 
edge of, handicrafts. Commerce and navi- 
gation always imply great skill in art and 
science ; and it is not, therefore, surprising 
that the origin of so many arts was upon the 
north - eastern shore of the Mediterranean, 
nor difficult to understand how arts and let- 
ters should be propagated from the coast 
to the interior. The intercourse which the 
Babylonish captivity gave the Jews greatly 
improved their knowledge, skill, and esti- 
mation of both the practical and fine arts ; 
so that it was held to be a sign of bad edu- 
cation if a father did not teach his son some 
handicraft, and the arts were carried on by 
persons of learning, who took titles of honor 
from their trade. 



there were, who were well acquainted with 
the mode of purifying the precious metals ; 
and we find it stated that, in one of the 
deportations under Nebuchadnezzar, a thou- 
sand craftsmen and smiths, probably the 
most skilled in their art, were carried to 
Babylon. In the N. T. we have mention of 
the silversmiths of Ephesus, and of a copper- 
smith.^ Whatever skill in metal work, and 
in the arts of setting and polishing precious 
stones, the Hebrews possessed, they must 
have learned much from Egypt and its " iron 
furnaces." Various processes of the gold- 
smith's work are illustrated by the Egyptian 
monuments; and the Scripture speaks of 
several smith's utensils — such as bellows, 
furnaces, hammers, anvils, tongs, and fining- 
pots. After the conquest, frequent notices 
are found of molded and wrought metal, 




Goldsmiths: 1,2. Making jewelry ; 3. 



Blowing? the fire for melting the gold; 4,5, 
8. Superintendent, 



T. Washing gold: 



In the present article, brief notices only 
can be given of such handicraft trades as are 
mentioned in Scripture. 

1. Various kinds of workers in metal are 
spoken of, from the diggers or smelters of 
ore to the skilled artificers in gold and silver. 
We read of artificers "in brass and iron " be- 
fore the Flood ; and that working in metals 
was very common afterward is sufficiently 
proved by the frequent mention of gold and 
silver ornaments. Metals must have been 
used, too, for tools in other mechanical arts, 
as for making the ark. When the Israelites 
were in the wilderness, they both cast and 
engraved gold and silver and brass (q. v.); 
and after the tribes were settled in Canaan, 
smiths are referred to as a well-known and 
distinct class of workmen. Goldsmiths, too, 



and also of soldering, which had long been 
known in Egypt ; but in these arts the Pboj- 
nicians possessed much greater skill than the 
Jews.^ 

2. The carpenter's trade must have been 
exercised very early. Some carpentering 
was needful for the erection of habitations, 
and the construction of even the simplest 
kind of furniture. The commands given to 
Noah in regard to the ark presuppose a con- 
siderable degree of skill among those who 
were to be employed upon it.^ For merely 
the dimensions and general plan are indi- 

1 Gen. iv., 22 ; Exod. xxv., 11-13, 17, IS ; xxvi., 6, 21 ; 
xxviii., 36 ; xxxii., 2-4 ; 1 Sam. xiii., 19 ; 2 Kings xxiv., 
16; Neh. iii., 8; Job xxviii., 1-6; Psa. Ixvi., 10; Prov. 
xvii., 3 ; Acts xix., 24, 25 ; 2 Tim. iv., 14.— ^ Judg. viii., 
24,27; xvii., 4; 1 Kings vii., 13,45,46; Isa. xli.,7; xliv., 
12 ; Jer. vi., 29.-3 gee Flood. 



HANDICRAFT 



413 



HANDICRAFT 




Tools of au Egyptian Carpenter. 

Figs. 1, 2, 3, 4. Chisels and drills ; 5. Part of a drill ; 6. Nut of wood 
belonging to drill; 7, 8. Saws ; 9. Horn of oil ; 10. Mallet; 11. Bas- 
ket of nails ; 12. Basket which held the tools. 



cated, very much as such directions would 
be given now. Again, when the tabernacle 
was constructed in the wilderness, there was 
a great variety of wood-work to be done.^ 
Later, however, we find, when work of pe- 
culiar nicety and excellence was to be done, 
that foreign artists were employed. In the 
palace built by David for himself, the work- 
men employed were chiefly Phoenicians sent 
by Hiram, as probably were most of those 
who were employed by Solomon in his works. 
But in the repairs of the Temple, executed 
under Joash, king of Judah, and also in the 
rebuilding under Zerubbabel, no mention is 
made of foreign workmen^ though in the lat- 
ter case the timber is expressly said to have 
been brought by sea to Joppa by Zidonians. 
It can not be doubted that the Jewish car- 
penters were able to carve with a good deal 
of skill. There are several references in the 
Bible to carpenters' tools — the rule, the meas- 
uring-line, the plane, the compass, the ham- 
mer, nails, the saw, the awl, being all men- 
tioned. Joseph, the husband of the Virgin 
Mary, was a carpenter ; and it would appear 
as though Jesus himself practiced the art in 



1 Gen. vi., 14-16; Exod. xxv., 10, 13, 23, 28 ; 
1&-30, 37 ; xxvii., 1, 6-S ; xxx., 1, 2, 5. 



his youth, since the title is as- 
cribed to him, by way of reproach, 
by certain of his hearers.^ 

3. Masonry, like carpentering, 
was an art which men would 
soon begin to practice, and in 
which the Israelites seem to 
have had experience during their 
Egyptian servitude. In later 
times, David and Solomon em- 
ployed Phcenician workmen — 
probably only as master-builders. 
Great skill was attained in ma- 
sonry. The stones used in Solo- 
mon's Temple were shaped in the 
subterranean quarries, and fitted 
each other so exactly that they 
were laid in their places without 
the sound of a hammer, and with- 
out either mortar or clamps. The 
stones of the great wall built to 
support the Temple - platform 
were, however, according to Jo- 
sephus, fastened with lead. For 
ordinary building mortar was 
used, and sometimes, perhaps, 
bitumen — as at Babylon. It was 
customary to plaster walls with- 
in and without. Among the tools 
employed by masons were saws, 
measuring-reeds, plumb-lines, and 
the like, specimens of which as 
used in Egypt are yet preserved, 
or may be seen on Egyptian mon- 
uments.'^ 

4. Akin to the craft of the car- 
penter is that of ship and boat 
building, which must have been 

exercised to some extent to sujDply fishing- 




Masons squaring a Stone. 

vessels for the Lake of Galilee, but which 
seems to have been first undertaken on a 



1 Exod. xxi., 6 ; 2 Sam. v., 11 ; 1 Kings v., 6 ; 2 Kings 
xii., 11 ; 1 Chron. xiv., 1 ; 2 Chron. xxiv., 8, 12 ; Ezra 
iii., 7, 18; Isa. x., 15; Matt, xiii., 55; Mark vi., 3.— 
2 Gen. iv., 17; ri., 2-4; Exod. i., 11-14; 1 Kings v., 
17,18; vi.,7; viL,9; 1 Chron. xiv., 1. 



HANDICEAFT 



414 



HARAN 




Spinning: 1. Men engaged in spinning, and makin 
horizontal loom, or perhaps raat-i 

large scale, in conjunction witli the Tyrians, 
at the Red Sea ports/ 

5. The perfumes used in the religious serv- 
ices, and, in later times, in the funeral rites 
of monarchs, imply knowledge and practice 
in the art of the " apothecaries," who appear 
to have formed a guild or association. The 
word is not used to signify compounders of 
medical drugs, but rather implies perfumers, 
and makers of unguents.^ 

6. In early times, the arts of spinning and 
weaving both wool and linen w^ere carried 
on by women, as is usual at the present day 
among the Bedouins. One of the excellen- 
ces attributed to a good housewife is her 
skill and industry in these arts. Gold and 
silver threads were sometimes interwoven 
with the body of the stuff. Cloth was often 
embroidered in figure patterns, or precious 
stones were set in the needle-work.^ 

7. Besides these arts, those of dyeing and 
of dressing cloth were practiced in Pales- 
tine, and those also of tanning and dressing 
leather.* Shoe-makers, barbers,^ tailors, gla- 
ziers, painters, are mentioned in other Jew- 
ish books. Tent-makers are noticed in Acts 
xviii., 3, and frequent allusion is made to 
pottery (q. v.). Bakers are noticed in Scrip- 
ture f and the well-known valley Tyropoeon 
probably derived its name from the occupa- 
tion of the cheese -makers, its inhabitants. 
Butchers, but not Jewish, are alluded to in 
1 Cor. X., 25. 



1 1 Kings X., 22; xxii., 48, 49; 2 Chron. xx., 36, 37; 
Matt, viii., 23; ix., 1.— 2 Exod. xxx., 25, 35; 2 Chron. 
xvi.j 14; Neh. iii., 8; Eccles. x., 1.— ^ Exod. xxvi., 1 ; 
xxviii., 4; XXXV., 25, 2G ; xxxix., 6-13; Lev. xix., 19; 
Deut. xxii., 11 ; Judg. xvi., 4; 1 Sam. xvii., 7; 2 Kings 
xxiii., 7; Job vii., 6; Prov. xxxi., 13, 24. See Em- 
broidery.— ^ Josh, ii., 15-18 ; 2 Kin-rs i., 8 ; Matt, iii., 
4 ; Acts ix., 43.— s Lev. xiv., 8 ; Numb, vi., 5 ; Ezek. v., 
1. See Hair, — 6 Jer. xxxvii.j 21; IIos. vii., 4. See 
Bkeai>; Bakers. 



Handkerchief. 

The word so trans- 
lated in Acts xix., 12, 
is elsewhere rendered 
napkin. It signifies 
a piece of linen cloth 
used in a manner not 
widely different from 
the handkerchief of 
the present day. 
[Luke xix., 20 ; John 
xi., 44; XX,, 7.] 

Hangings. "Hang- 
ings" and "curtains" 
are not used in the 
Bible in the sense 
of window -curtains. 
Their most common 
use is in connection 
with the tabernacle, 
where they signify 
sometimes a curtain 
before the door, used 
a sort of net-work; 2. The to close the entrance; 
^^ ^"^* sometimes a hanging 

employed in covering the walls of the tab- 
ernacle, like a modern tapestry. The same 
Hebrew word as the first of these two is 
used in describing the veil (q. v.) that con- 
cealed the Holy of Holies. The term " cur- 
tain" is sometimes employed in a general 
sense, to indicate the sides of a tent. [Exod. 
xxvi., 1-13 ; xxxvi., 37 ; xxxviii., 16 ; Numb, 
iii., 26; Isa.liv.,2.] 

Haran (mountainous country, or mountain- 
eer). 1. The brother of Abraham. He was 
the father of Lot, Milcah, andlscah, and died 
before his father, Terah, in Ur of the Chal- 
dees. This is all that is certainly known of 
him, though the Jews have added some tra- 
ditional stories to his real history. [Gen. xi., 
27-31.] 

2. The city to which Abraham and his 
family migrated when they left Ur of the 
Chaldees. When Abraham proceeded into 
Canaan, his brother, Nahor, remained at Ha- 
ran, and his descendants established them- 
selves here ; so that it was sometimes de- 
scribed as the city of Nahor. Here Terah 
died, and here Jacob sojourned with Laban.^ 
Haran, the Charran of Acts vii., 2, 4, the Car- 
rhal of the Greeks and Romans, was situated 
in Mesopotamia, or, more exactly, in Padan- 
aram. That it was a place of note may be 
gathered from its long-continued name and 
fame. It was the scene of the memorable 
defeat of Crassus, and still exists in the mod- 
ern Arab village of Harran, upon the banks 
of a small river called Belik, which flows 
into the Euphrates about fifty miles south 
of the town. Within a few years, some have 
doubted the identity of this village with the 
patriarchal Haran, add have urged the claims 



1 Gen. xi., 31, 32; xii.. 4, 5; xxiv., 10; xxvii., 43; 
xxviii., 10; xxix.,4; 2 Kings xix., 12; Isa. xxxvii., 
12; Ezek. xxvii., 23. 



HARE 



415 



HARROW 



of a small village called H4rr4n-el-Awamed, 
about four hours' journey east of Damascus, 
on the western borders of the lake into which 
the Barada and the Awaj empty themselves. 
But the other opinion is regarded by most 
scholars as the better one. 

Hare, one of the animals prohibited as 
food to the Israelites, by Lev. xi. ; not because 
it chewed the cud, but because, though it was 
said to chew the cud, it did not divide the 
hoof The description of the hare in our 
version is (verse 6) — "And the hare, because 
he cheweth the cud, but divideth not the 
hoof." In fact, neither the hare nor the co- 
ney (verse 5) chews the cud ; but both ani- 
mals have a peculiar movement of the mouth 




Hare of Mount Siuai. 

resembling that of those which do chew the 
cud. The description was of a popular char- 
acter, intended not for zoologists, but for or- 
dinary observers ; and the non-division of 
the hoof, and not the chewing of the cud, or 
otherwise, was the characteristic which de- 
termined the cleanness or uncleanness of the 
hare for food. Hares are very plentiful in 
Palestine ; at least two species have been ob- 
seryed. In their general habits these hares 
resemble the species found in our own coun- 
try. [Lev. xi., 6; Dent, xiv., 7.] 

Harlot. This class of persons evidently 
existed in very early times, and were distin- 
guished by their dress.^ Their manners and 
allui'ements are frequently described in Scrip- 
ture.^ Their gains were sometimes consid- 
erable. No gift arising from such iniquity 
was to be received in the sanctuary.^ Re- 
peated mention of them occurs in the N. T., 
where publicans are classed with them ; and 
it was made a charge against our Lord that 
he extended mercy to these outcasts.^ The 
children born of a harlot lay under disabili- 
ties, being distinguished from those of the 
concubine, or secondary wife.^ The term 
" harlot " is frequently used in a figurative 



1 Gen. xxxviii., 14, 15 ; Josh, ii., 1 ; Prov. vii., 10, 11. 
—2 1 Kings iii., 16, 17; Prov. vi., 24-26; vii., C-2T ; 
xxiii., 2T, 28; Isa. xxiii,, 16.— 3 Dent, xxiii., 18; Ezek. 
xvi., 33, 39.-4 Matt, xxi., 31, 32; Luke vii., 34, 3T-48.— 
5 Deut. xxiii., 2 ; Judg. xi., 1, 2. 



sense, implying intercourse with idols.^ Je- 
hovah had condescended to illustrate his 
kindness to his people by the marriage-tie ; 
virgin purity, therefore, fitly signified his 
spiritual worship ; and departure from him 
was foul fornication, or adultery. The terms 
"strange woman" and "whore" are used 
synonymously with harlot. 

Harmony. It seems to have been no part 
of the Divine purpose to give, in the gospels, 
a connected life of Jesus. The evangelists 
have given us, not biographies, but biograph- 
ical memorabilia. They have not under- 
taken to trace the history of Christ from the 
cradle to the grave, but to collect and pre- 
serve the various incidents and teachings in 
his ministry. Matthew and Mark accompa- 
ny him only through Galilee ; Luke gives a 
glimpse of his life in Perea ; John alone re- 
counts his experience and reception in Ju- 
dea. Only the history of the Passion-Week 
is recorded by them all. Not one of them 
has followed a chronological order ; not one 
affords us a single date. These facts have 
led Christian scholars to make various at- 
tempts to combine the four accounts in a 
single narrative. The result is known in 
theological literature as a Harmony, or, in 
full, as a Harmony of the Gospels. The data 
are so few, and the perx)lexities so many, 
that no two scholars have entirely agreed 
in the result ; and some able critics have 
declared the attempt entirely vain. One of 
the most valuable works of this kind for the 
English student is " Robinson's English Har- 
mony of the Gospels." A Harmony of the 
Gospels will be found in the Appendix. The 
reader is referred also to the article Jesus 
Christ. 

Harosheth. The place where Sisera, the 
captain of Jabin's host, dwelt.^ From Ha- 
rosheth, Sisera had to march up to Tabor, to 
attack Barak ; and after the defeat, the pur- 
suit continued back again to Harosheth, till 
the proud army of Jabin was destroyed. Its 
site has been identified by Dr. Thomson with 
an enormous double mound called Harothteh. 
This tell is situated just below the point 
where the Kishon, in one of its turns, beats 
against the rocky base of Carmel, leaving no 
room for a foot-path. A castle there would 
guard the pass along the Kishon into the 
plain of Esdraelon; and the ruins still found 
on this " enormous double mound " show that 
a strong fortress must have stood here in 
former times. A village of the same name 
occurs higher up on the other side of the 
river, and hence somewhat nearer the scene 
of the battle. It is about eight miles from 
Megiddo, and in the neighborhood of Accho, 
and hence exactly in the region where dwelt 
the Gentile "nations," to \vhich Harosheth 
belonged. [ Judg. i., 31 ; iv., 2-16.] 

Harrow. It is not probable that any in- 



1 Isa. i., 21 ; Nahum iii. 
1 iv., 2, 13, 16. 



4; Rev. xvii., 5.-2 Judg. 



HAET 



416 



HARVEST 



strument like the modern harrow was used 
by the Hebrews. Breaking the clods^ was 
probably accomplished by the tread of oxen, 
or dragging a thorn-bush over the ground; 
and this was merely to level the ground pre- 
paratory to sowing the seed. The word else- 
where translated harrow probably means a 
sharp threshing-machine. See Agiucul- 
TURE ; Harvest ; Plow. [2 Sam. xii., 31 ; 
1 Chron. xx., 3.] 

Hart, fern. Hind, one of the clean animals 
which might be used for food.^ It is evi- 
dent that it belonged to the deer family, 
but it is impossible to identify its species. 
Perhaps the word comprehended all of the 
varieties, which inhabited Palestine in suffi- 
cient numbers to become familiar animals of 
the chase. The excellence of the hart's flesh 
is shown by its mention among the animals 
used for King Solomon's table.^ 

The hart is frequently used as a figure to 
describe fleetness and agility.* The image 
in one of Jeremiah's mournful prophecies, 
" Yea, the hind also calved in the field, and 
forsook it, because there was no grass,"^ is 
peculiarly expressive ; first, because the agil- 
ity of the animal enables her 
to find food where less active 
creatures would starve, and 
also because of the watch- 
ful tenderness which she 
displays toward her young. 
She always retires to some 
secret place when she in- 
stinctively knows that the 
birth- is at hand, and hides it 
from all eyes until it is able 
to take care of itself. An 
extremity causing her to 
abandon it in the field must 
be desperate. This habit of 
the hind is used, in both Job 
and Psalms, as a metaphor for mysteries 
beyond the reach of human wisdom.^ Ja- 
cob, in his metaphor,^ " Naphtali is a hind 
let loose," indicates the resemblance of the 
tribe to the agile hind, timid and irresolute 
in confinement, but rejoicing in the freedom 
of its native hills. 

Harvest. Both in Egypt and Palestine, 
barley was ripe in the first month of the Is- 
raelite sacred year, Abib, the month of green 
ears, corresponding with the beginning or 
middle of April. In harvesting this crop, as 
well as in that of the wheat, which immedi- 
ately followed the barley, the ears were cut 
with a sickle, or, perhaps, a scythe, and thus 
gathered into sheaves. The corners of the 
fields were to be left, and also the gleanings ; 
for they were the property of the poor.® If a 
sheaf were overlooked, as might easily hap- 
pen, since the stubble was often left to be 



burned for enriching the land, that, too, must 
remain with the gleaning. From the field 
the sheaves were taken in carts to the thresh- 
ing-floor. Different modes of threshing Avere 
used, according as they were suited to the 
difi'erent kinds of grain. A level spot was 
selected for the threshing-floor, generally 
in an exposed situation, where advantage 
might be taken of the wind for winnowing, 
or separating the corn from the chaff, when 
the threshing process was completed. Trav- 
elers tell us now that several of these floors 
are built near together, of a circular form, 
hardened by beating down the earth, and 
about fifty feet in diameter, the sheaves be- 
ing thickly spread on them. These are all 
trodden by oxen, cows, and younger cattle, 
arranged in each case five abreast, and driv- 
en round in a circle, or rather in all direc- 
tions, over the floor. By this process the 
straw is broken up and becomes chafi". This 
practice is alluded to in Scripture; and it 
was provided that the oxen should not be 
muzzled when so employed.^ This kindly 
custom is, with some exceptions, still ob- 
served. Flails or rods were sometimes used 




Gatheriiig the Wheat: 1. Pluckin"; up tl 
off the earth from the roots ; 



plant by the roots ; 2. Striking 
3. Reaping wheat. 



1 Job xxxix., 10; Isa. xxviii., 24; Hos. x., 11.— 
2 Deut. xii., 15; xiv., 5; xv., 22.-3 i Kings iv., 23.— 
■* Isa. XXXV., 6; 2 Sam. xxii., 34.— ^ Jer. xiv., 5. — 
6 Job xxxix., 1 ; Psa. xxix., 9. — '' Gen. xiix., 21.— 
8 Lev. xix., 9 ; Deut. xxiv., 19 ; Euth ii., 2, 3. 



for threshing, but only for the lighter kinds 
of grain, or for small quantities.^ A thresh- 
ing instrument, or sledge, was very general- 
ly employed. The Hebrew word rendered 
" briers "^ perhaps denoted such instruments. 
There were two kinds,* one of which was a 
cart, or sledge, of thick planks, the bottom 
being studded with sharp stones or pieces 
of iron ; the other consisted of rollers of 
wood, Iron, or stone, roughened and fastened 
together in the form of a sledge, or dray — 
perhaps with a seat upon it. Both instru- 
ments were dragged by oxen over the sheaves. 
The "shovel" and "fan"^ — the precise 
difference between these terms is doubtful — 
indicate the instruments used in winnowing 
— a conspicuous part of ancient husbandry,® 
and important, owing to the slovenly thresh- 
ing. Evening was the favorite time, because 
there was generally a breeze then. The 



1 Deut. XXV., 4.-2 Ruth ii., IT; Isa, xxviii., 27, 28.— 
3 Judg. viii., 7, IG,— * 2 Sam. xxiv., 22 ; 1 Chron. xxi., 
23 : Isa, xli,, 15.-5 jg^. xxx., 24.— « Job xxi., 18 ; Psa. 
XXXV., 5; Isa. xvii., 13. 



HAVILAH 



417 



HAZER 




The Noreg — a Macliine used bj' the modern Eomans for tlireshing Wheat. 



aud SoiitLeru Europe. 
Dr. TliQuisou notices 
a remarkable illustra- 
tiou of this passage : 
" I liave often seen 
tliem returning sout]i 
during the hitter part 
of September, but nev- 
er saw them migrat- 
ing northward. I can 
only account for this 
by supposing that, in 
going, they straggle 
along in single jiairs, 
and at no x>aj'ticular 
time, or else by some 
distant interior route ; 
but that when their 
young are grown, they 
come back southward 
in docks." 



" fan "^ was, perhaps, a broad shovel, which 
threw the grain up against the wind. The 
last j)rocess was shaking in a sieve, to sep- 
arate the dirt and refuse.^ The gathering 
of olives (q. v.), and the vintage,^ completed 
the agricultural operations of the year, and 
the Feast of Tabernacles* celebrated their 
consummation. There was also a feast in 
honor of the introduction of the harvest, 
which was known as the "feast of the har- 
vest." The arrangements respecting it are 
laid down in Lev. xxiii., 10-14. 

Havilah. A country so named is described 
in the account of Eden as producing gold, 
bdellium, and the onyx-stone. A tract with 
the same name is subsequently described as 
on the road between Canaan and Egypt. 
But the southern Havilah was named from 
a son of Joktan (Gen. x., 7), not of Cush, 
Avhose descendants peopled the more north- 
ern tract of that name. See the article Eden. 
[Gen. ii., 11 ; xxv., 18 ; 1 Sam. xv., 7.] 

Ha-wk. This word occurs only three ti mes 
in Scripture. It is in a list of unclean birds 
found in two parallel passages, from which, 
in the connected expression, ''after his kind," 
it appears that the word is generic — used by 
the sacred writer, after having named the 
vultures, eagles, and larger birds of prey, as a 
collective term to indicate all the lesser birds 
of prey, including the various species of the 
Falcouidw, with more especial allusion, per- 
haps, to the small diurnal birds, such as the 
kestrel, tlie merlin, the gyrfalcon, and the hob- 
by. All of these are common about the ruins 
in the plain districts of Palestine, and were 
X>robably familiar to the ancient Hebrews. 
The passage in Job xxxix., 26, " Doth the 
hawk fly by thy wisdom, and stretch (or 
turn) her wings toward the south f" seems 
to refer to the migratory habits of the bird 
in question. The hawk, though not migra- 
tory in this country, is so in parts of Asia 



1 Matt, iii., 12.— 2 Amos ix. 
Taji£Ex\aoles (Feast of). 

27 



9.-3 See Vine.— 4 See 



NiGHT-HAW^K. — It is doubtful what bird is 
intended by the night-hawk mentioned in 
the same list of unclean birds. Some Hebra- 
ists believe that the male ostrich is siguilied ; 
while others, going to the opposite extreme 
of size, have translated the word " swallow." 
The night-hawk has considerable evidence 
in its favor ; but the balance of probability 
seems to point to some species of owl — per- 
haps the white, or barn owl. [Lev. xi., 16 ; 
Dent, xiv., 15; Job xxxix.,26.] 

Hazael {vision of God), a king of Syria 
who reigned about forty-six years, B.C. 886- 
840. He was at first the general of the army 
of Benhadad IL, and was sent by the king, 
his master, to inquire of Elisha if he would 
recover from the disease under which he was 
suffering. Elisha's prophecy was fulfilled, 
first, hj his murder of the king and seizure 
of the throne, and by his subsequent history. 
He appears to htive been a man of great 
military skill and resolute spirit, but of law- 
less ambition and unscrupulous character. 
Bloody wars with Israel followed his acces- 
sion to the throne, in which he laid waste 
extensive districts, and wrested many cities 
from Jehoahaz.^ But he failed to consoli- 
date his empire, for the cities he had won 
from Israel were again recovered from his 
son, the third Benhadad. [1 Kings xix., 15 ; 
2 Kings viii.,7-16, 28, 29; ix., 14 ; xii., 17^ 18 ; 
xiii., 3, 22-25; 2 Chron. xxii., 5, 6; Amos i., 3.] 

Hazel, a tree. Interpreters are uncertain 
whether the hazel or the almond is intend- 
ed by the original word translated hazel. It 
occurs only in Gen. xxx., 37. 

Hazer, topographically, seems generally 
employed for the ''villages" of people in a 
roving and unsettled life, the semi-perma- 
nent collections of dwellings which are de- 
scribed by travelers among the modern Arabs 
as consisting of rough stone walls covered 
with the tent cloths. As a proper name it 
appears in our Bible, usually in composition, 



2 Kings X., 32, 33 ; xii., 17, IS ; xiii., 3. 



HAZEROTH 



418 



HEAD-DRESS 



as — 1. Hazar-addar, a place named as one 
of the landmarks on the southern boundary 
of the land promised to Israel.^ 2. Hazar- 
EXAN, the place at which the northern 
boundary of the land promised to the chil- 
dren of Israel was to terminate.^ 3. Hazar- 
GADDAH, one of the towns in the southern 
district of Judah, named between Moladah 
and Heshmon.^ 4. Hazar-shual, a town 
in the southern district of Judah, lying be- 
tween Hazar-gaddah and Beersheba.^ 5. Ha- 
zar-susah, one of the "cities" allotted to 
Simeon in the extreme south of the terri- 
tory of Judah. ^ 

Hazeroth, the third station of the Israel- 
ites after leaving Sinai, on their route to- 
ward Canaan, and supposed to be the same 
with Ain Hudhera. They rested there for 
some days, and the sojourn there was mark- 
ed by the revolt of Miriam and Aaron against 
the authority of Moses, which led to the 
temporary infliction of leprosy on Miriam. 
[Numb, xi., 35.] 

Head-dress. The Hebrews do not ap- 
pear to have regarded a covering for the 
head as an essential article of e very-day 
dress. The earliest notice we have of such 
a thing is in connection with the sacerdotal 
vestments, and in this case it is described 
as an ornamental appendage. Even in after 
times it seems to have been reserved espe- 



dre?s — is mentioned as "bonnets," "orna- 
ments," " beauty," and " tires."^ A word 
which signifies to hind was used in describ- 
ing both these head - coverings. Some au- 
thors are inclined to believe that the two 
combined would constitute the modern tur- 
ban, which consists of a conical cap with 




Heads of modern Asiatics ornameuted wilh Horns. 

folds of linen wound around it, the cap being 
frequently decorated with jewels and other 
ornaments. It appears that the robes fre- 
quently supplied the place of a head-dress, 
being so amj)le that they might be thrown 
over the head at pleasure ; and the veil 
served a similar purpose. The AsvSyrian head- 




Various Forms of the modern Turban. 



cially for purposes of ornament. It was a 
token of mourning to cover the head, and 
the mantle seems to have been employed for 
this purpose." Two Hebrew words were 
generally employed in describing the two 
classes of head-dress. One implies wrap- 
ping around, after the fashion of a turban 
— described as " diadem," " hood," and " mi- 
tre," and worn by men, women, kings, and 
priests;"' the other, conveying the idea of 
ornament or beauty — worn only by priests, 
females, bridegrooms, and others, in gala 



1 Numb, xxxiv., 4; Adab, Josh, xv., 3.-2 Nnm 
, 9, 10 ; comp. Ezek. xlvii., 17 ; xlviii., 1.— 3 Jo$ 



2 Numb, 
xxxiv., 9, 10 ; comp. Ezek. xlvii., 17 ; xlviii., 1.— 3 Jo$h. 
XV., '27 — 1 Josh.xv.,28:xix..?.;l Chron.iv.,2S.— ^ Josh, 
xix., .5.-6 2 Sam. xv.. 30 : 1 Kintrs xix., 13 : Jer. xiv., 3, 
4.—'' Job xxix., 14 ; Isa. iii., -3 ; Ixii., 3 ; Zech. iii., 5. 



dress^ probably resembled, in some respects, 
the modern head-coverings of the Bedouins 
— a handkerchief so folded as to hang down 
behind on the shoulders, tied with a cord 
round the head. It is not improbable that 
a similar covering was used by the Hebrews 
on certain occasions. The " kerchief," in 
Ezek. xiii., 18, has been so understood by 
some writers. The word rendered " hats," 
in Dan. iii., 21, properly applies to a cloak. 
A very peculiar kind of head-diess is worn 
in some parts of Palestine, and has been 
thought to be referred to in the " horn " of 
1 Sam. ii.,*l. It is made of gold or silver, 



' Exnd. xxviii., 36-40 ; xxxix., 28; Isa. iii., 20; Ixi., 
10, 3 ; Ezek. xxiv., 17, 23 ; xliv., IS.— 2 Ezek. xxiii., 15. , 



HEAETH 



419 



HEAVEN 



frequently of other metal, and sometimes of 
mere wood. The more costly ones are high- 
ly ornamented, and occasionally set with 
jewels. The young, the rich, and the vain, 
wear the horn of great length, standing 
straight up from the top of the forehead; 
while the humble, the poor, and the aged, 
place it upon the side of the head, much 
shorter, and spreading at the end, like a 
trumpet. 

Hearth. Among the Jews, where chim- 
neys were unknown, and fires were rarely 
needed for purposes of warmth, the hearth, 
in the modern sense of that term, had no ex- 
istence. The cakes sxjoken of in Gen. x^i-ii., 
6, as baked " on the hearth," were probably 
baked, as among the Bedouins of the present 
day, on hot stones covered with ashes. In 
Psa. cii., 3, the exact meaning of the original 
word is ''fuel." In Jer. xxxvi., 22, 23, the 
" hearth" of King Jehoiakim's winter palace 
was probably a jDau or brazier of charcoal. 
In Zech. xii., 6, the original word means a 
fire-pot. 

Heathen. Stringent laws separated the 
Jews, as a peculiar people, from the heathen 
by whom they were surrounded, and whose 
civil and social life was as vicious as their 
worship was degrading. With them the 
Jews were forbidden to intermarry or asso- 
ciate ; from them the bond-servants of the 
Jews were taken ; they were not permitted 
to become naturalized ; they were not allow- 
ed to enter the Temple beyond the outer 
courts which were appropriated to them ; 
and so far was this princiijle of exclusion 
carried, that later rabbinical laws forbade 
them from keeping the Sabbath or studying 
the law ; and it even passed into a Hebrew 
proverb that to hate a Gentile was as much 
a duty as to love a Jew.^ 

In modern language the term heathen is 
used as nearly or quite synonymous with pa- 
gan, in contradistinction to Christian, Jew, 
and Mohammedan. It indicates, that is, not 
those who reject the Christian religion, but 
those who live without the Bible and the 
knowledge of the true God. This embraces 
nearly the whole i)opulation of Asia, except- 
ing Asiatic Russia, all of Africa, and all the 
aborigines of North and South America. At 
the present time it is estimated that the hea- 
then constitute a population of over eight 
hundred millions — being considerably over 
half the entire population of the globe. Of 
these, over six hundred millions are partial- 
ly civilized. The rest are in a barbaric, or 
semi-barbaric, condition. 

Heathen nations have sometimes attained 
a high degree of apparent civilization — as in 
the case of Assyria, Babylon, Egypt, Greece, 
and Rome. A certain measure of civilization 
also exists to the j^resent day in China and 



1 Lev. sviii. ; xx. ; xxv., 44, 45; Dent, xxiii., 3, 7, 8 ; 
Josh, xxiii., 7, 12 ; 1 Kings xi., 2 ; Acts xxi., 28 ; Matt, 
v., 43. 



India. Yet certain characteristics belong to 
all heathen nations in all ages, which distin- 
guish them from the Jewish and the Chris- 
tian nations. God is never loved and rarely 
honored. Worship is invariably an adula- 
tion which is the otfspring of fear. Immor- 
tality has generally been believed in ; but 
it has afforded a ground rather for supersti- 
tious fear than for hope, and rarely or never 
has afforded any comfort in the hour of af- 
fliction. Certain systems of education have 
been pursued. Sometimes even — as in the 
case of Greece — a high degree of culture has 
been attained ; sometimes — as in the case of 
China^ — an elaborate system of popular edu- 
cation established. But knowledge and in- 
telligence have never been general, nor the 
people — ?. e., the common people — effectual- 
ly redeemed from the thralldom of supersti- 
tion and priestcraft. No large measure of 
personal individual liberty has been long 
maintained in any heathen nation ; and, with 
one or two exceptions, heathen governments 
have been absolute despotisms. Religion 
has, without an exception, consisted not in 
moral life, but in ceremonials; and while 
noble utterances of sentiments approaching 
those of the inspired Word have not been 
wanting, and are to be found not only in 
such writings as those of Plato and Plutarch, 
but even in the books attributed to Confu- 
cius and Buddha, they have never acquired 
such a power over the hearts and consciences 
of the common people as really to permeate 
their every-day life. Finally, progress, in 
the true sense of the term, is almost wholly 
unknown among heathen nations. Ancient 
Greece and Rome may constitute an excep- 
tion to this statement ; but there is not in 
modern heathendom an exception. Neither 
China nor India has made any progress since 
the beginning of the Christian era; and what- 
ever civilization is indigenous to the soil re- 
mains to-day what it was eighteen hundred 
years ago. See Gextile : Missions. 

Heaven. We ordinarily give three differ- 
ent senses to the word heaven. We use it, 
first, for the atmosphere immediately around, 
in which the birds fly and the clouds float ; 
second, for that immeasurable space in which 
other worlds, suns, or planets, have their po- 
sitions or their motions ; and third, for the 
abode of God, the angels, and the spirits of 
the blessed. Doubtless the ancients were not 
aware of the vast distances of the stars from 
our earth which later science has revealed. 
But still the same threefold use of the term 
may be observed in Scripture.^ 

Heaven, considered as the abode of the 
blessed dead, can be described only by and to 
the imagination. It is, in the nature of the 
case, imi)08sible for the human mind to con- 
ceive of an existence whose conditions are 
entirely outside its own experiences. The 



J Geu. i.,20; XV., 5; Psa. xi., 4; xviii., 11; Jer. viii., 
7, and elsewhere. 



HEAVEN 



420 



HEBEEW 



Bible, accordiDgl}', in describing tlie future 
happiness of the cliildren of God, employs 
poetic imagery, whose meaning, indeed, is 
not uncertain, if its sj)irit be apprehended; 
but these images can not be too literally in- 
terpreted without danger of misapprehen- 
sion. There are, indeed, in Christian theol- 
ogy, two extreme schools of interpretation, 
each of which has its type in the imaginary 
heavens of other nations. That of the Mo- 
hammedans is a place of merely sensual en- 
joyments, where every thing is provided for 
the lust of the eye and the desire of the 
heart — where men may drink without in- 
toxication, and may give themselves up to 
the embraces of sensualism without remorse. 
The heaven of the Hindoo, on the other 
hand, is absorption in Brahm — a state in 
which the soul loses its individuality and be- 
comes merged in the Supreme Being. There 
is, so to speak, a Hindoo interpretation of 
the Scriptures, which accounts all its im- 
agery as nothing, and presents a heaven so 
sublimated and refined, that, to the ordinary 
mind, it is not attractive, nor even compre- 
hensible. There is also a Mohammedan in- 
terpretation, which assumes the literalness 
of all the Scripture imagery, and, by dwell- 
ing only upon external conditions — golden 
streets, pearly gates, green fields — which of 
themselves can never produce true happi- 
ness — and dropping out of sight that holi- 
ness of heart and communion with God which 
is the first and highest condition of perma- 
nent blessedness, presents to the imagination 
a heaven which differs from the paradise of 
the Oriental only in being freed from its re- 
pulsive sensuality. The truth undoubtedly 
lies somewhere between these two extremes, 
but just where, it is not only difficult but 
even impossible to tell, since the conception 
which different minds will necessarily form 
of a subject about which so little is or can be 
known will inevitably depend on individual 
feeling and temperament. It is a case where 
the wish will be father to the thought. With- 
out entering into the discussions between the 
various views of different interpreters, we 
shall content ourselves with giving a sum- 
mary of the more important Biblical images 
of heaven. These images, accepted simply 
as symbols, will do more to give us a true 
thought of heaven than scholastic, but, after 
all, useless refinements. They reveal heaven 
as a happy home, where the whole family is 
gathered together in the many mansions of the 
Father's house — a garden, where the Lamb 
will lead his people bj' living waters, along the 
banks of which grow the many-fruited trees 
of life — a harvest, wherein the saints reap in 
joy that which on earth they sowed in tears 
— a well-ordered city, rich with all the frank 
intercourse of citizen with citizen; the New 
Jerusalem, metropolis of God's boundless em- 
l)ire, and a safe and prosperous community, 
in which the saints are intrusted with the 



true riches, and put in possession of treas- 
ures which shall be their own forever — a life 
in which the servants of God shall serve 
him with rejoicing — an eternal Sabbath, in 
which, the battle with sin and temptation 
over, they rest from their strife, and give 
themselves to prayer and praise — a magnifi- 
cent banquet, the mai'ri age-supper of the 
Lamb — the home of songs sweeter than earth 
ever knew — the hour of the exultation of 
victory, wherein Heaven's armies follow the 
King of kings in vestments of radiant white, 
and sing the song of Moses and the Lamb — 
the school in which, like students clustering 
round a beloved master, the saints will sit at 
the feet of Jesus, while he shows them plain- 
ly of the Father, and declares unto them his 
name. Heaven is the winning of an incor- 
ruptible wreath, and the receiving of the 
prize of our celestial calling from the hand 
of Christ himself. It is the coronation-hour, 
in which the diadem shines on every brow, 
and the risen saints reign with Christ for- 
ever and ever. It is the everlasting Temple, 
wherein they minister, a royal priesthood, 
serving him day and night. It is the bridal- 
hour, when the communion of heart with 
heart is consummated by the marriage of the 
Lamb, and the Bridegroom presents the bride 
to himself in the perfect beauty of his own 
glorious likeness.^ 

These images will themselves answer some 
questions often asked — is heaven a place, or 
a state ? Both a place and a state — a place 
infinitely more beautiful than any eye hath 
ever seen — a state infinitely more blessed 
than any heart hath ever conceived. Shall 
we know our friends in heaven ? Yes ! know 
them better far than on earth, where our 
knowledge is often clouded by coldness and 
misunderstandings. Heaven perfects the 
" communion of saints." 

Into the rabbinical, the scholastic, and the 
heathen conceptions of heaven we do not 
think it important to enter.^ They are, at 
best, only curious illustrations of the freaks 
of the human imagination w^hen under no 
compulsion to consult well-ascertained facts, 
and conform to them. It is only necessary 
to say, in explanation of Paul's declaration 
that he was caught up into the third heav- 
en,^ that, according to the rabbins, there were 
seven heavens. Some critics consider the 
apostle's expression a reference to this rab- 
binical theory. Others think that he meant 
only to discriminate between the abode of 
the blessed dead and the physical heavens, 
and to indicate that he meant not the clouds, 
nor the starry sky, but the third — i. e., the 
spiritual — heaven. 

Hebrew. This word, which first occurs 



1 Psa. cxxvi., 5, 6 ; Lnke xiv., 15-17 ; xvi., 11 ; xviii., 
22; John iv., 36; xi,, 52; xiv., 2; xvi., 25; xvii., 2(5; 
Eph. ii., 14, 15 ; v., 27 ; Pliil. iii., 14 ; 2 Tim. iv., S ; Heb. 
iv., 9 ; 1 John iii., 2 ; Rev. ii., 7 ; vii., 15, IG, 17 ; xiv., 2, 
3; XV., 2, 3; xix., 14; xxi., 10; xxii., 1, 2, 4, 5.-2 See, 
however, Futuiie Life. — ^ 2 Cor. xii., 2. 



HEBREWS (EPISTLE TO THE) 421 HEBREWS (EPISTLE TO THE) 



as given to Abram by the Caiiaanites^ be- 
cause he had crossed the Euphrates, is de- 
rived from ^eber, ^' beyond, ou the other side" 
— Abraham and his posterity being called 
Hebrews in order to express a distinction 
between the races east and west of the Eu- 
phrates. The term Israelite was used by the 
Jews of themselves, among themselves — the 
term Hebrew was the name by which they 
were known to foreigners. On the return 
of the Judeans after the Captivity, and re- 
building of Jerusalem, the revived nation 
took the name of the tribe of Judah, of which 
it was chiefly composed ; whence comes the 
modern name Jews, which see, for a history 
of the nation, from its first organization to 
the present time. 

Hebre-ws (Epistle to the). Much discus- 
sion has arisen both as to the canonicity and 
the authorshij) of this epistle, the absence 
of the customary superscription rendering it 
impossible to attain certainty in regard to 
the latter, and naturally enough tending to 
throw doubt on the former also. Referring 
our readers, for the full discussion of this 
subject, to M'Clintock and Strong's " Cyclo- 
.ptedia," we can here only summarize the re- 
sults of Christian scholarship. 

I. Canonicity. — The canonicity of the epis- 
tle, though it has been doubted, rests on ev- 
idence as satisfactory as that of any other 
of the N. T. books. The earliest post-apos- 
tolic writer, Clemens Romanus, quotes from 
it in the same way as from the other books 
admitted to be canonical. Jnstiu Martyr, the 
predecessors of Clemens Alexandrinus and 
Origen, and the framers of the Peshito ver- 
sion of the K T., accept it as authoritative. 
No disbelief of its canonicity is expressed by 
any section of the orthodox Church until af- 
ter the ndddle of the second century, though 
many writers are silent altogether about it. 
After this period, for the next two centuries, 
the Roman and North African churches re- 
ject its authority". During the fourth cen- 
tury, however, its authority began to revive, 
and it was received by Hilary of Poitiers, Am- 
brose of Milan, and, later, by Jerome. The 
immense authority of Augustine was thrown 
into the same scale ; others soon followed ; 
and in a.d. 416, a decretal of Pope Innocent 
III. officially recognized its canonicity. In 
modern times, Cardinal Cajetan, the oppo- 
nent of Luther, re-opened the ancient con- 
troversy. He rejected the authority of the 
epistle. The great reformer did the same, 
affirming that it was the work of some dis- 
ciple of Paul's who had not been thorough- 
]j grounded in his master's teaching, and 
had built his own " wood, hay, and stubble" 
upon the apostle's " gold, silver, and precious 
stones." This opinion, however, met with 
small approval, and has never been adopted 
in the Protestant Church. 

II. AntJiorsliip. — The authorship of the epis- 

1 Gen xiv., 13. 



tie is far more uncertain. It is generally 
attributed to Paul, Luke, Barnabas, and 
ApoUos have also been suggested as possible 
authors. The latter opinion was maintain- 
ed by Luther, and many eminent scholars 
since have inclined to the same view. The 
question still remains unsettled, though we 
think the general opinion attributes it ei- 
ther to Paul or to some pupil of his. If not 

Paul's, it is certainly Pauline. Who were 

the '' Hebrews" to whom the epistle was sent, 
is also a matter of doubt ; but the preponder- 
ance of probability is very strongly on the 
side of the Church at Jerusalem, which was 
composed of those who were " Hebrews of 
the Hebrews." The date of the epistle can 
only be inferred from its contents. It must 
have been written before the destruction of 
Jerusalem (a.d. 70), because the overthrow 
of the Temple is not alluded to, which would 
have been one of the strongest links in the 
chain of argument to prove the temporary 
nature of the old national faith. 

Contents and Character. — The Pauline char- 
acter of the epistle — i. e., that it was written 
by one who was thoroughly imbued with the 
sentiments of Paul, if not by Paul himself — 
is made very clear by an examination of the 
contents of the book, and a consideration of 
the purpbse of the writer. Paul, himself a 
" Hebrew of the Hebrews," was all his life, 
subsequent to his conversion, engaged in 
controversies wdth the Judaizing members 
of the Christian Church. Nothing more 
characteristically marks his ministry than 
his constant protest against the endeavors 
of certain narrow-minded teachers to bring 
Christian converts under the ceremonial law, 
and so make the Christian Church a branch 
of the Jewish. In the other epistles this is 
an incident, rather than the main object, 
unless it be in the Epistle to the Galatians 
(q. V.) ; and in all of them the argument is 
addressed to both Jews and Gentiles. The 
Epistle to the Hebrews is an attempt ad- 
dressed to the Jewish Christians themselves, 
to show, in a fuller and more elaborate way, 
that the O. T. dispensation was temporary 
— a shadow of things to come — a symbol 
perfectly fulfilled in Christ, and so finding 
its end in his cross. If written by Paul, it 
would not be strange that he should have 
left off his name from the document, since 
to append it would be to prejudice his read- 
ers. It is, at all events, certain that no one 
w^ho was not at once thoroughly familiar 
with the Jewish economy and the Christian 
life could have traced so fnlly the parallel 
between the symbolism of the O. T. and its 
fulfillment in the New. The writer begins 
by showing the superiority of Christ to the 
angels (chap, i,), who were the mediators of 
the old covenant ; whence he passes at once 
to explain why he was made lower than the 
angels, viz., that he might become our synna- 
thiziug High-priest and Saviour (chap. ii.). 



HEBREWS (EPISTLE TO THE) 422 



HEBRON 



Then follows a comparison of Christ with 
Moses, and an argument showing that the 
promised rest mentioned in the O. T. was 
not that of the Sabbath — not that of the 
possession of Canaan — but the rest of faith 
in God, into which we are all to strive to 
enter (iii. ; iv., 13). He then recurs to his 
original comparison of Christ with the high- 
priest of the Jewish system, which he traces 
with elaborate, and even minute, details. 
This occupies the middle portion of the epis- 
tle (iv., 14, to X., 18), the closing portions be- 
ing a series of exhortations to confidence and 
patience in faith (x., 19, to xiii.), which in 
chapter xi. is sublimely set forth, not only 
in the clearest definition which the Scripture 
aifords, but also in a series of illustrations 
which at once exemplify the nature of faith 
and show that the O. T. saints were saved 
and sanctified, and made glorious, not by 
mere obedience to an external- law, but by 
faith in a personal and present God. Of all 
epistles, the Epistle to the Hebrews is that 
which most clearly sets forth the fulfillment 
of the types and prophecies of the Jewish 
system of sacrifices and priesthood in the life 
to which the believer is invited through 
faith in Christ. It is not strange that for a 
time the epistle was rejected by the Romish 
Church : that it was subsequently accepted 
by that Church as of divine authority, is 
rather to be wondered at, since nowhere else 
in the Bible are some of the cardinal doc- 
trines of the Romish Church — especially the 
recurring sacrifice of the mass and the au- 



thority of the priesthood — so distinctly and 
emphatically repudiated. 

Hebron, an ancient city of Southern Pal- 
estine. Its original name was Kirjath-arba, 
or, tJie city of Arba; and it is now called el- 
Khulil, or, "the Friend." It is situated in 
the hill country of Judea, about twenty miles 
south of Jerusalem, and is twenty-eight hun- 
dred feet above the Mediterranean. It is 
commonly reckoned one of the oldest of 
cities, having been built seven years before 
Zoan, in Egypt. Abraham dwelt at Hebron. 
Here Sarah died, and was buried in the cave 
of Machpelah ; here also Isaac and Ishmael 
buried Abraham ; Isaac, too, and Jacob, lived 
some time here, and here both were buried. 
On the conquest of Canaan, Hebron was as- 
signed to the tribe of Judah. The Amo- 
rite king had been conquered, and the city 
taken by Joshua ; but it would seem that 
the sons of Anak still occupied the position 
in force, for it is said that Caleb, under Josh- 
ua, succeeded in exterminating these giants ; 
and hence to Caleb Hebron was given for an 
inheritance. It was subsequently made over 
to the priests, and constituted a city of ref- 
uge, the surrounding fields and villages be- 
ing reserved for Caleb. We hear little more 
of Hebron till the time of David, who was 
here anointed king, and reigned over Judak 
seven years and six months, six of his sons 
being born here. It was inhabited after the 
Captivity ', was subsequently occupied by the 
Idumeaus, but was captured by Judas Mac- 
cabeus. In the N. T. it is not mentioned ; 




Hebron. 



HELBON 



423 



HERD, HERDSMAN 



but, according to Josepbus, it was destroyed 
sbortly before tbe taking of Jerusalem. 

Tbe present population of Hebron, or el- 
KhuJil, may be about 7000 or 8000, of wbora 
700 are Jews ; tbere are no Cbristians in tbe 
town or district. Its appearance is described 
as beautiful. On a sloping bill-side rising 
above tbe valley is tbe quadi-angle of mass- 
ive and ancient stone-work, wbicb incloses 
tbe building said to contain tbe cave of 
Macbpelab (q. v.). At its foot, occupying 
tbe valley and side of tbe opposite bill, lies 
tbe town itself, divided into tbree groups of 
flat-roofed and domed dwellings. Tbe val- 
ley and its inclosing bills, winding into far 
perspective toward tbe desert frontier, in 
tbe luxuriance of tbeir Eastern mode of cul- 
tivation, and covered witb tbymy pastur- 
ages, justify tbe description of a land flow- 
ing witb milk and boney ; afar, beyond tbe 
unseen caldron of tbe Dead Sea, tbe long 
range of tbe Moab mountains sbuts in the 
extensive area. A mile up tbe valley is a 
vast oak-tree, popularly said to be tbe tree 
of Mamre, under wbicb Abraham pitched his 
tent. Two ancient pools remain, tbe lower 
one a hundred and thirty-three feet square, 
and twenty-two feet deep, the upper eighty- 
five feet by fifty-iive feet, and nineteen feet 
deep. It may l3e over one of these that Da- 
vid hanged the murderers of Ish-bosheth. 
[Gen. xiii., 18 ; xxiii., 2, 19; xxv., 9; xxxv., 
27 ; xxxvii., 14 ; xlix., 29-32 ; 1., 13 ; Numb, 
xiii., 22 ; Josh, x., 3, 5, 23, 36, 39 ; xi., 21 ; 
xii., 10 ; xiv., 6-14 ; xv., 13, 14, 54 ; xx., 7 ; 
xxi., 11-13 ; 2 Sam. ii., 1-3, 11 ; iii., 2-5 ; iv., 
12; v., 4-10.] 

Helbon (fat, fertile), a place noted for ex- 
cellent wines, which were conveyed to Tyre 
from Damascus. It has been frequently sup- 
posed that Helbon is the modern Aleppo ; 
but Mr. Porter has discovered a village and 
district, still bearing tbe ancient name, a few 
miles from Damascus, celebrated for pecul- 
iarly fine grapes. It lies in a glen high up 
in Autilibauus, and is the site of some con- 
siderable ruins. [Ezek. xxvii., 18.] 

HeU. The word hell is used in tbe O. T. 
in translating the Hebrew word SJieol. It 
there never signifies the place of punishment 
for the wicked, unless, possibly, it is used in 
this sense in Psalm ix., 17, " Tbe wicked shall 
be turned into hell." This may mean that 
they shall suffer a righteous retribution in 
the world to come, or it may merely mean 
that all their plans of iniquity will come to 
naught, since ere long they will go down 
to death. At all events, the usual meaning 
of the word, as used in tbe O. T., is '' the 
world of departed spirits." It should rather 
have been translated Hades than hell. In 
the N. T., it is indiscriminately employed in 
rendering two very different words. Aides and 
Gehenna. The first word, like Sheol, signifies 
simply the place of the departed, and should 
have been translated Hades. The latter 



word indicates the place of future punish- 
ment. To the south-east of Jerusalem was 
a deep and fertile valley called the vale of 
Hinnom, or, in Greek, Gehenna. In a partic- 
ular portion of this valley, known as Tophet,^ 
the idolatrous Jews burned their children in 
sacrifice to Moloch (q. v.). In the reforma- 
tion instituted bj-^ Josiah, this valley was 
polluted, and, therefore, became the place for 
casting out and burning offal and the corpses 
of criminals. Hence the use of the phrase, 
'' fire of Gehenna," translated "hell-tire," to 
indicate tbe place of future punishment. 
Thence it has passed into the religious liter- 
ature of Christendom. In Matt, v., 22, 29, 
30 ; X., 28 ; xviii., 9 ; xxiii., 15, 33 ; Mark ix., 
43, 45, 47 ; Luke xii., 5 ; Jas. iii., 6, the word 
translated by hell is Gehenna ; and the idea 
conveyed is, undoubtedly, a place of punish- 
ment. In all other passagee in the Bible, 
with possibly the single exception in the 
Psalm referred to above, the meaning of the 
original would be more appropriately ex- 
pressed by the word Hades. It is in this 
sense, also, that the word is used in the dec- 
laration of the Apostles' Creed, concerning 
our Lord, that he descended into hell — i. e., 
he went to the place of departed spirits. 
For a consideration of the doctrine of fu- 
ture punishment conveyed in the word hell, 
as used in modern theology, see article Fu- 
ture Punishment ; for an account of the 
ancient opinions respecting the place of the 
departed spirits, see Future State ; Hades ; 
and Intermediate State. 

Hem of Gcurment. Tbe Israelites were 
commanded to put fringes upon their gar- 
ments — a kind of edging which would pre- 
vent the ends of tbe cloth from unraveling ; 
also in the corners, possibly, of the outer gar- 
ment, which was quadrangular, there was to 
be a narrow blue ribbon. These fringes or 
borders were, in process of time, enlarged ; 
and it was one part of the superstition of 
the Pharisee so to enlarge them as to attract 
special notice. Hence there was a kind of 
sacredness attributed to the hem of tbe gar- 
ment ; and this seems to have been the rea- 
son why diseased persons specially desired to 
touch the hem of Christ's garment. [Numb. 
XV., 38, 39 ; Deut. xxii., 12 ; Matt, xxiii., 5 ; 
ix., 20 ; xiv., 36 ; Luke viii., 44.] 

Herd, Herdsman. The herd was greatly 
regarded both in the patriarchal and Mosa- 
ic period, a considerable part of the riches 
of the patriarchs consisting in their flocks 
and herds. Its multiplying, therefore, was 
considered as a blessing, and its decrease 
as a curse. So the plague of hail was sent 
to smite especially the cattle, the first-born 
of wbicb, also, were smitten.'^ The ox was 
the most precious stock next to the horse 

1 2 Kings xxiii., 10; l8a. xxx., .33; Jer. vii., 31, 32; 
xix., 6, 11.— 2 Gen. xiii., 2-5; xxvi., 14; xxxii., 5, 7; 
Exod. xii., 29; Dent, vii., 14; xxviii., 4; Job i., 3; 
xiii., 12; Psa. Ixxviii., 48; cvii., 3S ; Jer. li., 23. 



HERD, HERDSMAN 



424 



HERESY 



and mule, and (since those were rare) the 
thing of greatest value which was common- 
ly possessed. Hence we find oxen almost 
always mentioned if any man's property is 
spoken of. The full-grown ox was, and is 
hardly ever, slaughtered in Syria. Both for 
sacrificial and convivial purposes the young 
animal was preferred, and is mentioned as a 
special dainty. The usefulness of the ox in 
plowing, threshing, and as a beast of bur- 




A deformed Ox-herd, 
den, made such a slaughtering seem waste- 
fal ; nor, owing to the difficulties of grazing 
and fattening, is beef the product of an East- 
ern climate.^ Herdsmen in Egypt seem to 
have been the lowest caste ; hence, as Jo- 
seph's kindred, through his position, were 
brought into- contact with the highest castes, 
they are described as " an abomination." Of 
the accuracy of this description the preceding 
cut, representing a caricature found on the 



it supplying pasture ; for we find the tribes 
of Reuben and Gad specially mentioned as 
possessing abundant herds, and, on that ac- 
count, desiring to have their inheritance in 
the country on the east of the Jordan, which 
was a place for cattle. Half the tribe of 
Manasseh, also, was located in Bashan, which 
was well adapted for breeding cattle; and 
the herds yielded milk, butter, and cheese.^ 
At seasons when pasturage failed, oxen 
were kept in stalls, fed with straw 
chopped small, and "fodder," or 
"provender," which seems to have 
been a mixture of diflerent kinds of 
grain.^ When sick they were treated 
medically, as is shown by the follow- 
ing representation from an Egyptian 
monument. It was not considered 
any degradation among the Hebrews 
personally to tend the cattle : Saul, 
Elisha, and others are mentioned in 
connection with them ; and David's 
herd-masters were among his chief 
officers of state. In Solomon's time, 
the relative importance of the pursuit de- 
clined as commerce grew, but it was still 
extensive. It must have greatly suffered 
from the inroads of the enemies to which 
the country, under the later kings of Judah 
and Israel, was exposed. Uzziah and Hez- 
ekiah, however, resuming command of the 
open country, revived it. Josiah also seems 
to have been rich in herds. [1 Sam. xi., 5; 
xxi., 7 ; 1 Kings iv., 23 ; xix., 19 ; 1 Chron. 




Herdsmen and Poulterers treating sick Animals and Geese. 



tombs near the Pyramids, affords a curious 
illustration. But of the abundance of cat- 
tle in Egypt, and of the care there bestowed 
on them, there is no doubt ; and some of Jo- 
seph's brethren were placed over Pharaoh's 
cattle.^ Brands were used to distinguish 
the owner's herds. When the Israelites left 
Egypt, they took " much cattle " with them. 
Cattle thus formed one of the treasures of 
the Israelitish nation in its greatest period, 
and became almost a part of that greatness. 
They were the object of providential care 
and legislative ordinance ; and even the Le- 
vites, though not holding land, Avere allowed 
cattle. It would seem probable that they 
multiplied in the wilderness, many parts of 

1 Gen. XV., 9; xviii., 8: Exod. xx., 17; xxiii., 4; 
xxix., 1; Nnmb. vii., 3; 1 Snm. xi., 7; 1 Kings xviii., 
b : I (Jhron. xii., 40 : Isn. xlvi., 1 : Ixvi., 3 ; Jer. xlviii., 
: 4; Amos vi., 4; Lnke xv., 23.-2 q^u. ^Ivi., 32; xlvii., 
6, 17; Exod. ix., 4, 20. 



xxvii., 29-31 ; 2 Chron. xxvi., 10; xxxii., 28, 
29 ; XXXV., 7-9 ; Eccles. ii., 7 ; Amos i., 1.] 

Heresy (cJioice) signifies, in theology, the 
adoption of any opinion of one's own choice 
contrary to the standards of truth. The 
term is relative, not absolute ; i. e., it ex- 
presses not an absolute fact, but the opinion 
of him who uses it. Thus, to the Romanists, 
Luther seems to be the worst of heretics, 
because he adopted views contrary to their 
standard of truth, viz., the decrees of the 
Roman Catholic Church. But to the Prot- 
estant he is not a heretic at all, because his 
views are, in their judgment, in accordance 
with what thev regard as the standard of 



^ Exod. iii., 1 ; xii., 38 ; xx., 10 ; xxi., 28 ; xxxiv., 19 ;• 
Lev. xix., 1'.); xxv., 7; Numb, xxxi., 32-34; xxxii., 
1-5; XXXV., 2, 3; Deut. xi., 15; xxv., 4; xxxii., 14; 2 
S;im. xvii.. 29; Psa. civ., 14; Isa. xxx., 23.-2 Gen. 
xxiv., 25; 2 Chion. xxxii., 28; Job vi.. 5; Prov. xv., 
17; Isa. xxx., 24; Ixv., 25; Hab. iii., 17; Mai. iv., 2. 



her:mas 



425 



HEROD 



tnifh, viz., the Bible. So, again, the mod- 
ern Rationalists are, according to Protestant 
opinion, heretics, hecanse they reject the 
Protestant standard, the Bible. But they 
are not heretics in their own opinion, be- 
cause they consider that the individual judg- 
ment is the only standard of truth. Again, 
in genera], the term heresy is applied to the 
denial of some supposed truth, rather than 
to the affirmation of some supposed error. 
Thus the Romanist calls the Protestant a 
heretic, and the Protestant, in turn, calls the 
Rationalist a heretic ; but to the Rationalist 
the Protestant is not a heretic, nor is the 
Roman Catholic generally so designated by 
Protestants. Heresy differs from schism, 
and heretic from schismatic. Schism (split) 
signifies a separation from the Church, or a 
division in it ; and schismatic, one who in- 
troduces such a separation. So long as one 
holds error, and remains in the Church, he 
is simply a heretic. When he organizes a 
new sect or party, then he becomes also a 
schismatic. Thus, according to the Roman 
Catholic opinion, Luther was a heretic be- 
fore he withdrew from the Church. "When 
he withdrew and organized the Lutheran 
Church, he became a schismatic. It is also' 
evident that one may be a schismatic, and 
not a heretic. Thus, according to the opin- 
ion of the High-church party in the Church 
of England, Wesley was a schismatic, because 
he created a split in the Episcopal Church ; 
but he would not be generally accused by 
them of heresy. 

There have sprung up at various times, 
especially during the early ages of the 
Church, an immense number of sects, some 
of them of great, and others of little impor- 
tance ; some denying fundamental truths, 
others separating from the Church only on 
insignificant points of doctrine or ceremo- 
nial. Some of them have peri:»etuated their 
opinions in different organizations to the 
I)resent day; others were entirely evanes- 
cent in their character. Some of them, how- 
ever, were guilty of no greater heresy than a 
partial protest against some of the corrup- 
tions of the Romish Church ; and in the case 
of many of them we have no other knowl- 
edge of their opinions than that which is de- 
rived from the reports of their opponents. 
For an account, in brief, of the various minor 
heretical sects, see Sects ; for an account of 
the more important ones, see under their re- 
spective titles. 

Hennas (Mercury), a Christian at Rome 
to ^hom St. Paul sends salutation. To him 
has been attributed a work called "■ The 
Shepherd of Hermas." Some, however, ascribe 
this to a later person of the same name, 
hrother of Pius I., bishop of Rome. It was 
originally written in Greek, but it now ex- 
ists entire only in a Latin version. It com- 
prises, with some piety and truth, much that 
is superstitious and absurd. [Rom. xvi., 14.] 



Hennon (nose [peak] of a mountain), the 
highest and southernmost mountain of Anti- 
libanus. Besides the common name, Her- 
mon, it is also called in Scripture Sion ;^ 
while among the Amorites it bore the name 
oi Shenir,"^ and among the Sidonians that of 
Sirion,^ both of which words signify a breast- 
plate — referring probably to the snow on its 
broad summit shining in the sun. Hermon 
is a conspicuous object from all parts of the 
Holy Land. It has three summits, situated, 
like the angles of a triangle, about a quarter 
of a mile apart. As most commonly seen, it 
has the form of a massive truncated cone, 
and, until late in the summer, it is entirely 
covered with snow, which then melts on the 
exposed portions of the mountain, and re- 
mains only in the gorges and ravines, giving 
the appearance of radiant stripes, or of the 
thin white locks of an old man. The abun- 
dance of the ''dews of Hermon,"^ arising from 
its j)erpetual snows, can not fail to be no- 
ticed by any one who visits its neighbor- 
hood. Its height has been variously esti- 
mated. It may be safely reckoned at ten 
thousand feet. 

Herod. This family, though of Idumean 
origin, and thus aliens by race, were Jews in 
faith. The last king of the Jews was one of 
this family, and he and his descendants play 
an important part in the scenes narrated in 
the X. T. The accompanying maps indicate 
the nature of the political changes which 
Palestine underwent during their successive 
administrations, and point out very clearly 
the boundaries of their respective provinces. 

I. Herod the Great was the second son 
of Antipater, an Idumean, who was appoint- 
ed procurator of Judea by Julius Casar B.C. 
47. This Herod was the last king of the 
Jews. It is perhaps doubtful whether a 
worse king ever sat on the throne of a suffer- 
ing peox)le. His whole career exhibits him 
as a cunning adventurer, an unscrupulous 
self-seeker, and a relentless despot. He was 
made governor of Galilee by his father at a 
very early age.^ He demonstrated his ener- 
gy and courage by his successful campaign 
against the brigands who infested its north- 
ern mountains ; but this energy and courage 
was directed by an ambition wholly selfish. 
Perceiving the growing power of Rome, he 
secured its favor by oppressive taxation at 
the cost of his own people. So effectually 
did he alienate their affections, that, on their 
complaint, he was summoned to trial before 
the Sanhedrim, and escaped the penalties 
justly incurred by his oppressions only by 
overawing the tribunal. He courted success- 
fully the favor of the Roman rulers. With 
the craftiness of a wily politician, studying 
the complications at Rome which resulted in 



1 Dent, iv., 4S. — 2 Dent, iii., 9.-3 P.=a. xxix., 6.— 
* Ps?a. cxxxiii., 3.— ^ .Josephixs says fifteen ; but the 
staiemeut is doubtful. He was "certuiuly not over 
twenty. 



HEROD 



426 



HEROD 



the establishment of the Roman 
Empire, he succeeded in secur- 
ing the favor and patronage, in 
succession, of Cassius, of Anto- 
ny, and of CsBsar. Upon the fall 
of each patron, he transferred 
Ilia allegiance, with unblush- 
ing assurance, to his successor. 
Through Antony's influence, he 
was proclaimed king of Judea 
by the Roman Senate. Upon 
Antony's fall, Csesar confirmed 
him in his position ; and as he 
always rendered a good revenue 
to his R.omish masters, the just 
complaints of his subjects were 
unavailing against him. A 
time-server at home as well as 
abroad, all religions were equal- 
ly accepted by him as a means 
of securing popular favor. He 
rebuilt the Temple at Jerusalem 
for the Jews; he constructed 
another on Mount Gerizim for 
the Samaritans; he established 
a heathen worship in Csesarea 
for the Romans. He was alike 
regardless of all considerations 
of justice, all obligations of re- 
ligion, and all claims of natural 
affection. His jealousy of real 
or fancied rivals increased with 
his increasing power. He form- 
ed a design of establishing on 
the Jewish throne a permanent 
Herodian dynasty, and making 
of the Jewish nation again an 
independent, though not a free 
people. Whatever, to his sus- 
picious nature, seemed to stand 
in the way of this design, no 
scruple prevented him from re- 
moving at whatever cost. A 
terrible distemper, which final- 
ly brought his wretched life to 
a yet more wretched end, in- 
creased toward its close his un- 
reasonable suspicions, and ag- 
gravated the asperities of his 
temper. Every one seemed, to 
his jealous disposition, to be 
conspiring against his throne. 
In succession, his wife's grand- 
father, his wife herself, and 
three of his own sons, were 
slain by his command — sacri- 
fices to his insane suspicions. 
Such a monarch could ill brook 
a rival King of the Jews. That, 
when he found himself mocked 
by the wise men, his rage passed 
all bounds, is consonant with all we know 
of his character. His inhuman order for the 
massacre of the infant children of Bethle- 
hem is quite in keeping with the cruelties 
of the age, the absolute authority he pos- 



TSB nOI/T L&JfD 




Map' 



•-houiii^ the Politic ;1 Changes ni Pilestiue 

sessed, and the other well-known facts of 
his career. This massacre took place prob- 
ably during his last illness, and not long be- 
fore his death — 4 B.C. His blood-thirstiness, 
especially in the latter days of his reign, is 



HEROD 



427 



HEROD 



TMM 



untler 



TRE SOSS 

of 

HEROD IHE GREAT. 




•<t 








BOMANTEROVTNCE OP 

and 
THE JilNGDOr OF 

AGHIPPA n 




under the Herods during the New Testament era. 
illustrated strikingly by an order whicli he 
issued for the execution of the nobles whom 
he had called about him in his last moments. 
Thus, he said, he should assure universal 
mourning at his death. [Matt, ii., 12-18.] 



II. Archelaus. — The first 
of three sons, among whom 
Herod, by his will, apportion- 
ed his dominions, subject to 
the confirmation of Augustus. 
These sons were Archelaus, 
Philip, and Herod Antipas. 
Great disturbances presently, 
however, arose both among the 
members of Herod's family and 
among the Jews generally, who 
now gave open vent to their 
dislike to the Herodian inter- 
est, and wished to rid them- 
selves of its continuance. But 
the Roman governors of Syria 
suppressed these, and matters 
were kept from going to ex- 
tremities till the decision of 
Augustus should be known. 
Augustus substantially con- 
firmed the testament of Herod ; 
and Archelaus, with the title 
of ethnarch, received the one- 
half of his father's dominions 
— Judea, Samaria, and Idumea, 
with the cities of Jopx^a and 
Csesarea. He was accused by 
a deputation of Jews, who went 
to Rome on purpose, before he 
actually entered on the govern- 
ment ; and to this fact it is sup- 
posed Christ refers in the para- 
ble of the ten pounds.^ These 
objections were for the time 
overruled; but, after a reign 
of ten years, fresh accusations 
were brought against him, and 
he was banished in conse- 
quence, and his dominions add- 
ed to the province of Syria. 
[Matt, ii., 22.] 

III. Herod Antipas, anoth- 
er son of Herod the Great. His 
father appointed him '^ tetrarch 
of Galilee and Petrea." He first 
married a daughter of Aretas, 
'* king of Arabia Petrea ;" but 
subsequently made overtures 
of marriage to Herodias, the 
wife of his half-brother Philip. 
She deserted her husband, who 
held only a private station, 
having been disinherited by 
his father, and became the wife 
of Antipas. Aretas, indignant 
at the insult offered to his 
daughter, found a pretext for 
invading the territory of Her- 
od, and defeated him with great 
loss. This defeat, according to 

Josephus, was attributed by many to the 
murder of John the Baptist, committed by 
Antipas shortly before, under the influence 
of Herodias. At a later time the ambition 



Luke xix., 13-25. 



HEROD 



428 



HESHBOX 



of Herodias proved the cause of lier Tins- 
band's rnin. Slie nrged him to go to Rome 
to gain the title of king ; bnt he was op- 
posed at the conrt of Calignla by the emis- 
saries of Agrippa, and condemned to perpet- 
ual banishment at Lngdnnnm, a.d. 39. He- 
rodias voluntarily shared his punishment, and 
he died in exile. Pilate took occasion, from 
our Lord's residence in Galilee, to send him 
for examination to Herod Autipas, who came 
up to Jernsalem to celebrate the Passover. 
The city of Tiberias, which Antipas founded, 
and named in honor of the emperor, was the 
most conspicuous monument of his long- 
reign. [Matt, xiv., 1, 4 ; Mark vi., 14, 17 ; 
Luke iii., 1, 19; ix., 7 ; xxiii., 6; Acts xiii., 1.] 

IV. Herod Philip L, known in the N. T. 
as Philip,^ was the son of Herod the Great 
and Mariamne, and must be carefully distin- 
guished from the tetrarch Philip, He mar- 
ried Herodias, the sister of Agrippa I., by 
whom he had a daughter, Salome (q. v.). 
Herodias, however, left him, and made an in- 
famous marriage with his half-brother, Her- 
od Antipas. He was excluded from all share 
iu his father's possessions in consequence of 
Lis mother's treachery, and lived afterward 
in a private station. [Matt, xiv., 3; Mark 
vi., 17 ; Luke iii., 19.] 

V. Herod Philip II. was the son of Her- 
od the Great and Cleopatra. Like his half- 
brothers, Antipas and Archelaus, he was 
brought up at home. He received as his 
own government Batanea, Trachonitis, Au- 
ranitis, and some parts about Jamnia, with 
the title of tetrarch. He built a new city 
on the site of Paneas, near the sources of the 
Jordan, which he called Csesarea, and raised 
Bethsaida to the rank of a city under the 
title of Julias, and died there a.d. 34. He 
married Salome, the daughter of Herod Phil- 
ip I. and Herodias. [Matt, xvi., 13; Mark 
viii., 27 ; Luke iii., 1. J 

VI. Herod Agrippa I. was the ,sou of Aris- 
tobulus and Berenice, and grandson of Herod 
the Great. He was brought up at Rome 
with Claudius and Drusus, and, after a life 
of various vicissitudes, was thrown into pris- 
on by Tiberius, where he remained till the 
accession of Caligula, a.d. 37. The new em- 
peror gave him the governments formerly 
held by the tetrarchs Philip and Lysanias, 
and bestowed on him the ensigns of royalty 
and other marks of favor. On the banish- 
ment of Antipas, his dominions were added 
to those already held by Agrippa. After- 
ward Agrippa rendered important services 
to Claudius, and received from him in return, 
A.D. 41, the government of Judea and Sama- 
ria. Unlike his predecessors, he was a strict 
observer of the law, and sought with success 
the favor of tlie Jews. It is probable that 
it was with tliis view he put to death James 
the son of Zebedee, and further imprisoned 
Peter. But his sudden death interrupted 

il^irk vi., IT. 



his ambitious projects. In the midst of the 
games that were being celebrated in honor 
of Cfesar, when receiving the acclamations 
of the people, and lauded as a god for his 
surpassing grandeur and eloquence, he was 
stricken with a mortal disease, a.d. 44, of 
which he died in a few days. [Acts xii., 
1-3, 23.] 

VII. Herod Agrippa II. was the son of 
Herod Agrippa I. and Cypros, a grand-niece 
of Herod the Great. At the time of the death 
of his father, a.d. 44, he was at Rome. Not 
long afterward, however, the emperor gave 
him, about a.d. 50, the kingdom of Chalcis, 
which had belonged to his uncle ; and then 
transferred him, a.d. 52, to the tetrarchies 
formerly held by Philip and Lysanias, with 
the title of king. In the last Roman war 
Agrippa took part with the Romans, and af- 
ter the fall of Jerusalem retired with Bere- 
nice to Rome, where he died in the third 
year of Trajan, a.d. 100. [Acts xiv., 13, 23 ; 
xxvi., 27,06.] 

Herodians, a party among the Jews of the 
apostolic age very keenly opposed to the 
claims of Jesus. They were the adherents 
of the family of Herod, and watchfully ob- 
servant of every thing that might seem to 
interfere with its rights. Hence their deter- 
mination to have Jesus handed over to the 
tem^Joral power for summary justice. They 
were a political party rather than a relig- 
ious sect, bnt were for the most part Sad- 
ducees in religious sentiment. [Matt, xxii., 
16 ; Mark xii., 13.] 

Heron, one of the birds forbidden as food 
to the Israelites. Probably the name in- 
cludes several species, as there is the addi- 
tion " after her kind." But critics are not 
at all agreed as to the kind of bird meant : 
it is by no means certain that it was the 
lieron. From the derivation of the original 
word, we may conjecture that it was some 
bird that breathed hard, perhaps hissed, C-iid 
was irascible. Some have, therefore, sug- 
gested the translation *' goose." [Lev. xi., 
19; Dent, xiv., 18.] 

Heshbon (reason, device), the capital of 
Sihon, king of the Amorites. It appears to 
have been upon the western part of the high 
table-land east of the Jordan. It had orig- 
inally belonged to Moab ; when Sihon was 
conquered, it was rebuilt by the tribe of 
Reuben, but, lying just on the boundary-line 
of Reuben and Gad, it was reckoned as ter- 
ritorially a Gadite city when allotted to the 
Levites. In later times the Moabites re- 
gained possession of Heshbon, so that it is 
mentioned as a Moabitish town in the pro- 
plietic denuncuitions against that people. 
The ruins of this city still exist twenty miles 
east of the point where the Jordan falls into 
the Dead Sea. Tliey are called Hesbdn, and 
occupy a low hill iu the great plain. There 
are some remarkable remains among them, 
and cisterns are still to be seen, with an an- 



HEXAPLA 



429 



HEZEKIAH 



cient reservoir. [Numb, xxi., 25-34 ; Josh. 
xxi., 39; Jndg. xi., 19, 26; 1 Chron. vi., 81; 
Sol. Song, vii., 4 ; Jer. xlviii., 2, 34, 45.] 

Hexapla, a combiuation of several ver- 
sions of the Bible prepared by Origeu, iu the 
third ceutiiry. This book contaiued the He- 
brew text written iu Hebrew and Greek char- 
acters, with the translations of the Septua- 
gint, of Aquila, Theodotiou, and Symmachus, 
in six several coluuius. There was added to 
it a fifth translation found at Jericho, and a 
sixth, found at Nicopolis. Origeu joined to 
it a translation of the Psalms ; but still the 
book retained the name of Hexajjia, because 
the fifth aud sixth translations did not ex- 
tend to the whole Bible. Thus the book 
contained throughout six columns, generally 
eight, and in the Psalms nine. There is an 
English Hexapla, containing six English ver- 
sions of the Bible, arranged in like manner. 

Hezekiah (Jeliovali strengthens), the thir- 
teenth king of Judah, the son of Ahaz, as- 
cended the throne at the age of twenty-five, 
and reigned twentj'-nine years, B.C. 726-698. 
The reign of Hezekiah is the culminating 
point of interest in the history of the kings 
of Judah. He stands pre-eminent among 
them all. "There was after him none like 
him among the kings of Judah, nor any that 
was before."^ Immediately on his accession 
he entered upon an extensive aud thorough 
reformation. His first act was to purge, re- 
pair, and re-open, with splendid sacrifices, 
the Temple, which had been despoiled and 
neglected during the idolatrous reign of his 
father. He utterly destroyed all the instru- 
ments of image-worship, not excepting even 
the brazen serpent of the wilderness, a sa- 
cred relic, but which had been abused to pur- 
poses of superstition.'^ His was the first dis- 
tinct example of an attempt to collect the 
sacred books of his country. By his orders a 
large part^ of the Proverbs of Solomon, and, 
according to Jewish tradition, the prophecies 
of Isaiah, the book of Ecclesiastes, and the 
Canticles, were written out aud preserved. 
He revived the institution of the Passover, 
of which no celebration had been recorded 
since the time of Joshua ; and it was com- 
memorated by a two weeks of rejoicing.* 
Among his other reforms, he broke ofi" the 
servitude to the Assyrian power, and raised 
the standard of independence. Sennacherib, 
king of Ass^Tia, does not aj)pear to have ta- 
ken any immediate steps to avenge the af- 
front, aud Hezekiah made good use of the 
delay iu strengthening his position, and ren- 
dering his capital impregnable. ° But in the 
fourteenth year of Hezekiah's reign a direct 
attack was made ; Sennacherib " came up 
against all the fenced cities of Judahpind 
took them."" The payment of an enormous 
tribute bv Hezekiah, for which he was obliged 



to strip the gold from the walls of the Tem- 
ple, warded ofi:" for the present his dangerous 
foe. Accounts of this expedition of Sennach- 
erib have been found upon pieces of ancient 
sculpture iu Nineveh, which exhibit a strik- 
ing confirmation of the leading facts in the 
Bible history. The relief of Judah was tem- 
porary, however. Ere Jong the Assyrian king 
again returned, and iu the most ofieusive 
tone, and with i3roud defiance, not only "of 
the power and resources of Hezekiah, but 
even of the might of Jehovah, required an 
unconditional surrender of the king and peo- 
ple of Israel.^ Hezekiah, conscious of his 
own weakness, first humbled himself before 
the Lord, going in rent garments aud in sack- 
cloth to the Temple to pray; then sent to 
Isaiah the prophet to add his prayers for 
help.^ And help came in the dead of night, 
by the avenging hand of the angel of the 
Lord, who smote in the camp of the Assyri- 
ans a hundred and four-score and five thou- 
sand.^ This destruction of Sennacherib's 
army is generally supposed to have been 
caused by the simoom, or hot and pestilen- 
tial wind of the desert, which is said not un- 
frequently to have been fatal to whole car- 
avans. Herodotus confirms the fact, but 
gives a singular explanation of it. He says 
that a number of field-mice gnawed asun- 
der their quivers, their bow-strings, and 
shield-straps ; uj)on which the whole army 
took to flight. At the latter end of the 
same year, the fourteenth of his reign, Hez- 
ekiah fell dangerously ill. There seemed no 
hope of recovery. Even Isaiah, who stood 
by liis side, had delivered the prophetic mes- 
sage " Thou shalt die, and not live."* In an- 
swer to his earnest cry, the Lord again in- 
terposed in his behalf, and Isaiah, not yet 
having left the palace, was bidden to return, 
bearing the promise of d lengthened life of 
fifteen years. This promise was ratified by 
a sign chosen by Hezekiah — the receding of 
the sun's shadow ten degrees on '' the dial of 
Aliaz."^ It is not necessary to suppose that 
the sun actually receded, but that the shad- 
ow on the dial did — a phenomenon which 
might be caused by a cloud refracting the 
light. The marriage of Hezekiah j)robably 
took place after his recovery from this ill- 
ness. His wife was, according to tradition, 
the daughter of Isaiah, and bore a name of 
good omen — Hephzibah, the Delightful.^ In 
the latter part of Hezekiah's reign his heart 
was lifted up,'' and he manifested a spirit of 
pride in his manner of receiving messengers 
from the King of Babylon, and in displaying 
his treasures before them. This indiscreet 
ostentation met with a significant rebuke 
from Isaiah, who announced to him the start- 
ling fact that the time would come when all 



1 2 Kings xviii., 5.-2 2 Kings xviii., 4. See Bra- 
zen Serpent.— 3 Prov. xxv.. 1.—'* 2 Chron. xxx., 23.— 
6 2 Chron. xxxii., 3, 5.-6 2 Kings xviiL, 13. 



1 See Rabshakfu.— 2 2 Kings xix., 2-4.-3 2 Kings 
xix.. 35.-4 2 Kings xx., 1.- » 2 Kings xx., G-12. See 
Dial.— 6 2 Kings xxi., 1. The tradition may be thought 
to receive a slight confirmation from Isa. Ixii., 4. — 
^ 2 Chron. xxxii., 25. 



HIERAPOLIS 



430 



HIGH PLACES 



those treasures should be carried to Babylon, 
and even Ms own offspring should serve as 
eunuchs to a foreign lord.^ The remainder 
of Hezekiah's life passed peacefully. When 
his end came, his funeral was marked with 
unusual honor. His burial forms a marked 
epoch in the royal interments. He was the 
first king who was buried outside the city 
of David.^ Apparently, his tomb was on the 
road approaching the ancient burial-place 
of his family ; and from this tune no prince 
of the royal house was interred within the 
walls. Hezekiah was succeeded by his son 
Manasseh. It should be added that the chro- 
nology of Hezekiah's life and reign is in- 
volved in some obscurity. We have follow- 
ed what we think the better opinion. [2 
Kuigs xviii.-xx ; 2 Chron. xxix. ; xxxii ; Isa. 
xxxvi.-xxxix. ; Jer. xxvi., 18, 19.] 

Hierapolis (sacred city), a city of Phrygia 
Magna, east of Colosse, and about six Roman 
miles north of Laodicea. It was celebrated 
for mineral springs, and a cave where a sti- 
fling vapor was evolved. These springs still 
exist, and there are considerable ruins of the 
ancient town. Christianity w^as most prob- 
ably introduced here at the same time as at 
Colosse. The modern name is Pamboiik-Ka- 
lessi. [CoL iv., 13.] 

Hierarchy. This term is derived from 
two Greek words, signifying sacred autliority. 
It is used to designate a body of priests in- 
trusted with government either of church or 
state, or that form of government which is 
administered solely by the priesthood. In 
ordinary usage the term is applied only to 
the Roman Catholic Church or priesthood. 

Hieroglyphics^ {sacred carvings), a term 
applied by the ancient Greeks to that spe- 
cies of writing which they found engraved 
or sculptured upon the Egyptian monuments. 
Picture-writing was one of the earliest modes 
of communication to which mankind resort- 
ed. They must have represented events and 
objects by painting them before they could 
have acquired the art of describing them in 
writing. Accordingly, when the Spaniards 
first landed on the shores of South America, 
their arrival was announced to the inhabit- 
ants of the interior by rude paintings of men, 
arms, and ships. Egypt is, perhaps, the only 
country whose monuments present to us the 
successive steps by w^hich men have arrived 
at alphabetic writing, the first and simplest 
part of the process being the use of hiero- 
glyphics, which would be gradually reduced 
and abbreviated until at length they came 
to use arbitrary and conventional marks ex- 
pressive of the sounds uttered by the human 
voice. In nearly all cases, hieroglyphics con- 
sist of representations of the sun, moon, and 
stars — the human form, animals, fishes, and 
works of art — which were either engraved 
with reliefs sunk below the surface, or traced 

1^ — ir-r* 

1 Isa. xxxix., 6, 7.-2 2 Chron. xx:^., 31 ; 2 Kinjirs xs., 
21.— 3 For illustratiou of hieroglyphics, see Egypt. 



with a reed-pen on slabs of stone, pieces of 
wood, or leaves of the papyrus. In the Egyp- 
tian monuments, the hieroglyphics are some- 
times plain and sometimes decorated with 
colors. They are arranged in perpendicular 
or horizontal columns, separated by lines. 
I They continued in use for upward of three 
j thousand years, when they were superseded 
by a more condensed writing, called the Den- 
cotic, and lastly by the modern Coptic, on 
the introduction of Christianity. See Writ- 
ing. 

High Places. From the earliest times it 
was the custom among all nations to erect 
altars and places of worship on lofty and 
conspicuous spots. To this general custom 
we find constant allusion in the Bible 5^ and 
it is especially attributed to the Moabites.^ 
Even Abraham built an altar to the Lord on 
a mountain near Bethel,^ which shows that 
the practice was then as innocent as it Avas 
natural ; and although it afterward became 
mingled with idolatrous observances,* it was 
in itself far less likely to be abused than 
the consecration of groves.^ It is, however, 
quite obvious that if every grove and emi- 
nence had been suffered to become a place 
for legitimate worship, especially in a coun- 
try where they had already been defiled with 
the sins of polytheism, the utmost danger 
would have resulted to the pure worship of 
the one true God : it was therefore implicit- 
ly forbidden by the law of Moses, which also 
gave the strictest injunction to destroy these 
monuments of Canaanitish idolatry.^ The 
command was a j^rospective one, and was not 
to come into force until such time as the 
tribes were fully settled in the promised laud. 
Thus we find that both Gideon and Manoah 
built altars on high places by Divine com- 
mand f and it is quite clear, from the tone 
of the book of Judges, that the Mosaic law^ 
on the subject was either totally forgotten 
or practically obsolete. It is more surpris- 
ing to find this law absolutely ignored at a 
much later period — as by Samuel at Mizpeh 
and at Bethlehem ; by Saul at Gilgal and at 
Aijalon ; by David; by Elijah on Mount Car- 
mel; and by other prophets.® But these 
wxre all extraordiuary occasions ; and the 
strong theocratic sense of the persons direct- 
ing the sacrifice, together with the manifest 
peculiarity of the occasions, served to coun- 
teract the tendency which the act of itself 
might have been fitted to gender. It was 
one of the great objects of the religious la- 
bor of David to have the Mosaic constitu- 
tion so invigorated, and the service at the 
one altar and tabernacle brought to such a 
state of relative perfection, that both the oc- 



1 Isa. Ixv., 7; Jer. iii., 6 ; Ezek. vi., 13 ; xviii., 6 : Hop. 
iv., 13.— 2 Isa. XV., 2 ; xvi., 12 : Jer. xlviii., 3.5.— s Gen. 
xii., 7, 8; xxii., 2-4; xxxi., 54.—'* Numb, xxiii., 3 — 
5 Hos. iv., 13.-6 Lev. xxvi., .30; Numb, xxxiii., 52; 
Dent, xii., 11-U; xxxiii., 29.— ■? Jiid<r. vi., 25, 26; xiii., 
10-23.-'^ 1 Sam. vii., 10: x.,5; xiii.,l>; xiv.,35; xvi., 
5; 1 Kings xviii., 30; 1 Chrou. xxi., 2G. 



HIGH-PRIEST 



431 



HIGH-PRIEST 



casions for separate altars might be taken 
away and the desire for having them extin- 
guished. This aim appears to have been in 



consisting of a breastplate, ephod, and mi- 
tre/ besides other articles common to all the 
priesthood — a broidered coat, or tunic of lin- 
en, a girdle also of linen, wound round the 
body several times from the breast down- 
ward, breeches or drawers of linen, and a 
bonnet, or turban. 

The high-priest exercised certain peculiar 
sacerdotal functions. He alone was permit- 
ted to enter the Holy of Holies, which he did 
once a year, on the great Day of Atonement, 
when he sprinkled the blood of the sin-offer- 
ing on the mercy-seat, and burned incense 
within the vail.^ He had a peculiar place 
in the law of the m.anslayer, who might not 
leave the city of refuge during the lifetime 
of the existing high-priest.^ It was also for- 
Representation of an idolatrous "High place," with its bidden to the high-priest to follow a funer- 




Grove, Altar, etc, 

great measure accomplished during his reign 
and that of Solomon. But with the falling 
asunder of the kingdom, and the manifold 
political and social disorders which grew out 
of it, the proper feeling of unity was again 
interrupted, and the habit of worshiping on 
high places by degrees crept in. By the 
better class of worshipers, however, it was 
always recognized as disorderly, and a par- 
tial defection from the legal standard ; so 
that, where only the more flagrant corrup- 
tions were shunned, the sacrificing on high 
places was noted as a smaller evil that con- 
tinued to prevail ; and the extent to which 
Hezekiah's reformation in matters of relig- 
ion was carried is marked by the circum- 
stance that in his time the high places \vere 
removed, that is, the altars on them, and 
other erections attached to these were pull- 
ed down.^ After the time of Josiah we find 
no further mention of these high places ; but 
there is still a strong predilection among all 
sects, Jews, wild Arabs, Moslems, and even 
Christians, in the East, to select high places 
for worship. 

High-priest, the name of the chief eccle- 
siastical officer in the Jewish Church. In 
many respects his functions and require- 
ments were the same as those of the priests 
(q. v.). We here speak briefly only of char- 
acteristics which were peculiar to his own 
office. 

The first mention of a high -priest is in 
the account of the anointing of Aaron, the 
first one set apart to this sacred office. He 
was appointed at first simply as The Priest, 
as representing the whole order ; his sons be- 
came the priests, who alone could offer sac- 
rament, while the rest of the tribe of Levi 
became assistants in the services of the tab- 
ernacle.^ The high-priest alone was anoint- 
ed ; hence the distinctive epithet of " the 
anointed priest."^ His dress was peculiar, 



J 2 Kines xviii., 4.-2 Exod. xxviii. : xxix. — 3 Lev. 
iv., 3, .'), 16; xxi., 10; Numb, xxxv., 25; comp. Psa. 
cxxxiii., 2. The compopition of the auoiuting oil is 
described in Exod. xxx., 22-25. 



al, or rend his clothes for the dead. No one 
who had a blemish could hold the office. The 
rabbis speak very frequently of one second 
in dignity to the high-priest, whom they call 
the Sagan, and who often acted in the high- 
priest's place. He is the same who in the 
O. T. is called '^the second high - priest."* 
This fact may explain the statement respect- 
ing Annas and Caiaphas,^ Annas being, per- 
haps, Sagan. Ananias is also thought by 
some to have been Sagan, acting for the high- 
priest.^ Several times in the history of the 
Jews the office seems to have been divided 
between two officers of equal authority.' 

We can not here enter in detail into the 
symbolical significance of the high-priest's 
office. It is enough to point out briefly the 
fact that the Epistle to the Hebrews sets 
forth the mystic meaning of his office as a 
type of Christ, our great High -priest, who 
has passed into the heaven of heavens with 
his own blood, to appear in the presence of 
God for us ; and this is tyj)ified in the mi- 
nutest particulars of his dress, his functions, 
and his privileges ; and in the book of Reve- 
lation the clothing of the Son of man " with 
a garment down to the foot," and " with a 
golden girdle about the paps," represents, 
undoubtedly, the robe and the curious gir- 
dle of the ephod characteristic of the high- 
priest.^ 

The history of the high -priesthood em- 
braces a period of about 1370 years, and a 
succession of about eighty high-priests, be- 
ginning with Aaron and ending with Phan- 
nias. They naturally arrange themselves 
into three groups — those before the mon- 
archy under Saul; those from Saul to the 
Captivity ; and those from the return of the 
Babylonish captivity till the cessation of the 
office at the destruction of Jerusalem. The 
high-priests of the first group who are dis- 
tinctly made known to us as such are Aaron, 
Eleazar, Phinehas, Eli, and Ahitub.'' Phine- 

1 See under those titles; see illustration in article 
GiRTiLE.— 2 Lev. xvi.-3 Numb, xxxv., 25, 28.— * 2 Kings 
xxiii., 4; xxv., IS.— ^ Luke iii., 2.-6 Acts xxiii., 2.— 

, 7 See Aaron; Ahiatiiar; Zadok.-^ Heb. v.; vii.-x.; 

I Kev. i., 13.— » See under those titles. 



HIGH-PEIEST 



432 



HILKIAH 







High-priest offering Incense. 



has, the son of Eli, and father of Ahitnb, died 
before his father, and so was not high-priest. 
Of the above, the first three succeeded in reg- 
ular order — Nadab and Abihu, Aaron's eldest 
sons, having died in the Avilderness. But 
Eli, the fourth, was a descendant of Aaron's 
youngest son, Ithamar. What was the exact 
interval between the death of Phinehas and 
the accession of Eli, and what led to the 
transference of the chief priesthood from the 
line of Eleazar to that of Ithamar, we have 
no means of determining from Scripture.^ 

For a chronological table of theliigh-priests 
of the second period, with a brief indication 
of the reigns of the contemporaneous mon- 
archs to the close of the O. T. canon, see Ap- 
pendix. The third period was one of lam- 
entable corruption, with a few notable and 
noble exceptions ; for with the decay of 
the Jewish nation came the degeneracj'- of 
this once-honored office. It ceased to be he- 
reditary, or to be confined to the family of 
Aaron ; and from being held for life, was 
changed so often that Jolm, with delicate 



1 See Eleazar; Ithamab. 



sarcasm, describes Caiaphas as "high-priest 
that same year."^ With the destruction of 
Jerusalem and the Temple, the office ceased 
to exist. See Priest; and for special dis- 
cussion of particular officers, see under re- 
spective titles — as Aaron ; Eleazar, etc. 

Hilkiah {Jehovah^ s partion) appears to have 
been a common name among the Jews, seven 
at least being mentioned as bearing this 
name.^ Nothing particular is known of these 
persons, except Hilkiah, the high-priest in 
the reign of Josiah, and probably the great- 
grandfather of Ezra.^ The cliief event which 
distinguished his administration was the 
finding of the book of the law in the Temple, 
while the sacred edifice was being repaired, 
in Josi all's reformation. This book Hilkiah 
delivered to Shaphan the scribe, who carried 
it to the king, and read it to him. The king, 
alarmed at what he heard, sent to inquire of 
the prophetess Huldah, and received her re- 
ply that for the wickedness of the people 
the threatenings of that book should be exe- 



1 John xi., 49.— 2 2 Kings xviii., 87; 1 Chr<ni. vi., 45; 
xxvi., 11 ; Neh. viii., 4 ; Jer. i., 1 ; xxix., 3.-3 Ezra vlLjl. 



HIRAM 



433 



HOLY, HOLINESS 



cuted. [2 Kings xxii., 8-20 ; xxiii., 4, 24 ; 2 
Chron. xxxiv., 8, 33 ; xxxv., 8.] 

Hiram, or Huram. 1. Tlie King of Tyre, 
who sent workmen and materials to Jerusa- 
lem, first to build a palace for David, whom 
he ever loved ; and again, to build the Tem- 
ple for Solomon, with whom he had a treaty 
of peace and commerce. The contempt with 
which he received Solomon's present of Ca- 
bul does not appear to have caused any 
breach between the two Mugs. He admit- 
ted Solomon's ships, issuing from Joppa, to a 
share in the profitable trade of the Mediter- 
ranean ; and Jewish sailors, under the guid- 
ance of Tyrians, were taught to bring the 
gold of India to Solomon's two harbors on 
the Eed Sea. [2 Sam. v., 11 ; 1 Kiugs v. ; ix., 
10-14 ; 1 Chron. xiv. ; 2 Chron. ii.] 

2. Hiram was the name of a man of mixed 
race, the principal architect and engineer 
sent by King Hiram to Solomon. The inte- 
rior decorations and utensils of Solomon's 
Temple were made under his direction. [1 
Kings vii., 13-51 ; 2 Chron. ii., 13, 14 ; iv., 11- 
16.] 

Hittites, the descendants of Heth, the son 
of Canaan, constituting one of the tribes 
that possessed the land of Canaan at the 
time of the conquest. At a period long be- 
fore, Abraham found them in the south, in 
the neighborhood of Hebron. They were 
subsequently in the mountainous region, 
near the Amorites and Jebusites, as well as 
in the neighborhood of Bethel. Indeed they 
had spread so extensively that Canaan — at 
least the northern part of it— was called the 
land of the Hittites. They took fully their 
part in resisting Joshua, and seem for a long 
time to have retained a distinctive place 
and possessions. Two of David's warriors, 
Ahimelech and Uriah, were Hittites. Kings 
of the Hittites were spoken of in the time 
of Solomon, who made them tributary, and 
they are mentioned after the Captivity. 
The tribes must have existed then, however, 
in merely isolated fragments, and from that 
time nothing is heard of them as a distinct 
and separate tribe. [Gen. x., 15 ; xv., 20 ; 
xxiii., 3-18 ; 1 Chron. i., 13 ; Numb, xiii., 29 ; 
Josh, i., 14; xi., 3; 1 Sam. xxvi., 6; 2 Sam. 
xi., 3 ; 1 Kings ix., 20 ; Ezra ix., 11.] 

Hivites, one of the Canaanitish tribes, 
who were also called Avim. The passages 
in Joshua represent them as dwelling in 
Mount Hermon, from Mount Baal-Hermon 
unto the entering in of Hamath ; that is, on 
the extreme north, as the Hittites were on 
the extreme south. They had possessions, 
however, farther south ; for it was they who, 
from the cities of Gibeon, Kirjath-jearim, 
etc., entered into a stratagem and obtained 
peace with Joshua. Solomon subjected them 
to a regular tribute, as he did the remnants 
of the other nations which still survived in 
the land. Their name never occurs after 
Solomon's time, and even in his day it is evi- 
28 



dent that they were comparatively few in 
number. [Gen. x., 17 ; Exod. iii., 8 ; Deut. 
ii.,^3; Josh, ix., 3; xi., 3; xiii., 11; 1 Kings 
ix.,20.] 

Hobab (beloved), thought by some critics 
to be identical with Jethro (q. v.), but more 
probably to be identified with his son. The 
difference in character confirms this opinion. 
While Jethro is preserved to us as the wise 
and practiced administrator, Hobab appears 
as the experienced Bedouin sheik, to whom 
Moses looked for the material safety of his 
cumbrous caravan in the new and difficult 
ground before them. The tracks and passes 
of that ''waste, howling wilderness" were 
all familiar to him ; and his practiced sight 
would be to them " instead of eyes " in dis- 
cerning the distant clumps of verdure which 
betokened the wells or springs for the dai- 
ly encampment, and in giving timely warn- 
ing of the approach of Amalekites, or other 
spoilers of the desert. [Numb, x., 29 ; Judg. 
iv., 11.] 

Holy, Holiness. The same Greek word, 
in the N. T., is translated holiness and sauc- 
tification. It is derived from a verb sig- 
nifying to cleanse, and this is the original 
meaning of the word as used in the N. T. 
That is holy which is clean and pure from 
all taint of sin. Holiness is thus attributed 
to God, and to his angels, and is set before 
the believer as the state to which he is call- 
ed, and which, through the redeeming blood 
of Christ, the sanctifying power of the Holy 
Spirit, and the discipline of life, he is to at- 
tain. It is also used in a secondary sense of 
things dedicated or set apart to a sacred use, 
and which, by the consecration, are supposed 
to be purified and prepared for God's service. 
It is thus employed in relation to the Sab- 
bath, the ark of the covenant, the furniture 
of the Tabernacle and the Temple, and the 
Temple itself, especially the inner part. The 
word is also used in Acts iii., 12, to translate 
another word, more properly translated god- 
liness (q. v.).^ In Luke i., 75, and Eph. iv., 
24, still another Greek word is used, signify- 
ing, says Dr. Robinson, "careful observance 
of all duties toward God." The term holy 
is now employed in combination with many 
other words, some of the principal of whicli 
we give. For others, treated of in separate 
articles, the reader is referred to the Index. 
— Holy Alliance, a league entered into 
by all the sovereigns of Europe except the 
pope and the King of England, in 1815, orig- 
inating Math Alexander of Russia, for the 
maintenance of religion, peace, and justice. 
It was soon perverted, however, into an in- 
strument of tyranny and oppression. — Holt 
Catholic Church, a phrase used in the 
Apostles' Creed to indicate, not a visible ec- 
clesiastical organization, but the "congrega- 
tion of faithful men dispersed throughout 
the whole world." It expresses in respect to 
1 See Pekfection ; Sanctifigation. 



HOLY GHOST 



434 



HOMILY, HOMILETICS 



religious fellowship an idea somewhat anal- 
ogous to that expressed in respect to literary- 
fellowship by the phrase " republic of let- 
ters." — Holy-Cross Day, the fourteenth of 
September, observed by the Greek and Ro- 
man churches as a festival in memory of the 
exaltation of Christ's cross. — Holy Days, 
certain days set apart in commemoration of 
certain persons or events. They are not ordi- 
narily observed among the reformed church- 
es, except by Lutherans and Episcopalians. 
— Holy Family, a name given in the lan- 
guage of art to various pictorial representa- 
tions of the Virgin Mary, the Infant Jesus, 
and his attendants. — Holy Fridays, Fridays 
in Ember- Weeks (q. v.). — Holy Innocents, 
a festival observed in commemoration of the 
slaughter of the infant children by Herod. ^ 
■ — Holy League, the name given to an of- 
fensive and defensive alliance contracted be- 
tween the Guises in France, Spain, and the 
l)ope, in 1576, the object of which was the 
overthrow of the Huguenots in France. — 
Holy Rood, the cross erected in the Church ; 
hence, Holy-Rood Day for Holy-Cross Day. 
— Holy Thursday, a day observed in some 
churches in commemoration of our Lord's 
ascension ; called also Maundy Thursday. — 
Holy Water, in the Greek and Romish 
churches, water blessed by the priest or bish- 
op for religious uses. In the latter church 
it is employed for the sprinkling of persons 
on entering or leaving the church, in sprink- 
ling books, bells, etc., and is frequently ta- 
ken home for its supposed virtuous effects.^ — 
Holy Week, the week before Easter, espe- 
cially devoted to commemorating the suf- 
ferings and death of Christ. It is observed 
with great pomp in the Romish Church, es- 
pecially in the city of Rome. All instru- 
mental music is suspended in the churches, 
the altars are stripped of their usual orna- 
ments, and each day has its especial service 
and ceremonies supposed appropriate to the 
days preceding the crucifixion and resurrec- 
tion of our Lord. It is also called Passion 
Week, from our Lord's sufferings and passion 
on the cross. 

Holy Ghost. The Scripture makes fre- 
quent references to a Holy Spirit, or Holy 
Ghost. Both words are used. Ghost being the 
Anglo-Saxon and Spirit the Latin form of 
the same word, both meaning breath. These 
references, as any reader may satisfy himself 
by a casual glancing over a concordance, are 
such as to leave no doubt of the divine char- 
acter of the being referred to. The divinity 
of the Holy Ghost is, therefore, never denied 
by those who accept the Scriptures as the 
Word of God. Those who deny the doctrine 
of the Trinity and the proper deity of Jesus 
Christ do not call in question the divine 
character of the Holy Spirit. Nor do they 
doubt the influence of the Holy Spirit on 
the hearts of men in converting, comforting, 
1 Matt, ii., 16.-2^ See Bavtism. 



sustaining, etc. " The Holy Spirit," says a 
representative Unitarian divine,^ " is a spir- 
it of life, lifts one above the flesh, makes one 
feel that he is a Son of God, communicates a 
variety of gifts, produces unity in the Church, 
sanctifies, sheds the love of God into the 
heart, and renews the soul." The real and 
only important question respecting the Holy 
Ghost is that regarding his personality. On 
this subject there are two conflicting theo- 
logical opinions. The Unitarians regard the 

I Holy Ghost as a term employed simply to 
signify the influence of the Deity on the 
minds of his servants — an influence proceed- 
ing from the Father and the Son, and dwell- 
ing in the hearts of believers, as the source 
of their spiritual life. The Trinitarians, on 
the other hand, maintain not only the divin- 
ity, but also the distinct personality, of the 

[ Holy Ghost, insisting that the language em- 

j ployed indicates not merely a divine influ- 
ence, but a true person, distinct from the 
Father and the Son, though mysteriously 
united with them in one God ,' and they cite 
in support of this doctrine the following 
among other texts : Matt, xxviii., 19 ; John 
xiv., 16, 17, 26 ; xv., 26 ; Acts xiii., 2, 4 ; xx., 
28 ; xxi., 11 ; Rom. xv., 13 ; 1 Cor. ii., 10 ; xii.^ 
4-11 ; 2 Cor. xiii., 14. From these and sim- 
ilar passages they deduce the doctrine of the 
Holy Ghost as it is held by all evangelical 
churches — ^the doctrine that he is a distinct 
person from the Father and the Son ; that, 

I proceeding from them both, he carries on 
the work of grace commenced by and through 
Jesus Christ, converting sinners, and com- 
forting, strengthening, sustaining, and sanc- 
tifying, and ultimately saving, all who re- 
ceive and submit to his gracious influences. 
On the theological question whether he pro- 
ceeds from the Father only, or from the Fa- 
ther and the Son, see Filio-que and Greek 
Church. See also Trinitarians and Uni- 
tarians. 

Homily, Homiletics. The term homily 
(discourse) was given to the sermons of the 
early Church. They were usually more dis- 
tinctively expositions of the sacred text than 
modern sermons. Hence the word is now 
used to signify expository sermons — i. e., ser- 
mons which do not so much unfold and ap- 
ply a particular truth, as interpret and ap- 

1 ply a particular passage of Scripture. The 

j homilies of some of the ancient fathers are 
preserved, and constitute a valuable spiritu- 

1 al commentary on the Bible. Books of hom- 
ily were drawn up at the Reformation, at- 
tributed generally to Cranmer, Ridley, and 
Latimer. They were read in the churches, 
whenever necessary, in lieu of a sermon. 
The term homiletics is derived from the word 
homily. It signifies that branch of theolog- 
ical teaching which instructs in the art of 
composing sermons. See Preaching. 



1 James Freeman Clarke, in " Orthodoxy : Its Truths 
and Errors." 



HOMO-OUSIAN, HOMOI-OUSIAN 435 



HOR 



Homo-ousian, Homoi-ousian, two Greek 
words, signifying — the first, the satne essence; 
the second, similar essence. It was for a long 
time a matter of bitter controversy in the 
Church which of these two terms should be 
employed in describing the nature of the 
Son of God. A great deal of ridicule has 
been cast upon this controversy, which seem- 
ed to turn upon the employment of a single 
letter ; and modern theologians would gen- 
erally concede that the controversy was 
upon a subject which can not be so fully 
comprehended nor so accurately defined as 
the fathers supposed. Nevertheless, the 
question at issue was a serious and impor- 
tant one, sirrce upon its determination de- 
pended the degree of honor which should be 
accorded by the Church to Jesus Christ. 

Hook, Hooks. The word frequently oc- 
curs in Scripture as the translation of various 
Hebrew terms. There were hooks, or pins, 
fronoi which the curtains of the Tabernacle 
were suspended ; flesh - hooks, with which 
flesh was taken from the pot ; hooks, or rath- 
er rings, sometimes put through the noses of 
wild beasts, or even captives, by which to 
lead them; andhooks used for fishing. [Exod. 



man's inability is moral, not natural ; that 
the doings of the unregenerate are not ac- 
ceptable to God ; that the divine sovereignty 
is absolute, and yet the duty of immediate 
repentance on the part of the sinner is none 
the less clear and urgent ; that man is act- 
ive, not passive, in regeneration; and that 
while believers are justified by the righteous- 
ness of Christ, it is not in a proper sense 
transferred to them. As a distinct system, 
Hopkinsianism no longer exists, but it re- 
appears, in its various parts, in many schemes 
of modern theology. 

Hor (mountain), a mountain in Arabia Pe- 
trea, the scene of Aaron's death,^ and the 
south-eastern boundary of the promised 
land.'^ There is scarcely any doubt of the 
correctness of the tradition which identifies 
the mountain now called Gebel Haroun with 
the ancient Hor. Its summit is five thou- 
sand three hundred feet above the Mediterra- 
nean, and consists of two peaks, which give 
it a castellated appearance, as seen from 
Wady Arabah. The higher and western of 
these is covered by a mosque, built over a 
vault, which according to tradition is the 
tomb of the high-priest. The traveler who, 




View of Mount Hor, \Mth Aaion s Tomb. 



xxvi., 33, 37; xxvii,, 3 ; Numb, iv., 14 ; 1 Sam. 
ii., 13, 14; 2 Kings xix., 28; Ezek. xxix., 4; 
Job xli., 2.] 

Hopkinsianism, a name given to a pe- 
culiar form of CaUdnistic theology, of which 
Dr. Samuel Hopkins, of New England, a.d. 
1721-1803, was the most distinguished rep- 
resentative. He maintained that all real 
holiness consists in disinterested benevo- 
lence, all sin in selfishness; that sin, under 
the divine government, is so overruled as 
to be an advantasre to the universe: that 



from the flat roof of this building, looks over 
the last prospect upon which Aaron's eye 
rested can not fail to be struck with the 
contrast between this and the last view of 
his brother Moses from the heights of Pis- 
gah. Before the latter was the rich plain of 
the Jordan, well watered, and covered with 
waving palms and rich corn-fields, with the 



1 Numb. XX., 2T, 28. The statement in Deuf. x., G, that 
he died at Mosera, refers to the encampment of Israel 
whence he ascended the mountain. — 2 Nnmb. xxxiv., 

T,8. 



HORITE 



436 



HORSE 



heights of Benjamin beyond ; while to the 
north the rich mountains of Gilead must have 
assured him how goodly was the promised 
heritage which he would behold, but should 
not enter. Aaron, on the other hand, in his 
last moments, can only have dwelt upon the 
chalky hills of Seir, with the sandstone rocks 
surrounding Petra beneath him, or upon the 
dreary wastes of Wady Arabah — fit speci- 
mens of that vast and howling wilderness in 
which his later years had been spent ; while 
his eye in vain would seek to pierce that line 
of northern hills which divided him from the 
promised land. The summit of Mount Hor 
is of white chalk — lower down, the mountain 
is of the new red sandstone, often penetrated 
by longitudinal strata of red granite and 
porphyry. The ascent is not difficult, a path 
having been constructed for the use of pil- 
grims. 

Horite. A Horite was, properly, what the 
ancients called a Trogiodite — an inhabitant 
of caves, instead of houses ; but the name 
appears to have been specially appropriated 
to the earlier occupants of Mount Seir, who 
were peculiarly distinguished for that mode 
of life. They were smitten by Chedorlaomer 
and his confederates, and afterward entire- 
ly dispossessed by the descendants of Esau ; 
and it is probably their descendants who are 
described in Job xxx., 1-8. Their genealo- 
gy is given in Gen. xxxvi., 20-30 ; 1 Chron. 
i., 38-42 ; but nothing further is recorded of 
them. They are probably designated more 
according to their mode of life than their 
specific race. [Gen. xiv., 6 ; Deut. ii., 12, 22.] 

Honnah {place desolated), the city of a Ca- 
naanitish king who attacked the Israelites ; 
on which they vowed that if they succeeded 
in defeating their assailants, they would ut- 
terly destroy the city. It had before been 
called Zephath ;^ but it had at once, as a 
doomed place, the name Hormah given it, 
though the vow does not seem to have been 
accomplished till a later period. Hormah 
lay somewhere to the south or desert side of 
the mountain range which forms the south- 
ern border of the land of Canaan ; but its 
exact site is not known, [i^umb. xiv., 45 ; 
xxi., 1-3 ; Deut. i., 44 ; Josh, xii., 14 ; xv., 30 ; 
xix., 4.] 

Hornet. The Hebrew name for this in- 
sect implied striking, i. e., when it stings. In 
Scripture the hornet is referred to only as 
the means which Jehovah employed for the 
extirpation of the Canaanites. Some com- 
mentators regard the word as used in its lit- 
eral sense. Certainly an insect so formida- 
ble might have been sent upon those coun- 
tries in such numbers as to actually drive out 
the inhabitants. It is almost certain, how- 
ever, that such a series of miracles — far ex- 
ceeding the insect plagues of Egypt — Avould 
have been described and frequently referred 
to in the subsequent books of Scripture. It 
1 Jud-. i., li. 



seems more probable that the word express- 
es, under a vivid image, the consternation 
with which Jehovah inspired the enemies 
of the Israelites. That hornets abounded in 
some parts of Palestine is clear from the fact 
that there was a place called Zoreah — i. e., 
" the place of hornets." [Exod. xxiii., 28 ; 
Deut. A'ii., 20 ; Josh, xxiv., 12; xv., 33.] 

Horns. The principal instruments of de- 
fense in many animals being their horns, the 
horn is often used as a symbol of power. 
Thus in the O. T. we find such expressions as 
"the Lord exalting the horn of David," and 
"breaking the horn of the ungodly." Horns 
are also referred to in Scripture as the sym- 
bols of royal dignity and authority.^ In Ju- 
dea, in Persia, in China, and even among the 
Eed Indians of North America, horns have 
been used as a symbol of power; and the 
heathen adorned the pictures and statues of 
their gods with horns. 

Horse. The most striking feature in the 
Biblical notices of the horse is the exclusive 
employment of it in military operations. In 
no instance is it referred to as employed for 
the purposes of ordinary locomotion or agri- 
culture, if we except one passage in Isaiah,^ 
which seems to imply that horses (English 
version," horsemen") were employed in thresh- 
ing — ^not, however, in that case, put in har- 
ness, but simply driven about loosely over 
the strewed grain. The animated descrip- 
tion of the horse in Job applies solely to the 
war-horse. The bride is described as ad- 
vancing, with her charms, to an immediate 
conquest, " as a comxDany of horses in Phara- 
oh's chariots ;" and when the prophet Zech- 
ariah wishes to convey the idea of perfect 
peace, he represents the horse, no more mix- 
ing in the fray as before, but bearing on his 
bell (which was intended to strike terror 
into the foe) the peaceable inscription, " Ho- 
liness unto the Lord."^ The characteristic 
of the horse of Scripture is not so much his 
speed or his utility, but his strength.'* The 
Hebrew terms for the horse are usually sils 
and pdrdsli. The former is the general name ; 
but it also refers specially to draught horses 
used for drawing the war chariots, as the 
latter does to horses for riding, and partic- 
ularly for cavalry. This distinction is not 
observed in the English Bible. Pdrdsh also 
signifies " horseman." 

The Hebrews in the patriarchal age, as a 
pastoral race, did not need the services of 
the horse ; and for a long period after their 
settlement in Canaan they dispensed with 
it, partly in consequence of the hilly nature 
of the country, which admitted of the use 
of chariots only in certain localities, and 
partly because of the prohibition against 
" multiplying horses," which would be held 
to apply at all periods. Accordingly, they 

1 Jer. xlviii., 25; Zech. i.. 18. —2 I^a. xxviii., 28.— 
3 Job xxxix., 19-25: Sol. Sonjr i., 0; Zech. xiv., 20.— 
* Psa. xxxiii., 17: Jer. viii., 10; xlvii., 3. 



HOESE 



437 



HOSEA 



hamstrung the horses of the Canaanites/ 
David first established a force of cavalry 
and chariots, after the defeat of Hadadezer. 
Shortly after this, Absalom possessed some ; 
but the great supply of horses was effect- 



however, it is constantly followed by serv- 
ants belonging to the sacrificer. The year 
having expired, it is caught, and sacrificed 
amidst magnificent ceremonies. The gods to 
whom these sacrifices are offered are Brah- 



ed by Solomon through his connection with | ma, Vishnu, Siva, and the ten guardian dei- 
Egypt. He is reported to have had " 40,000 ! ties of the earth. 



stalls of horses for his chariots, and 12,000 
horsemen."^ But the number of his char- 
iots stated in two passages is only 1400;^ 
and if we allow three horses for each char- 
iot, two in use and one in reserve, as was 
usual in some countries, the number required 



Horse-leech (Heb., aluTcah). There is lit- 
tle doubt that this word has been correctly 
translated. It occurs only once in Scripture. 
Our version is weakened by the insertion of 
" crji.ng." " Give, give," are the two daugh- 
ters. Leeches are very common in Pales- 




would be only 4200, or, in round numbers, I tine, and infest the rivers to such an extent 
4000, as stated in 2 Chron. ix., 25 ; and this j that they enter the nostrils of animals which 
is thought by the best scholars to be the ■ come to drink, and cause great annoyance, 
correct reading. The Assyrian horses were j and even danger. Persons passing through 

the river are also at- 
tacked by them, and 
those having delicate 
skin suffer greatly. 
Hence the leech be- 
came an emblem of 
rapacity and cruelty. 
[Prov. XXX., 15.] 

Hosanna is com- 
posed of two Hebrew 
words occurring in 
Psalm cxviii., 25, and 
translated save now. It 
is a form of acclama- 
tion, and was employ- 
ed on Christ's entrance 
into Jerusalem. It oc- 
curs in our English 
version in Matt, xxi., 
9, 15 ; Mark xi., 9, 10 ; 
John xii., 13. Psalm 
cxviii. was sung on 
joyful occasions, and 
particularly at the Feast of Tabernacles, 
which was the solemnity observed with the 
greatest demonstrations of joy. Verses 25 
and 26 were sung with loud acclamation: 
hence the feast itself was sometimes called 
the Hosanna. The early Christian Church 
adopted this word into its worship. It is 
found in the apostolical constitution con- 
nected with the great doxology, and was 
frequently used in the communion service, 
during which the great doxology was sung. 
Hosea (salvation) is the first of the mi- 
nor prophets, as they appear in our version, 
but more probably the third in order of 
time. The title of the book gives for the 
beginning of his ministry the reign of Uz- 
ziah, king of Judah, but limits this vague 
definition by reference to Jeroboam II., king 
of Israel ; it therefore yields a date not later 
than B.C. 781. The pictures of social and po- 
litical life which Hosea draws so forcibly are 
rather applicable to the interregnum which 
followed the death of Jeroboam (B.C. 781- 
773), and to the reign of the succeeding 
kings. It seems almost certain that very 



(Khorsabad.) 



Groom leading Horses. 

highly bred, as the ancient sculptures still 
testify, and fully merited the praise bestow- 
ed on them by Habakkuk, " Swifter than 
leopards," and " more fierce than evening 
wolves."* 

With regard to the trappings and manage- 
ment of the horse, we have little informa- 
tion ; the bridle was placed over the horse's 
nose, and a bit, or curb, is also noticed ; in 
the English Bible it is incorrectly given 
" bridle." Saddles were not used, only a 
cloth, or, afterward, a pad. Nor were horses 
shod ; hence it was desirable that their hoofs 
should be hard. The harness of Assyrian 
and Persian horses was profusely decorated.^ 

At a very ancient period horse-sacrifice ap- 
pears to have been practiced in some coun- 
tries, and at this day is one of the great an- 
nual ceremonies of the Hindoos. The horse 
chosen for this ceremony is generally white, 
young, and well formed. After having been 
devoted for sacrifice, it is allowed to run at 
liberty for a whole year ; during that time, 



1 2 Sam. viii.. 4.-2 1 Kin^s iv., 26.-3 1 Kings x., 26 ; 
2 Chron. i., 14.— * Hab. i., S.— ^ Psa. xxxil., 9 ; Isa. v., 
2S; XXX., 28. 



few of his prophecies were written until af- 



HOSHEA 



438 



HOSPITALS 



ter the death of Jeroboam, and probably the 
life or prophetic career of Hosea extended 
from B.C. 782-723, a period of fifty-nine years. 

The place of his ministry has been a mat- 
ter of great doubt. That he exercised the 
prophetic office in Israel, and was born there, 
is the general opinion of most modern schol- 
ars. He shows undeniable familiarity with 
localities in the territory of Ephraim,^ and 
his diction partakes of the roughness and 
Aramean coloring of the Northern Palestine 
writers. He was the son of Beeri, and mar- 
ried Gomer, the daughter of Diblaim.^ The 
latter statement, coupled with the declara- 
tion that she was a "wife of whoredoms," 
has given rise to great perplexity and differ- 
ent interpretations. By some writers it is 
figuratively interpreted as a parable. Per- 
haps Stanley's hypothetical explanation is 
the best that has been suggested, as it tal- 
lies with the spirit of Hosea's prophecies. 
"In his own personal history," says Dean 
Stanley,^ " he shared in the misery brought 
on his country by the profligacy of the age. 
In early youth he had been united in mar- 
riage with a woman who had fallen into the 
vices which surrounded her. He had loved 
her with a tender love ; she had borne to 
him two sons and a daughter ; she had then 
deserted him, wandered from her home, fall- 
en again into wild licentiousness, and been 
carried off as a slave. From this wretched 
state, with all the tenderness of his nature, 
he bought her, and gave her one more chance 
of recovery by living with him, though 
apart.* No one who has observed the man- 
ner in which individual experience often 
colors the general religious doctrine of a 
, gifted teacher, can be surprised at the close 
connection whi^ exists between the life of 
Hosea and tjajpmission to which he was call- 
ed. In hy^vn grief for his own great ca- 
lamity— ;«& greatest that can befall a ten- 
der husam. soul — he was taught to feel for 
the d^ne grief over the lost opportunities 
of tl/e nation once so full of hope. But in 
his^own love, no less, he was taught to see, 
fijst of any of the prophets of the Old Dis- 
pensation, the power of the forgiving love of 
God." 

Hoshea or Hosea (deliverance, salvation), 
the nineteenth and last King of Israel. He 
succeeded Pekah, whom he slew in a con- 
spiracy, thus fulfilling a prophecy of Isaiah.^ 
There is a difficulty in the chronology of his 
reign, and it is supposed there was an inter- 
regnum of at least eight years before Hoshea 
came to the throne, which was not till B.C. 
730. His ill-gotten kingdom was not long re- 
tained. In the third year of his reign he be- 
came tributary to Shalmaueser (q. v.), king 
. of Assyria.® This continued for three years, 
when Hoshea entered into a secret but un- 



1 Hos. iv., 15, 17 ; v., 8, 11 ; vii., 1.— 2 Hos. i., 1-3.— 
3 Jewish Ch., vol. ii.. p. 409.—* Hos. i., 3 ; iii., 1.— ^ Isa. 
vii., 16.— 8 2 Kiugs xvii., 3. 



successful alliance with So, king of Egypt,* 
to throw ofi^ the Assyrian yoke. So, however, 
appears to have rendered him no real assist- 
ance. Hoshea was seized by Shalmaneser as 
a rebellious vassal, shut up in prison, and dis- 
appeared as " foam upon the waters."^ Noth- 
ing more is known of him. The siege of Sa- 
maria followed. Without their king, the 
people stood at bay three years.^ As the end 
drew near, they gave themselves up to the 
frantic revelings of despair. At last the 
city was stormed. With the ferocity com- 
mon to all the warfare of those times, the 
infants were hurled down the rocky sides of 
the hill on which the city stood, or destroy- 
ed in their mothers' bosoms.* Famine and 
pestilence completed the work of war.^- The 
stones of the ruined city were poured down 
into the rich valley below, and the founda- 
tions were laid bare.'' Palace and hovel 
alike fell ;^ the statues were broken to 
pieces f the crown of pride, the glory of 
Ephraim, was trodden under foot.^ The ten 
tribes which constituted the kingdom of Is- 
rael were carried away captive, and scat- 
tered among the cities of Assyria, and a 
new and heathen population was brought in 
"from Babylon, and from Cuthah, and from 
Ava, and from Hamath, and from Sephar- 
vaim," to take their place. This catastrophe 
took place B.C. 721, and was the end of the 
kingdom of Israel. See Sajviaeia. [2 Kings 
XV., 30; xvii., 1-24.] 

Hospice, the name given to the establish- 
ments kept by monks on some of the Alpine 
passes, for the purpose of giving shelter and 
assistance to travelers. They were origi- 
nally designed, probably, for the benefit of 
pilgrims to Eome, but are now used by trav- 
elers generally. The oldest hospice is on the 
Great St. Bernard Pass. It was founded by 
Bernard in the year 962, and taken possession 
of by the priests of the Canton of Valois in 
1825. 

Hospitals, so called from the mediaeval 
Jiospitia, are now generally understood to be 
establishments intended for the reception 
of the poor, the sick, or the infirm, where 
their spiritual and temporal wants are gratu- 
itously ministered to. Though various pro- 
visions were made for the poor among the 
Greeks and Romans, and public largesses 
were distributed in many ways, hospitals 
were unknown. The early Christians fed, 
not only their own poor, but also those of 
the heathen. As soon they were free to prac- 
tice their religion openly, they commenced 
building charitable institutions, to which 
they gave various names, according to the 
character of their inmates: thus they had 
the Brephotrophium, or infant asylum ; the 
OrphanotropMum, or orphan asylum ; the No- 



1 Either Sabacho, or Sebecho, of profane historj'.— 
2 Hos. X., 7.-3 2 Kinsjs xvii., 5; xviii., 10.—* Hos. x., 
14; xiii., 16.— ^ Amos vi., 9, 10.— « Mic. i., 6.—''' Amos 
vi., 11.— « Mic. i., 7.-9 Isa. xxviii., 3. 



HOUR 



439 



HOUSE 



socomium, or sick hospital ; the Xenodochium, 
or retreat for strangers, more particularly 
pilgrims. The latter was properly the hos- 
pital, or house of hospitality ; and in monas- 
teries, that part which was reserved for the 
accommodation of visitors, and was divided 
into sections, according to the classes of soci- 
ety to which the visitors belonged, was also 
called by this name. These hospitals were 
soon found in all the large cities. They were 
generally in charge of the clergy, though 
rich laymen would occasionally erect hospi- 
tals also, and wait on their inmates them- 
selves. The bishops were careful to have 
the poor properly buried, ransomed the pris- 
oners of war, and often emancipated slaves. 
They often went so far as to sell the com- 
munion service, or the altar ornaments, to 
raise the means of accomplishing these char- 
itable objects. One of the most famous of 
these institutions was founded at Csesarea, 
in the latter half of the fourth century. 
The next notable institution was that of 
St. Chrysostom, built at his own expense, at 
Constantinople. The inmates of the hospi- 
tals in the early Church were classified ac- 
cording to sex. The men were placed under 
the charge of a deacon, and the women un- 
der the care of the deaconesses. It was a 
rule for the deacons and deaconesses to seek 
for the unfortunate day by day, and to in- 
form the bishops, who in turn, accompanied 
by a priest, visited the sick and needy of all 
classes. The true hospital — the Nosocomium 
— was under the direct care of the bishop 
himself, and was, until the Middle Ages, oft- 
entimes placed near his dwelling. They con- 
sisted of a number of small cottages, each 
intended for a certain malady. At the pres- 
ent day, no civilized country is without its 
hospitals, either endowed and supported by 
the Government or by private charity. The 
Protestant Church of Germany has institu- 
tions of deaconesses, who especially devote 
themselves to the care of the sick in hospi- 
tals ; and from Germany these institutions 
have spread to many other countries. Spe- 
cial schools for the training of nurses in hos- 
pitals have been recently established abroad, 
and are being established here. 

Hour. The ancient Hebrews were prob- 
ably unacquainted with the division of the 
natural day into twenty -four parts, but par- 
celed out the period between sunrise and 
sunset into a series of divisions distinguish- 
ed by the sun's course. The early Jews ap- 
pear to have divided the day into four parts, 
and the night into three watches (q. v.). In 
Matt. XX., 1-5, we find a trace of this divis- 
ion. The Greeks adopted from the Baby- 
lonians the division of the day into twelve 
hours. At what period the Jews became 
first acquainted with this way of reckoning 
time is unknown, but it is generally sup- 
posed that they, too, learned it from the Bab- 
ylonians during the Captivity. The word 



held to mean hour is first found in Dan. iii., 
6, 15 ; v., 5. la whatever way this division of 
time originated, it was known at a very ear- 
ly period to the Egyptians, who had twelve 
hours of the day and of the night. There 
are two kinds of hours, the astronomical, or 
equinoctial, hour — L e., the twenty -fourth 
part of a civil day ; and the natural hour — 
L e., the twelfth part of the natural day, or 
of the time between sunrise and sunset. In 
our Lord's time the day was divided into 
these natural hours, which varied in length 
according to the season of the year. Gen- 
erally, however, we may say that the third 
hour corresponded with our 9 a.m., the sixth 
with our noon, the ninth with our 3 p.m. 
For the purpose of prayer, the old division 
of the day into four portions was continued 
in the Temple-service, as we see from Acts 
ii., 15 ; iii., 1 ; x., 9. [ Judg. vii., 19 ; Neh. 
ix., 3; John xL, 9.] 

House. This word, in the Bible, signifies 
a dwelling-place in general, or parts of such 
dwelling, whether the palace of a king, the 
temple of a god, the abode of men, or even 
that of cattle ; and in a figurative way it is 
put for a man's family, kindred, people, or 
posterity. From the very first the house was 
known to men, and is contrasted in Scrip- 
ture with ^'tent," as indicative of that which 
is permanent, in opposition to that which 
is movable.^ The Hebrews did not become 
dwellers in cities — i. e., permanent habita- 
tions — till the sojourn in Egypt ; while the 
Canaanites, as well as the Assyrians, were 
from an earlier period builders and inhabit- 
ants of cities ; and it was into their land of 
great and goodly cities, and houses full of all 
good things, the Hebrews entered after ihe 
conquest.^ The dwellings of the Assyrians 
and Babylonians have altogether perished ; 
but some of the massive dwellings of Bashau 
are still existing, little altered, it would seem, 
from what they were when the victorious 
tribes took possession of them.^ A compar- 
ison of the houses depicted on ancient mon- 
uments, and the ancient buildings of Egypt, 
with the Eastern dwellings of the present 
day, renders it probable that the houses of 
the ancient Israelites differed little frouj 
those inhabited by modern Oriental nations. 
Such a comparison affords the most satisfac- 
tory means of illustrating the house of the 
Bible. 

The houses of the poor were commonly 
rude huts of a single story, often comprising 
but a single apartment, shared by the cattle, 
with the family, the latter sometimes ele- 
vated upon a kind of platform. But occa- 
sionally a narrow court for the cattle was 
attached. The windows were small holes, 
perhaps with wooden bars, high up in the 
wall. The roofs, of hardened mud, were usu- 



1 Gen. iv., 7, 17-20; 2 Sam. vii., 5-7.-2 Gen. x., 11, 
19 ; xix., 3 ; xxiii., 10 ; xxiv., 20 ; Nnmb. xi., 27 ; Deut. 
vi., 10, 11.— 3 See Aegob; Bashan ; Cities. 



HOUSE 



440 



HOUSE 



iiUy flat, and were common sleeping-places in 
summer. The materials of such tenements 
were mud, or sun-dried brick; they were 
therefore easily swept away by violent rains 




An Arab House. 

or winds.^ Caves, too, were, and still are, 
frequently occupied as dwellings. The ma- 
terials of the better class of houses were stone 
— sometimes of such costly kinds as marble, 
X)orphyry, and granite — carefully squared, 
paneled, and fitted. These were sometimes 
fastened together with iron clamps or lead, 
and were cemented with clay, or mortar 
composed of lime, ashes, and sand, straw 




iiouse iu Cairo. 



being sometimes added. Inferior materials, 
and want of proper mixing, would make this 
mortar liable to crumble in rainy weather.^ 
Brick and other materials were used, besides 
1 Job XV., 28; Matt, vii., 26, 2T.— 2 Ezek. xiii., 10-15. 



stone, for building purposes. Wood was too 
scarce in Palestine to be used for the entire 
house. For parts of the house, however, the 
Jews used a variety of timber, of which ce- 
dar, sycamore, olive, 
and fir were the prin- 
1 cipal kinds. The 

^ precious metals, and 

" -_5^=-:^ ivory, were also em- 

"- :^ _^^_ ployed for overlay- 

ing wood-work.^ 

The exterior of an 
Eastern dwelling- 
house has always 
been plain and un- 
attractive. The part 
that looks to the 
street presents only 
dull gray walls, with 
nothing to relieve 
them but the door- 
way leading into the 
court, and two or 
three latticed win- 
dows. The roof is 
commonly flat, has 
never any chimneys, 
and does not over- 
hang the external 
walls. The ground-plan is usually a paral- 
lelogram, or a series of parallelograms, the 
house consisting of one or several courts, 
arranged solely with reference to the con- 
venience of the interior, and regardless of 
external appearance, though the result is 
highly picturesque. The court is one of the 
great characteristics of the Eastern house. 
Even the meanest dwelling has something 
of the kind;^ three courts are not uncom- 




G--^» 



jlrea' or 



Plan of an Eastern House. 

a. Doors. B. Porch. C. Harem, or room for women. 
D. Other rooms, for the familj--. E. Galleries, or walks 
between the court aud rooms. F. Stairs to the sec- 
ond story, or to the roof. 

mon; and as many as seven are found in 
very fine houses. A passage from the outer 
door, which is attended to by the porter, 
leads directly into the court. The principal 



1 Exod. xxvi., 15; 1 Kin^s vi., 15, 16, 32-35; vii., 8, 
12 ; x., 12 ; xxii., 39 : Sol. Song i., 17 ; Isa. ix., 10 ; Jer. 
xxii., 14; Amos iii., 15.-2 2 Sam. xvii., 18 ; Neh. viii., 
16. 



HOUSE 



441 



HOUSE 




Modern Syrian House. Court, with Apartment beyond. 

apartments look into this court, and some 
of them are open to it. On its pavement 
carpets are spread on festive occasions ; and 
in the summer season, or when a large com- 
pany is to be received, the court is usually 
sheltered from the heat and inclemency of 
the weather by a curtain, or awning, which, 
being expanded upon ropes from wall to 
wall, may be folded or unfolded at pleasure. 
To this the Psalmist may refer when in Psalm 
civ., 2, he speaks of God as spreading out the 
heavens like a curtain. In the court there 
is often a fountain of water ; occasionally 
there are trees ; and in some houses the 
court is laid out in beautiful gardens. 
Thus the olive, or the palm, planted in the 
court, and carefully tended, represents the 
righteous planted in the house of the Lord, 
and flourishing in his courts. And as the 
court, crowded with its happy inmates, and 
beautifully kept, was the sign of national 
prosperity, so the court desolate and for- 
saken, where the thorns come up, and the 
nettles and brambles flourish, the habitation 
of jackals and owls, is the sign of national 
decay.^ A verandah, or covered gallery, gen- 
erally runs round tlie front of the house with- 
in the court, access to which is had by means 
of stairs. The stairs are 
frequently placed in the 
comer of the court, and 
sometimes at the en- 
trance. In large houses 
there are often two or 
more sets of steps from 
the court ; but there is 
seldom more than one 
from the gallery to the 
roof. They are usually 
of simple structure, and 
of stone or wood. A dif- 
ferent kind of stairs men- 
tioned in 1 Kings vi., 8, 
seems to have been of a more complicated 
kind, and was probably within the build- 
ing. But these outer stairs are those com- 
monly used, and one can easily understand 
the facility with which, by means of them, 
Ehud could escape after he had killed Eglon, 
1 Isa. xxxiv., 13. 



and how readily the bearers 
of the sick man could bring 
him to the roof of the dwell- 
ing-house.^ At the side of 
the court opposite to the en- 
trance is the public reception- 
room, where all male visitors 
are received by the master of 
the house. It is often open in 
front, has a raised terrace or 
platform, and is richly fitted 
up with sofas — "the divan " — 
round three sides, and has a 
fountain in the centre. Each 
guest takes off his shoes before 
stepping on the raised plat- 
form of the apartment. The divan serves for 
a seat by day and a bed by night. It was in 
such a room, in the palace of the high-priest, 
that Christ was examined, whence he could 
look down upon Peter warming himself at 




Interior of a House (Harera) in Damascus. 

the fire in the court.'^ Besides the reception- 
room, there is sometimes a second room, call- 
ed Tea-all, either on the ground or the upper 
floor, also fitted with divans; and at the 
corners of these rooms, portions taken off' 
and inclosed form retiring-rooms. When 
there is an upper story, the ka-ali forms the 




House with an 'Alliyeh. 

most important apartment, and constitutes 
what is called in the Bible the " guest-cham- 
ber."^ The windows of the upper rooms 
often project one or two feet, forming lat- 



1 Judg. iii., 15-26 ; Mark ii., 4 ; Luke v., 18, 19.- 
2 Luke xxii., 61.— 3 Luke xxii., 12 ; Acts i., 13 ; ix., 37 ; 
XX., S, 9. 



HOUSE 



442 



HOUSE 




Terrace with Koof. 

ticed chambers. Sucli may have been the 
" chamber on the T\'all " set apart for Elisha 
by the Shunamite woman, and the " loft " of 
the widow Zarephath ;^ or it may have been 
a room like a tower, built above the roof, 
which are common at the present day. Such 
a room is called an 'aUlyeh. 

When there is but one court, the apart- 
ments for women are in the upper part of 
the house ; if there be two courts, the inner- 
most one is theirs ; if more than two, the 
master occupies the second, and sees there 
those of his family whom he chooses to sum- 
mon from the third court, in which they live. 
The entrance to the second court is usually 
at the corner of the first, by a door and pas- 
sage similar to that from the street into the 
first. The interior, or women's court, is usu- 
ally larger than the first ; it is paved, except 
in the middle, where is a tank for bathing,^ 
and where a few trees and shrubs are plant- 
ed. To the harem, or women's apartment, 
the master aloue, besides the occupants, has 
access. Here he can repose undisturbed ; for 
no man, however intimate a friend, is admit- 
ted. Hebrew women were not subjected to 
the restraint at present customary in the 
East ; nevertheless, we find notices of a spe- 
cially private part of a house — the women's 
apartment — sometimes resorted to as a se- 
cure hiding-place.^ The arrangements of 
the inner court are similar to those of the 
outer. There are galleries or verandahs ; in 
the centre of the principal front, a large open 



1 1 Kinss xvii., 19; 
DOW'.— 2 2 Sam. xi., 2. 
XX., 30; xxii., 25. 



2 Kings iv., 10, 11. See Win- 
-3 Judg. XV., 1 ; 1 Kings vii., 8; 



room, and other 
larger or smaller 
apartments, closed 
usually with cur- 
tains, instead of 
doors. 

The roof is one 
of the most im- 
portant parts of 
an Eastern house. 
It is flat, except 
where domes are 
introduced. Mat- 
ting, twigs, and 
earth are laid upon 
the rafters, trod- 
den down, and 
covered with a 
composition, hard 
when it is dry; but 
it is necessary to 
roll it carefully af- 
ter rain. On such 
roofs weeds fre- 
quently grow, but 
are speedily dried 
up and wither.^ 
Reached by stairs 
from the court, 
the roofs are protected toward the street 
by a wall — toward the court by a balus- 
trade. "^ Many uses were aud are made of 




Latticed Windows of a HoubC in Cairo. 

these roof platforms. Linen and other ar- 
ticles were spread there to dry. They were 
1 Pda. cxxix., 6, 7 ; Isa. xxxvii., 27. 



HUGUENOTS 



443 



HUGUENOTS 



places for private conference or recreation, 
and for sleeping. Booths were erected 
there at the Feast of Tabernacles. In time 
of public calamity lamentations were ut- 
tered there, and public proclamations were 
made from the roof or house-top. Hence 
the instruction to the disciples to proclaim 
from tlie house-top what was spoken to 
them in private. There, too, were private 
prayers made, and sometimes idolatrous rites 
performed.^ 

A few additional particulars may be noted. 
Ceilings (q. v.) were made of cedar, and ar- 
tistically colored. The window (q. v.) was 
closed only with a lattice-work. There were 
no chimneys — that so called was but a hole^ 
— and ordinarily no fires except in a kitchen, 
where, on a kind of brick platform, places 
were provided for cooking. Apartments 
were warmed by fire-pans,^ or fires were kin- 
dled in the court. In larger houses special 
apartments were devoted, as in modern times, 
respectively to winter and summer uses.* 
There were no rooms specially appropriated 
as bedrooms ; and it was common, as at the 
present day, to sleep on the divan in the or- 
dinary apartments. Hence the assassins 
would have easier access to Ish-bosheth.^ 
Sometimes the divan is raised sufficiently to 
allow of secret chambers underneath, for 
stores of all kinds. ^ On the erection of a 
house, it was the custom to dedicate it — a 
custom also observed in Egypt ; and if a 
man had not yet done this, he was free from 
military service.'' Houses for jewels and 
armor were built and furnished under the 
kings.® The ivory house of Ahab^ was prob- 
ably a palace largely ornamented with in- 
laid ivory. The circumstance of Samson's 
destroying the house or temple, by means of 
pulling down the pillars, may be explained 
by the fact of the company being assembled 
on tiers of balconies one above the other, 
supported by central pillars on the base- 
ment; when these were pulled down, the 
whole of the upjier floors would fall also.^° 
See Porch ; Window. 

Huguenots, a name applied to followers of 
Luther and Calvin, who appeared in France 
in the early part of the sixteenth century, 
during the reign of Francis I. The origin of 
the term is uncertain. By some it is sup- 
posed to be derived from one of the gates of 
the city of Tours, called Hugons, near which 
the Protestants held their first meetings; 
others suppose it a corruption of the Ger- 
man eidgenoss (confederates, or associated hy 
oath) ; others still regard it as a diminutive 
from Hugues, a Genevese Calvinist of that 



1 Josh, ii.,6; 1 Sam. ix., 25, 26; 2 Sam. xi., 2; xvi., 
22 ; 2 Kings xxiii., 12 ; Neh. viii., 16 ; Prov. xxi., 9 ; Isa. 
XV., 3; xsii., 1; Jer. xix., 13; xxxii., 29; xlviii., 38; 
Zeph, i., 5; Acts x., 9.-2 Jer. xxii., 14, 15 ; Hag. i., 4 ; 
Hos. xiii., 8.-3 See Heaeth.— * Jer. xxxvi. ; Amos iii., 
15 ; Mark xiv., 54 ; Luke xxii., 55 ; John xviii., 18.— 
5 2 Sam. iv., 5-7.-6 Matt, xxiv., 26.-7 Deut. xx., 5.— 
** 2 Kings XX., 13.— ^ 1 Kings xxii., 39.— i" Judg. xvi., 



period. The protest of the Huguenots com- 
menced with the words Iiug nos, which is 
also by many thought to suggest the origin 
of the term ; and others believe it to be de- 
rived from the custom of this sect of hiding 
in secret places, and appearing at night, as 
the superstitious declared King Hugo, the 
great hobgoblin of France, was accustomed 
to do. 

France was in great need of a religious 
reform before the appearance of the Hugue- 
nots. Although Francis I. had made his 
court the learned centre of Europe, and ex- 
tended liberal patronage to literature and 
art, an utter moral corruption prevailed in 
both Church and State ; and while king and 
court were plunged in profligate pleasures, 
the. common people, degraded and yet suf- 
fering, rude and indolent, found their chief 
recreation in drunkenness and barbarous li- 
cense. Before Luther began to preach, some 
good seed had been sown in French soil by 
Lefevre, Farel, and other kindred spirits ; 
but when the Bible, multiplied by the print- 
ing-presses of Germany, was laid before the 
people, a wonderful religious revolution 
swept over France. The working people, 
almost with one accord, adopted the faith of 
St. Paul. Nor they alone. Learned profess- 
ors supported the principles of reform ; the 
impulse spread among nobles and princes; 
nearly all the house of Bourbon and of Na- 
varre became Huguenots. For centuries the 
Scriptures had been hidden in a dead lan- 
guage, and carefully guarded by the priests 
from the public eye ; and so costly was a Bible, 
that the wealthiest universities and monas- 
teries could scarcely purchase a single copy. 
When the art of printing sprung into sudden 
activity, and great numbers of Bibles were 
scattered among the people, they were eager- 
ly studied, and the divine doctrines were re- 
ceived with undoubting faith. The strange 
discrepancy between the teachings of the 
sacred volume and that of the Church of 
Rome was apparent to every honest mind. 
Even King Francis himself seemed for a mo- 
ment touched and softened, and his sister 
Marguerite became one of the chief sup- 
porters of the Eeformers. More than two 
thousand churches had sprung up in the ap- 
parently uncongenial soil of France. 

The early Huguenots were noted for their 
austere virtues, their truthfulness, their love 
of peace. Their lives were singularly pure ; 
they carried religion into business, and the 
Christian graces blossomed in their homes. 
But France was under an Italian master, and 
it was not permitted to reform itself. The 
fierce anathemas of the pope were hurled 
upon the Huguenots as the enemies of heav- 
en, and a general crusade against them was 
commenced. In 1525, Clement VII. endowed 
the French Inquisition with " apostolic au- 
thority " to try and condemn heretics. Eoy- 
al edicts followed enjoining public officials 



HUGUENOTS 



444 



HUGUENOTS 



to extirpate the Eeformers; every faithful 
adherent of the pope was authorized to be- 
come an assassin. The intrigues of Rome 
aroused to madness the French priests and 
all who believed in them, and the whole 
country was filled with the horrors of a 
bloody and barbarous persecution. The 
Huguenot was cut down at his daily work ; 
his wife and children became the victims of 
papal soldiers ; every enormity was commit- 
ted in the name of the Church. A deadly 
hostility was declared to the Bible. To read 
the Scriptures was the grossest of crimes, 
and was punished with fearful severity. It 
was the favorite employment of zealous 
Catholics to burn the Bible, and thousands 
of copies were destroyed in every part of 




Admiral Coligiiy. 

France. Yet the skillful printers of Ger- 
many and Switzerland poured forth an in- 
cessant stream of French, Dutch, and En- 
glish Bibles, besides great numbers of tracts 
and treatises by eminent reformers. A hun- 
dred thousand copies of Luther's Catechism 
were sold to eager purchasers. The hum- 
ble colporteur, often disguised as a peddler 
of ribbons and trinkets, but laden with Bi- 
bles, Testaments, and Protestant tracts, made 
his way from Antwerp or Geneva into the 
heart of France, and penetrated the homes 
of working-men, and even the castles of 
nobles. The books were bought with ea- 
gerness ; but frequently the daring mission- 
ary was discovered, his little stock of Bibles 
burned, and he himself fearfully tortured 



and put to death. The war between the 
pope and the printers raged violently ; and 
at length, in 1535, the Sorbonne of Paris, the 
council of the Papal faction, obtained a de- 
cree from the king for the total suppression 
of printing. 

Thus more than thirty years of ceaseless 
persecution had passed over the Hugue- 
nots before they resolved to take up arms 
in self-defense. Their pastors had incul- 
cated principles of non-resistance. Calvin 
himself counseled them to meet the barba- 
rism of the Inquisition only with spiritual 
weapons. During this period of suffering 
the Huguenots had continued to increase in 
numbers. They embodied Calvin's ideas of 
Church government in a common confession 
of faith, which was adopted at a 
general synod in May, 1559. Two 
sacraments only were recognized 
— Baptism and the Lord's Sup- 
per. Christ crucified was the cen- 
tre of their faith, their cardinal 
doctrines being justification by 
faith, and Christ the only Media- 
tor with the Father. They had 
gathered so much strength dur- 
ing the reign of Henry II., that 
hopes were entertained by many 
that they might become the domi- 
nant political power. These hopes 
were fostered by the fact that 
some of the royal family — among 
whom were the King of Navarre 
and the Prince of Cond6 — and 
many of the nobility, including 
Chatillon and Admiral Coligny, 
favored the Reformation. Char- 
lotte de Laval, wife of Coligny, in- 
spired that most eminent of Hu- 
guenots with her own heroic zeal ; 
and to Jeanne d'Albret, Queen 
of Navarre, the Huguenots owed 
their best counsels and their sub- 
sequent success; for she educated 
her son Henry IV. to be free in 
thought, tender-hearted, and be- 
nevolent. But priests and brig- 
ands were doing their utmost to 
extirpate the whole sect ; every measure 
was taken to smother religious feeling. 
Congregations were broken up, pastors driv- 
en from France ; music, which had come to 
their aid by the translation of the Psalms 
of David into French verse, was forbid- 
den. Henry II. appeared to care little 
about the doctrines of the reformers while 
they were, in his belief, confined to the 
learned and the well-born ; but when he was 
convinced that they were rapidly spreading 
among the lower classes, he authorized the 
severest measures to be adopted " to purge 
and clear the kingdom of that wretched 
sect." At length the Huguenots, their pa- 
tience exhausted by repeated massacres — 
which we have not the patience to recite 



HUGUENOTS 



445 



HUGUENOTS 



in detail, so dreadful is the tale of cruelty 
and suffering — disregarding the counsels of 
Calvin, and those precepts of the New Testa- 
ment, which had at once governed and sus- 
tained the early Christians under their per- 
secution, rose in arms in self-defense. The 
religious war thus commenced waged with 
terrible violence, the persecuted repaying 
with fearful retaliations the savage deeds of 
their foes. All France was filled with civil 
discord, and the nation sighed for peace. Fre- 
quent truces were made. In 1570, a treaty 
Avas signed by the king at St. Germain, 
granting some liberty to the Protestants. 
Even Catherine de Medicis herself, to whose 
icy heart pity and compassion never came, 
Avould have consented to grant toleration to 
reform, had not the pope and 
the Italian faction, unmoved by 
the horrors of the strife, inces- 
santly demanded the total ex- 
termination of the Huguenots. 
Seeming to resist this demand, 
Catherine granted some liberal 
concessions to the Huguenots, 
on the ground of policy; and 
finally, apparently for the pur- 
l^ose of allaying civil discord and 
perfecting a union between the 
opposing parties, she proposed 
to Jeanne d'Albret and the Hu- 
guenot chiefs to make the paci- 
fication complete and permanent 
by the marriage of her daughter 
Marguerite with young Henry of 
Navarre. The pope expressed 
great opposition to this meas- 
ure ; and even though assured 
by Catherine and her son,Charles 
IX., that the marriage was only 
designed to insure the destruc- 
tion of the detested sect, he re- 
fused a dispensation. With re- 
luctance Jeanne consented to the 
union ; for the sake of the op- 
pressed Huguenots, she suffered 
her son to be betrothed to the 
daughter of her bitterest foe. 
During the summer of 1572, throngs of 
brave reformers went to Paris to witness 
the imposing ceremonies attending the mar- 
riage of Henry and Marguerite — the union 
of the Protestant and the Catholic. Blind- 
ly trusting to the pretended friendship of 
Catheriue, and to the promise of the king, 
they were lured into the very centre of 
their foes. The wedding was celebrated on 
August 18. A scene of merriment followed, 
which ceased only with the dreadful massa- 
cre of St. Bartholomew (q. v.), which com- 
menced on August 24, six days after the de- 
ceitful peace, and continued, with excessive 
atrocities, for three days in Paris, while in 
all parts of the kingdom an effort was made 
to extirpate the reformers. 

The Huguenots, enraged at this massacre, 



and at the treachery which preceded it, arose 
in arms as soon as they recovered from their 
consternation, and France was exposed to 
the very evils which it was designed to j)re- 
vent. Civil war became justifiable in the 
eyes of the reformed party, who were so 
exasperated and desperate that compromise 
seemed impossible. They gathered in Eo- 
chelle, Sancerre, and in scores of other towns, 
small and large, and kept the gates closed. 
Eochelle was admirably adapted for a place 
of refuge ; on the laud side it was protected 
by marshes, and the stormy nature of the 
coast prevented a successful blockade. The 
city itself was fortified according to the best 
military rules of the day ; the garrison con- 
sisted of 1500 veteran soldiers and 2000 well- 




Catheriue de Medicis. 



trained citizens ; stores of all kinds were 
ample, and aid was coming from England. 
The Catholics commenced the siege with a 
vigor which would have honored a better 
cause, but for five months in vain. Brave 
as the besieged were, they must have yield- 
ed at last, had not political changes made 
the besiegers williug to listen to pacific coun- 
sels ; and finally a treaty was concluded by 
which the inhabitants surrendered upon good 
terms. Sancerre was not included in this 
treaty, and the inhabitants having resolved 
rather to perish than to surrender, endured 
untold sufferings from want of food. Five 
hundred perished by starvation before hon- 
orable terms of capitulation were granted. 
The Huguenots were not discouraged, even 
though Henry of Navarre and other noble 



HUGUENOTS 



446 



HUGUEI^OTS 



leaders of their sect were prisoners at court. 
They demanded the strict fulfillment of the 
treaty of St. Germain ; but the king refused 
to listen to their petition. But after the 
death of Charles IX., Henry III., disgusted 
with the tyranny of the Catholic league, put 
some of the leaders to death, and himself 
fled to the Protestants for safety. He was 
finally assassinated by a Dominican monk ; 
and Henry IV., hoping to end the disorders 
which the protracted civil war had caused in 
France, became a Catholic, but secured full 
political and religious rights to the Hugue- 
nots by the Edict of Nantes,^ in 1598. 

Thus with the opening of the seventeenth 
century a day of hope dawned upon France. 
The Huguenot element in the nation began 
rapidly to sweep away the barbarism of the 
age. Industries of every kind flourished, 
and honesty, purity, and mental culture sup- 
planted corruption and ignorance. The most 
eminent men of the time belonged to the 
party of reform. Though under Louis XIII. 
their rights were invaded, they still enjoyed 
comparative rest, which they repaid by great 
fidelity to the Government. But again the 
tyrannical hand of Rome was stretched forth 
to crush the rising impulse of reform, and 
the last great iiersecution of the Huguenots 
was excited by the Jesuits. Guided by Cath- 
olic counselors, Louis XIV. resolved to win 
the favor of Heaven by a complete destruc- 
tion of the heretics. They were oppressed 
in every way; their churches were torn 
down ; their printing-presses silenced ; they 
were forbidden to sing. At length, in 1685, 
the revocation of the Edict of Nantes ban- 
ished hope, and made France a scene of hor- 
ror. Every Huguenot dwelling was invaded 
by fierce dragoons, the emissaries of a per- 
secuting king; chateaux were sacked and 
burned; the most horrible atrocities were 
committed ; even the noblest families were 
treated with barbarous indignities unless 
they would accept the Romish faith. Recan- 
tation, or imprisonment, and perhaps death, 
was the alternative offered to every one. 
The whole energy of the Jesuits seemed to 
be directed to the destruction of the labor- 
ing classes ; and their efforts were followed 
by a signal success. Factories were destroy- 
ed, large towns half depopulated, and the 
bloody Inquisition was glutted with victims. 

Animated by a united resolution to pre- 
serve their faith, even at the sacrifice of all 
they held dear, the Huguenots decided to 
abandon their native land, and seek a rest- 
ing-place among strangers, although the law 
strictly forbade any attempt to leave France. 
It is estimated that not less than 500,000 
took refuge in foreign countries. A wonder- 
ful spectacle of heroism and devotion was 
that flight from France. In all secret ways 
— by night, and in strange disguises, with 
fearful sufferings, and amidst untold dan- 



See Nantes (Edict of). 



gers — mournful processions of men, women, 
and children made their way to the fron- 
tiers. Women accustomed to ease and lux- 
ury stole forth disguised in the midst of win- 
ter, and were thankful if, clambering over 
snow -clad hills, and wandering through 
rough forests, they at last reached shelter in 
free lands. Protestant countries kindly re- 
ceived and generously aided the distressed 
fugitives ; but the sufferings which many 
endured in making their escape are almost 
incredible. More dreadful was the fate of 
those who were arrested while attempting 
to leave the country. Chained in the gal- 
leys, surrounded by convicts of the deepest 
guilt, faint, feeble and emaciated, they were 
condemned to long years of torture, unless, 
haply, they sunk beneath the cruelties and 
died. Thousands of Huguenot names ap- 
pear on the list of galley-slaves, and it is be- 
lieved the real number has never been told. 
In 1713, at the solicitation of Queen Anne, 
a sad remnant were set free from their tor- 
tures, and went, maimed and feeble, to Ge- 
neva, where they were received with honor 
and congratulations. For many years the 
cause of the Huguenots in France was com- 
pletely broken. True, they were still sup- 
posed to number nearly a million ; but they 
were no longer a bold, vigorous race. Watch- 
ed by the Jesuits with restless vigilance, they 
were forced to meet in solitary places, on 
the sea-shore, in some unfrequented forest, or 
among inaccessible hills, where no hostile eye 
could penetrate. Thus they gained the name 
of " The Church in the Desert." But as their 
persecutors consigned Bibles, and all Prot- 
estant literature, to the fire, they lost the 
mental culture for which they had been dis- 
tinguished. About 1760, some remarkable 
instances of Romish tyranny aroused all Eu- 
rope to a sense of the barbarity of the Cath- 
olic fanatics ; and even in France public opin- 
ion condemned persecution. In 1788, Louis 
XVI. granted an edict of toleration to the 
Protestants. The Revolution soon followed ; 
and in 1789, the National Assembly gave 
equal rights to all religious denominations. 
In the time of Napoleon the Huguenots 
experienced a degree of toleration, and at 
the Restoration they became nominally free. 
Since that time, although violent persecu- 
tions have not prevailed, the Protestants 
have never ceased to be subjected to many 
oppressions from the Catholic powers of 
France and the popes of Rome. 

Before the Revocation of the Edict of 
Nantes, many Huguenots had established 
prosperous homes in America. Afterward, 
large numbers settled in New York, Rhode 
Island, Virginia, South Carolina, and in oth- 
er sections of the country, transmitting to 
us many familiar French names. New Ro- 
chelle was founded by them in honor of La 
Rochelle, where their cause had suffered. 
Charleston, S. C, was their favorite resting- 



HULDAH 



447 



HUNTING 



place, and at one time there were no less 
than 16,000 of them in that town. A large 
proportion of the names of the first fami- 
lies in South Carolina are of Huguenot ori- 
gin. These exiles, being almost without ex- 
ception persons of good education, yet, by 
reverses accustomed to labor, contributed 
greatly to the prosperity and intellectual 
progress of the United States. They were 
enterprising and thrifty, and noted for theii* 
strict morality, great charity, and their re- 
fined manners. In other countries, also — in 
England, Holland, and Prussia — it is not 
difficult to perceive the happy results of the 
influence exerted by the pure, gentle, and 
constant Huguenots. 

Huldah {a weasel), a prophetess who lived 
at Jerusalem in the reign of Josiah. She 
was the wife of Shallum, of whom nothing 
is known except that he was keeper of the 
wardrobe. The fact that she was applied to 
by Josiah for counsel and an explanation of 
the book of the law, shows that, in the Jew- 
ish idea, there was nothing incongruous in a 
woman's holding a high position as a proph- 
et and counselor. [2 Kings xxii., 14-20 ; 2 
Chron.xxxiv., 22-28.] 

Hulsean Lectures, an annual series of 
theological lectures delivered at Cambridge, 
under the will of the Rev. John Hulse, 1777. 
The course extended originally to twenty lec- 
tures ; but the funds being inadequate, they 
were not commenced until 1820 ; and in 1830, 
the number of sermons to be delivered in a 
year was reduced to eight. The object of 
these lectures, or sermons, is to make clear 
the evidences of Christianity, or to explain 
difficulties in the Bible. One of the most 
important of the series is that delivered by 
Prof. Ellicott, and subsequently published as 
a life of Christ. 

Hiimanitarians, a term applied to those 
who assert the mere and sole humanity of 
Jesus Christ, and deny his divinity in every 
sense of the term. Some of them, however, 
hold to a divine inspiration affecting him, 
and rendering his human nature an extraor- 
dinary one. This was the case with the 
Ebionites, who existed in the first century, 
and rejected, with the divinity of Christ, a 
large part of the Scripture ; and with the 
Artemonites of the second century, so called 
from their leader, Artemon, who held that 
at the birth of Christ a certain divine ener- 
gy united itself to him. The natural inher- 
itors of this doctrine still maintain Christ to 
have been merely a man, but divinely in- 
spired and miraculously endowed. Others, 
denying this, assert, in the words of Dr. Bel- 
sham, that Jesus of Nazareth was " a man of 
exemplary character, constituted in all re- 
spects like other men — subject to the same 
infirmities, the same ignorance, frailties, and 
prejudices." The latter is the view taken 
by the advanced, or radical, wing of the Uni- 
tarian body, though the writings of Theo- 



dore Parker, who may be regarded as their 
leader, so far as they have any, contain ex- 
pressions which look like an acceptance of 
the former opinion. The extreme view of 
the Humanitarians finds expression in the 
declaration of one of its most advanced ad- 
vocates, who is reported as asserting that 
" Jesus was an inferior man, whom Provi- 
dence selected for the express purpose of 
showing what might be made of an inferior 
man." See Unitakians ; Christology. 

Hunting. The pursuit and capture of the 
beasts of the field was the first means of 
sustenance to which the human race had re- 
course. As a method of gaining a liveli- 
hood, it naturally preceded agriculture, since 
it procured food which required only to be 
taken and slaughtered, while tillage needed 
knowledge, skill, and careful forethought. 
Hunting was, therefore, a business long be- 
fore it was a sport ; and originally it must 
have been a dangerous pursuit, ere man had 
established his sway upon the earth. But 
when civilization had made some progress, 
when cities were built and lands cultivated, 
hunting was carried on, not only for the 
food which it brought, but for the recreation 
it gave. The East — the cradle of civiliza- 
tion — shows us hunting in both these stages. 
From its costliness, its dangers, its simili- 
tude to war, the relief it affords from the 
monotony of a court, hunting has always 
borne somewhat of a regal character, and 
down to the present hour has worn an aristo- 
cratic air. In Babylon and Persia immense 
parks were inclosed for nurturing and pre- 
serving beasts of the chase. Not only in 
these preserves, but also over the wide sur- 
face of the country, the monarch, attended 
by his nobles, led the way to the sport. In 
the Bible we find hunting connected with 
royalty so early as Nimrod, the great fouud- 




A liimtsmau caiTying Home the Game, with hie 
coupled Dogs. 



HUl^TING 



448 



HUSHAI 



er of Babel, who is described as " a mighty 
hunter before the Lord."^ And yet the pa- 
triarchs are to be regarded rather as herds- 
men than hunters. The Hebrews, as a pas- 
toral and agricultural people, were not giv- 




Catchiug the Gazelle with the Noose. 

en to the sports of the field ; the density of 
the population, the earnestness of their char- 
acter, and the tendency of their ritual reg- 
ulations, particularly those affecting food, 
all combined to discourage the practice of 
hunting. In Egypt the children of Israel 
would become acquainted with hunting car- 
ried on extensively and in various ways, but 
with a view rather to recreation than subsist- 
ence. The land of promise into which they 
went was plentifully supplied with beasts 
of the chase; and, after the settlement in Ca- 
naan, hunting was practiced for the sake of 
food, as is evident from the regulation given 



structed ; for others, various traps, " gins," 
snares, and missiles, were used. Several 
kinds of nets were employed. A hilly coun- 
try, and the vicinity of water-brooks, to 
which the animals were in the habit of re- 
pairing morning and even- 
ing, was inclosed with nets, 
and the animals driven into 
them by the hunters. Bird- 
catching, or fowling, was 
very common ; and for this 
the ancients had not only 
traps, snares, nets, springs, 
but smeared twigs with 
bird - lime, used decoys, 
stalking - horses, setting - 
dogs, bird-calls; in short, 
there is scarcely any proc- 
ess of hunting now follow- 
ed which was not known in 
very ancient times.^ Our 
illustrations, taken from Wilkinson's "An- 
cient Egyptians," represent pictures found 
in the Egyptian tombs, and indicate some- 
thing of hunting customs in vogue in that 
country ; similar pictures exhibit birds shot 
with arrows while on the wing, or knocked 
down by the throw- stick hurled dexterous- 
ly at them while they perched, or flew, in 
the thicket. A humane and wise regula- 
tion of Moses forbade any one, in taking 
from a bird's nest its eggs or young, to take 
the dam, lest the species should become ex- 
tinct.^ Hunting was followed till toward 
the end of the Jewish state, and Josephus 







A Chasseur shootiug at the Wild Oxen, accompanied by his Dos 



in Lev. xvii., 13, which provided that, when 
animals were taken for food, the blood must 
be immediately poured upon the ground, that 
none of it might be eaten. Leopards, and 
even lions, which were taken by pitfalls and 
nets, were trained and made use of to catch 
other animals.'^ Hounds were used for hunt- 
ing in Egypt, and, according to Josephus, in 
Palestine. The bow and arrows constituted 
tlie common weapon of the hunter. For 
larger and fiercer beasts, pitfalls were con- 



1 Gen. X., 9.-2 Exod. xxii., 29; 1 Sam. xvii., n4; 2 
Sam. xxiii., 20; 1 Kings xiii., 24; Prov. xii., 27; Ezek. 
xix., 3. ; Hab. i., 8. 



and 



speaks of Herod the Great as a keen, 
often very successful, sportsman. 

Terms connected with hunting and fowl- 
ing are often used figuratively by our Bible 
to indicate the dangers to which men are 
exposed, and the wiles of treacherous ene- 
mies.^ 

Hushai (^?ncA-),the Archite — so called, per- 
haps, because the inhabitant of a place call- 



1 Gen. xxvii., 3 ; 2 Sam. xxiii., 20; Job xviii., 9, 10; 
Psa. xci., 3; cxxiv., T; Prov. i., 17; xxiii., 5; Isa. li., 
20; Ezek. xix., 4, S; Amos iii., 5.-2 Dent, xxii,, 6, 7. 
—3 Psa. ix., 16; Ivii., 6; xci., 3; Prov. xxvi., 27; Isa. 
xxiv., 17; xlii., 22; Jer. v., 26; xvi., 17; xlviii., 44; 
Amos iii., 5. 



HUSKS 



449 



HYMN 



iBd Erec, though no such place is now known. 
To his sagacity iu carrying out the part of a 
pretended adherence to Absalom's cause, the 
defeat of his rebellion was largely due. His 
son Baana was one of King Solomon's com- 
missariat officers. His intervention in the 
rebellion of Absalom is all that we know of 
his history, except the bare fact that he was 
the companion and friend of David. See Ab- 
s.xxoM. [2 Sam. xv., 32-.37 ; xvi., 15-19 ; xvii., 
6-16 ; 1 Kings iv., 16 ; 1 Chron. xxvii., 33.] 

Husks (little horns). The word which our 
translators have rendered by the general 
term " husks," in the parable of the prodigal 
son/ describes really the fruit of the carob- 
tree. This tree is very commonly met with 
in Syria and Egypt ; it produces pods shaped 
like a horn (whence the Greek name), vary- 
ing in length from six to ten inches, and 
about a tinger's breadth, or rather more. 




Fruit and Branches of the Carob-tree. 

These pods, containing a thick, pithy sub- 
stance, very sweet to the taste, were eaten, 
and afforded food not only for cattle, and 
particularly pigs, but also for the poorer 
classes of the population. The same uses of 
it prevail in the present day. The tree is 
also named St. John's Bread, from a tradition 
that the Baptist lived upon its fruit in the 
wilderness; but this tradition is not trust- 
worthy. 

Huzzab. According to the general opin- 
ion of the Jews, this was the name of the 
Queen of Nineveh at the time when Nahum 
delivered his prophecy, and this view is fol- 
lowed in the English Bible. It is by no 
means, however, universally accepted. Eaw- 



1 Luke XV., 16. 
29 



linson inclines to think that it signifies the 
Zab country, the most valuable part of As- 
syria; while Henderson and some other com- 
mentators regard it as not a proper name at 
all, and translate it, "that which was estab- 
lished," as in the margin of our English Bi- 
ble. [Nahum ii., 7.] 

Hyena. Authorities are at variance as 
to whether the Hebrew tsdhiCa, which occurs 
only once in Scripture,' means " a hyena," as 
the Septuagint has it, or a speckled bird, as 
in the English Bible. The etymological for(je 
of the word is equally adapted to either, the 
hyena being streaked. The only other ref- 
erence to the animal is in the proper name 
Zeboim — i. e., " the valley of the hyenas"^ — 
a ravine east of Michmash, the precise site 
of which is unknown. The hyena was com- 
mon in ancient as in modern Egypt, and is 
constantly depicted on monuments ; it must, 
therefore, have been well known to the 
Jews, if, indeed, not equally common in 
Palestine. But the great difficulty in the 
way of translating tsdhu'a " hyena" is, that 
a word is adjoined in the passage in qtTes- 
tion which, wherever else it occurs, implies 
a bird. 

Hymn. An exhaustive history of hyra- 
nology, and its influence upon the Christian 
Church, would far exceed the limits within 
which a single article must be restricted in 
a work like this. If the outline here given 
shall excite a desire for a more extended in- 
vestigation, the reader will find abundant 
materials, and \sill be richly rewarded in his 
careful examination. The Greek original of 
the word hymn signifies simply a song; but, 
as chanting songs in praise of their gods was 
an important part of the worship of the 
Greeks, the word soon came to be applied 
especially to such songs; and ultimately the 
term was given only to such lyrical pieces 
as were sung in praise of God. As such, the 
word hymn does not occur in the O. T., and 
only twice in the N. T. The hymn has al- 
ways been distinguished from the psalm, be- 
ing different in composition and idea. But 
the hymn which Christ sung with his disci- 
ples at the Last Supper has been sup])osed 
to be a portion of the Hallel (q. v.), or series 
of psalms which the Jews sung on the night 
of the Passover ; and the word in this case 
is not applied to a single psalm, but to the 
group chanted successively as a devotional 
exercise. The Syrians and Greeks were fond 
of tune, and, becoming Christians, they found 
the chanting of the Hebrew psalms inade- 
quate for their worship ; and thus the hymns 
of the early Christian Church originated. At 
first they were fitted to the music of their 
heathen life ; but afterward, bursting with 
richer experiences beyond its limits, all such 
association with the former life was oblit- 
erated, and new melodies were originated 
suited to the Christian lyrics. The earliest 
1 Jer. xiL, 9. — ^ 1 Sam. xiii., 13. 



HYMN 



450 



HYSSOP 



hymns which have been preserved are not 
now used in the devotions of the Christian 
Church, and are chiefly interesting from their 
exhibition of primitive piety. The most an- 
cient one still in familiar use is the Gloria in 
JSxcelsis,^ which is supposed to have origina- 
ted in the second or third century. 

The Latin Church made valuable contri- 
butions to hymnology from the fourth to the 
thirteenth century. Those of Hilary, Am- 
brose, Augustine, Gregory, the two Bernards, 
and Thomas of Celano, are, under different 
forms of translation, still accomplishing their 
missions as expressions of prayer and praise. 
They treat of the great facts of salvation 
and the fundamental truths of Christiauity ; 
and though Avarmer than the Greek, they are 
not so tender and full of personal love to the 
Saviour as the modern hymns. 

Of modern hymns, by far the richest are 
the German, which, although some few may 
be traced to the ninth century, are, most of 
them, the fruit of what may be called the 
three great crises of German religious histo- 
ry — the crusading period, the Eeformation, 
and the period of extreme persecution dur- 
ing parts of the seventeenth and eighteenth 
centuries. It is difficult to give the charac- 
teristics of German hymnology ; but they are 
such as one might expect from a vigorous 
and determined people, under the immediate 
influence of strong and deep religious fervor. 
The Protestant spirit is manifest; and the 
great doctrines of justification by faith, the 
complete mediatorship of Jesus Christ, and 
the fullness of salvation obtained through 
him alone, without the aid of one's own good 
works, are taught in the hymns which the 
great leading spirits in the cause of true re- 
ligion in Germany gave to the people, for 
their instruction and edification. The later 
hymn writers in Germany have not attain- 
ed the force of their ijredecessors, although, 
since the war of liberation — 1813-15 — a re- 
vival spirit has arisen which is gaining pow- 
er against the skepticism which has threat- 
ened to overwhelm Germany ; and this re- 
vival spirit has produced some simple and 
earnest Christian poetry. 

England, in its earlier history, was pro- 
ductive of much sacred poetry, very littlei 
of which, however, was useful for devotional 
purposes. Indeed, it may almost be said that 
there were no English hymns until the time 
of Dr. Watts — the early part of the eighteenth 
century. The songs of Christian worship 
were principally the Psalms of David, the 
Te Deimi, the Magnificat, the Glorias, a few 
hymns of the Middle Ages, and an occasion- 
al hymn of later times. Mason, Bishop Ken, 
and Addison, made a few permanently val- 
uable contributions to hymnology, and af- 
forded, in other attempts, useful suggestions 
to Dr. Watts. It is interesting to recall the 
circumstances under which this " great pre- 



1 See DoxoLOGY. 



centor of the immense chorus which he wiU 
forever lead," gave his first hymn to the 
Church. " He complained to some official in 
the Independent Church of Southampton, of 
which his father was a deacon, 'that the 
hymnists of the day were sadly out of taste.' 
' Give us something better, young man,' was 
the reply. The young man did it ; and the 
Church was invited to close its evening serv- 
ice with a new hymn, which commenced, 

" ' Behold the glories of the Lamb, 
Amidst his father's throne ; 
Prepare new honors for his name, 
And songs before unknown.'" 

Since that time there have been so many 
" Christian singers " in England and Ameri- 
ca, and their songs have embodied so large 
a Christian experience, that it seems as if 
almost every holy aspiration, every possible 
penitential feeling, every sublime ascription 
of praise, had been expressed in appropriate 
language. And yet each year adds some- 
thing of Christian melody to the treasury of 
the Church, and makes some priceless addi- 
tion to her store of psalms, and hymns, and 
spiritual songs. 

Hypostasis {substance), a term used in me- 
diaeval theology, as an alternative of the 
word " person " in the description of the Trin- 
ity. It occupied a very important place in 
the discussions of the Middle Ages, in which 
it was employed to denote that which is dis- 
tinctive of, and peculiar to, the three Per- 
sons in the Godhead, in contrast with ousia, 
or essence, which denoted the canstitution- 
al being of the Deity possessed alike and 
equally by each of the personal distinctions. 
The word is not employed in modern the- 
ology. 

Hyssop. The hyssop was used to sprinkle 
the door-posts of the Israelites in Egypt with 
the blood of the paschal lamb ; it was em- 
ployed in the purification of lepers, in the 
sacrifice of the red heifer, and in the purifi- 
catory services ; and it is described as grow- 
ing on or near walls.^ If the hyssop in John 
xix., 29, corresponds to the reed, or stick, in 
Matt, xxvii., 48, and Mark xv., 36, it must be 
a plant capable of producing a stalk of some 
length, and found in the neighborhood of 
Jerusalem. From its ceremonial use, it is 
believed that it must have possessed some 
cleansing properties. 

Perhaps no plant mentioned in Scripture 
has given rise to greater differences of opin- 
ion than this ; and to this day, naturalists 
are by no means agreed as to what ^vas 
really the hyssop of Scripture. The majori- 
ty have selected different kinds of fragrant 
plants belonging to the natural family of 
Labiatce — such as the rosemary, various spe- 
cies of lavender, mint, marjoram, thyme, sa- 
vory, and others of the same tribe, much 
resemblins: each other in character as well 



1 Exod. xii., 22 ; Lev. xiv., 4, 51 ; Numb, xix., G, 18; 
1 Kings iv., 33 ; Psa. li., 7 ; Heb. ix., 19. 



ICONIUM 



451 



IDEALISM 



as in properties. But it does not appear 
that any of them grow on walls, or possess 
cleansiug properties ; and with the excep- 
tion of the rosemary, they are not capable 
of yielding a stick, nor are they found in 
all the required situations. The only plant 
which appears to answer the required condi- 
tions is the caper-plant, or Capparis spinosa, 
the Arabic name of which, asuf, bears con- 
siderable resemblance to the Hebrew term 



translated hyssop. It is found in Lower 
Egypt, and is mentioned as a tree of fre- 
quent occurrence in the valleys of the penin- 
sula of Sinai, producing a fruit of the size of 
a walnut, called by the Arabs mountain pep- 
per. It is found in the desert of Sinai, at 
Gaza, and at Jerusalem. It grows in dry 
and rocky places, and on walls ; and, finally, 
it is capable of producing a stick three or 
four feet in length. 



Iconium, a considerable city of Asia Mi- 
nor, generally considered as belonging to Ly- 
caonia. It lay in a fertile plain at the foot 
of Taurus, on the great line of communica- 
tion between Ephesus and the more eastern 
cities of Tarsus and Antioch, and the Eu- 
phrates. In the decline of the Roman Em- 
pire it was made a colony, and in the Middle 
Ages was still a place of consequence as the 
seat of the Seljukian sultans. It is now call- 
ed Koniyeh, and has a population of about 
30,000, with some imposing remains of Sara- 
cenic architecture. Its interest to the Chris- 
tian scholar is wholly in connection with 
the life of Paul, by whom it was visited, 
apparently several times, in his missionary 
tours. [Acts xiii., 51 ; xiv. ; xvi., 1-6; 2 
Tim. iii., 11.] 

Iconoclasts (iniage-hrealcers), a name which 
was given to those who rejected the use of 
images in churches, on account of the zeal 
which they occasionally displayed in destroy- 
ing them. It was particularly applied, in 
the eighth century, to Leo the Isaurian and 
his followers, who sought, in many cases, by 
deeds of violence to show their abhorrence 
of image- worship. 

The term iconoclasts is also applied in his- 
tory to those Protestants of the Netherlands 
who, at the commencement of the troubles 
in the reign of Philip II., tumultuously as- 
sembled and destroyed the images in many 
of the Roman Catholic churches. These tu- 
mults began August 14, 1566, at St. Omer, in 
the province of Flanders, but soon spread 
over the northern provinces, and through- 
out Holland, Utrecht, and Friesland. " The 
amount of injury inflicted during this dis- 
mal period," says Prescott, " it is not pos- 
sible to estimate. Four hundred churches 
were sacked by the insurgents in Flanders 
alone. The damage to the Cathedral of Ant- 
werp, including its precious contents, was 
said to amount to not less than 400,000 
ducats." Catholic and Protestant writers 
agree, however, that no deeds of violence 
were committed against man or woman. The 
Iconoclasts destroyed for destruction's sake, 
not for the sake of plunder. Although be- 
longing to the lowest classes of society, they 
left heaps of jeweliy, of gold and silver 



plate, and of costly embroidery, lying un- 
heeded upon the ground. In Flanders a 
company of rioters hanged one of their own 
number for stealing articles to the value of 
five shillings. In Valenciennes the Icono- 
clasts were offered large sums if they would 
refrain from desecrating the churches of that 
city; but they rejected the proposal with 
disdain. 

Iddo (timely). A prophet of this name 
appears in the reigns of Jeroboam, king of 
Israel, and Abijah, king of Judah. His writ- 
ings are wholly lost. He is imagined by Jo- 
sephus to be the unknown prophet from Ju- 
dah w^ho denounced Jeroboam's sins to his 
face, and afterward paid the penalty of his 
disobedience with his life.^ But this seems 
impossible, from the reference, in 2 Chron. 
xiii., 22, to his history of Abijah, who must 
have survived the unknown prophet several 
years. [2 Chron. ix., 29 ; xii., 15 ; xiii., 22.] 
Idealism, the doctrine that, in our per- 
ceptions, the objects immediately known are 
ideas. When, for example, I see a tree, there 
are, according to the common opinion, three 
things implied in this act of vision: first, 
the external object, i. e., the tree itself; sec- 
ond, the image of that tree, which is pro- 
duced upon the retina of the eye, and so con- 
veyed to the mind ; and, third, the mind it- 
self, which recognizes the image, and so is 
said to perceive the tree. The idealist as- 
serts that we only know directly the idea, or 
mental image, of the tree ; in other words, 
that all our knowledge is confined to a con- 
sciousness of our own mental action. Of 
this doctrine of idealism there are several 
varieties. Some absolutely deny the exist- 
ence of all material substances ; some regard 
the real simply as ideal, and judge that the 

j material world is merely assumed from the 
ideal world, which, according to them, is all 

' that we know to exist ; while others, with- 
out denying or asserting the existence of a 

I material world, maintain that we are neces- 
sarily ignorant of its nature, and can know 

! nothing but the ideas, or images, which are 

I produced (as we suppose, by corresponding 

I external realities) in the mind. Applied to 
theology, idealism involves the doctrine that 

1 1 1 KiDffs xiii. 



IDOLATRY 



452 



IDOLATRY 



God is only an idea; or, to state it more 
fully, that nothing possesses a real existence 
but reason or thought. It does not in form 
deny the existence of God, but it presents a 
conception of the divine existence such as 
the common mind is utterly unable to grasp ; 
indeed, the very language of this mystical 
philosophy is peculiar, and it is almost im- 
possible to express its principles without em- 
ploying metaphysical terms which not only 
need to be translated, but are scarcely ca- 
pable of translation. Idealism, accordingly, 
has never acquired any considerable hold on 
the popular mind. 

Idolatry (image-ivorsJiip). The word idol- 
atry is composed of two Greek words — eido- 
lon, image, and latreia, worship — and is thus 
etymologically synonomous with image-wor- 
ship. But the term is generally used in a 
wider sense, to signify the paying of divine 
honors to any created object. Thus Paul 
speaks of covetousness as a form of idolatry,^ 
because it exalts the creature above the Cre- 
ator, and gives a first place in the heart to 
wealth. There is also a philosophical rea- 
son for the use of this term to describe all 
corrupt worship. In popular languager]; the 
heathen nations are said to worship either 
idols or natural objects, as animals, the sun, 
moon, etc. But in the philosophy of hea- 
thenism the existence of a Divine Spirit is 
generally recognized ; and the objects which 
are worshiped are regarded, if not by the peo- 
ple, at least by the priests and philosophers 
of the false religion, not as in themselves di- 
vine, but as the symbols, or representatives, 
or images of a Deity. Thus it is true, in a 
certain sense, that all, or nearly all, idolatry 
is image-worship — i.e., the worship of ob- 
jects which are philosophically regarded as 
images of the Deity, though undoubtedly by 
ithe common people regarded as really divine. 
In this article we shall briefly speak (I.) 
of the different forms of idolatry — i. e., of 
the worship of created objects, referring the 
reader for fuller information to subordinate 
titles ; and (II.) of the history of idolatry in 
connection with the people of God, as it is 
described in the Bible. For an account of 
the worship of images in the Roman Catholic 
Church, the reader is referred to the article 
Image-worship. 

I. Forms of Idolatry. — The lowest form of 
idolatry is fetishism (q. v.), or the worship 
of nature in its lower forms. This again is 
divided by writers on this subject into two 
classes: 1. LitJiolatry, or the worship of stones, 
and Dendrolatry, or the worship of trees. 
There is very little indication that either of 
these forms of fetishism was practiced among 
the Hebrews, or was recognized by them. It 
now exists only in the lowest races, being 
chiefly maintained among the savage tribes 
of Africa. 2. Next to the worship of stones 
and trees comes animal worship (q. v.). This 



Eph. v., 5; Col. iii., 5. 



is recognized in the Scripture as a common 
form of idolatr}", having been borrowed by 
the Hebrews from the Egyptians, among 
whom it was exceedingly common. It was 
from the Egyptians, undoubtedly, that the 
Hebrews borrowed the worship of the gold- 
en calf, and that, in their later history, Jero- 
boam introduced the calf -worship at Dan 
and Bethel. This species of worship is still 
common in India, where the cow and the al- 
ligator are regarded as sacred animals ; and 
in Japan, where, among some classes, rev- 
erence is paid to the ape. 3. Next above 
animal worship comes the worship of the 
higher powers of nature — of the sun, moon, 
and stars ; and of fire and water. Many of 
the heathen deities mentioned in the Bible, 
doubtless, represented these higher powers 
of nature. Thus Baal is regarded by many 
scholars as the representative of the sun, and 
Ashtoreth sometimes of the moon, sometimes 
of the planet Venus. The worship of the 
heavenly bodies was common in the East, 
and was connected with the study of their 
movements for the purposes of foretelling 
future events.^ 4. A fourth form of idolatry 
is hero-worship, or the worship of deceased 
ancestors. This was the basis of a large 
j)art of the religion of ancient Greece and 
Rome, and is the foundation of the present 
religious rites in China.^ In all these cases, 
except the first, it was customary to con- 
struct images to represent the gods who were 
supposed to be embodied in the animals, the 
planetary bodies, or the deified heroes. And 
in the popular mind the symbol insensibly 
became identified with the thing symbol- 
ized; and the image of Baal, or Ashtoreth, or 
Venus, was worshiped, while the sun, moon, 
and planet were forgotten, and the exist- 
ence of any divine spirit, acting, in and 
through these heavenly bodies, was entirely 
ignored. 

II. Biblical History. — There are indications 
of idolatrous worship among the early pa- 
triarchs, relics, probably, of that from which 
God withdrew Abraham. Thus Laban had 
images, which Rachel purloined ; and similar 
images continued in Jacob's family.^ That 
the symbolic idolatry of Egypt made a deep 
impression on the Israelites we have already 
seen. Also that there was some kind of star- 
worship practiced in the wilderness we may 
conclude from Amos v., 26, and Acts vii., 
43. Later in their wanderings the licentious 
worship of Baal-peor was contracted from 
the Moabites and Midiauites.^ Again and 
again daring the rule of the judges the Isra- 
elites introduced from neighboring nations 
the worship of Baal and Ashtaroth. They 
borrowed deities from the Phoenicians and 
Philistines, from the Syrians, from Moab, and 
from Ammon. It was not till the days of 
Samuel that any thing like a complete ref- 



1 See Magi.— 2 See Confucianism,— 3 Gen, xxxi. 
XXXV., 2, 4.—* Numb. xxv. 



LH.S. 



453 



ILLUMINATION (ART OF) 



ormatiou was effected. During the reigns 
of the first kings, idolatry seems to have dis- 
appeared in Israel, till the miserable folly of 
Solomon, who was perverted in his old age 
by his foreign wives, and induced to build 
shrines for the false gods of Moab and' Am- 
mon and Phoenicia. The device of Jerobo- 
am, on the separation of the kingdom, to 
prevent his subjects from worshiping at Je- 
rusalem, by the erection of golden calves as 
objects of worship in his own kingdom, led 
easily to worse practices; and the alliance 
formed by Ahab with Jezebel well-nigh made 
Baal- worship the established religion of the 
land.^ This received a check, indeed, from 
Elijah, and was eradicated by Jehu f still, 
other forms of idolatrous worship were sub- 
stituted, till at length God removed Israel, 
by the hand of the Assyrian kings, to dis- 
tant exile. Colonists from the East occu- 
pied their cities, and a mixed religion, a cer- 
tain fear of Jehovah combined with the wor- 
ship of the idols of the respective peoples 
who had been introduced, was substituted 
for the worship of the true God. The cor- 
ruption which Jeroboam introduced into Is- 
rael was copied by Judah ; and though Asa, 
Jehoshaphat, and Hezekiah brought forward 
temporary reformations, it was not till the 
Babylonish captivity that the last traces of 
idolatry were thoroughly eradicated from the 
Jewish nation. From that time to this idol- 
worship has been wholly foreign to every 
form of the Jewish religion. The image-wor- 
ship which has corrupted the Roman Cath- 
olic Church has never gained an entrance 
into the synagogue. 

The modes of idolatrous worship which we 
find noted in Scripture were reverent salu- 
tations, vows, offerings of incense, unbloody 
and bloody offerings,^ among which were hu- 
man sacrifices. These offerings were made 
on high places and rocks, on the roofs of 
buildings, under shady trees, in valleys, and 
gardens.^ There was also a frequenting of 
graves, possibly to pacify the spirits of the 
dead ; for much of the system of idolatry 
implied that the beings worshiped were ma- 
lignant, and must be conciliated, in order to 
avert injury from the worshipers. The num- 
bers of an idolatrous priesthood were com- 
monly large,^ and some of their practices 
are described in 1 Kings xviii., 26, 29; Hos. 
X., 5. See Image-worship. 

I. H. S. This monogram has probably been 
used by the Christian Church from an early 
date, among the sacred symbols on churches 
and church furniture. Its use has not been 
confined to ecclesiastical buildings, but it 
has been impressed on tombs, roofs, and walls 



1 1 Kings xii., 26, 27 xvi., 31, 33 ; xviii., 40.— 2 2 Kings 
X., 18-20.— 3 1 Kings xi., 8; 2 Kings v., 17; xxii., 17; 
xxiii., 5; Jobxxxi., 27; Jer. i., 16; vii., 9, IS: xi., 12, 
13; xviii., 15; xxxii., 29; Hos. ix., 10.—* 1 Kings xi., 
7; xiv,, 23; 2 Kings xvi., 4; xvii., 10; xxiii., 5; 2 
Chroii. xxviii., 3; Isa. 1., 29; Ivii., 7; Ixv., 3; Jer. ii., 
20, 23 ; iii., 6 ; xiii., 27 ; xix., 13 ; xxxii., 29 ; Ezek. vi., 
13.— 5 1 Kings xviii., 22 ; 2 Kings x., 21. 



of houses — on books and other possessions 
of Christians, especially on those of the ad- 
herents of the Roman, Greek, and Anglican 
churches. There are three interpretations 
of this monogram. One is, that they are the 
initials of the words ''/w Hoc Signo," borrow- 
ed from the luminous cross which, it is said, 
was miraculously displayed in the sky be- 
fore Constantine and his army, and was sub- 
sequently inscribed upon his labarum, or mil- 
itary standard. Another, that they are the 
first three letters of the Greek IHS0T2, Je- 
sus. But the more common opinion is, that 
they are the initials of the Latin words " Je- 
sus Hominum Salvator" — Jesus, the Saviour 
of Men. Whatever the origin may have 
been it is quite certain that this latter is 
the common signification of the monogram 
in its present use. It is the badge and motto 
of the Jesuits, who use it with a little cross 
over the H, thus— I. A. S. 

Ijon, a town in the north of Palestine, be- 
longing to the tribe of Naphtali. It was 
taken and plundered by the captains of Ben- 
hadad, and a second time by Tiglath-pileser. 
Tradition identifies it with certain ancient 
ruins a few miles north-west of the site of 
Dan, in a fertile and beautiful little plain 
called Merjaiytin. [1 Kings xv., 20 ; 2 Kings 
XV., 29; 2.Chron.xvi.,4.] 

niuminati, a name borne at different pe- 
riods by different societies, the most impor- 
tant of which was organized in 1776, at In- 
golstadt, Bavaria, by Adam Weishaupt. The 
object of the founder was to counteract the 
influence of the Jesuits, and the society soon 
spread over all the Roman Catholic parts of 
Germany. It was deistic in its philosophy, 
but imitated the Jesuits in the form of its 
organization and the methods of its opera- 
tions. The leaders, however, soon quarreled. 
In 1784 an edict was issued for its suppres- 
sion, and Weishaupt was banished. Great 
importance was attached at one time to the 
order of lUuminati, and its secret influence 
was regarded as one of the principal causes 
of many of the political events occurring at 
the time of the French Revolution. It has 
also exerted a prominent political influence, 
through its secret operations, on the course 
of political events in Italy. 

Illumination (Art of). From the third 
until the fifteenth century the art of illu- 
minating manuscripts with gold and color 
seems to have prevailed in most European 
countries. It may be called the picture peri- 
od of the world— those days of ''Illuminated 
Manuscripts," when the knowledge of letters 
was shut up from the many, and hoarded for 
the few ; when to be a scholar meant to be 
a celibate, a priest, a monk. Monasteries 
were the only schools of learning ; for monks 
alone had time to study or transcribe the 
piles of manuscripts which contained valua- 
ble information. It would be impossible to 
give a just idea of the amount of skill and 



ILLYEICUM 



454 



IMAGE-WORSHIP 



labor expended upon these writings, all of 
which were more or less embellished with or- 
namental lettering, scrolled borders, or min- 
iature paintings. In the British Museum is 
one of the earliest copies of the Bible, pre- 
pared in the fifth century. It is without 
gold, illuminated in red and black inks. A 
book of Genesis, next in date, contains on 
105 pages no less than 250 miniatures, each 
four inches square, in gold and crimson ! 
Such sumptuous volumes were for the rich 
alone, as they contained stores of art, and 
were in demand as royal gifts or endow- 
ments, bringing to their owners princely 
sums. 

niyricum was a province lying to the 
north-west of Macedonia, bounded north by 
a part of Italy and Germany, east by Mace- 
donia, south by the Adriatic, west by Istria. 
It comprehended the modern Croatia and 
Dalmatia. There is nowhere in the Acts ex- 
press mention of Paul's going iiito lUyri- 
cum, but only tinto its borders ; the expres- 
sion does not imply that he preached the 
Gospel ivithin it. It may have been, howev- 
er, that when in Macedonia, he crossed over 
into that country ; and this is rendered some- 
what probable from the fact that Titus is 
mentioned as having gone into Dalmatia, 
which was a part of Illyricum. So that, 
taking Jerusalem as a centre, Paul preached 
not only in Damascus and Arabia, but in 
Syria, in Asia Minor, in all Greece, in the 
Grecian Islands, and in Thessaly and Mace- 
donia. This comprehended no small part of 
the then known world. [Eom. xv., 19; 2 
Tim. iv., 10.] 

rimage-'worship. The difficulty of form- 
ing any spiritual conception of an invisible 
deity has led nearly all nations and races, 
from a very early period of the world's his- 
tory, to frame images to represent God to the 
eye. The argument for the introduction of 
such images has always been substantially 
the same — viz., that most men are unable to 
form any conception of an invisible God, and 
^ that therefore they must be helped by some 
I external symbol. But the Bible assumes, and 
the history of religious development shows, 
that in point of fact the employment of ma- 
terial symbols of the divine Being does not 
tend to elevate the imagination, or assist in 
true worship ; that its effect is indeed direct- 
ly the opposite ; that it degrades the mind ; 
that the people fail to discern between the 
symbol and the reality ; and that, as a con- 
sequence, instead of worshiping God, who is 
a Spirit, they worship the material emblem 
which they confound with him. According- 
ly, the divine command, as given to the Jews 
on the two tables of stone, not only prohib- 
ited the having of other gods, but also the 
making of anj^ graven images to be employ- 
ed as objects of public worship, or even of 
external adoration ;^ and though there were 



1 Exod. XX., 4, 5. 



in the ancient Temple images of angels, there 
was nothing to symbolize the Deity. The 
Jewish religion in this respect differed from 
all the surrounding religions — in that it wor- 
shiped a God not only unseen, but a God who 
refused to allow himself to be portrayed to 
the senses by any visible emblem. From 
the day when Aaron constructed the gold- 
en calf, down to the Babylonish captivity, 
the history of the Jews is the history of a 
continual conflict between the divine law — 
which demanded that the soul should look 
up to the invisible, and worship a God whom 
the eye could not see — and the tendency, in- 
cited by the example of other nations, to pro- 
duce some visible sign or image to take the 
place, in the popular imagination, of the un- 
seen God.^ The final result of this long ex- 
perience was the utter extirpation of image- 
worship from the Jewish nation. When Je- 
sus Christ commenced to preach in Pales- 
tine, nothing approaching image-worship was 
known in either synagogue or Temple. 

It is certain that neither Christ nor his 
apostles gave any authority whatever for 
the introduction into the Christian Church 
of this element, which it had taken so many 
years of trial and discipline to expurgate 
from the Jewish Church. Neither in the N". 
T. nor in any genuine writings of the first 
age of Christianity, can any trace be discov- 
ered of the use of statues or pictures in the 
worship of Christians, whether public or pri- 
vate. It was not until after the establish- 
ment of Christianity under Constantino that 
statues and pictures of our Lord, of the Vir- 
gin Mary, and the saints, were commonly 
introduced in churches. But in the fifth 
century the practice had already reached a 
great extent ; and in the sixth and seventh 
centuries it was usual, not only to keep lights 
and burn incense before the images, to kiss 
them reverently, and to kneel down and 
pray before them, but some went so far as 
to make the images serve as godfathers and 
godmothers in baptism, and even to min- 
gle the dust, or the coloring matter, scraped 
from the images with the Eucharistic ele- 
ments in the Holy Communion ! This use 
of images by Christians was alleged as an 
obstacle to the conversion of the Jews, and 
as one of the causes of the progress of Mo- 
hammedanism in the East. In the second 
Council of Nice (787) the doctrine as to the 
worship of images was carefully laid down. 
A distinction was drawn between the su- 
preme worship of adoration, which is called 
latreia, paid to God alone, and the inferior 
worship of honor or reverence, cnUed doideia, 
paid to the saints ; and still more, between 
absolute worship, which is directly and ulti- 
mately rendered to a person or thing in itself, 
and relative., which is but addressed through a 
person or thing, ultimately, to another per- 



1 The history of this conflict is briefly sketched in 
the article on Idolatry. 



IMAM 



455 



IMMORTALITY 



son or thing represented thereby. Only the 
latter, it was alleged, could be paid to im- 
ages. This distinction is reiterated by the 
Council of Trent. But, as we have already 
noted, it is not peculiar to the Roman Cath- 
olic Church ; it is maintained among hea- 
then nations as well, the theory of idolatry 
in heathen churches being that the worship 
is paid through the image to the god ; while 
the practice in the Roman Catholic as in 
the heathen churches tends to substitute the 
image, or symbol, for the unseen deity, and 
to replace a spiritual w^orship of the invisi- 
ble God by a formal, and often meaningless, 
reverence to the wood, the stone, or the pic- 
ture. How slight is the difference between 
the image-worship of modern and of ancient 
Rome is indicated by the fact that in more 
than one instance what was formerly a hea- 
then statue serves as a representation of 
some Roman Catholic saint, or Biblical pa- 
triarch, prophet, or apostle — and, in one fa- 
mous case, of Jehovah himself ! 

At the Reformation, the reforming party 
generally rejected the use of images as un- 
scriptural. The Zwinglian and, subsequent- 
ly, the Calvinistic churches absolutely and 
entirely repudiated all use of images for the 
purpose of worship. But Luther, while he 
condemned the Romish worship of images, 
regarded the simple use of them, even in the 
church, for the purpose of instruction, and 
as incentives to faith and to devotion, as 
one of those indifferent things which jnsij be 
permitted ; hence, in the Lutheran church- 
es of Germany and the northern kingdoms, 
pictures, crucifixes, and other religious em- 
blems are still freely retained. In the An- 
glican Church the practice is still a subject 
of controversy. In all the other Protestant 
communions images are entirely unknown. 

Imam or Imaum, a minister among the 
Mohammedans, who conducts the services of 
a mosque or place of worship. He is gener- 
ally chosen from the criers, who call the peo- 
ple to prayers.^ The only qualifications re- 
quired for an imam are, a good moral char- 
acter, and ability to read the Koran. The 
imams do not pretend to any indelible sa- 
credness of character, and may lay aside their 
priestly character and become laymen with- 
out any formality. They say the prayers 
aloud at the appointed time ; every Friday 
they read some verses of the Koran in the 
mosque, and sometimes preach. 

Immaculate Conception, the doctrine 
that the Virgin Mary was conceived with- 
out the stain of original sin.^ It was ear- 
ly broached in both the Romish and Greek 
churches. In the former it encountered great 
opposition, and was from the twelfth to the 
sixteenth century the subject of fierce dis- 



^ See Muezzin. — 2 it is also asserted by some Roman 
Catholic organs that "she was also free from actual 
sin ;" but this does not appear, from the authoritative 
definitions of the doctrine, to be necessarily involved 
in it. 



putes. The Council of Trent evaded the 
controversy by declaring that the doctrine 
of the conception of all men in sin was not 
intended to include the Virgin Mary, with- 
out, however, affirmatively declaring that 
she was sinless. It was not till 1854 that 
Pope Pius IX. finally proclaimed that the 
dogma of the Virgin Mary's immaculate con- 
ception had been revealed by God, and mast 
therefore be accepted by all the faithful. 
This followed the consultation, and agreed 
with the decision, of a special convention 
called to consider it ; but it has never been 
the subject of the decree of any ecumenical 
council. See Mariolatry. 

Immanuel or Emmanuel ( God with us), the 
name given to the prospective child which 
the Lord by Isaiah declared he would give 
as a sign to the house of David, and subse- 
quently by Matthew declared to be prophet- 
ic of Christ's coming.^ It has been a long- 
agitated question whether the child refer- 
red to in Isaiah was the Messiah, or a child 
born in the time of the prophet, perhaps to 
himself, typical of the birth at some future 
time of the Messiah, or, finally, of such a 
child simply, with nothing more than a name 
and accompaniments that admitted of being- 
accommodated to Messiah's person and birth. 
The discussion of these various opinions be- 
longs rather to the commentary than to the 
Bible dictionary. It is worthy of note, how- 
ever, that the title, God with us, indicates at 
once the divinity of Jesus Christ, the incar- 
nate Son of God, and the peculiar character 
of the Christian religion as a revelation of 
a God who is perpetually with those who 
put their trust in him. See Incarnation ; 
Christology. 

Immortality. Belief in the immortality 
of the soul is almost universal. It is true 
that some tribes have been found so degraded 
as apparently to have exercised little or no 
thought concerning the future ; but these af- 
ford a rare and unimportant exception to a 
rule so general that it may, without impro- 
priety, be deemed universal. In Christen- 
dom the doctrine of immortality is doubted 
or denied by two classes of thinkers — the 
pantheist and the materialist.^ The former, 
indeed, asserts his belief in the immortality 
of the soul, but either declares that it will 
be absorbed and lose its individuality in the 
great "All" which constitutes, according to 
him, the God of the universe, or at least ex- 
presses his doubt whether in a future state 
the individual identity of the soul will be 
preserved. One of the definitions afforded 
by the pantheistic philosophy of the aspira- 
tion after immortality is, " the generous de- 
sire to live still in and through others, though 
individuality be extinguished." Such an im- 
mortality as this is, to most minds, equiva- 
lent to none at all. The materialist denies, 



1 Isa. vii., 14; Matt, i., 23.-2 See Pantheism; Ma- 
TEKIALI8M. 



IMMOETALITY 



456 



IMMORTALITY 



or doubts, the doctrine of immortality from 
another stand-point. He denies, or doubts, 
the existence of any spiritual element in man. 
To him the body is all that there is ; thought 
is only a form of nervous activity. Accord- 
ingly, he is either firmly of opinion that, at 
the dissolution of the body, what we call soul 
is also dissolved and lost ; or, if he holds to 
any faith in immortality at all, he does so 
doubtfully, regarding it rather as an hypoth- 
esis than as a certain fact. Perhaps to these 
disbelievers in immortality should be add- 
ed the small class of scientific rationalists.^ 
Holding that religious truth is to be ascer- 
tained only by scientific investigation, they 
regard immortality as an hypothesis which 
science has not indeed disproved, but has not 
yet established. A small class of the anni- 
hilatiouists (q. v.) also hold that man is not 
naturally immortal, having lost by the fall 
the immortality conferred upon him in cre- 
ation, and that immortality is given only 
through faith in Jesus Christ, and alone to 
those that believe in him. 

With these exceptions, the doctrine of im- 
mortality is held, as one of the fundament- 
al doctrines of religion, by nearly all sects, 
philosophies, and denominations — Christian, 
heathen, and infidel. It rests chiefly on 
three classes of evidence. 

I. The External. — It is said that the soul 
is indivisible, and therefore indestructible ; 
that there is a universal faith of mankind 
in immortality, and that universal and intu- 
itive beliefs can not be wholly false ; that 
the soul possesses aspirations unsatisfied in 
time, and which therefore prophetically point 
to an eternity ; that its life is never round- 
ed, completed, perfected below, and thus its 
fragmentary and incomplete character com- 
pels an expectation of a future completion ; 
that matter never perishes, and force never 
ceases, but each only changes its form ; and 
that thus the analogies of nature indic,ate 
not a cessation, but only a change, of exist- 
ence at death. These cumulative arguments 
are the principal ones, in a philosophical point 
of view, employed in establishing the doc- 
trine of the immortality of the soul. Bat 
probably the faith of very few Christians 
rests upon them. Indeed, it would be diffi- 
cult to say how alone they establish an in- 
dividual existence beyond the grave, or af- 
ford any answer to the pantheist, who pro- 
fesses to believe in the continued existence 
of the soul, but merged and lost in God. 

II. Intuitive. — It is maintained by a large 
class of thinkers that certain truths, both 
religious and scientific, do not rest at all 
upon argument or reason, but are intuitive- 
ly known. Thus, it is said that the mind 
does not learn by experience that every ef- 
fect must have a cause, or that two and two 
make four ; but that it is so constituted that 
it can not conceive of an effect without a 



1 See Rationalism, 



cause, nor imagine two and two making any 
other number than four. So it is said that 
the human mind is so constituted that it can 
not escape belief in the existence of a God 
and the immortality of the soul ; that, in 
other words, as in mathematics so in relig- 
ion there are such things as axioms; and 
that these two truths are axiomatic. They 
are necessary beliefs ; we do not need to 
have them proved ; we know them to be 
true. If there be no intuitive beliefs, or if 
this be not one of them, the question at once 
occurs to every thoughtful mind, how does 
it happen that an accidental belief should 
be so nearly universal ? Those beliefs which 
rest in argument, and so on education, are 
denied or doubted by many, and held loose- 
ly and uncertainly by many more. But the 
immortality of the soul is accepted with a 
unanimity which makes belief in it the char- 
acteristic of no creed, no age, and no special 
religion. However, whether this theory of 
intuitive knowledge be correct or not, doubt- 
less the universal faith in immortality rests, 
if not in such intuitive and necessary belief, 
then in an education so universal as to pro- 
duce on the human mind an analogous effect. 

III. Scriptural. — It is said in the N. T. that 
Jesus Christ brought life and immortality 
to light,^ and some divines have drawn the 
chief arguments for the immortality of the 
soul from the Bible, especially the N. T. It 
is clear, however, that the universal faith of 
humanity in immortality does not rest upon 
the N. T. ; and though it might be thought 
that it is a traditional faith, inherited from 
early revelation made to the first races by 
God, yet the absence of any clear doctrine 
of immortality in the Pentateuch does not 
confirm this view. It is equally clear, how- 
ever, that the belief in immortality as held 
under the instruction of Jesus Christ is some- 
thing very different from the vague and 
shadowy conception entertained by heathen 
nations. The writings of the apostles abound 
with consolations derived from this doctrine. 
The writings of the ancient philosophers, 
even of those who had written theses to prove 
its truth, contain no such endeavor to de- 
duce practical consolation from it. Thus it 
may with propriety be said that Jesus Christ 
brought immortality to light, even by those 
who hold, as we do, that it is an intuitive 
belief, but one needing to be voiced and em- 
phasized by an authoritative and divine rev- 
elation. 

The question whether the O. T. teaches 
the doctrine of immortality has been very 
much discussed. It is a singular and un- 
doubted fact that the first five books of the 
Bible contain no clear and distinct declara- 
tion of this truth ; but, on the other hand, 
the intimations of immortality, even as fiir 
back as the daj^s of the patriarchs, seem to 
us to be too clear and distinct to leave a rea- 



2 Tim. i., 10. 



IMMUTABILITY 



457 



INCARNATION 



sonaWe doiTbt that the immortality of the 
soul was all hut universally believed in by 
the entire Jewish natiou from the earliest 
ages. [Gen. v., 22, 24; Exod. iii., 6, with 
Matt, xxii., 31, 32; 1 Sam. xxviii. ; 1 Kings 
xvii., 21-24 ; 2 Kings ii. ; iv., 20, 32-36 ; xiii., 
21 ; Job xiv., 13-15 ; xix. 23-27 ; Psa. xvi., 
8-11 ; xvii., 15 ; xxiii., 4 ; Ixxiii., 24-26 ; Dan. 
xii.,2, 3.] 

Immutability (unchangeaNeness), one of 
the attributes declared by Scripture to be- 
long to God.^ By this is not, however, meant 
that God is passionless, nor that he never 
changes his feelings, or even his administra- 
tion, to adapt it to the great x)urposes which 
he is executing. It is true that certain the- 
ologians have maintained the doctrine that 
there is and can be no succession of thoughts 
or feelings in the divine mind, and hence no 
emotion ; and from the premise that every 
thing is absolutely known to God from the 
beginning, they have concluded that he nev- 
er changes his methods of operation to suit 
particular exigencies. Hence they deny that 
prayer aifects him, or leads to any chauge in 
his Providence ; and they urge the duty of 
prayer only upon the ground that it is com- 
manded, or that, as a spiritual exercise, it is 
beneiicial to ourselves. But however logic- 
al such conclusions may be deemed to be, it 
will not be pretended that they are directly 
revealed in the Bible, which, on the contra- 
ry, represents God as influenced by human 
entreaty, and as changing in thought and 
feeling, though never in character or in ulti- 
mate purpose.^ The Biblical declaration of 
his immutability must be interpreted in the 
light of the fact that God is a Spirit. The 
immutability which the Bible predicates of 
him is of a spiritual nature. It only indi- 
cates that he is not subject to those changes 
which in us are the result of imperfection — 
youth, age, inadequate knowledge, increas- 
ing experience, and the like ; nor to those 
which spring from an imperfect moral na- 
ture. He is unchanging in his moral char- 
acter, and in his great aims and purposes. 
It is in this sense that " Jesus Christ is the 
same yesterday, to-day, and. forever." This, 
at least, is all that the Bible directly teaches 
concerning the immutability of God, though 
it is not all that human philosophy has de- 
duced from the Biblical teaching, or from its 
own a priori assumptions concerning the di- 
vine nature. 

Im.piitation. By imputation, in its theo- 
logical sense, is meant, first, that the sin of 
Adam is in some way attributed to his de- 
scendants, so that they are treated as though 
they were guilty because of it ; and, second, 
that the righteousness of Christ is imputed 
to the believer, so that he is treated as right- 
eous for Christ's sake. It is thus stated in 



1 Psa. xxxiii., 11 ; cii., 25-27 ; Rom. xi., 29 ; Heb. vi., 
17 ; Jas. i., 17.— 2 Gen. xviii., 23-33 ; Exod. xxxii., 
10-14 : Jouah iii., 10. 



the Westminster Catechism. Our first par- 
ents ''being the root of all mankind, the 
guilt of this (their) sin was imputed, and 
the same death in sin and corrupted nature 
conveyed to all their posterity descending 
from them by ordinary generation." " Those 
whom God effectually calleth he also freely 
justifieth .... by imputing the obedience 
and satisfaction of Christ unto them, they 
receiving and resting on him and his right- 
eousness by faith." The doctrine has been 
the subject of endless definitions and dis- 
cussions, into which we shall not attempt 
j to enter. While, undoubtedly, some theolo- 
I gians have treated the matter as though sin 
and virtue were something impersonal that 
could be transferred from one to another, 
still the sense in which the word imputation 
is ordinarily used by most theologians does 
not, and is not intended to convey any such 
idea. It is employed to convey the expres- 
sion of a fact, not of a theory — the fact that 
the human race are so organically connect- 
ed that the children suffer in consequence 
of the sins of Adam, though that this suffer- 
ing is, strictly speaking, punishment most 
modern theologians would deny. So, again, 
men receive benefits from the virtues of their 
predecessors, and pre-eminently the whole 
race reap the benefits of Christ's righteous- 
ness ; and especially those that by faith ac- 
cept him as their Saviour, are, on his ac- 
count, treated as though they were righteous. 
" It is not meant," says Mr. Barnes, in his 
"Notes on Romans," iv., 5, "that the right- 
eousness of Christ is transferred to them, so 
as to become personally theirs — for moral 
character can not be transferred — nor thafc 
it is infused into them, making them person- 
ally meritorious — for then they could not be 
spoken of as 'ungodly;' but it is meant that 
Christ died in their stead to atone for their 
sins, and is regarded and esteemed by God 
to have died for this end, and tliat the results 
or benefits of his death may be so reckoned, 
or imputed, to believers as to make it proper 
for God to regard and treat them as if they 
had themselves obeyed the law — that is, as 
righteous in his sight." 

Incarnation (in the flesh), the doctrine 
that the Divine Being has assumed human 
nature, or at least has dwelt upon the earth 
in a human form. The doctrine has been 
held in both forms in the Christian Church. 
The orthodox opinion is, that God, in Jesus 
Christ his Son, assumed not merely a human 
body, and was subject to the limitations of 
the human flesh, but also that he assumed, 
properly, a human nature, and so that he is 
at once truly God and truly man. That this 
combination of the human and divine is a 
mystery which no philosophy can fully ex- 
plain, is generally conceded. But the en- 
deavor has been made, from a very early pe- 
riod in the history of the Church, to exi^Iain 
it; and this has led to various heretical opin- 



INCENSE 



458 



INDIANS (RELIGION OF) 



ions. These opinions are briefly described 
under the article Monophysites. The Scrip- 
ture doctrine on this subject is stated briefly, 
among other passages, in John i., 14 ; Phil, 
ii., 5-11 ; and Heb. ii., 9-18. For a fuller ref- 
erence to Scripture passages bearing on the 
general subject, the reader is referred to the 
article Christology, where also the subject 
is more fully discussed. The heathen ra}^- 
thologies afi'ord some trace of the idea of an 
incarnation, some account of which the read- 
er will find under Brahmanism and Vishnu. 
A glance at the latter article will reveal how 
wide is the gulf between the Christian doc- 
trine of the incarnation and the Brahmanic- 
al conception embodied in the mythological 
Avatas of Vishnu. 

Incense.^ The incense used in the Jew- 
ish offerings was a mixture of sweet spices, 
the composition of which is very minutely 
described in the ceremonial law. It could 
be burned only by the priests — by them was 
burned twice a day on the golden altar.^ 
The Jewish rabbis declare that the object of 
the incense was to counteract the unpleas- 
ant odors which might arise from the sacri- 
fices of the victims ; but if this was one of 
the purposes, it certainly was not the only 
one. Incense was unquestionably a symbol 
of prayer and aspiration.^ Incense was also 
burned among the heathen nations ; and the 
burning of incense to false gods is spoken 
of in the Bible with condemnation.* It was 
used among the Greeks and Eomans, and 
apparently from them introduced into the 
Eomish Church. It is supposed to have been 
employed as early as the fourth or fifth cen- 
tury, and as originally, in the Jewish Church, 
perhaps for a practical purpose, being em- 
ployed in the subterranean services in the cat- 
acombs, to dispel damp and noisome smells. 
It is said by Romish writers to represent the 
preaching of the Gospel, the prayers of the 
faithful, and the virtue of saints, and to be 
a reminder, both to clergy and people, that 
they should be a sweet savor of Christ. The 
following Scripture passages are referred to 
in support of its use : Psa. cxli., 2 ; Sol. Song 
iii., 6 ; 2 Cor. ii., 14 ; Eph. v., 2 ; Rev. v., 8- 
24. See Censer. 

Incumbent, a clergyman in the Church 
of England who is in ^present possession of a 
benefice (q. v.). 

Index. There are two catalogues of books 
kept by the Church of Rome, one entitled 
"Index Prohibitorius," containing a list of 
the books which are absolutely prohibited 
by the Church ; the other, " Index Expurga- 
torius," containing a list of the books which 
are censured and corrected, chiefly by the 
expurgation of passages. When a book is 
eaid to be " put on the ludex," it is meant 



1 See illustration, Offering of Incense, under High- 
Priest, p. 432.-2 Exocl. XXX., 34-38; Lev. x., 1 ; xvi., 
13; Luke i., 8, 9; Rev. viii., 1, 3.-3 Psa. cxii., 2.— 
* 1 Kings xii., 33 ; xiii., 1 ; 2 Kings xvii., 11 ; 2 Chrou. 
xxviii., 3. 



that it is placed on one or the other of these 
catalogues by the ecclesiastical authorities 
at Rome. 

India. It is evident that India as men- 
tioned in Esth. i., 1 ; viii., 9, did not include 
the peninsula of Hindoostan, but the dis- 
tricts around the Indus, the Punjab, and, it 
may be, Scinde. India in the same sense oc- 
curs in the Apocrypha. But although India 
proper is not named in Scripture, yet it is 
very likely that Solomon and the Tyrians 
carried on an Indian trade ; and, at a later 
period, natives of that country were, very 
probably, employed in guiding the elephants 
which were used in war. ■ 

Indians (North American, Religion of). 
The religion of the North American Indians 
is a curious combination of spirit -worship 
and fetish - worship. Their conception of 
the Great Spirit is devoid of almost every 
thing which constitutes the glory of the God 
of revelation. There is no attempt to impute 
to him the attribute of justice, or to make 
man accountable to him here or hereafter for 
aberrations from virtue. For the most part, 
the Indian conceptions of deity seem to have 
been connected with the phenomena of the 
meteorological or atmospheric world, and 
with their observations concerning light and 
fire. The highest good is generally symbol- 
ized as the storm-god or the sun-god ; these 
being sometimes blended, and sometimes dis- 
tinct. The god of light is often spoken of 
as the founder of the nation, sometimes as its 
progenitor, or as introducing arts, sciences, 
and laws, and as having led them in their 
earliest wanderings. The sun -god is the 
dispenser of all radiance and fertility, the 
being by whose light and heat all creatures 
were generated and sustained, the highest 
pitch of excellence ; and even when trans- 
formed into a god of battle, and worshiped 
with horrid and incongruous rites, or fed by 
human hecatombs, he never ceased to occu- 
py the foremost rank among the good divin- 
ities. Numerous subordinate hostile deities, 
who created discord, sickness, death, and ev- 
ery possible form of evil, in many cases are 
reputed to exist under the leadership of the 
moon. 

Manito, or Manedo, appears to have no per- 
sonal meaning, but to be equivalent to " spir- 
it," or " a spirit," perhaps somewhat akin to 
our thought of a guardian spirit. The In- 
dian conceives every department of the uni- 
verse to be filled with these invisible spirits, 
holding the same relation to matter that the 
soul does to the body; and in accordance 
with which, not only every man, but every 
animal, has a soul, and is endowed with 
a reasoning faculty. Dreams are a means 
of direct communication with the spiritual 
world, and are generally regarded as the 
friendly warnings of their personal manitos. 
No labor or enterprise is undertaken against 



INDUCTION 



459 



INDULGENCES 



times turned back by dreams of the officia- 
ting priest. Tliese personal spirits are in- 
voked to give success in hunting. They are, 
however, of varied ability, and there is a 
constant fear lest the manito of a neighbor 
may prove more powerful than one's own. 

The immortality of the human soul is uni- 
versally believed by the North American In- 
dians. Among all the tribes, from the Arc- 
tic region to the tropics, the abode of the 
departed soul is declared to be where the 
highest good, i. e., where light comes from, 
or, in other w^ords, in the sun-realm. Hence 
the soul is variously said to go at death to- 
ward the east, or toward the west, the place 
of the coming or departure of the light ; or, 
among some northern tribes, to whom the sun 
lay in a southern direction, the soul is said 
to go tow^ard the south. It is in this realm 
of light, or sphere of the sun-god, that this 
permanent soul finds its ultimate home. But 
the Indian's idea of immortality is a gross 
one. Food is deposited at the grave to sup- 
ply its hunger, clothes are wrapped about 
the body to guard it from cold, and the hunt- 
ing implements are buried w^ ith it for future 
use ; and there is but little trace, if any, of 
a clear conception of a system of future re- 
wards and punishments. 

The Indian priests were also their doctors, 
or " medicine - men ;" disease was, in their 
opinion, a result of witchcraft, or an inflic- 
tion of an evil spirit, whom the medicine- 
men were expected to drive away. For this 
purpose, they sucked and blew upon the dis- 
eased organ, sprinkled it with water, rubbed 
the parts with their hands, and made an im- 
age representative of the spirit of sickness, 
and knocked it to pieces. They were much 
skilled in tricks of legerdemain, setting fire 
to articles of clothing, and instantly extin- 
guishing the flames by magic ; they sum- 
moned spirits to answer questions about the 
future, were reputed to be even able to raise 
the dead ; they consecrated amulets, inter- 
preted dreams, cast horoscopes, rehearsed le- 
gends, performed sacrifices, and, in short, con- 
stituted the chief centre of the intellectual 
force of the people. For a fuller account 
of the 'religious beliefs and practices of the 
North American Indians, the reader is refer- 
red to the article entitled Indians (Ameri- 
can), in M'Clintock and Strong's " Cyclo- 
paedia," from which most of our statements 
have been taken. 

Induction, in the Church of England a 
term used to denote putting a minister in 
actual possession of the church to which he 
is presented, along with all its temporalities. 

Indulgences. Indulgences in the Roman 
Catholic Church are not a permission to sin, 
but a remission of what are termed the tem- 
poral penalties of sin. According to Roman 
Catholic theology, Jesus Christ does not af- 
ford a full and free pardon for sin, but only 
redeems us from its eternal punishment. It 



still remains necessary for the soul of the be- 
liever, ordinarily, to suffer in this life certain 
penances (q. v.), and in the life to come the 
pains of Purgatory (q. v.), both as a satisfac- 
tion for his sins and as a means of purifying 
him of them. Indulgence is the remission 
by the priest of these penalties, in consider- 
ation of certain good works which are them- 
selves accepted as a satisfaction for sin, and 
as a substitute for the needed discipline. 
Personal works, however, are not the only 
substitute. The sufferings and death of Jesus 
Christ, it is said, not' only made a sufficient 
satisfaction for the sins of men, but also ac- 
quired a superabundance of merit. This has 
been continually increased by the works of 
supererogation of the saints and martyrs. 
This forms a vast treasure from which the 
Church is authorized to draw, and bestow 
upon those who have no merit of their own. 
It is thus the Church is enabled to grant 
indulgences to those who would otherwise 
have to bear in penance or Purgatory the 
temporal punishment of their sins. In- 
dulgences are of two kinds, plenary and par- 
tial. A partial indulgence delivers from pun- 
ishment only in part, as forty days, a year, 
and the like. A plenary indulgence deliv- 
ers from all temporal j)unishment of sin com- 
mitted up to the time of receiving the boon. 
The benefit of indulgence can be gained only 
by the children of God, i. e., by those who 
are in communion with the Church, and upon 
condition that the required good works be 
performed exactly as prescribed. Moreover, 
to get the fall benefit of a, plenary indulgence, 
"it is also necessary to have a perfect re- 
pentance and sincere detestation of all our 
sins." But this appears not to be required 
to gain a partial indulgence. 

Such is the theory of the Roman Catholic 
Church, on which the doctrine of indulgence 
rests. The actual practice, even as main- 
tained at the present day, surpasses belief. 
" He who hears mass gains an indulgence of 
three thousand eight hundred years. They 
who say. Blessed be the holy, immaculate, 
and most pure conception of the Blessed Vir- 
gin Mary," gain an indulgence of a hundred 
years. To those who say the Hail, Holy 
Queen, is granted an indulgence of forty days. 
For saying the Litany of the Blessed Vir- 
gin, there is an indulgence of two hundred 
days ; for pronouncing the names of Jesus 
and Mary, twenty-five days ; and for bowing 
the head at these names, twenty-five days 
more. They who say five Paters and Aves in 
honor of the passion of Jesus Christ and the 
sorrows of the Virgin Mary, gain an indul- 
gence of ten thousand years. An indulgence 
of a hundred days is granted to those who 
genuflect before the most holy sacrament ; 
to those who kiss the cross, an indulgence 
of a year and four days ; to those who bow 
at the Gloria Patri, thirty days ; to those 
who kiss the religious habit, five years ; to 



INFALLIBILITY 



460 



INFALLIBILITY 



priests who recite before mass "Ego volo 
celebrare missam/' etc., fifty days. 

Among other conditions for which indul- 
gences were formerly granted more than 
now, was the contribution of money to the 
Church. This led to the sale of indulgences, 
which speedily grew into a shameful traffic, 
which aroused the indignation and opposi- 
tion of pure and pious souls both within and 
without the Church. This traffic reached 
its height in the beginning of the sixteenth 
century, under Leo X., who published indul- 
gences to all who should contribute toward 
the erection of St. Peter's at Rome. His 
chief agent for the sale of indulgences in 
Germany was one John Tetzel. The noto- 
rious vices of Tetzel did not prevent him 
from being selected as the bearer of these 
pardons to other purer souls, and no extrav- 
agance seemed to him too great, so that it 
brought money to his coffers. He declared 
that the red cross which accompanied him 
wherever he went had as great efficacy as 
the cross of Christ — that there was no sin 
so great that he could not remit it. " Even 
if any one should (which is doubtless impos- 
sible) ravish the Holy Virgin, Mother of God, 
let him pay, let him only pay largely, and it 
shall be forgiven him. Even repentance is 
not indispensable." "Indulgences save not 
the living alone, they also save the dead. 
The very moment that the money chinks 
against the bottom of the chest, the soul es- 
capes from Purgatory and flies free to heav- 
en." Such were some of his blasphemous 
declarations. A regular scale of prices was 
established. "Polygamy cost six ducats; 
sacrilege and perjury, nine; murder, eight ; 
witchcraft, two." It was this open and 
shameless traffic which, more than any thing 
else, led to the Reformation. Indulgences 
continue to be granted, not only for acts of 
worship, but also for contributions in money 
to the Church ; but the public and open sale 
of indulgences is now banished, for the most 
part, from the Church of Rome. 

Infallibility, the quality of not being lia- 
ble to be deceived, or to lead others astray. 
All theologians, both Protestant and Roman 
Catholic, agree that infallibility is an attri- 
bute which belongs naturally to God alone. 
Nearly all theologians, both Protestants and 
Roman Catholics, also agree that, to a cer- 
tain extent, and under certain limitations, 
and for certain specified purposes, he has 
imparted this attribute, or power, to man. 
Protestants as a class believe that it was 
imparted to the inspired writers of the Bi- 
ble, but only for the purpose of writing the 
sacred books, and only to such an extent as 
to save them from all error on matters of 
religious faith and practice, and to render 
their writings on such matters an infallible 
guide. It can not be said with strict accu- 
racy that the writers were infallible. But 
God, who alone is infallible, so far imparted 



the perfect truth to them as to preserve them 
from all error on topics connected with the 
moral and religious welfare of mankind. 
The Roman Catholic divines, differing in this 
respect from all Protestant writers, hold that 
divine inspiration, and consequent infallibil- 
ity, is not confined to the writers of the Bi- 
ble, but is imparted by God to his Church, as 
a permanent gift for all time. Thus they 
hold that the Church, rather than the Bible, 
is the infallible guide in faith and practice, 
not because the priests and bishops, or even 
the pope himself, possess naturally the attri- 
bute of infallibility, but because, as they al- 
lege, these officers, whom they claim to be 
the successors of the apostles, inherit their 
divine gift of inspiration, and therefore their 
divine quality of infallibility. They con- 
cede also that the priests, bishops, or even 
popes, may be ignorant and even wicked 
men, but maintain that this does not pre- 
vent them from being infallible teachers of 
divine truth when they speak as officers of 
the Church, and under what they claim to 
be the inspiration of the Almighty. In sup- 
port of this doctrine, they refer to Matt, 
xxviii., 19, 20 ; Luke x., 16 ; xx., 21 ; Acts 
XX., 25 ; 2 Tim. i., 14 ; ii., 2. 

The Roman Catholics are not, however, 
agreed among themselves as to the doctrine 
of infallibility. They are divided into two 
great parties. One holds that the attribute 
of infallibility belongs to the entire Church, 
and that it is only infallible in respect to 
those matters in which the great body of its 
bishops and other higher orders of the cler- 
gy are agreed. This agreement may be tacit, 
or it may be expressed. When expressed, it 
is through the discussions of an ecumenical 
council (q. v.), which, in their opinion, alone 
has authority to speak for God. But the de- 
cisions of such councils, when they truly rep- 
resent the entire Church, are, in their belief, 
inspired by the Spirit of God, and are there- 
fore final and conclusive, and of binding au- 
thority upon all mankind. It is true that a 
large number in the Roman Catholic com- 
munion refuse to recognize as binding or 
authoritative the decision of the late Ecu- 
menical Council decreeing papal infallibili- 
ty ; but they put their refusal to do so upon 
the grounds (1.) that it violates previous de- 
cisions of former ecumenical councils ; (2.) 
that it did not secure any thing like the 
unanimous consent of the Church, a large 
minority refusing to give their sanction to 
the decree; (3.) that the Council itself was 
not free and unbiased, and did not truly rep- 
resent the whole body of the Church. The 
other partly in the Roman Catholic Church 
maintain the personal infallibility of the 
pope — that is, they hold that, not the en- 
tire Church, but the pope, as the authorized 
and divinely-appointed head of the Church, 
is the infallible guide and teacher, the one 
whose decisions are final and conclusive, be- 



INFALLIBILITY 



461 



INFIDELITY 



cause, as they claim, inspired by God. This 
doctriue of papal infallibility, as explained 
by its advocates, indeed as finally phrased by 
the Council of the Vatican, does not declare 
that the pope is sinless, nor that, as a man 
and acting unofficially, he is infallible, but 
that " when speaking ex cathedra — that is to 
say, when fulfilling the charge of pastor and 
doctor of all Christians, in virtue of his su- 
preme apostolical authority — he defines that 
a doctrine regarding faith or morals ought 
to be held by the Universal Church, he en- 
joys fully, by the divine assistance which 
has been promised him in the person of the 
blessed Peter, that infallibility which the di- 
vine Redeemer wished his Church to have 
in defining his doctrine touching faith or 
morals ; and, consequently, such definitions 
of the Roman pontiff are unchangeable in 
themselves, and not in virtue of the approv- 
al of the Church." In other words, that in- 
fallibility which the Roman Catholic Church 
has always claimed is, by this decree, at- 
tempted to be transferred from the Council 
to the pope. 

It is impossible for us to enter here into 
a consideration of the arguments by which 
the doctrine of papal infallibility is main- 
tained. It is based by its advocates, not 
upon the Scripture, nor upon reason, but 
upon the tradition of the Church and the de- 
cree of the Council. Inasmuch as the Prot- 
estant does not recognize the authority of 
either the Church tradition or the decree, 
the arguments which are based upon them 
are utterly without force to his mind. But 
it is a noteworthy fact that these arguments 
do not carry conviction even to Roman Cath- 
olics, and that a powerful minority in the 
Church of Rome assert that this doctrine 
of papal infallibility is as inconsistent with 
the tradition and history of the Church as 
it is with Scripture. They refer to the per- 
sonal history of Peter himself, whom Paul 
'' withstood to the face because he was to be 
blamed ;" they recall the history of the great 
Apostolical Council at Jerusalem, whose de- 
cree was the result of a free and fraternal con 
ference of the coequal apostles ; they show, 
by a careful examination of the writings of 
the Greek and Latin fathers, that not a sen- 
tence is to be found therein, even by impli- 
cation, favoring the dogma of papal infalli- 
bility ; they point out how impossible would 
have been the theological controversies which 
rent the Church in the first centuries of its 
existence, and which were settled only after 
years of fierce discussion by successive coun- 
cils, if a papal bull was all that was need- 
ed for their determination — how neither the 
pope nor his legates took part in the First 
Council of Constantinople, in 381 — how the 
declaration of Innocent I. and Gelasius L, 
concerning the damnation of unbq,ptized in- 
fants was anathematized by the Council of 
Trent — how the decree of Celestin III., con- 



cerning marriage with heretics, was annulled 
by Innocent III., and its author pronounced 
a heretic for issuing it by Hadrian VI. — how 
Honorius I. was condemned for heresy, and 
his writings publicly burned by the Third 
Council of Coustantinople, in the seventh 
century — how the Bible of Sixtus V. was 
suppressed by his successor in office for its 
innumerable errors — how Pope Calixto was 
a Sabellian, Pope Liberio an Ariau, Pope 
Zosimo a Pelagian — how the dogma of pa- 
pal infallibility, never seriously maintained 
in the Church till the thirteenth century, has 
been repeatedly and officially denied since, 
as in the ^' Oath and Declaration " taken by 
the Irish Catholics in 1793, and reiterated by 
a synod of Irish bishops in 1810 — and how, 
in a catechism of the Church, indorsed by 
Archbishop Manning himself, published as 
late as the beginning of the present century, 
it was emphatically denounced as a '' Prot- 
estant invention." Such is a very brief and 
inadequate statement of some of the historic- 
al arguments brought in the Council of the 
Vatican itself against the decree of papal in- 
fallibility, even by those who were high in 
the Church of Rome, and earnest maintain- 
ers of the doctrine of the infallibility of the 
decisions of that Church in its collective ca- 
pacity. See Ecumenical Council. 

Infidelity, a word of general import, sig- 
nifying unbelief. It is applied generally to 
the views of all those who deny the essen- 
tial tenets of any religion. Thus, to the 
Mohammedan the Christian is an infidel, and 
to the Christian the Mohammedan is no less 
an infidel. In Christian literature the term 
infidel ia usually applied, however (and ordi- 
narily opprobriously), to all those who deny 
that Christianity is a supernatural religion 
— i. e., who deny the inspiration of the Bible, 
the divine work and mission of Jesus Christ, 
and the realities of the miracles and the 
prophecies. Being at once an opprobrious 
and a vague term, it were better to drop it 
out of our vocabulary altogether, and sub- 
stitute either the less obnoxious and more 
significant one of unbelief, or else the word 
which more properly defines the degree of 
unbelief, as atheist, deist, or rationalist. 

Infidelity is as various in spirit as in form. 
Doubtless it is frequently only a cover for 
immorality and vice. This was, to a large ex- 
tent, the case respecting the infidelity which 
characterized the period of the French Rev- 
olution. Sometimes it accompanies a seem- 
ing reverence, or even superstition. Thus 
in Italy, while there is a very general re- 
gard paid to the external rites of the Church, 
there is a great deal of avowed infidelity 
respecting not only its peculiar tenets, bnt 
concerning the fundamental doctrines of the 
Christian religion. The same fact is seen 
in heathen countries. Thus in India, while 
the worship and rites of Brahm are still 
maintained, the intelligent portion of the 



INFIDELITY 



462 



INHERITANCE 



people disavow all belief in Brahmanism. 
They maintain a pure deism — i. e., belief in 
one God, without any accompanying faith in 
the Christian revelation ; but they still con- 
tinue to support the heathen ceremonies, on 
account of their supposed value to the com- 
mon people. Sometimes it is the result of 
a reaction against the corruptions of the 
Church. This probably is the cause of a 
great proportion of German, and much of 
French, infidelity, which is largely a mis- 
guided protest against Roman Catholicism. 
And sometimes it is a purely intellectual 
philosophy, the product of a spirit of doubt 
and disbelief, the result, perhaps, of a reac- 
tion from the excessive credulity and super- 
stition which have preceded it. In the case 
of the latter two forms of infidelity, it is oft- 
en accompanied by a pure life, and is intel- 
ligent and sincere, though frequently, if not 
generally, produced in part by an intellect- 
ual pride which prevents any thorough in- 
vestigation of the claims of that Christiani- 
ty, which is usually somewhat supercilious- 
ly rejected. Thus it is stated that Thomas 
Paine wrote his "Age of Reason " without 
having a Bible with him, or the opportunity 
to consult one, and that Hume admitted that 
he never read the Bible with attention. 

The history of infidelity would afford an 
interesting study ; an impartial history of it 
has never been written. The changes which 
have been wrought in it afford a striking 
testimony to the power of Christianity. The 
earliest infidelity — that with which the apos- 
tles and their immediate successors had to 
contend — ridiculed Christianity as an ab- 
surd imposture, or held it up to the execra- 
tion of mankind as a system of licentious- 
ness, vice, and crime. Then followed the 
declaration that Christianity was a system 
of priestcraft and superstition, maintained 
by selfish and tyrannical governments for 
the purpose of keeping the people in sub- 
jection — an opinion which received some 
support from the corrupted form of Chris- 
tianity which existed in Europe prior to 
the Reformation, and in the Roman Catho- 
lic countries of Europe subsequent to that 
time. This form of infidelity attained its 
most blasphemous expression in the litera- 
ture of the French encyclopaidists, one of 
whom, Voltaire, is said to have inscribed on 
his seal, with reference to Jesus Christ, the 
words, " Down with the wretch." This mad- 
ness of infidelity gave way to the more in- 
telligent doctrine of German and English 
skepticism. This began by asserting that 
the gospels were not written at the time 
they bear date, or by the authors to whom 
they are attributed, but were the gradual 
production of a later age, and with some 
foundation of truth combine a large admix- 
ture of fable and myth. This, substantially 
the view entertained by Strauss, and elabo- 
rately maintained by him in his " Life of 



Christ," has now, to a large extent, given 
place to the view of what is known as that 
of the Tubingen school, which, admitting the 
substantial truth of the N. T. narrative, still 
regards it all as written for a dogmatic, or 
controversial, purpose, which impairs its his- 
torical authority. In England and America 
the most potent form of infidelity is that 
which rests upon a scientific foundation, and 
which denies the supernatural character of 
Christianity because it is supposed to con- 
flict with the order and symmetry of nature, 
and the immutability of the God of nature. 
This latest phase of disbelief does not at- 
tack, but commends Christianity as a sys- 
tem of morals ; it does not assail Jesus Christ, 
but honors him as the highest, best, and 
purest of men. It even claims the name of 
Christ, and is taught by some who, while 
they deny the divine mission and character 
of Jesus, still call themselves Christ's minis- 
ters. So that at the present day the contro- 
versy between infidelity in its modern and 
intelligent form and the Christian Church 
is narrowed down to the single issue wheth- 
er the religion taught by Jesus Christ be a 
divine gift to man, or only a human philos- 
ophy, on which the story of the miracles 
and the supernatural birth of Jesus Christ 
and his resurrection have been ingrafted, 
either by later tradition or by very early 
teachers, for the purpose of adding some 
imaginary strength to its tenets. For an 
account of the various forms of unbelief, 
see Atheism ; Deism ; Rationalism ;. Mate- 
rialism ; Pantheism ; Idealism ; and Pos- 
itivism. 

Inheritance. The Hebrew institutions 
relative to inheritance were of a very sim- 
ple character. Under the patriarchal sys- 
tem, the property was divided among the 
sons of the legitimate wives, a larger portion 
being assigned to one, generally the eldest, 
on whom devolved the duty of maintaining 
the females of the family. In earlier times 
the sons of concubines were portioned off 
with presents; but at a later period they 
were rigidly excluded from the inheritance. 
Daughters had no share in the patrimony, 
but received a marriage portion. The Mo- 
saic law regulated the succession to real 
property thus : it was to be divided among 
the sons, the eldest receiving a double por- 
tion, the others equal shares. If there were 
no sons, it went to the daughters, on the 
condition that they did not marry out of 
their own tribe, otherwise the patrimony 
was forfeited. If there were no daughters, 
it went to the brother of the deceased ; if 
no brother, to the paternal uncle ; and, fail- 
ing these, to the next of kin.^ If any one 
alienated or mortgaged his inheritance, it 
could be only for a term of years. The land 
was Jehovah's as sovereign Lord, and, as 



1 Geu. xxi., 10; xxiv., 36; xxv., 5, 6; Numb, xxvii., 
8-11 ; xxxvi., 6sq. ; Deut. xxi., 17. 



INN 



463 



INQUISITION 



held under liini, it must descend in the course 
he prescribed. In the year of Jubilee, there- 
fore, every possession returned to the line of 
its original owner. So that land could be 
mortgaged only till the next jubilee; and 
the value was greater or less according to 
the distance of the time of general release. 
The person who had so mortgaged or alien- 
ated his inheritance might, with some ex- 
ceptions, either himself or by his kinsman, 
redeem it before the jubilee, paying accord- 
ing to the number of years which remained 
till that time.^ Wills, under such legal dis- 
positions, were little needed ; and we do not 
read of them in the O. T. 

Inn. The word so rendered literally sig- 
nifies " a lodging-place for the night." In the 
East, where hospitality is religiously prac- 
ticed, inns in our sense of the term were an- 
ciently unknown, and are even now hardly 
to be met with, except where established 
by Europeans. It is doubtful whether the 
khans, or caravansaries even, which are the 




Eastern luu. 

representatives of our inns, existed so early 
as the time of Joseph.'^ The " resting-place 
for the night " Avas very probably but a sta- 
tion at which caravans were wont to rest, 
near to a well, to trees, and to pasture, where 
the tents were pitched and the cattle were 
tethered. As traveling became more fre- 
quent, and the accommodation of wayfarers 
became a burden, it is likely that the custom 
was introduced, which still exists, of the 
inhabitants of the place making an allow- 
ance to the chief to enable him to entertain 
strangers. Then, too, on the more frequent- 
ed routes remote from towns, caravansaries 
were in course of time erected, often at the 
expense of the wealthy. These khans, or car- 
avansaries, were, and still are, large struc- 
tures where men and cattle can find room to 
rest, but which provide neither food for man 
nor fodder for cattle. Many such khans 
were placed at regular intervals in Persia. 
To such a place was it, though already crowd- 
ed, that Joseph and Mary resorted at Beth- 
lehem.^ From the reference in Luke x., 34, 



1 Lev. XXV., 23-34.-2 Geu. xlii., 27; xliii., 21; Exod. 
iv., 24.-3 Luke ii., 7. 



35, it appears that the khan, or inn, had some- 
times a keeper, or host. Among the Egyp- 
tians, and indeed among the ancients gener- 
ally, the keepers of houses of public enter- 
tainment were always women. Hence we 
can easily account for the ready admission 
which the spies obtained into the house of 
Rahab, situated, as such liouses generally 
were, at the gate of the town.' 

Inquisition, called also the Holy Office, a 
tribunal in the Roman Catholic Church for 
the discovery, repression, and punishment of 
heresy, unbelief, and other supposed ofienses 
against religion. From the very first estab- 
lishment of Christianity as the religion of 
the Roman Empire, laws existed for the re- 
pression and punishment of dissent from the 
national creed, and the emperors Theodosius 
and Justinian appointed officials called in- 
quisitors. But it was not until 1248 that a 
special tribunal for the purpose was insti- 
tuted, the chief direction of which was vest- 
ed in the then recently established Domin- 
ican Order. The Inquisition 
thus constituted became a 
general tribunal, and was 
introduced in succession 
into Italy, Spain, Germany, 
and Southern France. Over 
the French and German Iut 
quisition of the following 
century the popes exercised 
full authority. In France 
the Inquisition was discon- 
tinued under Philip the 
Handsome, and an attempt 
under Henry II. to revive it 
against the Huguenots was 
unsuccessful. In Germany, 
on the appearance of the 
Beghards (q.v.),in the beginning of the four- 
teenth century, the Inquisition came into act- 
ive operation, and inquisitors for Germany 
were named at intervals by various popes 
down to the Reformation, when it fell into 
disuse. In England it was never received, 
all the proceedings against heresy being re- 
served for the ordinary tribunals. 

But it is the history of the Inquisition as 
it existed in Spain and Portugal, and their 
dependencies, that has awakened the great- 
est interest. Early in the reign of Ferdi- 
nand and Isabella, in consequence of the 
alarms created by an alleged plot among the 
Jews and Jewish converts to overthrow the 
government, an application was made to the 
pope, Sixtus IV., to permit the reorganiza- 
tion of the Inquisition. But the crown as- 
sumed to itself the right of appointing the 
inquisitors, and, in truth, of controlling the 
entire action of the tribunal. 

From this date forward the Spanish In- 
quisition nmst be regarded as in part a polit- 
ical, in part an ecclesiastical tribunal. For 
its acknowledged excesses the Roman Cath- 



1 Josh, ii., 1. See Rauab. 



INQUISITION 



464 



INSPIRATION 



olic writers deny that the Roman Catholic 
Church is responsible, and it is undoubted- 
ly true that they Avere at times protested 
against by the popes. Unhappily, their pro- 
tests were ineffective to control the fanatical 
activity of the local judges. It is affirmed 
by Llorento that during the sixteen years 
of Torquemada's tenure of office nearly nine 
thousand persons were condemned to the 
flames. The second head of the Inquisition, 
Diego Deza, in eight years, according to the 
same writer, put above sixteen hundred to 
a similar death. These figures are not only 
denied by Roman Catholic historians, but 
are also doubted even by such Protestant 
writers as Prescott and Ranke. Still, with 
all the deductions possible, the Inquisition in 
Spain and its dependencies was guilty of an 
appalling amount of cruelty. The rigor of 
the Spanish Inquisition abated in the latter 
part of the seventeenth century, and the tri- 
bunal was entirely suppressed under Joseph 
Bonaparte in 1808. Several attempts have 
been made toward its restoration, and as late 
as 1857 it showed considerable vigor in per- 
secuting all persons suspected of heresy, and 
in destroying all heretical, i. e,, Protestant 
books. But the recent political changes in 
Spain have destroyed this cruel and inhu- 
man tribunal, which resorted to every form 
of unchristian cruelty in the name of the 
Christian religion. It continued in Rome and 
the Papal States uj) to 1870, though its histo- 
ry there presents few authenticated instances 
of capital punishment for heresy, and of late 
years its action has been chiefly confined 
to the condemnation of heretical books and 
the trial of ecclesiastical offenses. With the 
overthrow of the temporal power of the pope, 
its power to torture and to persecute has, let 
lis hope forever, come to an end. Yet it 
ought not to be forgotten that the recent 
Council of the Vatican declares in explicit 
terms the supreme jurisdiction of the pope, 
''not only in. things which belong to faith 
and morals, but also in those things which 
relate to the discipline and government of 
the Church," and that the pope as emphat- 
ically denounces as an error the opinion that 
the Church may not resort to force to main- 
taiu its authority. 

The procedure of the Inquisition deserves 
a brief notice. The party, if suspected or 
denounced, was liable. to be detained in pris- 
on until it might seem fit to his judges to 
give him a trial. The proceedings were con- 
ducted secretly. The tortures were of a kind 
which almost surpasses belief; but the reali- 
ty of their existence is made only too certain, 
not only by indisputable testimony, but also 
by relics of the Inquisition which still exist 
to testify to the diabolical cruelty of man 
when under the influence of a malignant re- 
ligious fanaticism. The limbs were dislo- 
cated ; the bones were broken singly ; the 
prisoner was roasted at a slow fire ; he was 



half buried in lime and earth, and left to dife 
of starvation. Physicians watched the proc- 
ess of torture, and stopped it when merciful 
death threatened to intervene ; and the vic- 
tim was then allowed to recover his strength, 
that the torture might be repeated a second, 
and even a third time. These tortures were 
inflicted, ordinarily, not as a punishment for 
the offense, but as a means of compelling the 
accused to confess, to retract, or to implicate 
others. And there is no doubt that, espe- 
cially in Spain, the Inquisition was frequent- 
ly used as a means of private and personal 
revenge — that Roman Catholics whose alle- 
giance to the Church was indisputable, were 
unjustly accused of heresy, either by some 
vindictive enemy, or frequently as a means 
of securing the confiscation of their estates 
for the benefit either of the accuser, or for 
the inquisitors themselves. In judging of 
such monstrous violations both of justice 
and charity, practiced in the name of the 
Christian religion, and under the form of 
law, we ought to remember that they were 
not confined to ecclesiastical tribunals, al- 
though they reached their most hideously 
cruel forms therein, but were also employed 
in the civil tribunals of the age, though to a 
less degree. For it was not until years af- 
ter that the maxim, not yet fully recognized 
in Continental law, came, even in England, 
to be adopted, that every man is to be pre- 
sumed innocent until he .is proved guilty. 
Indeed, the excesses of the Inquisition un- 
doubtedly contributed much toward the gen- 
eral acceptance and adoption of this legal 
maxim. 

Inspiration {in-'breatMng). This term is 
used to indicate the influence which is exert- 
ed by the divine mind upon the human. But 
as applied to Scripture, it signifies the belief 
entertained by all Christendom that the Old 
and New Testaments are not the products 
of human thought only, but were written 
under the direct influence of God. The word 
inspiration thus differs from revelation (q. 
v.). The latter signifies something before 
unknown, and revealed or disclosed to the 
mind by God. It is evident that in this 
sense the whole Scriptures are not a revela- 
tion. The writers of the Gospels, for exam- 
ple, did not write what was revealed to them, 
as the life and sufferings of the Messiah were 
revealed to Isaiah, but what they had seen 
and heard, or gathered from the accounts of 
their contemporaries. In a general way the 
doctrine of inspiration may be said to be 
that the sacred penmen, in all their work, 
whether they wrote what they learned by 
human agency or what was divinely reveal- 
ed to them, acted under the special iufliience 
of the divine Spirit guiding them, refreshing 
their recollection, guarding them from par- 
tiality and prejudice, and preserving them 
from all errors which could materially affect 
the moral and religious value of their writ- 



INSPIRATION 



465 



INSPIRATION 



ings. That the writers of the Scriptures thus 
acted under a divine inspiration is the al- 
most universal belief of Christendom. A sim- 
ilar faith is also entertained by nearly all 
nations respecting their sacred writings ; for 
there is scarcely any people which does not 
have its living prophet, its divine oracle, or 
its inspired book. The belief is natural. If 
we are to suppose that God is our Father, and 
that we are his children, we might reason- 
ably expect, in our sorrow and ignorance, 
to receive some communications from him, 
some light to guide, some comfort to sustain. 
And if this general principle be conceded — 
if it be supposed that literature does contain 
inspired writings, it is hardly necessary for 
our purpose to institute a comparison be- 
tween the Bible and the sacred writings of 
other nations — the Koran, the Shastra, the 
Veda, and the like — for the purpose of de- 
termining which of them is entitled to be 
received by us. The question what really 
constitute the books of the Bible, and are to 
be received as coming from God, is a more 
difficult question. It has been discussed else- 
i^ where.^ But while nearly all Christians are 
agreed that the Bible is in some sense the 
inspired word of God, they very widely dis- 
agree when they attempt to define the char- 
acter and extent of the inspiration. The 
Scrij)tural statement that holy men of God 
spake as they were moved by the Holy Ghost,'^ 
recognizes both a divine and a human ele- 
ment in the Bible, but without attempting 
to define the limits of either ; and it is in 
the attempt to make this definition that the 
greatest divergences on the subject have 
arisen. Referring the reader to the theolog- 
ical treatises for the arguments upon which 
the Protestant doctrine of inspiration is 
based, we shall indicate briefly the different 
forms in which the doctrine is held. 

I. By Verbal Inspiration is meant the im- 
mediate communication to the writers of ev- 
ery word and syllable and letter of what 
they wrote. It has even been supposed that 
the writers were in a state of ecstasy, in 
which their own moral life was suspended, 
and wrote in a state of semi- unconscious- 
ness, with little or no understanding of the 
subject. It is possible that this may have 
been the case in respect to some of the proph- 
ecies,^ but it seems quite clear that it is im- 
possible to reconcile the verbal differences 
which not infrequently occur in the historic- 
al books upon such an hypothesis. Thus, for 
example, the four evangelists give each an 
account of the inscription placed over the 
cross of Christ ; and all four reports, agreeing 
in substance, differ in phraseology. This is 
just what we should expect if the vrriters un- 
der a divine inspiration, keeping them from 
partiality, prejudice, and material error, re- 



1 See Apoceypha ; Bible ; Canon.— 2 2 Pet. i., 21. — 
3 Isa. vi., 8; XXX., 1, 8 ; Ezek. xsvL, 1, 3 ; xxvii., 1 ; 
MaL i., 2; comp. Acts ii., 41. 
30 



corded what they remembered to have seen 
and heard ; but it is difficult to reconcile it 
with the theory that God dictated the very 
words to them. It is certain that the Bible 
itself nowhere directly defines inspiration in 
this way ; nor is it necessary to believe that 
the sacred writers were mere amanuenses, 
in order to accept the divine authority of 
their writings. Indeed, it would seem that 
even those who hold the doctrine of verl>al 
inspiration employ the language in a tech- 
nical, or theological, sense, since they gen- 
erally maintain that it is entirely consistent 
with the greatest diversity of mental en- 
dowments in the writers, and the most dili- 
gent and laborious study upon their part. 

II. Plenary Inspiration is a general term, 
meaning inspiration which is full, complete, 
entire. It is not easy to give an accurate 
definition of the phrase, or one that those 
who most employ it would agree in accept- 
ing. It may, perhaps, however, be taken as 
a designation of the faith of those who be- 
lieve the Bible to be inspired in all its parts, 
and the writers in all their faculties. That 
is, there are many who hold that every state- 
ment of the inspired writers, whether moral 
and religious, or only chronological or sci- 
entific, is literally true ; that it is necessary, 
for example, to suppose that the writer of 
the history of the creation had divinely re- 
vealed to him an accurately scientific ac- 
count of the process by which the world was 
formed, and that it is necessary to reconcile 
his history with the teachings of later sci- 
ence ; that the Hebrew chronology is to be 
accepted as a divine and authoritative state- 
ment of the course of ancient history, and 
that with it are to be adjusted the teachings 
which are afforded by recent archaeologic- 
al investigations in the ancient empires of 
Egypt and Assyria. This hypothesis was for- 
merly held more extensively than at the 
present day ; still, Luther recognized as fully 
as the most advanced of modern Christian 
theologians the difficulties which attend this 
view. It renders it necessary either to com- 
bat the revelations of science on purely the- 
ological grounds — as the Romish Church did 
the teachings of Galileo, because they seemed 
to contradict the statement that God caused 
the sun to stand still at Joshua's command 
— or to find in some new interpretation of 
Scripture a reconciliation of the new sci- 
ence with the old theology ; or else it leads 
the mind, convinced of the truth of science, 
and the seeming error of the Scriptures, to 
lose its faith in the divine character of the 
latter. It is, perhaps, this practical difficul- 
ty which has led to the adoption of a third 
theory of inspiration. 

III. Moral Inspiration. — We use this term 
to designate the faith of those who regard 
the Bible as inspired by God, but only for a 
definite purpose — the moral and spiritual re- 
demption of the race. They consider that 



INSPIRATION 



466 



INTERDICT 



Paul defines the degree as well as tlie ob- 
ject of inspiration when he says, in connec- 
tion with the doctrine that all Scripture is 
given by inspiration of God, that it is "prof- 
itable for doctrine, for reproof, for correc- 
tion, for instruction in righteousness : that 
the man of God may be perfect, thoroughly 
furnished unto all good works."^ That is, 
they consider that the writers were left to 
accept the views of science, chronology, and 
history, common in their day, and to gather 
their materials and information by their own 
industry, and were only inspired so far as 
was necessary to make their record a safe 
and authoritative means of affording doc- 
trine, i. e., religious instruction, and of re- 
proving the conscience, correcting the heart 
and life, and guiding the penitent in the way 
of righteousness ; that in the history of the 
creation, for example, the writer was permit- 
ted to accept the scientific theories of his 
age, but he was divinely inspired to teach 
the great religious truth that the creation 
was the work of one divine Creator, who also 
governs the world which he has called into 
being. Those who hold this view regard 
the Bible as an authoritative rule of faith 
and practice in morals and religion, but do 
not consider that it was at all intended to 
teach science or chronology, and on these 
subjects do not accept it as being, or pur- 
porting to be, an authority. 

IV. A fourth party consider that the Bi- 
ble contains an inspired guide, but is not, 
even in all its religious teachings, an infalli- 
ble authority. They consider, for example, 
that Abraham was mistaken in supposing 
that God called him to sacrifice his son 
Isaac ; that the Israelites erroneously sup- 
posed that God authorized the extermina- 
tion of the Canaanites ; and that the impre- 
catory Psalms are to be accepted, not as a 
reflection of a divinely-inspired experience, 
but as the actual experience of a man of hot 
and sometimes irascible temper, recorded, 
as the story of his outer life, quite as much 
for our warning as for our imitation. Such 
persons can, perhaps, hardly be said to hold 
the doctrine of inspiration ; certainly they 
do not in the ordinary sense ; but they re- 
gard the Bible in a light very diiferent from 
that in which they regard other books ; and 
while they disown its supreme and infallible 
authority, they concede that many of its pas- 
sages — as the ten commandments, many of 
the Psalms of David, most of the prophetic 
books, and nearly all the N. T., give evidence 
of a moral and spiritual power which may 
properly be regarded as superhuman. Most 
evangelical Christians would unite in ac- 
cepting either the second or the third of 
the views above defined ; comparatively few 
scholars maintain the doctrine of verbal in- 
spiration; and very few in the orthodox 
churches are content with the statement 
1 2 Tim. iii., 16, 17. 



that the Bible merely contains an inspired 
and authoritative declaration of the divine 
character and will. 

It should also be added, that even those 
who do not hold to the Protestant doctrine 
that the Bible is the only infallible rule of 
faith and practice, do not deny all doctrine 
of inspiration. The Romanists, on the one 
hand, while they hold to the inspiration of 
the Bible, still consider that the main guide 
and authority in matters both of faith and 
practice is not an inspired book, but an in- 
spired Church. On the other hand, the Ra- 
tionalists, while they agree in denying any 
peculiar inspiration to the Bible, are not 
agreed in denying inspiration altogether. 
Many of them hold that there is an inspira- 
tion, but that it is vouchsafed continually to 
the heart and conscience of the individual, 
which are thus his divinely -inspired guide. 

Installation. Installation differs from or- 
dination in that the latter inducts the clergy- 
man into the pastoral office generally, while 
installation places him over the particular 
church or parish to which he is called. The 
minister is ordained but once. He is install- 
ed whenever he takes a new parish. 

Institution, in Church law, means the final 
and authoritative appointment to a church 
benefice by the person with whom such right 
of appointment ultimately rests. In the Ro- 
man Catholic Church it is only the pope who 
confers institution upon the bishops, though 
they are frequently nominated by the crown. 
The word is employed only in the Roman 
Catholic and the Anglican ecclesiastical sys- 
tems. 

Intercession. Scripture, in many places, 
represents Christ as pleading with God in 
heaven on behalf of those whom he has re- 
deemed by his blood.^ The Biblical doc- 
trine of the intercession of Christ is held 
both by Protestants and Roman Catholics ; 
but the latter, in addition, believe in the ef- 
ficacy of the intercession of the Virgin and 
the saints, who, however, do not, in their 
opinion, directly intercede for men with God, 
but with the Saviour. The Roman Catholic 
theologians depend chiefly, for their Biblical 
authority for this doctrine, on passages in 
the Apocrypha ; but they also refer to Gen. 
xxxii., 26; xlviii., 15, 16. They also insist 
that if we have a right to ask each other's 
prayers on earth, we have a right to ask the 
prayers of saints and angels in heaven. 

Interdict, an ecclesiastical censure, where- 
by the Church of Rome forbids the adminis- 
tration of the sacraments and the perform- 
ance of divine service to a kingdom, prov- 
ince, or town. Some suppose that this cus- 
tom was introduced in the fourth or fifth 
century ; but the opinion that it began in 
the ninth is much more probable. It is prac- 
tically the excommunication, for the time 
being, of an entire community. The most 



1 Rom. viii., 34; Heb. vii., 25; 1 John ii., 1. 



INTERIM 



467 



INTERMEDIATE STATE 



remarkable interdicts are those laid upon 
Scotland, in 1180, by Alexander III. ; on Po- 
land, by Gregory VH.^ on occasion of the 
murder of Stanislaus at the altar ; by Inno- 
cent III., on France, under Philippe Auguste, 
in 1200; and on England, under John, in 
1209. Of the effect of an interdict, in a su- 
perstitious age, and on a superstitious peo- 
ple, Mr. Hume gives a striking picture, in 
his account of the state of England during 
this last interdict. " The nation," says he, 
" was all of a sudden deprived of all exterior 
exercise of its religion ; the altars were de- 
spoiled of their ornaments ; the crosses, the 
relics, the statues of the saints, were laid on 
the ground ; and, as if the air itself were pro- 
faned, and might pollute them by its con- 
tact, the priests carefully covered them up, 
even from their own approach and venera- 
tion. The use of bells entirely ceased in all 
the churches ; the bells themselves were re- 
moved from the steeples and laid upon the 
ground, with the other sacred utensils. Mass 
Avas celebrated with closed doors, and none 
but priests were admitted to that holy in- 
stitution. The laity partook of no religious 
rite, except the communion to the dyiog ; 
the dead were not interred in consecrated 
ground — they were thrown into ditches, or 
buried in common fields, and their obsequies 
were not attended with prayers or any hal- 
lowed ceremony. Marriage was celebrated 
in the church-yard ; and, that every action 
in life might bear the marks of this dreadful 
situation, the people were prohibited the use 
of meat — as in Lent, or times of the highest 
penance — were debarred from all pleasures 
and entertainments, and were forbidden even 
to salute each other, or so much as to shave 
their beards or give any decent attention to 
their apparel. Every circumstance carried 
symptoms of the deepest distress, and of the 
most immediate apprehension of divine ven- 
geance and indignation." The interdict has 
probably passed forever away ; for the com- 
munity no longer holds the papal decree in 
such reverence as to submit to the condition 
of affairs involved in yielding obedience to 
such an act of wholesale excommunication. 

Interim, a name given to the scheme by 
which Charles V. endeavored to conciliate 
the Protestants of Germany, and by means 
of which he wished to make it possible for 
them to continue in the Church during the 
time that a General Council was assembling 
and coming to a decision on the points in 
controversy between the Protestants and the 
Romish Church. The idea of an "Interim" 
originated in a. d. 1541, during the deliber- 
ations of a commission composed of three 
Catholics and three Protestants ; but they 
could not agree on sacramental doctrine. 
The name is, however, generally applied to 
the scheme issued in obedience to an order 
of the emperor, at the Diet of Augsburg, a.d. 
1548, which was composed of two bishops, 



Pflug and Helding, and John Agricola, Prot- 
estant chaplain to the Elector of Branden- 
burg ; and which made some important con- 
cessions to the reforming party, including 
the marriage of the clergy and the admin- 
istration of the eucharist in both kinds, i. e., 
of both the cup and the bread, to the laity. 
The document so drawn up contained twen- 
ty-six articles, and dealt with most of the 
questions in dispute ; but it met with little 
approval on either side, was rejected by the 
pope, and was repealed in 1552. 

Intermediate State. It is the general 
opinion in the Christian Church that there 
is a final judgment which takes place at the 
end of the world, and is accompanied by a 
general resurrection (q. v.). The question 
at once arises, What becomes of the dead in 
the period of time intervening between death 
and the general resurrection? This ques- 
tion has led to the adoption of the hypothe- 
sis of an intermediate state. Upon this sub- 
ject there is no very clear revelation of Scrip- 
ture, and the various opinions entertained re- 
ceive their chief Scriptural support from un- 
certain implications and deductions. Most 
orthodox thinkers concede that nothing cer- 
tain is known upon the subject. The hy- 
potheses entertained, which are various, and 
oftentimes fanciful, are chiefly of three class- 
es. I. Some thinkers, only a very few, how- 
ever, believe that the dead pass into a state 
of unconsciousness, in which they remain till 
the judgment. They support this view by re- 
ferring to those passages of Scripture which 
speak of death as a sleep, and the resurrec- 
tion as an awakening.^ II. A view very gen- 
erally entertained in the Middle Ages, and 
still held in the Roman Catholic Church, and, 
in a modified form, by some Protestants, is, 
that all the dead pass into an intermediate 
state answering to the hades (q. v.) of the 
ancients. Although no public judgment has 
been pronounced, still they are classed ac- 
cording to their characters and the deeds 
done in this life. The good enter into para- 
dise (q. v.), where their felicity commences, 
though it is not perfected, while the wicked 
are shut up by themselves, and begin already 
to suffer the penalty of their transgressions. 
According to the mediaeval theology, this in- 
termediate state is divided into three locali- 
ties — 1. Purgatory (q. v.); 2. Limbus infan- 
tum, a place to which the souls of those chil- 
dren go who die unbaptized, and who there- 
fore can never enter heaven ; 3. Linibus im- 
trum, the abode of the O. T. saints prior to 
the advent of Christ — the paradise, entrance 
to which Christ promised the penitent thief. 
III. Still another view is, that the children 
of God enter into heaven, while the impeni- 
tent are cast out, that the state of rewards 
and punishments commences immediately 



1 2 Sam. viL, 12 ; Job vii., 21 ; Psa. xiii., 3 ; Dan. xii., 
2; John xi., 11-13; 1 Cor. xv., 51, 52; 1 Thess. iv., 
14-16. 



INTONING 



468 



IRON 



upon death, and that the Judgment-day is 
not an occasion for arriving at a judgment, 
but rather for the public proclamation of 
judgments, the execution of which has al- 
ready commenced. 

Intoning, a peculiar form of reciting the 
service, or certain parts of the service, em- 
ployed in the Roman Catholic and certain 
Episcopal and Lutheran churches. It re- 
sembles a chant, but is less musical in its 
character, and has been tolerably well de- 
fined as " an ecclesiastical recitative." The 
practice of intoning existed among the Jews 
at a very early period ; and there is a great 
probability that the ecclesiastical chant in 
present use throughout Christendom is but 
a modification of that which formed part of 
the ancient Jewish ritual. The Eastern and 
Western churches, at variance on most points, 
are at one on this. Mohammedans also make 
use of this mode of prayer, and barbarous 
tribes (American Indians and South Sea Isl- 
anders) are wont to propitiate their false 
gods in a species of rude chants. In the 
Christian Church the practice appears to 
date as far back, at least, as the days of Au- 
gustine. 

Investiture, the rite, in the Roman Catho- 
lic Church, of inaugurating bishops and ab- 
bots, by investing them with the ring and 
crosier, or staff, as the symbols of office. 
Toward the end of the tenth, or beginning 
of the eleventh century, the emperors and 
kings assumed to themselves the power of 
conferring, and even of selling sacred offices; 
and for this purpose they required the insig- 
nia of the episcopal office — namely, the ring 
and the staff — to be transmitted to them im- 
mediately after the death of a bishop. By 
this means consecration was rendered im- 
possible without their sanction, as, according 
to ecclesiastical law, official power is con- 
veyed by delivering the staff and ring, and 
every election, till it had been ratified by 
consecration, could be set aside without vio- 
lation of ecclesiastical law ; nor could a bish- 
op, though elected, perform any episcopal 
function till he was consecrated. In the 
eleventh century, Gregory VII., generally 
known as Hildebrand, wishing to increase 
the power of the clergy, and to diminish the 
power of temporal princes, published a cel- 
ebrated decree, by which all clergymen were 
forbidden, under penalty of deprivation, to 
receive investiture of a bishopric, abbey, or 
any ecclesiastical office, at the hands of a 
layman ; while all laymen, without excep- 
tion, were forbidden to grant investiture to 
a spiritual person, under pain of excommu- 
nication. From this decree of Gregory must 
be dated the commencement of an impor- 
tant conflict on the subject of investiture be- 
tween the popes and emperors, which contin- 
ued during the most of the eleventh century, 
and was not finally adjusted until the cele- 
brated Concordat of Worms, in 1122, in which 



the Emperor of Germany agreed to give up 
the form of investiture with the ring and 
pastoral staff, to grant to the clergy the right 
of free elections, and to restore all the pos- 
sessions of the Church of Rome which had 
been seized either by himself or by his fa- 
ther ; while the pope, on his part, consented 
that the elections should be held in the pres- 
ence of the emperor or his official, but with 
a right of appeal to the provincial synod ; 
that investiture might be given by the em- 
peror, but only by the touch of the sceptre ; 
and that the bishops and other Church dig- 
nitaries should faithfully discharge all the 
feudal duties which belonged to their prin- 
cipality. At the present time, in Roman 
Catholic countries, where the Church is sus- 
tained in whole or in part by the State, the 
particular relations between the Church and 
the State in respect to investiture are regu- 
lated by especial treaties between the court 
and the pope, known as concordats, and dif- 
fering with different nations ; but in nearly 
all the consent of both the pope and the civil 
authorities is essential before any bishop can 
be invested with the authority and emolu- 
ments of his office. 

Invocation of Saints, the act of address- 
ing prayers to the angels, or the souls of de- 
parted saints. Roman Catholics as well as 
Protestants agree that the very first princi- 
ples of Christianity exclude the idea of ren- 
depng divine worship, no matter how it may 
b0 modified, to any other than the one Infi- 
nite Being. But while Protestants exclude 
every species of religious worship, and ev- 
ery form of invocation, addressed to angels or 
saints as irreconcilable with the Scriptures, 
the Roman Catholic religion permits and 
sanctions a worship (called douleia) of the 
saints inferior to the supreme worship {la- 
treia) offered to God, and an invocation of 
the saints, not for the purpose of obtaining 
mercy or grace from themselves directly, but 
in order to ask their prayers or intercession 
with God on our behalf. For this doctrine 
and the corresponding practice they do not 
advance the direct authority of Scripture 
(except a few passages, which seem to them 
to imply the intercommunion of the two 
worlds )\ but rely on tradition. The prac- 
tice of the invocation of the saints was in- 
troduced into the Church probably about the 
fourth century, and was the result of an in- 
fusion of Oriental Magiauism. It is explicit- 
ly condemned by the apostle Paul in Col. ii., 
18, from which we judge that the Gnostic 
sects had already begun the practice. 

Iron, a well-known metal, very widely dif- 
fused, but scarcely ever found in the metal- 
lic state. The working of iron was under- 
stood in the earliest ages. It was used for 
domestic purposes, for the material of tools 
for artisans, and for agricultural implements. 
It was used for armor and weapons of war, 



1 Exod. xxxii., 13 ; Luke xv., 7 ; xvi., 27. 



IRRIGATION 



ISAAC 



and war -chariots were plated with it, or 
studded with iron nails. The metal was 
also employed for many other purposes. The 
Jews appear to have been acquainted with 
two kinds of iron previous to the Babylo- 
nish captivity — the harzel, which was in 
common use, and the northern iron, as well 
as steel. [Gen. iv., 22 ; Deut. iii., 11 ; iv., 20 ; 
viii., 9 ; xix., 5 ; xxvii., 5 ; Josh, xvii., 16, 18 ; 
Judg. i., 19 ; iv., 3, 13 ; 1 Sam. xvii., 7 ; 2 Sam. 
xii., 31 ; xxiii., 7 ; 2 Kings vi., 5, 6 ; 1 Chron. 
XX., 3 ; xxii., 3 ; Job xix., 24 ; xx., 24 ; xL, 
18 ; Psa. cv., 18 ; cxlix., 8 ; Isa. x., 34 ; xli., 
15 ; xlv., 2 ; Jer. xv., 2 ; xvii., 1 ; Ezek. iv., 
3 ; Amos i., 3 ; Acts xii., 10 ; 1 Tim. iv., 2 ; 
Rev. ix., 9.] 

Irrigation. In many parts of the East ir- 
rigation is essential to agriculture and gar- 
dening, on account of the long season of dry 




Persian Waier-wtieel. 

weather. There are several methods of pro- 
ducing this artificial supply — sometimes by 
sunken wells, from which the water is raised 
by wheels turned by mules. The wheel is 
placed above the mouth of the well, and 
over it revolve two thick ropes, upon which 
are fastened small jars, or wooden buckets, 
which ascend and descend alternately, and, 
as they pass over the top, discharge the wa- 
ter into a trough which conveys it to the 
cistern. On level ground square beds are 
surrounded by a border of earth, and the 
stream of water is turned by the gardener 
from one to another of these, by opening or 
closing passages in the border with the foot.^ 
Gardens in the East anciently were, and 



1 Prov. xxi., 1 ; Deut. xi., 10. 



still are, when possible, planted near streams, 
which afford the means of easy irrigation. 
But streams were few in Palestine, at least 
such as afforded water in summer, when alone 
water was wanted for irrigation ; hence rain- 
water, or water from the streams which dried 
up in summer, was in winter stored up in 
reservoirs, spacious enough to contain all the 
water likely to be needed during the dry 
season. The water was distributed through 
the garden in numerous small rills, which 
traversed it in all directions, and which were 
supplied either by a continued stream from 
the reservoir, or had water poured into them 
by the gardeners, in the manner shown in 
the Egyptian monuments. The phrase " wa- 
tering by the foot,"^ as indicative of garden 
irrigation, may refer to the practice of turn- 
ing and directing these rills by the foot, 
or, it may be, to cer- 
tain kinds of hydrau- 
lic machines turned by 
the feet, such as the 
small water - wheels 
used on the plain of 
Acre, and elsewhere. 
At Hamath, Damas- 
cus, and other places 
in Syria, there are 
large water - wheels 
turned by the stream, 
and used to raise wa- 
ter into aqueducts. 
But the most common 
method of raising wa- 
ter along the Nile is 
the shaduf,^ or well- 
sweep and bucket, rep- 
resented on the mon- 
uments, . though not 
much used in Pales- 
tine. 

Isaac (laiig'hter),t'\ie 
son whom Sarah, in ac- 
cordance with the di- 
vine promise, bore to 
Abraham, in the hun- 
dredth year of his age, 
at Gerar. The signi- 
fication of his name is derived from the in- 
cident recorded in Gen. xviii., 12. In his 
infancy he became the object of Ishmael's 
jealousy; and in his youth was intended 
as the victim of Abraham's great sacrificial 
act of faith.^ When forty years old, he mar- 
ried Rebekah, his cousin, by whom, when 
he was sixty, he had two sons, Esau and 
Jacob. In his seventy-fifth year, he and his 
brother Ishmael buried their father Abra- 
ham in the cave of Machpelah. From this 
abode by the well Lahai-roi, in the south 
country, Isaac was driven by a famine to 
Gerar. Here Jehovah appeared to him, and 



1 Deut. xi., 10.—'^ For illustration oi shadnf, see arti- 
cle Egypt.— 3 See, for a discussion of the proposed sac- 
rifice of Isaac, article Abeauam. 



ISAIAH 



470 



ISAIAH 



bade him dwell there, and not go over into 
Egypt, and renewed to him the promises 
made to Abraham. Here he subjected him- 
self, like Abraham in the same place and 
under like circumstances,^ to a rebuke from 
Abimelech, the Philistine king, for an equiv- 
ocation. Here he acquired great wealth 
by his flocks, but was repeatedly dispos- 
sessed by the Philistines of the wells which 
he sank at convenient stations. At Beer- 
sheba Jehovah appeared to him by night and 
blessed him, and he built an altar there : 
there, too, like Abraham, he received a vis- 
it from the Philistine king Abimelech, with 
whom he made a covenant of peace. After 
the deceit by which Jacob acquii-ed his fa- 
ther's blessing, Isaac sent his son to seek a 
wife in Padan-aram ; and all that we know 
of him during the last forty-three years of 
his life is, that he saw that son, with a large 
and prosperous family, return to him at He- 
bron^ before he died there, at the age of 180 
years. He was buried by his two sons in 
the cave of Machpelah. Of all the patri- 
archs, the life of Isaac is the most unevent- 
ful, and his character the least imposing. 
He is rather a passive Instrument than an 
active agent in carrying out the divine pur- 
poses respecting God's chosen people. Yet 
the proposal of his father to sacrifice him 
has invested his name with an interest, from 
the symbolic import which for that reason 
attaches to him ; and it is certainly a note- 
worthy fact that he offered no resistance and 
no remonstrance to the proposed sacrifice. 
There are several important references to 
Isaac in the N. T.^ [Gen. xvii., 19 ; xxi., 
1-11 ; xxii., 1-19 ; xxiv. ; xxv., 5-10 ; xxvi. ', 
xxvii; xxviii.,1-5; xxxv.,27-29.] 

Isaiah (salvation of Jeliovah). Nothing is 
known with historical certainty respecting 
the prophet Isaiah beyond what is furnished 
by his own book, and a few scattered notices 
in the books of Kings and Chronicles. The 
only positive information which we possess 
respecting his descent is, that he was the 
son of Amoz,* a person whom some of the fa- 
thers, from their ignorance of Hebrew, con- 
founded with Amos, the prophet who floiu'- 
ished in the reign of Jeroboam II. Many 
of the Jews likewise ascribe to him a pro- 
phetical pedigree, but merely on the gratu- 
itous assumption that, in all cases in which 
the father of a prophet is mentioned by 
name, he must have filled the same office. 
Others have attemj)ted to vindicate for him 
a royal parentage, maintaining that Amoz 
was brother to King Amaziah ; but rabbin- 
ical ^tradition is all they can allege in sup- 
port of their position. He was a native of 
Judah, and resided at Jerusalem.^ No cir- 
cumstances of a domestic character are meh- 



1 Gen. xx., 2.-2 Geu. sxxv., 2T.— 3 Matt, viii., 11 ; 
Luke xiii., 28; Rom. ix., 10; Gal. iv., 2S; Heb. xi., 9, 
17, 20; Jas. ii., 21.— 4 2 Chrou. xxvi., 22; Isa. i., 1.— 
5 Isa. viL, 3; viii., 2; xxii., 15; xxxvii., 2, 5, 21. 



tioned, excepting that he was married, and 
that he had two sons in the reign of Ahaz, 
to both of whom were given names symbol- 
ical of important events in the Jewish his- 
tory. It is probable that he was first solemn- 
ly called to the public discharge of his pro- 
phetical functions in the last year of Uzzi- 
ah, i. e., B.C. 759, yet there is reason to con- 
clude that he had been occupied with public 
affairs previously, it being expressly stated 
in 2 Chron. xxvi., 22, that he composed the 
complete memoirs of that prince. At all 
events, he must have reached some maturity 
of age by that time ; and if, as is exceeding- 
ly probable, he lived some time in the reign 
of Manasseh, it will follow that he filled the 
j)rophetical office during a period of about 
fifty years, and must have been about eighty 
at the time of his death. According to a 
very ancient Jewish tradition, he was sawn 
in two by order of Manasseh, whom he had 
boldly reproved for his wickedness. To this 
the apostle is supposed to allude, Heb. xi., 
37. 

The book which bears his name may be 
analyzed as follows :^ Chapters i.-v. contain 
Isaiah's prophecies in the reigns of Uzziah 
and Jotham. Chap. i. is very general in its 
contents. The seer announces to nobles and 
people the estimate of their character form- 
ed by Jehovah, and his approaching chas- 
tisements. Chaps, ii.-iv. are one prophecy, 
the leading thought of which is that the 
present prosperity of Judah should be de- 
stroyed for her sins, to make room for the 
real glory of piety and virtue ; while chap. 
V. forms a distinct discourse, whose main, 
purport is that Israel, God's vineyard, shall 
be brought to desolation. Chap. vi. describes 
an ecstatic vision that fell upon the prophet 
in the year of Uzziah's death. Chaps, vi., vii., 
were delivered in the reign of Ahaz, when he 
was threatened by the forces of Pekah, king 
of Israel, and Rezin, king of Syria. Under 
Jehovah's direction Isaiah goes forth to meet 
Ahaz, taking with him the child whose name, 
Shearjashub (that is, JHemnant shall return), 
was so full of mystical promise, to add great- 
er emphasis to his message. As a sign that 
Judah was not yet to perish, he announces 
the birth of the child Immanuel, who should 
not " know to refuse the evil and choose the 
good," before the land of the two hostile 
kings should be left desolate. As the Assyr- 
ian Empire began more and more to threat- 
en the Hebrew commonwealth with utter 
overthrow, the prediction of the Messiah, 
the Restorer of Israel, becomes more positive 
and clear (chaps, viii.-ix., 7). Chap, ix., 8- 
X., 4, is a prophecy delivered at this time 
against the kingdom of Israel. As Isaiah's 
message was only to Judah, we may infer 



1 For an understanding of his prophecies, it is nec- 
essary to be acquainted with contemporaneous his- 
tory. See, for that purpose, articles Uzzi.vn ; Jotham ; 
Ahaz; Hf.zbkiau; and Manasseu— iu whose reigns 
Isaiah lived. 



ISAIAH 



471 



ISAIAH 



that the object of this utterance wai? to check 
the disposition shown by many to connect 
Judah with the i^olicy of the sister kingdom. 
Chap. X., 5-xii., 6, is one of the most highly- 
wrought passages in the whole book, and 
was probably one single prophecy. It stands 
wholly unconnected with the preceding in 
the circumstances which it presupi^oses ; and 
to what period to assign it is not easy to de- 
termine. Chaps, xiii.-xxiii., contain chiefly 
a collection of utterances, each of which is 
styled a "burden," and constitute a series of 
eloquent and solemn denunciations of neigh- 
boring idolatrous nations — Babylon,^ Philis- 
tia,^ Moab,^ Damascus,^ Egypt,^ Dumah and 
Arabia,*' Jerusalem — which city is undoubt- 
edly designated by the term " valley of vis- 
ion '" — and Tyre.® Chaps, xxiv.-xxvii. form 
one prophecy, essentially connected with the 
preceding ten "burdens,"^ of which it is, in 
effect, a general summary. In xxv., after 
commemorating the destruction of all O])- 
pressors, the prophet gives us, in vers. 6-9, a 
most glowing description of Messianic bless- 
ings. In xxvi., vers. 12-18 describe the new, 
happy state of God's people as God's work 
wholly. In xxvii., 1, " leviathan the fleeing 
serpent, and leviathan the twisting serpent, 
and the dragon in the sea," are, perhaps, 
Nineveh and Babylon — two i)hases of the 
same Asshur — and Egypt ;^" all, however, 
symbolizing adverse powers of evil. Chaps, 
xxviii.-xxxv. x)redict the Assyrian invasion, 
the prophet protesting against the policy of 
courting the help of Egypt against Assyria. 
Chaps, xxxvi.-xxxix. cover the same peri- 
od of history, and should be read in connec- 
tion with 2 Kings xviii., 17- xx. The sea- 
son so often, though no doubt obscurely, fore- 
told, arrived. The Assyrian was near, with 
forces apparently irresistible. In the uni- 
versal consternation which ensued, all the 
hox^e of the state centred upon Isaiah ; the 
highest functionaries of the state waited 
upon him in the name of their sovereign. 
The short answer which Jehovah gave 
through him was, that the Assyrian king 
should not come into the city, nor shoot an 
arrow there, but should return by the way 
that he came. How the deliverance was to 
be effected Isaiah was not commissioned to 
tell, but the very next night brought the ap- 
palling fulfillment." A divine interposition 
so marvelous, so evidently miraculous, was, 
in its magnificence, worthy of being the ker- 
nel of Isaiah's whole book. 

The authorship of the twenty-seven con- 
cluding chapters of the book of Isaiah has 
been the subject of very great dispute. The 
most casual reader can hardly fail to notice 
a transition as he passes from chap, xxxix. 
to chap. xl. Whatever the date of the re- 



1 Isa. xiii., 1-xiv., 7; xxi., 1-10.— * Isa. xiv., 29-32.— 
3 Isa. XV. : xvi.— 4^ Isa. xvii. ; xviii.— ^ Isa. xix.— ^ Isa. 
xxi., 11-17. — '' Isa. xxii., 1-U. — » Isa. xxiii. — » Isa. 
xiii. ; xxiii.— 10 Corap. ver. 13.— n See Hezekiau. 



spective parts, there ca-n be no doubt that 
they are distinct compositions. The stjie, 
though possessing in even a greater degree 
the grandeur which marks the earlier chap- 
ters, is difierent; the subjects of thought 
are new ; and the whole series of prophecies 
presuppose the destruction of Jerusalem, the 
exile of the Jews, the dominion of Babylon, 
and the appearance of Cyrus, destined to be- 
come the deliverer of the Jewish people.^ 
In a word, the whole aim and object of these 
chapters is to give courage and hope to a 
people suffering the just penalty of their 
sins, and, by a recognition of the true teach- 
ing of history, to interpret the deliverance 
of Israel from their captivity as itself a proph- 
ecy of that greater deliverance which Jesus 
Christ brings to a world in captivity to sin 
and death. These considerations have led 
^ome Bible critics to attribute this portion 
of the book to a later prophet, whom they 
call the second Isaiah, and who they think 
flourished in the time of the Captivity. 
Those who maintain the unity of the book 
say, on the other hand, that it is incredible 
that the author of the most eloquent and 
sublime passages in the Bible should have 
remained anonymous ; that it is easier to ac- 
count for the lesser differences of style be- 
tween the first and second parts of the book 
on the hypothesis of one author, than for the 
great fundamental resemblance which links 
the whole together on the assumption of two 
authors ; that, though the point of time and 
situation is the Babylonian captivity, the 
prophet, in a "vision," is transported into 
the age for which and to which he speaks ; 
that the testimony of the Jewish Rabbis and 
of ancient tradition to the authorship of the 
whole is absolutely unwavering ; that the 
question is settled for all those who accept 
the authority of Christ and his apostles by 
their repeated quotation from the latter por- 
tion as the work of Isaiah f that, in fact, not 
the first doubt on this subject was ever sug- 
gested till the latter part of the last century, 
and then by the same kind of criticism which 
has denied the existence of Homer and the 
unity of the books which bear his name. 
The question is, perhaps, not as momentous 
as the critics have imagined. The question 
of the inspiration of the closing chapters of 
Isaiah does not depend upon their author- 
ship ; and whether God spoke by the mouth 
of a known or an unknown prophet is rather 
a matter of curious than of important in- 
quiry. Dean Stanley, who regards the clos- 
ing chapters as the work of a " later Isaiah," 
speaks of them as " the most deeply inspired, 
the most truly evangelical, of any portion 
of the prophetical writings, whatever be their 
date, and whoever be their author ;" and 



1 See, for example, chap, xliii., 14; xliv., 10, 11 ; xlv., 
1; xlvii.,l;x1ix.,14; li., 11, 17; lii., 5; Ixii., 1-4; Ixvi., 
13.-2 Matt, iii., 3; xii., 17-21; Luke iv., 17-19; John 
xii., 38; Acts viii., 27-35; Rom. x., 16, 20, 21. 



ISAIAH 



472 



ISHMAELITES 



Dean Milnian, who says, " I must acknowl- 
edge that these chapters, in my judgment, 
read with infinitely greater force, sublimity, 
and. reality, under this view" (i. e., the one 
which attributes them to a later prophet), 
adds : " As to what are usually called the Mes- 
sianic predictions .... they have the same 
force and meaning, whether uttered by one 
or two prophets, at one or two different pe- 
riods." In Germany the general verdict of 
scholars is in favor of the hypothesis which 
regards the book as the work of two authors. 
In England and in this country most Chris- 
tian scholars regard it as the work of one. 

Of all the writers of the Old Testament, 
Isaiah most nearly approximates the writ- 
ers of the New. No other prophet is so fre- 
quently cited by them — no other affords so 
clear a vision of the anticipated. Messiah. 
In character he is energetic, bold, and un- 
compromising ; of a lively and fertile imagi- 
nation, yet full of serious feeling and deep 
thought ; zealous for the honor of the di- 
vine perfections, the spirituality of worship, 
and the purity of the theocracy ; the un- 
daunted reprover of sin of every kind, and 
in whomsoever found; the tender-hearted 
patriot, who takes the deepest interest in 
the circumstances and prospects of his peo- 
ple ; and the compassionate friend of the 
Gentile world. His language is uniformly 
adapted to the subjects of which he ti^ats. 
In narrative he exhibits the utmost simptiis:: 
ity and perspicuity ; in announcing the di- 
vine oracles his tones are marked by a sin- 
gular degree of solemnity; in his descrip- 
tions he is minute, discriminating, frequent- 
ly cumulative, and highly graphic ; in mena- 
cing foreign enemies, and the wicked among 
the Jews, he is full of vehemence and force. 
His expostulations are urgent and pathetic 
— his hortatory addresses earnest and pow- 
erful. Nothing can surpass the sublimity 
of those passages in which the sovereignty 
and infinite majesty of Jehovah are set forth, 
or the severe irony and satire with which he 
attacks the worshipers of idols. Nor is he 
equaled by any of the other prophets in the 
magnificence, variety, and choice of the im- 
ages which he employs, especially when pre- 
dicting the reign of the Messiah, and the fu- 
ture happiness of the Church. Grotius com- 
pares him to Demosthenes, of whom, in point 
of time, he had. the precedence by nearly 
four centuries ; and by men of taste in every 
country, who have been capable of relishing 
his beauties, he has had awarded to him the 
highest meed of praise. 

For finished specimens of his style, the 
reader may consult the description of Jew- 
ish female dress, ch. iii., 16-24 ; the parable 
of the vineyard, ch. v. ; the approach of the 
Assyrian army toward Jerusalem, ch. x., 28- 
32 ; the ode on the King of Babylon, ch. xiv. ; 
the sentence of Egypt, ch. xix. ; the threat- 
ening against Shebna, ch. xxii., 16-18; the 



calamities of Jerusalem, ch. xxiv. ; the tran- 
scendant superiority of Jehovah, ch. xL, 12- 
31 ; the absurdity of idol- worship, ch. xliv. ; 
the corruptions prevalent among the Jews 
in the time of our Lord, ch. lix. ; and their 
happy condition when restored, in the latter 
day, ch. Ix. 

Ishbosheth (the man of shame), the young- 
est of Saul's four sons, and his legitimate suc- 
cessor. His name appears to have been orig- 
inally Eshbaal^ (the man of Baal); but why 
he should have been called so it is difficult 
to imagine, since his father never appears to 
have been guilty of idolatry. He was thir- 
ty-five years old at the time of his father's 
death, but did not begin to reign till five 
years later, at the age of forty.^ His reign 
of two years, during which his capital was 
at Mahanaim, was merely nominal, the wars 
and negotiations with David being carried 
on wholly by Abner.^ The latter's death 
deprived the house of Saul of its last sup- 
port. When Ishbosheth heard of it, " his 
hands were feeble, and all the Israelites were 
troubled."* In this extremity of weakness 
he fell a victim, probably, to revenge for a 
crime of his father. Two Beerothites, Ba- 
ana and Eechab, in remembrance, it has been 
conjectured, of Saul's slaughter of their kins- 
men the Gibeonites, determined to take ad- 
vantage of the helplessness of the royal house 
to destroy the only representative that was 
left, excepting the child Mephibosheth. Af- 
ter assassinating Ishbosheth, they took his 
head to David as a welcome present. They 
met with a stern reception. David rebuked 
them for the cold-blooded murder of an in- 
nocent man, and ordered them to be exe- 
cuted. The head of Ishbosheth was careful- 
ly buried in the sepulchre of his great kins- 
man, Abner. His death was the signal for 
the union of all the tribes under the throne 
of David.^ See Abnek ; David. [2 Sam. ii., 
8-17; iii.; iv.] 

Ishmael (whom God hears). 1. The son of 
Abraham by Hagar, the Egyptian servant of 
Sarah. His early history is identified with 
that of his mother, Hagar (q. v.). After his 
miraculous deliverance in the desert, he mar- 
ried an Egyptian wife, and subsequently join- 
ed with his brother Isaac in burying their 
father. He had twelve sons, the heads of 
tribes, and one daughter, and died at the ad- 
vanced age of 137 years. ^ See Ishmaelites. 

2. The son of Nethaniah — a perfect marvel 
of craft and villainy, whose treachery forms 
one of the chief episodes of the history of 
the period immediately succeeding the first 
fall of Jerusalem. [ Jer. xl.-xli.] 

Ishmaelites, the descendants of Ishmael 
I. About the time of Ishmael's birth, it was 
prophesied concerning him, " that he will be 



1 1 Chron. viii., 33; ix., 39.-2 2 Sam. iii., 10— 
8 2 Sam. ii., 12; iii., 6, 12. See Abnee.— ^ 2 Sam. iv., 
l._5 2 Sam. v., 1-5.— « Gen. xvi., 11-16; xxi., 9-21; 
XXV., 9, 12-18 ; xxviii., 9 ; xxv., 17, IS. 



ISHMAELITES 



473 



ISSACHAR 



a wild man" — literally, a tvild-ass man; that 
is, his relative position and habits should 
be like those of that untamed creature, the 
chartered libertine of the desert.^ There 
could not be a more exact image of the gen- 
eral character and habits of the races which 
occupy the vast deserts and pasture - lands 
of Arabia, among which the descendants of 
Ishmael have ever been regarded as hold- 
ing the chief rank. These Bedouins of the 
desert, as they are now commonly called, are 
the hereditary assertors, and most remarka- 
ble types, of the unrestrained freedom of the 
family or clan, as opposed to the settled or- 
der and regulated liberty of civilized life. 
The hand of each, as was originally said of 
Ishmael, is against every one, and everyone's 
hand against him. The races represented 
and headed by Ishmael's descendants — scat- 
tered and disorganized as they are among 
themselves — are justly entitled to be reck- 
oned " a great nation,"^ and have played an 
important part in the Avorld's history. While 
many conquerors have marched into the Ara- 
bian wilderness, they have never been able 
to catch this grand wild ass and to tame 
him. But he has done to others what they 
could not do to him. The victorious arms 
of the Arabians have spread the terror of 
their name far and wide ; they have ascend- 
ed more than a hundred thrones, and have 
established their colonies, their language, 



and their religion from the Senegal to the 
Indus, from the Euphrates to the islands of 
the Indian Ocean. 

Israel (ivarrior, prince, or soldier of God), a 
name specially bestowed on Jacob after his 
mysterious wrestling with God, and confirm- 
ed to him at Beth-el. It was, in consequence, 
the national appellation of his descendants, 
and though sometimes used in contradistinc- 
tion to Judah, especially after the secession 
of the ten tribes, yet it was not entirely lost 
in the southern kingdom ; and it was applied 
to the returned captives after the Babylonish 
esile.^ The history of Israel as a distinct 
nation is briefly summed up in the article 
Jews, where a list of its several kings is 
given. For a more detailed history the read- 
er is referred to the biographical articles on 
those kings respectively. 

Issachar {there is reward, or, he brings re- 
ward or wages), one of the sons of Jacob by 
Leah. We have no information whatever of 
his personal character or history. At the 
going down into Egypt he is said to have 
had four sons, who multiplied into the four 
great families of the tribe, the numbers at 
the first census being 54,400, while at the last 
(before the passage of the Jordan) they were 
64,.300. In the camp the position of Issachar 
was next to Judah and Zebulun, on the east 
of the tabernacle.* In the land of Canaan the 
inheritance of the tribe lay alongside that 




SCALE OF MILES. 



60 TO A DEGREE. 



Map of the Tribe of Issachar. 



1 Gen. xvi., 12; Job xxxix., 5-7.-2 Gen. xxL, 18.— I Chron. xi., 3; xii., 6; Ezra ii., 70; iii., 1.—* Gen. 
8 Gen. xxxii., 28; xxxv., 10; Exod. i., 1; iii., 16; 2 xxx., 17, 18; xlvi., 13; Numb, i., 28, 29; ii., 5, 6; 
Sam. ii., 10; xix., 43; 1 Kings xiL, 20; xxiL, 2; 2 | xxvi., 23-25. 



ITALY 



474 



ITUREA 



of Zebulun, on the south. "With reference to 
that inheritance, and the effect it was des- 
tined to produce on the general character of 
the tribe, it was said, prophetically, by Jacob 
that Issachar should be like " a strong ass 
couching down between two burdens " (or be- 
tween panniers), "seeing that rest was good, 
and that the land was pleasant, and bowing 
his shoulder to bear, and becoming a servant 
unto tribute."^ In plain terms, this tribe was 
to have a very pleasant and fertile territory, 
to the cultivation and enjoyment of which he 
should yield himself with such hearty good- 
will as to care for little besides. The event, 
so far as we have the means of ascertaining 
it, strikingly corresponded with this antici- 
pation. The portion of Issachar, as described 
in Joshua xix., 17-23, appears to have com- 
prised nearly the whole of the fine plain of 
Esdraelon. The richness of this plain, even 
in its present state of comparative desola- 
tion, has been celebrated by all travelers. 
Robinson calls it " the cream of Palestine," 
and says, " There is not a richer plain upon 
earth." "The very weeds," says Stanley, 
" are a sign of what in better hands the 
vast plain might become. The thoroughfare 
which it forms for every passage, from east 
to west, from north to south, made it, in 
peaceful times, the most available and eligi- 
ble possession in Palestine." It is no won- 
der that Issachar, set down in such a choice 
region, should have given himself more to 
the pleasures and pursuits connected with 
the region than to things of greater moment 
and public concern. The tribe, however, 
were not altogether engrossed with what 
immediately concerned themselves, and they 
materially assisted in the victory of Barak 
over Sisera, though afterward we hear little 
of their warlike exploits. Tola, who judged 
Israel twenty-three years, was a man of Is- 
sachar, though he dwelt in Ephraim.^ Sev- 
eral generations later they took a creditable 
part in the effort to briug about a united 
action in favor of David, and to have him 
crowned at Hebron. Two hundred of them 
who went thither are expressly said to have 
been men " who had understanding of the 
times, to know what Israel ought to do," and 
" all their brethren were at their command- 
ment,"^ a statement which indicates, among 
the leading men of the tribe, superior shrewd- 
ness and sagacity. This is the last historic- 
al reference to the tribe in the Bible, though 
the name occurs twice again — once in the 
O. T. prophets, and once in the N. T.* 

Italy, as used in the N. T., denotes the 
same extent of country that it does in mod- 
ern times ; it comprehends the whole penin- 
sula which reaches from the Alps to the 
Straits of Messina. The term was original- 
ly applied to only the more southerly por- 



1 Gen. xlix., 14, 15. See Ass.— 2 Judg. x., 1, 2.— 
3 1 Chron. xii., 32.-4 Ezek. xlviii., 25, 2(5, 33; Rev. 
vii., 7. 



tion of the region ; but before the Gospel era 
it was extended so as to embrace the whole. 
It but rarely occurs in N. T. scripture, and 
only as a general designation. [Acts xxvii., 
1; Heb.xiii.,24.] 

Ithamar (land of palms), the youngest son 
of Aaron. After the deaths of Nadab and 
Abihu, Eleazer and Ithamar succeeded to 
their places in priestly office. In the distri- 
bution of services belonging to the Taber- 
nacle, and its transport on the march of the 
Israelites, the Gershonites had charge of the 
curtains and hangings, and the Merarites of 
the pillars, cords, and boards ; and both of 
these departments were placed under the su- 
perintendence of Ithamar. The high-priest- 
hood passed into the family of Ithamar in 
the person of Eli, but for what reason we 
are not informed. It reverted into its orig- 
inal line in the person of Zadok, in conse- 
quence of Abiathar's participation in the re- 
bellion of Adonijah. [Exod. vi., 23 ; xxviii., 
1,40,43; Numb, iii., 3, 4 ; iv., 21-33; 1 Chron. 
xxiv., 1-5.] 

Ittai the Gittite, as he is always called — 
that is, the native of Gath. He appears to 
have been the ablest and most devoted of 
the friends whom David made to himself 
during his residence in Gath, and was look- 
ed up to by the others as their leader. That 
he was actually a native of Gath, and con- 
sequently a foreigner by birth, is expressly 
intimated by David, who reminded him, on 
the occasion of Absalom's revolt, that he was 
"a stranger and an exile," and "had come 
but yesterday." ISTo one, however, stood more 
firmly by David than this converted Philis- 
tine. He followed the king into his exile 
with " all his men, and all the little ones that 
were with him." Such was the confidence 
reposed in him by David, and the general es- 
teem in which he was held, that a third part 
of the army was put under him when prep- 
aration was made for the decisive conflict at 
Mahanaim. His name never occurs again. 
[2 Sam. XV., 19-23 ; xviii., 2.] 

Iturea, a district on the north of Pales- 
tine, which, along with Trachonitis, formed 
the tetrarchy of Philip, one of the sons of 
Herod the Great.^ It stretched from the 
base of Mount Hermon toward the north- 
east in the direction of Hauran, between Da- 
mascus and the northern part of the coun- 
try anciently called Bashan, including, per- 
haps, a little of the latter. It is supposed to 
have derived its name from Jetur, one of the 
sons of Ishmael.^ It was captured by Israel 
from the descendants of Jetur, and awarded 
to the children of Manasseh. But a portion 
of the Ishmaelite race appear to have still 
held their ground in it, for the Itureans were 
noted in subsequent times for the usual Arab 
propensities, and required to have strong 
measures taken with them. Before the Cliris- 



1 Luke iii., 1. See maps in article Heeou.— 2 1 Chron. 
i., 31. 



IVORY 



475 



JACINTH 



tian era the district had fallen into the hands 
of the Romans, and formed part of the ex- 
tensive domains given to Herod. By him it 
was destined for his son Philip, and the ar- 
rangement was confirmed hy the Roman em- 
peror. 

Ivory (tooth). The projecting character 
of the elephant's tusks gives them some- 
what the appearance of }i07"ns ; and on this 
account Ezekiel speaks of horns of ivory as 
among the articles of Tyre's merchandise.^ 
There can be no doubt that a great traffic 



was carried on in ivory among the nations 
of antiquity ; and that this was shared in 
by the Hebrews, in the more flourishing pe- 
riods of their history, is manifest from the 
allusions made to it in Scripture.^ The an- 
cient Egyptians and Assyrians are known 
to have indulged the taste for ivory from 
remote times, and specimens of ivory work 
have survived to the present day, some from 
the excavations of Nimroud, and some from 
Egypt, supposed to be of a date anterior to 
the Persian invasion. 



J. 



Jaazer, Jazer (helper), a town in Gilead, 
taken from the Amorites. It became one of 
the cities of the Levites, and was celebrated 
for its vines. Wha-t is meant by the Sea of 
Jazer, referred to in our present text, in Jer. 
xlviii., 32, is not known, as, according to 
what is regarded as the probable site of the 
place, there neither is now, nor ever was, 
any lake or expanse of water that might 
with propriety be designated a sea. Jazer 
appears to have been twelve or fifteen miles 
from Heshbon; but its site is not fully 
identified. [Numb, xxi., 32 ; xxxii., i., 3, 35 ; 
Josh, xxi., 36 ; 2 Sam. xxiv., 5 ; Isa. xvi., 8, 9.] 

Jabbok (pouring out, or emptying), a brook 
which traverses in a western course the land 
of Gilead, and empties itself into the Jordan 
about half-way between the Sea of Galilee 
and the Dead Sea. Various streams run into 
the Jabbok in its course ; but most of these 
are only mountain torrents, flowing in win- 
ter, dry in summer. At its confluence with 
the Jordan, the Jabbok itself never ceases 
to flow, and in the rainy season is often a 
considerable river. It was beside this brook, 
and near one of its fords, that the memora- 
ble scene lay of Jacob's wrestling with the 
Angel of the Lord, in connection with which 
his name was changed into Israel. [Gen. 
xxxii., 22-30 ; Numb, xxi., 24.] 

Jabesh (shame), also called Jabesh-Gile- 
ad, because it lay in the region of Gilead. It 
was in that portion of the territory which 
belonged to the half tribe of Manasseh, and 
seems to have been by much the most con- 
siderable city in their Gileadite possessions. 
Its site is uncertain. On two or three occa- 
sions it played an important part in the his- 
tory of Israel. For some reason, it had sent 
no contingent to the fierce war which the 
other tribes waged, during the time of the 
judges, against the tribe of Benjamin ; and 
a strong band, in consequence, was sent to 
revenge the criminal neglect. Nearly the 
whole of the male, and many also of the fe- 
male, inhabitants of Jabesh perished under 
this severe visitation ; but four hundred un- 
married women were spared, and given as 



i Ezek. xxvii., 15. 



wives to the remnant of Benjamin's army.' 
The city appears before very long to have 
recovered from the disaster, and in the time 
of Saul it had acquired much of its former 
importance.^ The people of Jabesh cherish- 
ed a grateful spirit toward Saul for his de- 
liverance of them from the Ammonites ; and 
when he and his sons fell by the hands of 
the Philistines, and their bodies were fasten- 
ed in triumph to the wall of Beth-shan, the 
valiant men of Jabesh-Gilead made a noc- 
turnal incursion, carried off the bodies, and 
buried the bones under a tree at Jabesh.* 
The name of Jabesh never occurs again in Is- 
raelitish history, and its inhabitants doubt- 
less shared the general fate of their brethren 
of the ten tribes. 

Jabin (intelligent). 1. A king in the north 
of Canaan, whose capital was Hazor, and who 
headed one of the most formidable combina- 
tions against which Joshua had to contend. 
But Joshua fell upon him suddenly at his 
encampment beside the waters of Merom, 
and put the mighty force to rout. After pur- 
suing the vanquished foes far north, Joshua 
on his return burned Hazor, and slew Jabin 
the king. [Josh, xi., 1-14]. 

2. Another Jabin, however, called King of 
Canaan, who also had the seat of his king- 
dom at Hazor, makes his appearance in the 
time of the judges. The chronology of the 
early period of the judges can not be exact- 
ly fixed ; but the common reckoning places 
about one hundred and fifty years between 
Joshua and Barak, in whose time this sec- 
ond Jabin arose, who formed a warlike coa- 
lition against the Israelites, and for a period 
of twenty years oppressed them, striving to 
gain the ascendency, and to reconstruct his 
empire. The attempt did not succeed ; for 
the covenant people, under the command of 
Barak, completely broke the bonds of the 
oppressor, and scattered forever the Canaan- 
itish hope of dominion. See Barak. 

Jacinth, one of the precious stones enu- 
merated as forming the foundations of the 



1 1 Kings X., 18, 22 ; xxii., 39 ; 2 Chron, ix., 21 ; Pea, 
xlv., 8; Araos iii., 15; vi., 4.-2 Jadg. xxi., 8-14.— 
3 1 Sam. xi., 1.— ■* 1 Sam. xi., 1 : xxxi., 11-13. 



JACOB 



476 



JACOB 



New Jerusalem : it is probably identical with 
that elsewhere called '* ligure." It is said to 
bo a red variety of zircon. [Exod. xxviii., 
19 ; xxxix., 12 ; Eev. xxi., 20.] 

Jacob {supplante}')j the second of twin 
sons of Isaac and Rebekah. One may well 
panse before taking the pen to portray this 
most remarkable and apparently contradict- 
ory character. As we trace his course 
through its strange vicissitudes, and see him 
entrapping his brother, deceiving his father, 
bargaining even in his prayer, ever calcula- 
ting and contriving in his intercourse with 
his brother and with Laban, we can not but 
feel that Abraham's unwavering faith and 
close communion with God has in Jacob a 
sorry representative, and can understand the 
summing up of his own experience, " Few 
and evil have the days of the years of my 
life been, and have not attained unto the 
days of the years of the life of my fathers 
in the days of their pilgTimage." We are 
told that while Esau (q. v.) was a man of 
the fields, Jacob grew up a plain, domestic 
man, the favorite son of his mother. Before 
their birth it was prophesied that the elder 
of the twins should serve the younger ; and 
the first action of Jacob's which is mention- 
ed in Scripture is the one by which he ob- 
tained the birthright (q. v.) by bargaining 
for it with his brother Esau, who, coming 
home faint and hungry from hunting, parted 
with it for a paltry mess of lentile pottage. 
A natural result of this expedient was the 
still more censurable one by which, at the 
instigation of his mother, he deceitfully ob- 
tained the blessing which rightfully belong- 
ed to the elder son. To escape from Esau's 
anger, and in obedience to the wishes of both 
his parents, Jacob went to Padan - aram to 
seek a wife among his kindred. On his way 
there, as he tarried to rest for the night, he 
had the remarkable vision of the angels as- 
cending and descending upon the ladder set 
up between heaven and earth, and received 
from God the promise of the land where he 
was resting, and the greater blessing of God's 
special presence and protection through life. 
In token of this, Jacob set up a pillar from 
the stones which had been his pillow, and 
called the place Beth-el (q.v.). 

Jacob's history at Padan -aram, his love 
for Rachel, his servitude for her hand, the 
cruel deception by which, instead of her, he 
at first received for his wife^ the elder sister, 
Leah (q. v.) ; his continued service with La- 
ban, the crafty means by which he became 
rich, the birth of his eleven sons and one 
daughter, his stealthy departure, and his es- 
cape from the angry pursuit of Laban, is 
given in detail in Scripture. It was on his 
journey back to Canaan, which seems to 
have been a turning-point in his character, 
that he came to an amicable arrangement 
witli Laban, and with his brother Esau, af- 



» See Mabeiaqe. 



ter having spent the night in that struggle 
with the angel, which has been to the Chris- 
tian Church ever since an example and an 
inspiration, and memorials of which remain, 
to this day. It is still true that '^ the chil- 
dren of Israel," and of Abyssinia also, " eat 
not of the sinew which shrank."^ 

After the dreaded meeting with Esau had 
passed, and the arrangement had been made, 
with the characteristic caution of the one 
and the generosity of the other, by which 
Esau retired to make his dwelling in the 
mountains of Seir, Jacob went on to the A^ale 
of Shechem, the spot Avhich was to him the 
choice portion which he afterward gave, as 
more than all his other possessions, to his 
favorite son Joseph. From this time he was 
peculiarly and sorely tried. Rachel, his dear- 
ly beloved wife, died in giving birth to Ben- 
jamin, and was buried near Bethlehem. The 
ill conduct of his sons alarmed and distressed 
him, and Joseph, his darling, was lost. By 
the famine his sous were driven to seek food 
in Egypt, and what wonder that, after all 
this, when Benjamin was demanded of him, 
he cried out, '' all these things are against 
me." But these trials doubtless wrought out 
purification in his character, and brought 
with them divine consolation. And when, 
revived by the tidings that Joseph was still 
alive, a great man in the land of Egypt, he 
started to go to him, God again appeared to 
him, assuring him of his continued blessing. 
There he saw and blessed Joseph's sons, pre- 
dicted the fortunes of the tribes, and died 
peacefully at the age of 147. According to 
his wish, he was buried by his sons in the 
cave of Machpelah (q. v.), with his fathers. 

The wrestling of Jacob by the brook Jab- 
bok has given rise to many interpretations. 
The material wrestling is so far perplexing 
that some commentators have regarded it as 
a dream ; though we think the better opin- 
ion is that there was an actual wrestling, 
which can alone account for the dislocation 
of the thigh. It is certain, at all events, 
from Hos. xii., 4, that it was not a mere ma- 
terial wrestling, for it is there declared to 
have been accompanied with tears and sup- 
plications. The more important fact is the 
progress it denotes in Jacob's spiritual life, 
and the progress, too, which it indicates in 
the diviue dealing with him. Twenty years 
before, immediately after his great trans- 
gression, God had met him lovingly and ten- 
derly, teaching by the vision of angels that 
his sin had not shut him hopelessly from God 
and heaven, but that the way of pardon was 
still open. Now, on the point of returning 
to his native country, as he is about to see 
that injured brother again, after he has sent 
on before him his family and possessions, in 
fear lest the vengeance from which he had 
so long ago fled might still be visited upon 
him, alone in the darkness of the night, after 



1 Geu. xxiii., 



JACOBITES 



477 



JAIE 



the outcry to God of his agonizing fear of 
the morrow, God meets him to wrestle with 
him, and seemingly to refuse all blessings 
till he is, as it were, forced to yield to Jacob's 
importunity. Again, in his first coming to 
God Jacob^ makes no confession of sin, seeks 
no divine spiritual blessing, and with self- 
assurance bargains with the Almighty ; in 
the prayer recorded in Gen. xxxii., 9-12, 
driven by a sense of danger, he feels his sin, 
he fears retribution, and he beseeches the 
divine forgiveness ; but in the wrestling at 
the brook Jabbok, he seeks for nothing but 
the blessing of God. There is not a word 
about personal dangers, not a word about 
Esau ; not even a word about his family ; 
but only an irresistible longing for a fuller 
knowledge of God, and, in that knowledge, 
for God himself — for the blessing which 
comes at last in the change of name that 
symbolizes the change of nature, from Jacob 
(the supplanter) to Israel (the prince of God), 
who has power with God, and has prevailed 
by his importunity and his faith. In this 
threefold experience the commentators have 
traced a parallel to the growth of grace of 
the Christian. "He who only consecrates 
his services to God is as Jacob at Beth-el ; 
he who, conscious of his sin, seeks divine for- 
giveness and deliverance from its penalty, is 
as Jacob at Mahanaim ; he who seeks God 
himself, and can not live without him, is as 
Jacob at the ford of Jabbok." [Gen. xxv.-l.] 

Jacobites, in Church history, is the com- 
mon name of the Oriental sect of Monophy- 
sites (q. v.), but it belongs more specially 
to the Monophysites of Syria, Mesopotamia, 
and Chaldea. The name is derived from a 
Syrian monk called Jacobus Baradseus (Bar- 
dai), who in the reign of Justinian formed 
the Monophysite recusants of his country 
into a single party. The Jacobites at pres- 
ent number about 40,000 families, and are 
subject to two patriarchs, appointed by the 
Sultan — one resident at Diarbekir, with the 
title of Patriarch of Antioch, the other at 
Saphran, with the title of Patriarch of Jeru- 
salem. 

Jacob's WeU. The well by which our 
Lord held his conversation with the Samar- 
itan woman, recorded in John iv. There is 
no reason to question the identity of the 
well at i^resent knoAvn as Jacob's. It is 
about two miles from Shechem, or Nablous, 
dug in a firm rock, about seventy -five feet 
deep, and nine feet in diameter. But it is 
now deserted, and the surrounding terrace 
of rude masonry has been broken down ; so 
that there is nothing striking in its aspect. 
[Gen. xxxiii., 19 ; Josh, xxiv., 32 ; John iv., 
5,6.] 

Jael (climher, and hence wild goat), the wife 
of Heber the Kenite. In the headlong rout 
which followed the defeat of the Canaanites 
by Barak, Sisera, abandoning his chariot, the 
" 1 Gen. xxviii., 20, 21. ' 



more easily to avoid notice, fled unattended, 
and in an opposite direction from that ta- 
ken by his army, to the Kenite encampment. 
He was welcomed by Jael, introduced into 
her own — that is, the women's — tent, who, 
the more effectually to hide him, covered him 
over with some article of dress or furniture. 
When thirst prevented sleep, and he asked 
for water, she brought him buttermilk in her 
choicest vessel, thus ratifying with the sem- 
blance of official zeal the sacred bond of 
Eastern hospitality. At last, with a feeling 
of perfect security, the weary general drop- 
ped to sleep ; and then Jael, taking one of 
the tent-pins and a mallet, struck the pin 
through his temples, and pinned him to the 
earth. She then went out to meet the pur- 
suing Barak, and led him into her tent, that 
she might in his presence claim the glory of 
the deed ! Many have supposed that by this 
act she fulfilled the saying of Deborah, that 
God would sell Sisera into the hand of a 
woman ;^ and hence they have supposed that 
Jael was actuated by some divine and hid- 
den influence. But the Bible gives no hint 
of such an inspiration, and we are without 
the means of tracing the motive or impulse 
under which she acted. Some have sup- 
poesd the Jael mentioned in Judg. v., 6, to 
be another person ; but this is very unlike- 
ly. [Judg. v.] 

Jahaz (probably, trodden upon) ; also writ- 
ten Jahza, Jahazah, and Jahaza, the first, 
however, being the more common form. It 
was the name of a town belonging to the 
kingdom of Sihon, king of the Amorites, 
near to which the decisive battle was fought 
which transferred the territory of Sihon to 
the children of Israel. The place lay be- 
tween the rivers Jabbok and Arnon, in what 
was called " the plain country," the modern 
Belka. No certain traces have been found 
of it ; and though it was assigned to the 
tribe of Reuben, and was made a priestly 
city in that tribe, yet in later times, as ap- 
pears from Isaiah and Jeremiah, it must 
have fallen into the hands of the Moabites. 
[Numb, xxi., 23 ; 1 Chron. vi., 78 j Isa. xv., 4 ; 
Jer. xlviii., 21.] 

Jair (whom Jehovah enlightens). 1. A man 
who on his father's side was descended from 
Judah, and on his mother's from Manasseh. 
The notices found respecting his possessions 
in different parts of Scripture have apparent 
discrepancies in them, but, when carefully 
considered, are capable of a satisfactory ex- 
planation. During the conquest, he took 
possession of the whole of Argob — the Ba- 
shan which had previously belonged to Og 
— in which, according to Dent, iii., 4, there 
were altogether sixty towns of which he 
gained possession. These are called, how- 
ever, not towns nor cities, but havoth, liv- 
ings. From their conqueror they got the 
new name of Bashan-havoth-jair, or simply 
1 Judg. iv., 9. 



JAIRUS 



478 



JAI^IES 



Havoth-Jair; and according to Josh, xiii., 
30 ; 1 Kings iv., 13 ; as well as Deut. iii., 4, 
they were sixty in number. But in 1 Chron. 
ii., 22, Jair is said to have possessed only 
twenty - three cities in Gilead, while yet in 
the very next verse we are told that Ge- 
shur and Aram took Havoth-Jair from the 
descendants of Jair, with Kenath and her 
daughters, or subordinate towns — three-score 
cities. It would seem that there still were 
sixty, twenty - three of which belonged, in 
the stricter sense, to Jair ; and the differ- 
ence is explained by what is said in Numb, 
xxxii., 42, that Nobah went and took Ke- 
nath and her villages (literally daughters), 
and called it Nobah, after his own name. 
These villages, which had been subject to 
Jair, were of the Havoth-Jair in the wider 
sense, but were still distinguished from the 
twenty -three which more properly formed 
Jair's possession. So that the account of 
Chronicles merely gives more specific in- 
formation respecting the subdivision of the 
Jairite possessious, there being in the total 
sixty — Havoth-Jair twenty -three, and the 
Kenath villages (it is to be presumed) thir- 
ty-seven. 

2. The Gileadite, who judged Israel for 
two and twenty years. His period is sup- 
posed to have begun B.C. 1187. His thirty 
sons possessed the towns and villages called 
Havoth-Jair, many of which had come to 
acquire a kind of revived existence under 
the second Jair, and were named afresh. 
[Judg. X., 3-5.] 

Jairus (my light), a ruler in a synagogue 
on the shore of the Sea of Galilee, whose 
daughter was restored to life by our Lord. 
Modern critics have asserted that Christ's 
declaration upon this occasion, ''she is not 
dead, but sleepeth," must be taken literally, 
and proves that the resurrection of Jairus's 
daughter was no miracle, but that she was 
only restored from a syncope. But it has 
been well observed that the language is the 
same as that which Jesus uses respecting 
Lazarus, and which he himself interprets. 
[Matt, ix., 18, 19, 23-26 ; Mark v., 22, 23, 35- 
43; Luke viii., 41, 42, 49-56.] 

James (same as Jacob). Three persons of 
the name of James are mentioned in the N. T. 
— James the son of Zebedee and brother of 
John, James the son of Alpheus, called also 
James the Less, and James the brother of 
Jesus. Whether the last two may not be 
identical, is a question involved in great un- 
certainty, and pronounced by Dr. Neander 
the most difficult in apostolic history. With- 
out entering in detail into the discussion of 
this question, which we have partially con- 
sidered elsewhere,^ we shall assume, as on 
the whole the better opinion, the existence 
of three distinct persons of this name." 



1 See Brkthren of the Lord. — ^ gee Abbott's 
'Life of Jesus of Nazareth," p. 215, note; Alford's 
' Greek Testament, Prolegomena to Epistle of James." 



1. Jaivies, son of Zebedee and Salome, prob- 
ably belonged to Bethsaida, which we know 
was the town of Andrew and Peter, the part- 
ners of James and his brother John.^ He 
was a man of some property, and, besides his 
sons, employed hired laborers in his fishery ; 
but nothing more is known of him. John, 
who seems to have attended the ministry 
of John the Baptist, and to have left him to 
follow Jesus, returned again to his fishing, 
doubtless carrying to his brother some news 
of the Messiah. Hence, when Jesus called 
the two brothers to leave their nets and fol- 
low him, that he might make them fishers 
of men,'^ they were probably not altogether 
unprepared for the invitation. They show- 
ed the strength of their faith by abandon- 
ing not only a lucrative calling, but also 
their father, to become the disciples of one 
who had not where to lay his head. The 
strength of their zeal is indicated by the 
fact that they received the name of Boa- 
nerges — sons of thunder — and by their sub- 
sequent eagerness to avenge the insult of- 
fered to their Master by the Samaritan vil- 
lage.^ With Peter they constituted special 
friends of Christ, a fact which perhaps led 
to the ambitious request on their behalf for 
a first place in the kingdom which they sup- 
posed Christ was about to establish.* Of 
James we hear nothing further till his mar- 
tyrdom under Herod Agrippa, about a.d. 44.^ 
The fact that he was singled out by Herod 
indicates, however, that he occupied it prom- 
inent place in the Church. 

2. James, the son of Alpheus and Mary, 
appears in the catalogue of the twelve apos- 
tles. Little or nothing else is known of him. 

3. James, the brother of the Lord. It is 
certain, from John vii., 5, that he was not a 
believer in the Messiahship of Jesus during 
the early part of his ministry; and from the 
fact that Christ, on the cross, commended 
his mother to John, the son of Zebedee, it is 
inferred that James was still an unbeliever. 
The crucifixion and resurrection were per- 
haps the means of his conversion. At all 
events, all the brethren of Jesus met with 
the disciples after those events.® He was 
probably the oldest ; at least it is so sur- 
mised, from the fact that he is mentioned 
first among them.'' He inherited from his 
father and mother a just and holy, charac- 
ter, and probably, as well as the other breth- 
ren, was married.^ After the death of Christ, 
he seems to have become a leader in the 
Church. Peter was the chief speaker ; John 
had qualities which made his writings en- 
during; while James api)ears to have been 
rather an organizer, and, as the president or 
bishop of the Church at Jerusalem, the chief 
executive of the Christians.^ Paul's refer- 



1 John i., 44.-2 Matt, iv., 21, 22; Mark i., 19, 20; 
Lake v., 1-11. —3 Mark iii., 17; Lnke ix., 51-56.— « Matt. 
XX., 20, 21 ; Mark x., 35, 37.-6 Acts xii., 2.— « Acts i., 
14. _ 7 Matt, xiii., 55; Mark vi., 3. — ^ 1 Cor. ix., 5.— 
8 Acts xii., 17 ; xv. ; xxL, 18 ; Gal. i., 19. 



JAMES (EPISTLE OF) 



479 



JANSENISTS 



ence to him in Galatians is the last which 
occurs in Scripture. According to tradition, 
he was martyred in Jerusalem shortly he- 
fore Vespasian commenced the siege of the 
city, about a.d. 69. He is represented as 
having been a strenuous observer of the law, 
moral and ceremonial ; and with this agree 
both the epistle which bears his name and 
the references to him in Scripture. He ap- 
pears to have represented the Judaistic form 
of Christianity, while at the same time he 
exerted his influence in favor of the recog- 
nition of the Gentile ministry of Paul and 
Barnabas. It is clear, however, both from 
his advice in the council of Jerusalem and his 
subsequent recommendation to Paul,^ that 
while he was inclined to open the door of 
the Church to the Gentiles, he was far from 
accepting in its fullness that broad view 
which underlies the teaching of Paul, that 
in Jesus Christ there is neither Jew nor Gen- 
tile. The epistle of James was probably 
written by James, the Lord's brother. 

James (Epistle of). The authorship of 
this epistle is involved in considerable doubt, 
and its canonicity has also been questioned 
by some Christian critics — by Luther, for 
example, who disowned it chiefly because he 
thought its teachings did not consort with 
the doctrine of justification by faith alone. 
Still, though its canonicity does not rest upon 
grounds so conclusive as those which exist 
in the case of most of the other books of the 
N. T., the general consent of the Christian 
Church awards it a place in the canon upon 
grounds thus summed up by Dean Alford : 
" That that place was given it from the first 
in some part of the Church ; that in spite of 
adverse circumstances, it gradually won that 
place in other parts ; that when thoroughly 
considered, it is so consistent with and wor- 
thy of his character and standing whose 
name it bears ; that it is marked oif by so 
strong a line of distinction from the writiugs 
and epistles which have not attained a place 
in the canon — all these are considerations 
which, though they do not in this, any more 
than in other cases, amount to demonstra- 
tion, yet furnish, when combined, a proof 
hardly to be resisted, that the place where 
we now find it in the N. T. canon is that 
which it ought to have, and which God in 
his providence has guided his Church to as- 
sign it." 

The question of the authorship of this 
epistle depends upon another and a very dif- 
ficult one — viz., whether we consider that 
there were three persons of the name of 
James, one of whom was the veritable broth- 
er of our Lord ; or whether we suppose that 
there were only two, and the term " Lord's 
brother " is used in a general sense, signify- 
ing relative — perhaps cousin. This ques- 
tion we have discussed elsewhere,'^ and have 



1 Acts XV., 19, 20, 28, 29 ; xxi., 21-25.— 2 See Beetu- 

EEN OF THE LOBD ; JaMES. 



indicated our judgment that the weight of 
evidence is in favor of the opinion that there 
was a James who was the veritable brother 
of Christ. In accordance with that judg- 
ment, we attribute the authorship of this 
epistle to the Lord's brother. The object of 
the epistle, which appears to have been writ- 
ten to Jewish converts,^ is ethical rather 
than theological ; its aim is to correct sins 
into which the Christians to whom it was 
addressed had fallen, or were liable to fall, 
and to inculcate practical duties. There is 
nothing to determine with any certainty the 
time or place of its writing. The imagined 
inconsistency of its teachings with those of 
the apostle Paul has no real existence. The 
latter, in many of his epistles, dwells quite 
as earnestly on the practical aspects of re- 
ligion, and the necessity of fulfilling the ev- 
ery-day duties of life. 

Jannes and Jambres {poor, poverty) are 
mentioned by Paul, in his Epistles to Tim- 
othy,'^ as having withstood Moses. But there 
is no mention of them in the O. T. They 
are believed to be the traditional names of 
the Egyptian magicians mentioned in Exod. 
vii., 11, 22. Theodoret says that Paul learn- 
ed their names from the unwritten teach- 
ings of the Jews ; and this opinion is render- 
ed probable from the fact that their names 
are found in the Targum of Jonathan on 
Exod. vii., 11, 22. The tradition respecting 
Janties and Jambres, as collected out of the 
rabbinical books, is as follows : They were 
the sons of Balaam, prophesied to Pharaoh 
the birth of Moses, in consequence of which 
he gave the order for the destruction of the 
Jewish children, and thenceforward acted as 
the counselors of much of the evil in Egypt 
and in the desert, after the exodus, which 
happened to Israel. They were variously 
reported to have perished in the Red Sea, 
or to have been killed in the tumult conse- 
quent on the making the golden calf, which 
they had advised. 

Jansenists, the name of a prominent sect 
or school in the Roman Catholic Church. It 
derives its name from that of its founder, 
Cornelius Jansen, a celebrated divine who 
was born in Holland in 1585, and died in 
France in 1638. His chief work was not 
published till after his death. It is entitled 
"Augustinus," and is devoted ostensibly to 
an exposition of the teachings of Augustine 
— really to the maintenance of the doctrine 
of free grace in opposition to that of salva- 
tion by works, as elaborately maintained by 
the Jesuits. The publication of this work 
gave rise at once to a long and bitter con- 
troversy. The book and its doctrines were 
condemned by the pope. The Jansenists, 
while they claimed to be Roman Catholics, 
still continued to maintain zealouslj^ these 
doctrines, and to contend vigorously not only 
against the errors in doctrine, but also against 
1 Jas. L, 1 2 2 Tim. iiL, 8. 



JAPHETH 



480 



JASPER 



the immoralities and the political schemes 
of the Jesuits. Prominent among their lead- 
ers were Armand and the famous Pascal. 
The order founded the convent of Port Roy- 
al, a religious community which differed from 
a monastery in not being bound together by 
religious vows. This community was a sort 
of literary hermitage, in which, however, the 
Scriptures were studied with devotion, while 
the traditions of the Church were suffered 
to fall into comparative oblivion. With the 
common people, the Jansenists made such 
progress that the Jesuits have never been 
able, in France, to recover the ground then 
lost ; but the submission of the Jansenists 
to the decrees of the Church was fatal to the 
permanent existence of the order ; and when, 
in 1709, the decree for the extinction and de- 
molition of Port Royal was issued, they did 
not resist. The spirit of Jansenism still re- 
mains in the more liberal portion of the Ro- 
man Catholic Church of France; but the 
only remnant of the organization, as such, 
is to be found in the Jansenist Church of 
Utrecht, Holland, which maintains the Ro- 
man Catholic faith and practice in the main, 
but refuses to submit to the old decrees 
against Jansen and his works. 

The position which the Old Catholics of 
Germany occupy to-day was substantially oc- 
cupied by the Jansenists in the seventeenth 
and eighteenth centuries. While they dis- 
tinctly and emphatically disavowed all sym- 
pathy with the Reformation, they imbibed 
its spirit to a certain degree, but stopped 
short of throwing off the yoke of bondage 
and taking the full liberty of the Gospel. 
Of all movements toward a reformation in 
the Roman Catholic Church, Jansenism may 
be regarded as the most important, historic- 
ally ; and its failure affords a striking evi- 
dence of the hopelessness of any endeavor to 
introduce the spirit of the Gospel and leave 
intact that principle of submission to the 
Church which is the fundamental principle 
of the papacy. The practical sympathy of 
Jansenism and Old Catholicism has received 
a practical illustration in the fact that the 
Jansenist archbishop of Utrecht has recent- 
ly (1872) visited Munich and other Catholic 
towns to administer the rite of confirmation, 
and also, we believe, to ordain clergy. As 
his Roman Catholic pedigree is undoubted, 
the papacy can not deny the validity of his 
confirmations and ordinations. 

Japheth (fair), one of the sons of Noah. 
From the order in which their names inva- 
riably occur, we should naturally infer that 
Japheth was the youngest, but we learn from 
Gen. ix., 24, that Ham held that position. It 
has been generally supposed from Gen. x., 21, 
that Japheth was the eldest ; but the word 
" elder" in that passage is better connected 
with "brother." We infer, therefore, that 
Japheth was the second son of Noah. The 
race of Japheth was characterized by a re- 



markable tendency to diffuse itself abroad 
over the remoter regions of the earth ; and 
from that root have sprung many of the most 
active and enterprising nations, both of ear- 
lier and later times. It occupied the " isles 
of the Gentiles," i. e., the coast lands of the 
Mediterranean Sea in Europe and Asia Minor, 
whence its branches spread northward over 
the whole continent of Europe and a consid- 
erable portion of Asia. [Gen. v., 32 ; vi., 10 ; 
X., 1.] . 

Jasher (uprigTit), Book of, is alluded to in 
two passages only of the O. T.^ That it was 
written in verse may reasonably be inferred 
from the only specimens extant, which ex- 
hibit unmistakable signs of metrical rhythm. 
Gesenius conjectured that it was a collection 
of ancient songs, which acquired its name, 
"the book of the just or upright," from be- 
ing written in praise of upright men. Jo- 
sephus has been understood to speak of the 
book of Jasher as one of the books laid up 
in the Temple ; but it is not clear that he al- 
ludes there to any thing else than the book 
of Joshua. There is a miserable English 
forgery of this book, first published, it is 
said, in 1751, and republished at Bristol in 
1829. 

Jashobeam (captivity of the people). A fol- 
lower of David of this name is described as 
a Hachmonite, a Korhite, and son of Zabdi- 
el. He joined David at Ziklag, and upon one 
occasion slew three hundred men. Jasho- 
beam is identical with Adim the Eznite, who 
is mentioned in 2 Sam. xxiii., 8, as slaying 
by his spear at one time eight hundred men. 
As to the difference in numbers, it has been 
supposed that three hundred were slain at 
the first onset, or by Jashobeam himself, and 
an additional body afterward, or by the help 
of others. [1 Chron. xi., 11 ; xii., 6; xxvii., 
2.] 

Jasper, a precious stone frequently no- 
ticed in Scripture. It was the last of the 
twelve inserted in the high-priest's breast- 
plate, and the first of the twelve used in the 
foundations of the New Jerusalem. It ap- 
pears among the stones which adorned the 
king of Tyre, and is the emblematical image 
of the glory of the divine Being. The char- 
acteristics of the stone, as far as they are 
specified in Scripture, are that it was " most 
precious," " like crystal," and of brilliant and 
transparent light. The stone which we name 
"jasper" does not accord with this descrip- 
tion : it is an opaque species of quartz, of a 
red, yellow, green, or mixed brownish-yellow 
hue, sometimes striped, and sometimes spot- 
ted, in no respect presenting the character- 
istics of the crystal. The diamond w^ould 
more adequately answer to the description in 
the book of Revelation ; but what is the stone 
intended is admittedly uncertain. [Exod. 
xxviii.,20; xxxix.,18; Ezek. xxviii.,13; Rev. 

iv.,3; xxi. , 11,19.1 

1 Josh. X., 13 ; 2 Sam. i., 18. 



JAVAN 



481 



JEHOIADA 



Javan (deceive)-), a son of Japhetli, and the 
father of Elishah, Tarshish, Kittim, and Do- 
danim. There is no reason to doubt that of 
these four lines of offspring descended from 
him three formed settlements in Asia Minor 
and Greece — the Hellenes probably coming 
from Elishah, while the Kittims formed the 
inhabitants of Cyprus and other islands, and 
the Dodanims of some parts of the Epirus. 
Hence Javan became the Hebrew name for 
Greece or Ionia, which in ancient times, 
since the names were much the same, was 
very commonly identified with Greece by 
foreigners. In the ethnographic table^ Ja- 
van may be taken, if necessary, as the name 
of the race, and not of its founder ; and 
thus, consistently with history, the lonians 
or Greeks are said to spring from the Ja- 
pheth branch of Noah's family. All the 
modern researches in ethnography and ge- 
ography tend more and more to confirm this 
" table of the nations " in the tenth chapter 
of Genesis. [Gen. x., 2, 4 ; Ezek. xxvii., 13 ; 
Dan. X., 20; xi.,2.] 

Jebusites, one of the tribes of Canaan, 
whom the Israelites were commanded to ex- 
terminate. They were descended from Ca- 
naan, the youngest son of Ham. Their chief 
abodes were Jerusalem and the surrounding 
district, together with the mountain country 
afterward belonging to Jndah, where they 
were in close proximity to the Amorites and 
the Hittites. They joined the great confed- 
eracy against Joshua under Jabiu, and were 
defeated, the King of Jerusalem, or Jebus 
(an Amorite), having been previously killed.^ 
Though this city was subsequently burned 
by the tribe of Judah, it was either not de- 
stroyed, or was rebuilt by the Jebusites ; and 
it was not till the reign of David that they 
were altogether conquered, and dispossessed 
of the chosen stronghold of Zion ; and even 
then some of them remained. Solomon made 
the remnant tributary; and some seem to 
have been still recognizable after the Cap- 
tivity. [Josh. XV., 63 ; xviii., 28 ; Judg. i., 8, 
21 ; xix., 10-12 ; 2 Sam. v., 6-8 ; xxiv., 16, 18 ; 
1 Kings ix., 20 ; 1 Chrou. xi., 4-6 ; xxi., 15, 
18, 28 ; Ezra ix., 1.] 

Jeduthun (who gives praises), a Levite, of 
the family of Merari ; probably the same as 
Ethan. ^ His office was generally to preside 
over the music of the Temple service. His 
name stands at the head of Psalms xxxix., 
Ixii., and Ixxvii., probably indicating that 
they were to be sung by his choir. 

Jehoahaz (God- sustained). 1. The seven- 
teenth king of Judah, B.C. 610. He is also 
called Shallum. He was a son of Josiah, 
and his immediate successor. The people on 
the death of his father anointed him, and 
made him king,* though it is clear that he 



1 Gen. X. — 2 Gen. x., 16 ; xv., 21 ; Exod. iii., 8, IT ; 
Numb, xiii., 29; Josh, ix., 1, 5, 26; xi., .8.— 3 Comp. 1 
Chron. xv., 17, 19, wirh 1 Chnm. xvi., 41, 42 ; xxv., 1, 
3, 6 ; 2 Chron. xxxv., 15.-4 2 Kings xxiii., 30. 
31 



was not the eldest son.^ After a reign of 
three months, the shortest in the kingdom 
of Israel^ he was dethroned by Pharaoh-ne- 
cho, and another brother, Jehoiakim, placed 
upon the throne. Jehoahaz was carried a 
captive to Syria, but was eventually taken 
to Egypt, where he died,^ the first king of 
Israel who died in exile. [2 Kings xxiii., 
30-33 ; 2 Chron. xxxvi., 1-5. J 

2. Eleventh king of Israel, and son and 
successor of Jehu. He reigned seventeen 
years, B.C. 856-841. As he followed the evil 
courses of the house of Jeroboam, he suffer- 
ed as a punishment a series of disasters in- 
flicted by the Syrians. Hazael (q. v.) king 
of Syria, and his son Benhadad, ravaged the 
kingdom of Israel till Jehoahaz had only fif- 
ty horsemen, ten chariots, and ten thousand 
footmen left, of all his forces. Overcome by 
his calamities, he at length humbled himself 
before Jehovah, and acknowledged his au- 
thority. In consideration of this a deliver- 
er was raised up, in the person of his son Jo- 
ash (q. v.), who expelled the Syrians and re- 
established the affairs of the kingdom. [2 
Kings xiii., 1-10,25.] 

Jehoiachin (appointed by Jehovah), also call- 
ed Coniah, or Jeconiah,^ son of Jehoiakim, 
and nineteenth king of Judah. According 
to one account, he came to the throne at the 
age of eight years ; another version* states 
him to have been eighteen. It is supposed 
by some that he reigned ten years with his 
father. He had a short reign of three months 
and ten days, B.C. 599. During his reign Neb- 
uchadnezzar again besieged Jerusalem. Je- 
hoiachin, convinced of the futility of resist- 
ance, surrendered himself, and he and the 
queen-mother, with all his servants, captains, 
and officers, were carried to Babylon — ten 
thousand captives in all. There he remain- 
ed a prisoner, actually in prison, and wear- 
ing prison clothes, thirty -six years, till, on 
the death of Nebuchadnezzar (q. v.), Evil- 
Merodach (q. v.) brought him out of his 
bonds, and placed him at his own table.'' 
Nothing is related of his death. The pre- 
diction that he should be childless® perhaps 
signifies that no child of his should sit upon 
the throne, as he is stated to have had sev- 
eral children.^ He was succeeded by his 
nephew, Zedekiah. [2 Kings xxiv., 8-17; 
xxv., 27-30 ; 2 Chron. xxxvi., 9-22; Jer. Iii., 
31-33.] 

Jehoiada (Mown of Jehovah), high- -priest 
at the time of Athaliah's usurpation and dur- 
ing the greater part of the reign of Joash 
(B.C. 884-834). He was a man of command- 
ing position and character, who, by a union 
without precedent, had intermarried witli 
the royal family, his wife, Jehosheba (q. v.), 
being the daughter of Joram. In the gener- 



1 1 Chron. iii., 15.— 2 Jer. xxii., 11, 12.-3 j chron. 
iii., 15; Jer. xxii., 24.—* 2 Chron. xxxvi., 9; 2 Kings 
xxiv., 8.-5 Ezek. xvii., 12; xix., 9; Jer. Iii., 31-34.— 
6 Jer. xxii., 30.— ^ 1 Chron. iii., IT, 18. 



JEHOIADA 



482 



JEHORAM 



ill massacre of the princes of Athaliah (q. v.) 
the infant Joash was saved alive by Jehosh- 
eba, and concealed, fii'st, in the store-room of 
mattresses, in the palace, and then in the 
Temple, under the protection of her hus- 
band. On him rested the whole hope of 
carrying on the lineage of David. For six 
years Jehoiada waited his opportunity. In 
the seventh year of Athaliah's reign he pre- 
pared his measures for his great stroke. He 
placed himself in direct communication with 
the five officers of the royal guard, whom he 
bound to his cause by a solemn oath. He 
added a force of armed Levites devoted to 
him. The Sabbath day was chosen for the 
decisive blow. Those of the Levites who 
ordinarily mounted guard on the Sabbath 
were to keep their usual posts, to avoid sus- 
picion. Those who ordinarily attended the 
king to the Temple were to surround and 
protect Joash within it. They were furnish- 
ed by Jehoiada with the spears and shields 
which, as relics of David's time, hung with- 
in the sacred precincts. The young king, a 
mere boy of seven, was then crowned — the 
first instance of coronation in Jewish history 
— the by-stauders applauding and shouting, 
" Long live the king !" The sound reached 
the ears of Athaliah in her palace. She hur- 
ried to the Temple. The king stood on his 
platform at the gate of the church. Beside 
him were the officers of the guard. The 
court was crowded with spectators. The 
Temple echoed with their shouts and with 
the songs of the singers. Athaliah, rending 
her royal robes, cried out, " Treason ! trea- 
son !" Jehoiada responded by ordering the 
officers to drag her from the precincts. So 
strict was the reverence to the Temple that 
she passed all through the long array of 
armed Levites and the exulting multitude, 
to the gates of the city, before they fell upon 
and slew her. Then followed a popular re- 
action against the worship of Baal. His 
temple was' sacked, the images and altars 
destroyed, and the priest, Mattan, was slain. 
His blood and that of Athaliah was all that 
was shed. The reforms subsequently inau- 
gurated during the reign of Joash (q. v.) 
seem to have been due less to the king than 
to Jehoiada, who continued to be the king's 
chief counselor till he died. He united with 
the king in stringent and successful meas- 
ures to check the priestly corruption and 
push on to completion the repairs of the 
Temple. But his death, B.C. 834, was the 
signal for a relapse into the degrading idol- 
atries from which he never more than par- 
tially redeemed the nation.^ According to 
2 Chron. xxiv., 15, he was one hundred and 
thirty years old at his death ; but it is sup- 
posed that this is an error in the Hebrew 
manuscript for eighty -three. He was bu- 
ried among the kings of Judah, and appears 
to have been succeeded by his son Zachari- 
^ 2 Kiugs xii., 2, iJ. 



ah (q. V.) [2 Kings xi. ; xii. ; 2 Chron. xxiii. ; 
xxiv.] 

Jehoiakim (appointed hy Jehovah), was the 
son of Josiah, and the eighteenth kiug of 
Judah, B.C. 610-599. His original name was 
Eliakim, and it was changed to Jehoiakim 
by Pharaoh-necho (q. v.),^ who deposed his 
brother, and raised him to the throne, which 
he occupied eleven years. He was a vassal 
of the Egyptian king, and was obliged to 
lay heavy taxes on the people to pay the re- 
quired tribute.^ Jehoiakim had been but 
little more than three years on the throne 
when Nebuchadnezzar (q. v.) besieged Jeru- 
salem, and took it.^ He bound the kiug in 
fetters, with the intention of taking him to 
Babylon, but probably changed his design, 
and accepted the submission of Jehoiakim, 
leaving him in his kiugdom. Many of the 
royal family, however, were taken to Baby- 
lon as hostages ; among these hostages were 
Daniel and his three companions. This was 
the commencement of the Babylonish cap- 
tivity. The burning of the roll* was a mark- 
ed event in Jehoiakim's reign ; and for this 
sacrilegious act fearful denunciations were 
uttered against him.^ There are different 
versions of his death. Though in Kings 
xxiv., 6, he is said to have " slept with his 
fathers," yet it would appear that he was 
slain either by his own subjects or in an ac- 
tion with the Assyrians, and that his body 
remained, at least for a time, exposed and 
unlamented, without the city." He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Jehoiachin. All accounts 
describe his character as vicious, and his 
reign as abounding in abomiiiations.'' Jer- 
emiah vividly portrays the ungodly state of 
Israel at this time, and announces the ter- 
rible retribution that was about to follow.^ 
See Jeremiah ; Baruch. [2 Kiugs xxiii., 
34-37 ; xxiv., 1-6 ; 2 Chron. xxxvi., 4-8 ; Jer. 
xxvi. ; xxxvi. 

Jehonadab (whom Jehovah impels), a son 
or descendant of Rechab, the founder of the 
Rechabites. He met Jehu proceeding to Sa- 
maria, just after the slaughter of the princes, 
and, having declared his cordial concurrence 
with the new king, was taken by him into 
his chariot, and attended him to the treach- 
erous slaughter of the worshipers of Baal.^ 
We again hear of Jehonadab as imposing on 
his children the rule of abstinence from wine, 
agriculture, and residence in cities ;^° which 
rule was exactly observed till, in one respect, 
at the Babylonian invasion, it was necessari- 
ly relaxed. See Rechabites. 

Jehoram (exalted hy Jehovah). 1. Son of 
Ahab, and successor of his brother Ahaziah 
to tlie throne of Israel, of which he was the 
ninth king — B.C. 896-885. The name also 

1 2 Chron. xxxvi., 4.-2 2 Kin<?s xxiii., 35,-3 Dan, i., 
1.—* Jer. xxxvi., 22, 23. See jKREiMiAii.— "^ Jer. xxii., 
IS, 19 ; xxxvi., 30.— « Jer. xxii., IS, 10.— •> 2 Chron. 
xxxvi., 8.-8 Jer. xix. ; xxvii., 1-11.—^ 2 Kings x., 
15_23.— 1" Jer. XXXV. ; where, however, he is called 
Jonudab. 



JEHORAM 



483 



JEHORAM 



appears as Joram/ There is much difficul- 
ty iu tracing the history of his reign and 
that of his contemporary of the same name 
who occupied the throne of Judah at the 
same time. His first measure on ascending 
his throne was the organization of a con- 
federacy between the kings of Israel, Judah, 
and Edom, to chastise the revolted king of 
Moab, who had refused his accustomed trib- 
ute of one hundred thousand sheep and one 
hundred thousand lambs. Their united forces 
marched round the foot of the Dead Sea, but 
found themselves bewildered in an arid des- 
ert without water. By the advice of Elisha, 
who had now assumed the prophetic office, 
they dug deep trenches along the plain, 
down which the waters from the mountain- 
ous district of Edom flowed rapidly and 
abundantly. The Moabites in the morning, 
mistaking the waters reddened by the rising 
sun for pools of blood, supposed that the 
common fate of confederate armies had ta- 
ken place — that they had quarreled and mu- 
tually slaughtered each other. They sallied 
down to plunder the camp, but, meeting with 
unexpected resistance, were defeated on all 
sides. The king in his despair, after having 
in vain attempted to break through the hos- 
tile forces, and having seen his whole coun- 
try cruelly devastated, offered his eldest son 
as a sacrifice to his gods. Yet he seems to 
have been saved from total ruin by some 
dissension among the allies, which led to the 
withdrawing of their forces. 

This victory, perhaps, led to the king's 
partial reformation of Israel. He put away 
Baal, but continued the half- heathen wor- 
ship which Jeroboam had established. His 
repentance was not very sincere, nor his ref- 
ormation very lasting. The Syrians contin- 
ued to send marauding expeditions into his 
kingdom, to be, however, continually defeat- 
ed by the prophetic counsels of Elisha, who 
disclosed to the Israelite king their plans 
of campaign, and who was himself mirac- 
ulously delivered at Dotham (q. v.). At 
length the enemy penetrated into the heart 
of the kingdom, and laid siege to the capital 
— ^the city of Samaria. The distress of the 
city is graphically portrayed by the terrible 
story of the two mothers who agreed to kill 
their children for food ; and certainly the 
king was in his last extremity when, for a 
second time, a miraculous 'deliverance was 
afforded at the intercession of Elisha. The 
Syrians, seized with an inexplicable panic, 
suddenly retreated. Some lepers, desperate 
from their wretched condition, sallying forth 
from the city, found the camp deserted, and 
abundant provision and an immense booty 
left behind. The scene of the war was trans- 
ferred by this victory from the heart to the 
borders of the kingdom at Ramoth-gilead. 
Here Jehoram was wounded. He left the 
army in charge of Jehu, and returned to Sa- 



2 Kings viii., 16, 25, 28, 29 ; ix., 14, IT, 21-23, 29. 



maria. Meanwhile a young prophet, tradi- 
tionally said to be Jonah, sent by Elisha, 
anointed Jehu king. The army revolted, 
and espoused his cause. Jehu started at 
once for Samaria to carry out his designs, of 
which the king had no information. See- 
ing his general coming, Jehoram went forth 
to meet him, unsuspectingly, with the que- 
ry, "Is it peace?" The impetuous gener- 
al responded with bitter upbraiding of the 
king's mother's crimes ; and as the defense- 
less king turned to flee, shot him through 
the heart. His body was buried in the vine- 
yard of Naboth. His death, followed almost 
immediately by that of his sister's son Aha- 
ziah, king of Judah, and that of his moth- 
er and all his father's house, brought to a 
bloody end the dynasty of the house of Omri. 
The story of Jehoram's reign is chiefly re- 
markable for his connection with the con- 
temporaneous prophet Elisha (q. v.). See 
Ahaziah ,• Jehu ; Jezebel. [2 Kings iii. ; 
vi., 8-vii. ; viii., 28, 29 ; ix.] 

2. Son of Jehoshaphat, and fifth king of 
Judah, B.C. 892-885. He was thirty-two years 
of age when he ascended the throne, and 
seems to have shared the kingdom with his 
father during his declining years.^ He was 
married by his father to Athaliah, daughter 
of Ahab, for the purpose of uniting the king- 
doms of Judah and Israel. Her pernicious 
influence over him was the cause of his de- 
struction. The only effect of the union was 
that he shared in the ruin of the house of 
Omri. No sooner was Jehoram's father dead 
than he slew his six brethren, from a cause- 
less fear of their pretensions to the throne, 
and proceeded to undo all the religious ref- 
ormation of his father, by re-establishing the 
worship of Baal and the infamous rites of 
Ashtaroth. Edom, which had been tribu- 
tary under Jehoshaphat, revolted, and was 
never again brought into subjection. Lib- 
nah (q.v.), one of the strongest fortified cities 
in Judah, rebelled against him. Then follow- 
ed invasions of armed bands of Philistines 
and of Arabians, who stormed the king's pal- 
ace, and put to death or carried into captiv- 
ity his wives and all his children, except his 
youngest son, Ahaziah.^ He died, after a 
reign of eight years, of a loathsome and in- 
curable disease, the nature of which is not 
very clear. As he lived without being re- 
spected, so he died without being regretted, 
and was buried without royal honors.^ His 
son Ahaziah succeeded him. 

The history of the reigns of the two Jeho- 
rams is rendered perplexing by a difficult 
question of chronology. According to 2 
Chron. xxii., 12, Elijah the prophet sent Je- 
horam, king of Judah, a writing in the early 
part of his reign, warning him of the dan- 
gers which would overtake him. Yet in the 
order of narration in 2 Kings the translation 



1 2 Kings viii., 16.— 2 2 Chron. xxi., 17; xxii., 1.— 

2 Chron. xxi., 19. 



JEHOSHAPHAT 



484 JEHOSHAPHAT (VALLEY OF) 



of Elijali would seem to have occurred before 
the accession of Jehoram. But as 2 Kings 
consists mainly of memoirs of Elisha, and as 
Elijah's active ministrations ceased with the 
reign of Ahaziah, it was natural to comj)lete 
his personal history with the account of his 
translation in ch. ii., before commencing that 
of Elisha's prophetic mission. Hence it is 
not necessary to suppose that ch. ii. records 
that which was actually prior in time to 
what is related in ch. iii. Such a change in 
the order of narration is not unusual, and 
tliere is an evident reason for it here. The 
note of time in 2 Kings i., 17, is properly of 
the same date as the narrative in ch. ii. See 
Athaliah; Ahaziah; Elijah. [2 Kings 
viii., 16-24 ; 2 Chron. sxi.] 

Jehoshaphat (he whom Jehovah judges), 
fourth king of Judah, B.C. 914-892. He was 
the son and successor of Asa. Of his moth- 
er, Azubah, nothing is known save her name. 
Jehoshaphat ascended the throne of Judah 
at the age of thirty-five. He continued the 
religious reforms which his father, Asa, had 
inaugurated. Under his reign the kingdom 
attained something of its former prosperity. 
He rebuilt and strengthened the cities of 
Judah. He enlarged the army to a force of 
over a million, in five great divisions, an- 
swering to our corps d'arm6e.^ He garri- 
soned the chief cities. He established a na- 
tional system of education, under the direc- 
tion of five officers of the court, associated 
with nine Levites and two priests.^ He re- 
organized the judiciary, and, in a religious 
address of great power, still preserved, re- 
buked the injustice and corruption which 
previous reigns had produced.^ In this re- 
organization a distinction appears to be rec- 
ognized, for the first time, between ecclesias- 
tical and civil courts.* The long wars be- 
tween Judah and Israel were brought to an 
end, and a treaty of alliance cemented be- 
tween them, perfected by the marriage of 
his eldest son, Jehoram, to Athaliah, the 
daughter of Ahab and Jezebel ; a marriage 
which was brought about purely from state 
reasons, and which, though seemingly poli- 
tic, brought eventual disaster upon the king- 
dom by bringing Judah under the evil influ- 
ence of Ahab's house. More than once God 
recognized the piety of Jehoshaphat. In the 
battle of Eamoth-gilead (q. v.), so fatal to 
the house of Omri, Jehoshaphat was saved 
from the pursuing Syrians.^ In the cam- 
paign against Moab, with Jehoram, king of 
Israel, this recognition was yet more emphat- 
ic. Elislia, appealed to by the allied kings, 
scornfully referred Jehoram to the prophets 
of Baal, but, for Jehoshaphat's sake, gave the 
counsel which resulted in the defeat of the 
Moabites.® The battle of Ziz (q. v.) affords 



I 780,000 in Judah, 380,000 in Benjamin ; 2 Chron. 
xvii., 12-18.— 2 2 Chron. xvii., 7-9.-3 pg.^, Ixxxii. is at- 
trihutiul to his reiijn.— ^ 2 Chron. xix., 11. — ^ j Kings 
xxii., 32, 33.-8 2 Kings iii. See Jeuobam. 



a yet more significant indication of the char- 
acter of Jehoshaphat, the Cromwell of Jew- 
ish history. The land was threatened by a 
great host of Moabites and Ammonites. They 
came up through the pass of Ziz, the mod- 
ern Ain Jidy, through which the marauding 
Arabs of the present day enter Palestine. 
Jehoshaphat appointed a national fast. His 
consternation was great, but his faith was 
greater. "Neither know we what to do," 
said he ; " but our eyes are upon thee." En- 
couraged by the prophet Jahaziel,^ he led 
his troops down to meet the foe. Singers 
were appointed, who marched before the 
army, inspiring them by a national chorus 
of sacred song. Not a blow was struck by 
the Judeans ; but the allied armies, thrown 
into confusion by God, fell to quarreling 
among themselves, and every one " helped 
to destroy another." In his commercial en- 
terprise undertaken with Ahaziah, king of 
Israel, Jehoshaphat was less successful. His 
ships, built at Ezion-geber, were wrecked, as 
a divine testimony against his league with 
the idolatrous and corrupt Israelites. To- 
ward the close of his reign, his throne was 
shared by his son Jehoram, who succeeded to 
it upon Jehoshaphat's death. Jehoshaphat 
left six other sons, whom he raised to places 
of high rank, but who were all slain by their 
brother Jehoram, on his accession. [1 Kings 
XV., 24 ; xxii. ; 2 Cbron. xvii.-xxi., 3.] 

Jehoshaphat (Valley of), a valley men- 
tioned by Joel only, as the spot in which, af- 
ter the return of Judah and Jerusalem from 
captivity, Jehovah would gather all the 
heathen, and would there sit to judge them 
for their misdeeds to Israel.^ The name is 
now attached to a deep ravine which sepa- 
rates Jerusalem from the Mount of Olives, 
through which at one time the Kedron forced 
its stream. At what period the name was 
first applied to this spot is not known. We 
first encounter it as a name of this valley 
in the middle of the fourth century ; and 
since that time the name has been recognized 
and adopted by travelers of all ages and all 
faiths. It would seem to be generally con- 
fined by travelers to the upper part of the 
glen, from about the " Tomb of the Virgin " 
to the south-east corner of the wall of Jeru- 
salem. The acclivity toward the eastern wall 
of Jerusalem is a Turkish burying-ground ; 
and the white tombs, with the Koran at one 
end and a turban at the other, dot pictur- 
esquely the upper part of the slope for sev- 
eral hundred yards. The other acclivity, 
between Olivet and the Mount of Corruption, 
is crowded all over with flat Jewish tombs, 
each with its Hebrew inscription. Thus 
Moslems and Jews occupy the Valley of Je- 
hoshaphat between them, with their dead 
facing each other across the Kedron, alike 
awaiting the Last Judgment, of which they 

1 2 Chron. xx., 14-25. Mentioned only here.— ^ Joel 
iii., 2, 12. 



JEHOVAH 



485 



JEHU 



believe this spot to be the scene. It is this 
Valley of Jehoshaphat, the channel in which 
is nothing more than the dry bed of a win- 
try torrent, which is referred to as the brook 
Kidron, or Kedron, or Cedron, which was 
crossed by David in his flight, and by onr 
Lord on his way to Gethsemane."^ 

But the valley to which Joel refers is to be 
sought on no map in any epoch of the his- 
tory of Jerusalem. It is a name formed to 
fix and localize an ideal event. To repre- 
sent God as an all-powerful defender of his 
suffering people, and in the end all-conquer- 
ing, the prophet boldly represents Jehovah 
as meeting the concentrated forces of all his 
enemies, scattering them at a single blow, 
and overwhelmiug their hosts with confusion 
and ruin. The scene of this encounter the 
prophet calls the Valley of Jehoshaphat, i. e., 
"Avhere Jehovah judges," and interchanges 
this expression in verse 14 with " valley of 
decision," i. e., of judgment declared. 

Jehovah. This word is used both singly 
and in composition as a name of the Deity. 
Its significance, as distinct from the other 
titles, Elohim and El - Shaddai, have been 
considered in part under the article Genesis. 
In that article we have considered what 
weight is due to the argument which skep- 
tical writers have derived from the employ- 
ment of these different names of the Deity 
in the book of Genesis for the opinion that 
this book is the work of different authors. 
The general meaning of the word is indi- 
cated in Exod. iii., 14 ; and it is now gener- 
ally admitted by competent Semitic scholars 
that it signifies the " existent," or something 
nearly akin thereto. The appellation also 
occurs in composition as Jehovah-jireh, "I 
Am will provide ;" Jehovah-nissi, " I Am is 
my banner ;" and Jehovah-shalom, " I Am is 
peace." [Gen. xxii., 14 ; Exod. iii., 14 ; xvii., 
15; Judg.vi.,24.] 

Jehu (Jehovah is he). 1. Tenth king of Is- 
rael, reigned twenty-eight years, B.C. 884-856. 
His father's name was Jehoshaphat,^ but he 
is more frequently called the son of Mmshi, 
who was his grandfather, and better known 
than his father. He probably was not young 
when called to assume the reins of govern- 
ment ; for nearly twenty years before he had 
been divinely designated to Elijah at Horeb 
for the kingly office, with an injunction to 
the prophet to anoint him.^ No explanation 
is given for the delay of this appointment, 
which was reserved for Elisha to perfect. 
In the mean time Jehu had risen to a high 
place in the army, and had established for 
himself a reputation for great energy. At 
last the set time came. Elisha dispatched 
one of the sons of the prophets* to Ramoth- 
gilead, where Jehu with his army was con- 



1 2 Sam. XV., 23: comp. 30; John xviii., 1; comp. 
Mark xiv., 26; Lnke xxii., 39.-2 2 Kings ix., 2.— 
3 1 Kings xix.j 16.—'* Traditionally said to be Jonah 
(q. v.). 



tending against Hazael, king of Syria, with 
the charge to anoint Jehu king of Israel. He 
was in the midst of his officers, when a youth 
suddenly appeared and demanded a private 
interview with him. They retired to a se- 
cret chamber. The youth opened a box of 
sacred oil which he had brought wdth him, 
poured it over Jehu's head, and after an- 
nouncing to him the message from Elisha, 
that he was appointed to be the king of Is- 
rael, and the destroyer of the house of Ahab, 
he rushed out of the house and disappeared.^ 
The secret was not long concealed. The 
army, rife for a change of dynasty, imme- 
diately, with the greatest enthusiasm, threw 
their garments under Jehu, placed him on 
the top of the stairs, as an extempore throne, 
blew the royal salute on their trumpets, and 
thus hailed him as king. Jehu at once en- 
tered upon the execution of the work of judg- 
ment expressly committed to him — to sweep 
away the house of Ahab.^ With a trusty 
and chosen band he proceeded to Jezreel, 
where King Jehoram (q. v.) was lying sick. 
With his own hand Jehu killed him.^ Then 
followed, in rapid succession, the slaughter 
of Jezebel and of the w-liole of the seed-royal 
in Samaria — a work of extermination hith- 
erto unparalleled in the history of the Jew- 
ish monarchy. Still another work remained 
to be done — the destruction of Baal- worship ; 
and this Jehu accomplished by guile. A 
grand festival to the heathen god was an- 
nounced ; and the proi)hets, priests, and of- 
ficers of Baal had assembled from all jiarts, 
till the temple was crowded with its wor- 
shipers. Jehu himself joined in the sacri- 
ficial service. Then, at a given signal, a 
sweeping massacre removed at one blow the 
Avhole heathen priesthood of the kingdom 
of Israel.* 

Thus far Jehu might be said to have ac- 
complished faithfully the solemn work in- 
trusted to him. But when the question 
came to be, what was he himself going to 
substitute for the abominations he had put 
down, " he departed not from the sins of Jer- 
oboam, who made Israel to sin."^ Policy for- 
bade him to substitute the pure worship of 
Jehovah in opposition to the idolatrous forms 
that had been set up at Beth-el and Dan. 
Therefore, while a prolongation of his dynas- 
ty was promised for the work of judgment 
he had executed against the house of Baal, 
it was to extend only to the fourth genera- 
tion." And before that time had expired, his 
house had in turn become the subject of se- 
vere threatening, and had the prospect of an 
exterminating doom.'' Jehu was buried in 
Samaria, leaA'ing the throne to his son Je- 
hoahaz. The princij)al events recorded of 
his reign took place during the first year, 
very little being said of what happened dur- 



1 2 Kings ix., 5-10.— 2 2 Kings ix., 7, 8.-3 2 Kings 
ix., 24.-4 2 Kings x., 20-28— & 2 Kings x., 31.— 
« 2 Kings X., 30.— 7 Hos. i., 4. 



JEPHTHAH 



JEREMIAH 



ing the other twenty-seven years. It is re- 
corded, however, that several military dis- 
asters took place, by which the borders of 
Israel were shortened. See Jezebel ; Aha- 
ziah; Jehokam. [2 Kings ix., x.] 

2. The sou of Hanaui, a prophet, who first 
appears in Israel delivering a threatening 
message to Baasha for following the sins of 
Jeroboam. Long afterward, probably thir- 
ty years or more, he appears again in the at- 
titude of admonishing the king of Judah, 
Jehoshaphat, for entering into an alliance 
with the ungodly king of Israel. [1 Kings 
xvi., 2-7 ; 2 Chron. xix., 2, 3.] 

Jephthah, an Israelitish hero and judge. 
His history is contained in Judg. xi., 1-xii., 
8, and is one of the most striking of the va- 
rious graphic stories which that book tells 
of that wild age. He was an illegitimate 
son, the child of Gilead by a concubine. The 
legitimate sons drove him from his father's 
inheritance. He fled to the outskirts of the 
land where Canaan bordered on the heathen 
wilderness — to Tob (q. v.). There he be- 
came the acknowledged chief of a troop of 
wild and lawless freebooters, and acquired 
through all the trans-Jordanic region a rep- 
utation as a man of valor. Thus it happen- 
ed that when the Ammonites had occuxDied 
some of the trans-Jordanic territory, and had 
even passed the Jordan and attacked the 
western tribes, Jei)hthah was solicited to take 
the command against them. Grasping at the 
opportunity to gratify his ambition, he de- 
mands that if he succeeds he shall be made 
the chieftain of Israel. The terms are ac- 
cepted, and he is appointed. Superstitious, 
and courting success, he solemnly vows to 
oifer as a burnt-offering to the Lord whatso- 
ever comes forth from his house to meet him, 
if he return in triumph. This is the price 
he is willing to pay for victory. His cam- 
paign is short, but brilliant. In a single 
battle the Ammonites are so utterly routed 
that they attemi)t no second stand. Twen- 
ty cities fall into his hands as the result of 
that decisive battle. The land of Gilead is 
effectually redeemed, and Jephthah returns 
in triumph to Mizpeh. Among those whose 
hearts exult over this national deliverance, 
there is none more joyous than Jephthah's 
daughter. She breaks over her maidenly 
reserve, and comes forth with timbrels and 
dances to meet him. So it is that the first 
one upon whom his eyes fall as he approach- 
es his house is she who is the light of his 
home and the hope of his future : " She was 
his only child : beside her he had neither 
son nor daughter." And the joy of his vic- 
tory gives place to the anguish of a riven 
heart as he tells her of his vow. " I have 
opened my mouth unto the Lord, and I can 
not go back." Over the rest Scripture drops 
a vail that it is not easy to draw aside. Of 
Jephthah's agony, of the daughter's solemn 
preparation among the mountain solitudes 



of Gilead, of the national grief and honor 
paid for years thereafter to the memory of 
this maiden, we have but a suggestion in 
the brief narrative of Scri^jture. Jephthah 
'' did with her according to his vow which 
he had vowed." Some contend tliat she was 
merely devoted to perpetual celibacy ; oth- 
ers that she was literally offered up as a sac- 
rifice. Whichever of these views is enter- 
tained, the fact remains that Jephthah sacri- 
ficed his daughter to his political ambition. 
He was left by his singular vow without is- 
sue ; and the hope of founding a dynasty, 
which had lured him from his retreat in the 
land of Tob, was destroyed at the same mo- 
ment that his own poT^er was secured by his 
victory. He realized his dream, and judged 
Israel to the day of his death. But at what 
a cost ! 

Jeremiah {appointed hy God), son of Hil- 
kiah, priest of Anathoth,^ was but a youth 
when called to the prophetic office,^ in the 
thirteenth year of Josiah, B.C. 628. It is prob- 
able that he continued to reside at Anathoth 
(q. V.) for some years, but was at length com- 
]3elled by the bitter hostilities of his fellow- 
townsmen, whose immoralities he had de- 
nounced, to leave his native place, and take 
up his residence in Jerusalem.^ During the 
reign of Josiah, Jeremiah appears to have 
been unmolested in his work, protected by 
the influence of the pious king. But on the 
accession of Jehoiakim, he was interrupted 
in his ministry by the ''priests and the proph- 
ets," who with the populace brought him 
before the civil authorities, demanding that 
capital punishment should be inflicted upon 
him for his threatenings of evil upon the 
city.* It was only by the interposition of a 
powerful friend, Ahikam, that he escaped 
with his life.^ In this fourth year of Jehoia- 
kim God commanded Jeremiah to write out 
the predictions which had been given to him, 
and read them to the people. This commis- 
sion he intrusted to Baruch (q. v.), as he him- 
self was " shut up,'"^ having probably been 
put under restraint. Baruch, having writ- 
ten out these prophecies, attempted to read 
them before the king ; but the headstrong 
tyrant, after listening for a short time, start- 
ed up, and seizing the roll, cut it in pieces 
and threw it into the fire.' Jeremiah and 
Baruch would have fallen victims to his fury, 
had they not retreated to a place of conceal- 
ment.^ Here Baruch wrote, at Jeremiah's 
dictation, the same series of prophecies ; and 
this doubtless formed the nucleus around 
which others were gathered, from time to 
time, till the whole assumed the form in 
which they now appear in the Scriptures. 

Jehoiakim and his successor, Jehoiachin, 
having been carried into exile, Zedekiah, the 
new king, did not exhibit the same obsti- 



1 Jer. i,, 1.— 2 Jer. i., 6.-3 Jer. xi., 21; xii., 6.— 
■* Jer. xxvi., S, 9.— ^ Jer. xxvi., 24.— « Jer. xxxvi., 5, 6. 
—'' Jer. xxxvi., 21-23.— « Jer. xxxvi., 26. 



JEREMIAH 



487 



JERICHO 



nate resistance to the prophet's counsels as 
his predecessors h.ad done. But tliough he 
respected and feared Jeremiah, he was pow- 
erless against his own counselors. When 
the Chaldean host came up against Jerusa- 
lem, Jeremiah was arrested upon the pretext 
of being a deserter,^ and cast into the com- 
mon prison. Through the influence of the 
king, the rigor of his confinement was miti- 
gated; but Jeremiah still continuing to de- 
liver messages obnoxious to the wishes of 
the princes, they persuaded the king to de- 
liver him into their hands.^ Armed with the 
royal permission, they took Jeremiah and 
cast him into one of the dungeons, so deep 
that it was necessary to let him down by 
cords ; and doubtless they imagined his voice 
had been silenced forever. But God deliv- 
ered him. An Ethiopian eunuch plead for 
him with the king, and Jeremiah was re- 
vStored to his apartment in the court of the 
prison.^ His imprisonment must have con- 
tinued more than a year; and during this 
period God favored him with some of the 
brightest glimpses into the future he ever 
enjoyed. The guard-house was his Patmos, 
where he saw the heavens opened, and read 
the glorious future which God had in store 
for his Church.* At this time, when the 
whole city, environed by the Chaldean host, 
was given up to despair, occurred the pur- 
chase from his cousin Hanameel, a striking 
illustration of the prophet's faith in the final 
restoration of Israel.^ 

The capture of Jerusalem restored Jere- 
miah to his liberty ; but to him this brought 
no joy. His city was destroyed, his king a 
captive, the temple of his God burned — no 
wonder that his spirit poured itself out in 
those Lamentations over his fiillen country 
which will remain an enduring monument 
of his patriotism, his genius, and his piety. 
After the murder of Gedaliah (q. v.), who 
had been made governor over the cities of 
Judah, the remnant of the Jewish people 
still resident in Palestine resolved, contrary 
to the advice of Jeremiah, to retire into 
Egypt ; and thither they carried the prophet 
and his faithful friend, Baruch. There the 
(langers he had foreboded were speedily man- 
ifested. Contaminated by the heathen ex- 
amples around them, the exiled remnant fell 
anew into all manner of abominations, so 
that Jeremiah was compelled in his old age 
still to prophesy bitter things.^ As more 
than forty years had now elapsed since the 
commencement of his ministry, he could not 
have lived long after this period. Of the 
exact time and circumstances of his death 
there is no record. The Christian tradition 
enrolls him as a martyr — as having been 
stoned to death by the Jews in Egypt. On 



1 Jer. xxxvii., 13, 14. — 2 Jer. xxxviii., 5.-3 Jer. 
xxxviii., 7-13. — '' Jer. xxxii., 36-44; xxxiii. — s Jer. 
xxxii., 1-12. Note, too, the ])rayer which follows this 
transaction. See Hanameei,.— « Jer. xliv. 



the other hand, the Jewish tradition is that 
he made his escape to Babylon or Judea, 
where he died in peace. 

The absence of any chronological order in 
the present arrangement of Jeremiah's proph- 
ecies is obvious at the first glance. There 
are two great divisions in the present order. 
Chaps, i.-xlv. include prophecies delivered at 
various times, directed mainly to Judah, or 
connected with Jeremiah's personal history. 
Chaps, xlvi.-li. include prophecies connect- 
ed with other nations. Chap, liii., taken 
largely, though not entirely, from 2 Kings 
XXV., may be regarded either as a supple- 
ment to the prophecy or as an introduction 
to the Lamentations. It is generally allowed 
to have been added after Jeremiah's death — 
l^erhaps by Ezra. 

In style he is less sublime than Isaiah. 
" He did not write," says Prof. Cowles, " to 
say fine things, or for the sake of displaying 
a classic style, but to announce momentous 
truths from a burdened heart, in words as 
j)lain and solemnly impressive as he could 
command." Yet in pathos he is surpassed by 
none of the prophets ; his descriptions of ap- 
proaching judgments are peculiarly vivid, 
and his eloquence is vigorous and impressive 
when inveighing against the iniquity of his 
age. The story of his life, passed in the days 
of Judah's degeneracy and desolation, is the 
key to the interpretation of his style. 

Jericho, an ancient city of the Canaan- 
ites. It is called in Scripture the City of 
Palms, on account of its magnificent forest 
of palm-trees. It was situated in the valley 
of the Jordan, opposite to where the Israel- 
ites under Joshua crossed that river. Its 
wealth and imi)ortance may be inferred from 
the spoils which were poured into the treas- 
ury of the Lord, and by the effect the sight 
of its riches produced upon the wretched 
Achan. Strategically the key of the whole 
country, situated at the entrance of two pass- 
es through the hills — one to Jerusalem, the 
other to Ai and Beth-el — it was the first ob- 
ject of attack to the invading hosts of Is- 
rael ; and its miraculous conquest was a fit- 
ting prelude to their victorious occupatiou 
of the whole land, in which they were so 
dependent on the outstretched arm of the 
Almighty. The same importance of posi- 
tion, as the key to the interior of the coun- 
try, no doubt prompted Joshua to pronounce 
a curse upon Vvhomsoever should rebuild it. 
It seems, however, to have been still inhabit- 
ed ; and it is reasonably supposed that Josh- 
ua's curse was directed rather against refor- 
tifying than against rebuilding it.^ In the 
reign of Ahab, Jericho was refortified by 
Hiel the Bethelite ; and in him was the curse 
literallv fulfilled.'^ Soon after this it became 



1 Josh, ii., 1-21 ; vi. ; Jndg. i., 16 ; iii., 13; 2 Sam. x., 5. 
—2 Josh, vi., 26 ; 1 Kings xvi., 34. The meaning of the 
curse seems to he, " With the loss of his first-born shall 
he fnnnd it ; and with the loss of his youngest shall he 
llx its gates." 



JEEICHO 



488 



JEEOBOAM 



a school of the prophets, over which Elisha 
seems to have presided for a time, and here 
was the spring into which the prophet cast 
salt, and in the name of Jehovah rendered 
the noxious water sweet. We hear little 
more of the place in the O. T. Over against 
it, beyond Jordan, Elijah went up by a whirl- 
wind into heaven. In its plains Zedekiah 
fell into the hands of the Chaldeans, and 
three hundred and forty-five of its inhabit- 
ants are mentioned in the return from Bab- 
ylon under Zerubbabel.^ The city was occu- 
pied and plundered by Antigonus and Her- 
od. Its revenues were afterward given by 
Antony to Cleopatra, and farmed from her 
by Herod, who eventually redeemed them. 
Under him it became once more an impor- 
tant place. He built there a fort, a tower, 
a number of new palaces, and even founded 
a new town, higher up the plain. If he did 
not make Jericho his habitual residence, he 
at least retired thither to die ; and it was in 
the amphitheatre of Jericho that his death 
was announced to the assembled soldiers 
and people by Salome. Soon afterward the 
town was plundered and the palace destroy- 
ed by Simon, a slave of Herod. But Herod's 
son, Ai'chelaus, magnificently rebuilt the pal- 
ace, founded a new town, named from him- 
self, on the plain, and planted the plain with 
palm-trees. Thus Jericho was once more 
a city of palms when our Lord visited it. 
Here he restored sight to the blind, and 
here he accepted the hospitality of Zaccheus 
the publican. Through it he passed on his 
final journey to Jerusalem — passed along 
the road beside which stood the sycamore- 
tree, went up into the wild dreary mount- 
ains, and through the long ascent, the scene 
of his own parable of the good Samaritan, 
till he reached the friendly houses perched 
aloft on the mountain side, the village of 
Bethany.^ Some light is thrown on these 
incidents in the life of Christ by the facts 
that this city of Zaccheus was the head- 
quarters of the Roman tax-gatherers of Ju- 
dea ; that this city, whence the priest and 
Levite were going to Jerusalem when they 
saw the wounded traveler, was the chosen 
retreat of the Temple officials when their ec- 
clesiastical labors were over for a season ; 
and that the road between the two cities 
was then and still is, infested by Bedouin 
robbers, which made and still make it dan- 
gerous for travelers, except they are in com- 
panies and well armed. 

The Herodian city of Jericho, in which Ra- 
hab dwelt, was totally destroyed by Vespa- 
sian. It probably stood close by the fount- 
ain of Elisha, the present Jiw es-Sultdn. The 
second, or N. T. Jericho, the Jericho where 
Zaccheus dwelt, was at the opening of the 
wady el-Kelt, two miles from the fountain. 



1 2 Kings ii., 1-22; Ezra ii., .34; Neh. iii., 2; vii., 36; 
Jer. xxxix., 5; Iii., S.— 2 Matt, xx., 29-34; Mark x., 
46-52 ; Luke x., 30-37 ; xviii., 35-43 ; xix., 2-10. 



Jeroboam {abounding in 'people). 1. First 
king of Israel, B.C. 975-954. He was the 
son of Nebat, an Ephraimite, was employed 
by Solomon in the fortifications of Millo un- 
derneath the citadel of Zion, and was raised 
to the rank of superintendent over the tax- 
es and labors exacted from the tribe of 
Ephraim. He made the most of his posi- 
tion, and at last was perceived by Solomon 
to be aiming at the monarchy. The at- 
tempts of Solomon to cut short Jeroboam's 
designs occasioned his flight into Egypt. 
There he remained during the rest of Solo- 
mon's reigu. On Solomon's death he return- 
ed and took part in the revolt which ended 
in the division of the kingdom and his own 
elevation to the throne of the northern king- 
dom. Fearing that the yearly pilgrimages 
to Jerusalem would undo all the work which 
he had effected, he elevated Dan and Beth-el, 
two sanctuaries of venerable antiquity, one 
at the southern, the other at the northern 
extremity of his dominions, into seats of the 
national worship, which he intended should 
rival the newly-established Temple at Jeru- 
salem. His long stay in Egypt had famil- 
iarized him with the outward forms under 
which the Divinity was there represented. 
A golden figure of Muevis, the sacred calf 
of Heliopolis, was accordingly set up at each 
sanctuary, with the address, " Behold thy 
God which brought thee up out of the land 
of Egypt." Hosea^ styles the idols of Jer- 
oboam the calves of Beth-aven. Aven was 
ihe, same as the Egyptian deity Auu, or On, 
i. e., the sun ; hence Dr. Townsend concludes 
it was the worshij) of the sun which Jero- 
boam introduced, borrowing it from Egypt. 
The worship and the sanctuary continued 
till the destruction of the northern king- 
dom. It was while dedicating the altar at 
Beth-el that a prophet from Judah^ sudden- 
ly appeared, who denounced the altar, and 
foretold its desecration by" Josiah, and its vi- 
olent overthrow. The king, stretching out 
his hand to arrest the prophet, felt it with- 
ered and paralyzed, and only at the proph- 
et's prayer saw it restored, and acknowl- 
edged his divine mission. Jeroboam was at 
constant war with the liouse of Judah ; but 
the only battle distinctly recorded is one 
with Abijah, son of Rehoboam, in which he 
was defeated. The calamity was severely 
felt ; he never recovered the blow, and soon 
after died, in the 22d year of his reigu, and 
was buried in his ancestral sepulchre. See 
Abijah; Rehoboam; Shishak. [1 Kings 
xi., 26-40; xii. ; xiii. ; xiv. ; 2 Chron. x. ; xiii. 

2. The son and successor of Joash. He 
was the thirteenth king of Israel, and reign- 
ed forty-one years, B. c. 825-784. Jeroboam 
was an energetic ruler. He not only held 
all the territory he received from his father, 
but enlarged its border toward the north. 
These temporary successes were predicted 



X., 5.-2 Supposed by some to be Iddo (q. v.). 



JERUSALEM 



489 



JERUSALEM 



"by the prophet Jonah/ and are represented 
as one of the last manifestations of divine 
mercy toward Israel before their final de- 
struction as a people. During the reign of 
Jeroboam II., the external glory of Israel was 
raised to the highest point, but its internal 
condition already indicated its approaching 
dissolution. Corruptions of all kinds abound- 
ed. Drunkenness in its most revolting forms 
ran riot through the laud.^ The golden calf 
was still worshiped, and Baal was a familiar 
name. The ancient sanctuary of Gilgal was 
the centre of wdde-spread heathen abomina- 
tions. On account of these iniquities, the 
prophet Amos proclaimed the approaching 
visitation of divine judgments.^ Jeroboam 
himself died in peace, and was buried in 
royal state. But his son Zechariah (q. v.) 
was the last regular occupant of the throne 
of Israel. The remaining five kings were 
military usurpers. His death appears to 
have been followed by an interregnum of 
several years before the accession of his son 
Zechariah, B.C. 773.* [2 Kings xiv., 23-29.] 

Jerusalem (foundation of peace). The in- 
teresting and important subject indicated 
by this name naturally falls into two main 
divisions ; the one relating to the history 
and the historical notices contained in O. T. 
scripture of the place which bore it ; the oth- 
er relating to the topography of the city, 
and its present as compared with its ancient 
condition. 

I. History. — The first mention of Jerusa- 
lem is during ih^Q life of Abraham, in Gen. 
xiv., 18, under the name of Salem, if we ac- 
cept the opinion generally held that this is 
indeed the city of the royal priest Melchize- 
dek ; a place of some political importance, 
and still more important in a religious point 
of view, since it seems to have been a centre 
of pure spiritual worship to which even the 
heir of the promise did homage.^ The first 
time that the name Jerusalem appears is 
in Josh. X., 1, the account of the successful 
struggle of Joshua against the southern con- 
federacy, at the head of which was Adoni- 
zedek, king of Jerusalem. At the partition 
of the land, Joshua drew the line between 
Judah and Benjamin close by Jerusalem, yet 
so that the city properly belonged to the lat- 
ter tribe. The unprotected parts of the city 
w' ere taken, and more or less held, by the chil- 
dren of Israel, but the original inhabitants 
retained possession of the stronghold of Zion, 
which neither Judah nor Benjamin could 
wrest from them. Therefore it is described 
as a city, or the city, of the Jebusites, so 
thoroughly " the city of a stranger " that the 
wandering Levite coming from Bethlehem- 
judah would not turn aside into it, but passed 
over to Gibeah.^ We hear no more of Jeru- 



1 2 Kings xiv., 25-2S.— ^ Hos. iv., 11 ; vii., 5.-3 Amos 
vii., 7-12.— 4 See Chronological Table, Appendix. — 
5 Heb. vii., 4-7. See Salem.— s Josh, xv., 8, 63 ; xviii., 
16, 28 ; Judg. i., 8, 21 ; xix., 10-13, 



salem until the establishment of the Israel- 
itish monarchy. Saul, warrior as he was, and 
a Benjamite, who would naturally be eager 
to secure the full inheritance of his tribe, did 
not attack it. But when David came to be 
acknowledged as king over all Israel, one of 
his first expeditions was against Jerusalem. 
He approached the city at the head of a for- 
midable army. As before, the lower city was 
immediately taken ; and as before, the cita- 
del held out. The undaunted Jebusites, be- 
lieving in the impregnability of their for- 
tress, derided his attempts, and either placed 
literally the weakest of their population, the 
lame and the blind, upon their ramparts in 
bitter scorn, or, possibly, set in array the im- 
ages of their gods, who had eyes but could 
not see, feet but could not walk, as a suffi- 
cient defense against the Israelitish king.^ 
But they little understood the temper of the 
king, or of those he commanded. David's 
anger was thoroughly roused by the insult, 
and he promised the chieftainship of his 
forces to the man who would storm the cit- 
adel. A crow d of warriors rushed forward 
to the attempt ; his nephew, Joab, led the 
forlorn hope, and gained the prize. The fast- 
ness of Zion was taken 1046 B.C. It is the 
first time that that memorable name appears 
in history. Here David established the cap- 
ital of his kingdom, probably choosing iA\Q 
place on account of its naturally strong po- 
sition, its intimate association with his own 
prowess and that of his host, and its polit- 
ically important situation. The latter was 
due to the fact that it stood on the borders 
of his own tribe, the great tribe of Judah, 
in the south, and also on the borders of 
the small but valiant tribe of Benjamin, 
which was allied to the powerful tribes of ^ 
the house of Joseph, which came next to it, 
and occupied the very middle of the land of 
Canaan. The good policj^ of this selection 
appears in the result ; for Judah and Benja- 
min became inseparably knit together. Da- 
vid proceeded to build a palace for himself 
in Jerusalem ; and in connection with his 
occupation of it, we are told that he " per- 
ceived that the Lord had established him 
king over Israel." The importance of this 
new capital was equally apparent to the 
neighboring powers. The Philistines made 
two expeditions in the vain hope of wrest- 
ing David's conquest from him; but they 
were defeated under the walls of Jerusalem, 
and Hiram, king of Tyre, sent an embassy, 
and supplied artificers and materials for the 
works in wiiich the Israelitish sovereign was 
engaged, cementing an alliance which lasted 
into Solomon's time.^ Soon after the cap- 
ture of Zion, David brought up the ark to the 
tent which he had pitched in Jerusalem for 
its resting-place, after its long period of wan- 



1 2 Sam. v., 6. It should be rendered, "The blind 
and the lame shall keep thee off."— ^ 2 Sam. v., 11, 
17-26 : 1 Chrou. xiv., 8-17. 



JERUSALEM 



490 



JEEUSALEM 



dering, and was on the point of changing this 
tent into a snbstantial house, when the proph- 
et Nathan announced to him that this was an 
honor reserved for his son. He therefore con- 
tented himself with making extensive prep- 
arations for that Temple which his son Sol- 
omon erected upon Mount Moriah. It was 
that son who especially enriched and adorned 
his capital. Besides his works in the imme- 
diate neighborhood, Solomon constructed for- 
tifications in place of the apparently rude 
and simple wall of his father David, built for 
himself a palace — which must have been of 
vast size, to accommodate the women of his 
harem — and stables, brought water to the 
city by an aqueduct forty miles in length, 
prepared a palace apart from Zion for Pha- 
laoh's daughter, and crowned all with his 
magnificent Temple. It is unnecessary here 
to enter into the particulars of his sacred 
and secular buildings in and around Jerusa- 
lem, as given in the history. Ample evidence 
of the magnificence of his undertakings, of 
the vast wealth they brought to Jerusalem, 
and the luxury which reigned there, is to be 
found in the sentence, ''And the king made 
silver [to be] in Jerusalem as stones, and ce- 
dars made he [to be] as the sycamore-trees 
that are in the vale for abundance."^ 

On the occasion of the disruption of the 
Church and nation after the death of Solo- 
mon, Jerusalem continued to be the capital 
of the two tribes who adhered to the royal 
family of David's line, and to the priestly 
lines of the house of Aaron. But it retained 
its splendor but a few years. Eehoboam, 
who by his folly had caused the ten tribes 
to revolt, by his sin provoked the Lord's 
sorer judgments. In consequence, Shishak, 
king of Egypt, invaded the land, and enter- 
ed Jerusalem, apparently without resistance. 
He did not, so far as we read, injure the 
town, but he carried off an enormous mass 
of plunder, and reduced Eehoboam to a po- 
sition of vassalage. In the reign of Jehoram, 
Jerusalem was again plundered by the Phi- 
listines and Arabians.^ During the period 
which includes these reigns, some important 
l)uildings for worship, lawful and unlawful, 
must have been erected at Jerusalem. Not 
to speak of Solomon's high places, built for 
the strange gods of his wives "in the hill 
that is before Jerusalem," and the "horrible 
thing for Asherah" which Queen Maachah 
made, we read of the "new court" in the 
liouse of the Lord, where Jehoshaphat as- 
sembled the people on occasion of his fast, 
iu a great emergency. And at the overthrow 
of the usurper Athaliah, we read of the peo- 
])le breaking down the house of Baal, his al- 
tars, and his images ; all which had no doubt 
been erected by that " wicked woman."^ In 



1 1 Kings iii., 1 ; vii., 1, 8 ; ix., 1, 10, 15, 24 ; x., 24-2T ; 
2 Chron. i., 14; viii., 11; ix., 11, 21. See Solomon; 
Temple.— 2 1 Kings xiv,, 22-28; 2 Chron. xii., 1-12; 
xxi.,16,lT.— 3 1 Kings xi., 7, 8; xv.,13; 2 Kings xi., 18; 
•> Chron. xv., 16 ; xx., 5 ; xxiii., 17. 



the reign of Amaziah, Jerusalem was taken 
by Joash, king of the ten tribes, who rifled 
what remained of treasure in the Temple 
and the palace, and broke down four hun- 
dred cubits of the city Avail, from the Gate 
of Ephraim to the Corner-gate. The succeed- 
ing king, Uzziah, restored the fortifications, 
built towers at the Corner-gate and at the 
Valley-gate, and at the turning [of the wall], 
and fortified them. His successor, Jotham, 
built a gate to the Temple, rejDaired the walls, 
and added to their strength. The following 
reign — that of Ahaz— was disgraced by idol- 
atrous erections in Jerusalem, as well as by 
the defacement of the Temple; all which 
mischief was repaired laboriously by his 
pious son, Hezekiah. Yet Hezekiah was ex- 
posed to imminent danger from the invading 
King of Assyria, and was induced to save 
Jerusalem from capture by a ransom taken 
from the treasures of the palace and the 
Temple. The perfidious King of Assyria, 
however, renewed the siege, in the course of 
which the best qualities of Hezekiah appear- 
ed. The king diverted the water - courses, 
strengthened the ramparts, built additional 
towers and a fresh wall, constructed works 
in the citadel, and provided an abundance 
of weapons. A miraculous deliverance re- 
warded his faith and patience. The Lord 
was the effectual shield of his people, and 
the invading host of the Assyrian perished 
before his destroying angel.^ JNIanasseh once 
more, in the beginning of his reign, restored 
the idolatrous abominations of Ahaz, and in 
an aggravated form, while he also filled the 
city from end to end with innocent blood; 
but after his Babylonish captivity — which 
probably resulted from a capture of his cap- 
ital — he removed as far as possible the idols 
and shrines, and added to the walls and for- 
tifications. His son Amon had restored some 
of the abominations, so that Josiah had once 
more to remove them, which he probably 
did more effectually than any of his prede- 
cessors. In the miserable reigns of the sons 
and grandson of Josiah, the city was taken 
by Pharaoh -necho, king of Egyjit, and re- 
peatedly by Nebuchadnezzar, king of Baby- 
lon, and its treasures carried away on every 
successive occasion. But the final catastro- 
phe was about the year 588 B.C., when, after 
a siege of eighteen months — once interrupt- 
ed on account of a division by the Egyptians 
— the hosts of Nebuchadnezzar stormed the 
city, burned the Temple, the palaces, and the 
other principal houses, demolished the walls, 
and left Jerusalem a desolation. The throes 
of this last agony had continued for eighteen 
months. It was in the ninth year of Zede- 
kiah, on the tenth day of the tenth month, 
that the siege was first formed, and on the 



1 2 Kings xiv., 11-14; xv., 35; xvi., 10, 11, 17, 18; 
xviii. ; xix. ; 2 Chron. xxv., 21-24; xxvi., 9, 15 ; xxvii., 
3; xxviii., 24; xxxii., 1-23. See Hezekiah; Senna- 

OUEEIB. 



JERUSALEM 



491 



JERUSALEM 



nintli day of the fourth month, iu Zedekiah's 
eleventh year, that the city was taken. Vast 
numbers of the people were carried into cap- 
tivity ; others went into Egypt ; and there 
was none to pity the fallen capital.' 

During the Captivity it was the practice 
of Daniel to have the windows of his cham- 
ber open toward Jerusalem, and to kneel 
three times a day in prayer to God. From 
his study of the prophet Jeremiah, to learn 
the years of the desolations of Jerusalem, his 
earnest pleading on its behalf, and the an- 
swer granted to him in that wonderful proph- 
ecy as to the rebuilding of the city and the 
coming and work of Messiah the Prince, we 
may infer that God's believing people had 
not lost sight of the city of their solemni- 
ties, nor lost faith in the promises which 
gave them as deep an interest in it as ever.^ 
Their affection for it is manifested very 
touchingly in Psalm cxxxvii. Hence we 
understand the joyful alacrity with w^hich, 
when Babylon was itself humbled, more 
than forty thousand of the captives wel- 
comed the decree of Cyrus, king of Persia, 
permitting and encouraging all who chose 
to return and rebuild the Temple at Jerusa- 
lem. Of course, when the Temple was build- 
ing, there would be other building and prog- 
ress in the city ; but it is manifest that the 
population was comparatively small, and the 
buildings insignificant, till the times of Ezra 
and Nehemiah. All this while Jerusalem 
lay without walls and gates. But by the 
efforts of Nehemiah the walls were rebuilt, 
and it was agreed that one-tenth part of the 
whole people should dwell in the capital. 
When finished, the new wall was solemnly 
dedicated in the presence of the assembled 
inhabitants ; and thus was the holy city re- 
established.^ 

We have no account in Scripture of the fol- 
lowing period, and are indeed almost whol- 
ly ignorant of the details of half that time. 
From the legends, not always trustworthy, of 
this period of history we gather the follow- 
ing statements : When Alexander the Great 
was at the height of his successes, he was 
provoked at the faithfulness of the Jews 
to the cause of the Persian monarch, and 
marched from his successful siege of Tyre to 
avenge himself upon Jerusalem. Jaddua, the 
high-priest, however, warned, as he claimed, 
by God in a dream, went forth with the 
priests in procession to meet the conqueror. 
Alexander received him reverently ; and be- 
ing afterward shown by the high-priest the 
prophecies regarding him in the book of 
Daniel, he confirmed the Jews in the posses- 
sion of their privileges, according to the laws 



1 2 Kings xxi., 3-16; xxii., 3-T: xxiii., 4-14, 31- 
xxiv., 16; XXV., 1-10; 2 Chron. xxxiii., 1-16; xxxiv., 
.3-13; xxxvi., 1-10, 11-19; Jer. xxxii., 24 ; xxxvii., 5- 
15; xxxviii. ; xxxix., 1-8 ; lii., 1-15, 28-30 ; xliii., 4-T; 
Lam. 1., 1-3, 7, 12-lT. See Zepekiah.— » Dan, vi., 10 ; 
ix., 1-19. — 3 Ezra i., sq. ; Neh. ii.-iv. ; vi. ; vii., 4; xi., 
1, 2 ; xii., 27^3. See Nehemiah. 



of their forefathers. After the partition of 
Alexander's empire, Ptolemy, the son of La- 
gus, to whom Egypt fell, surprised Jerusalem 
by treachery on the Sabbath-day — about B.C. 
320 — and ruled over it in a cruel manner, 
besides carrying off multitudes into Egypt. 
From the time of the unworthy priests, Ja- 
son and Menelaus, who adopted Grecian hab- 
its and tendencies to Grecian heathenism, the 
Jews in general, and the people of Jerusalem 
in particular, suffered fearfully from the in- 
ducements to apostasy and the persecutions 
of the Syrian king, Antiochus Epiphanes. 
Again and again he took the city, pillaged 
it, polluted the Temple by idolatrous inno- 
vations, and inflicted horrible cruelties upon 
those who adhered to the pure faith of their 
fathers. Of the struggles of the Maccabees 
it is impossible to speak ; but the crowning 
result was obtained by Simon — who succeed- 
ed to the highi-priesthood B.C. 143 — when he 
took the citadel Baris, which had long been 
a source of annoyance and danger to the wor- 
shipers in the Temple, expelled its garrison, 
and leveled the very site on which it stood. 
Two calamities befell Jerusalem somewhat 
later. In the year B.C. 63 Pompey took the 
city, entering it, like Ptolemy, on the Sab- 
bath, massacring the worshipers at the very 
altars, and killing altogether about 12,000 
Jews. He spared the treasures of the Tem- 
ple ; but these ^f ere all carried away a few 
years afterward by Crassus, as he went on 
his disastrous expedition against the Par- 
thians. 

The outward fortunes of the city began 
to rise from the time that Csesar gave the 
principality of Judea to Antipater, with the 
name of " procurator," and permitted — B.C. 
43 — the re-erection of the walls which Pom- 
pey had demolished. Antipater's son, Herod 
the Great, executed many extensive schemes 
for ornamenting the city in general, and par- 
ticularly the Temple, which he actually re- 
built on a scale of almost incredible magnif- 
icence. Jerusalem was the capital of Her- 
od's kingdom, and to it, accordingly, came 
the Eastern magi, inquiring for the new-born 
king of the Jews. It appears also to have 
been the capital of Archelaus during his 
brief reign. ^ Afterward it lost some of its 
grandeur, when Judea was reduced to a Ro- 
man province, and the seat of the local gov- 
ernment was removed to Csesarea. 

And now rai)idly approached those fear- 
ful days of violence and bloodshed which 
culminated at last in the terrible overthrow 
of the city by Titus. The inhabitants were 
divided by jealousies into warring factions. 
Mutual mistrust reached its highest degree of 
development. Friends were alienated, fam- 
ilies were broken up, and a man's worst foes 
were those of his own household. Every 
man had to take heed of his neighbor and 

1 Matt, ii., 1-3, 22; Mark xiii., 1, 2; Luke xxi., 5, 6; 
John ii., 20. 



JERUSALEM 



492 



JERUSALEM 



suspect his brother. Brigandage, impostures, 
and assassinations were rife. No man was 
secure. Some from private enmity, others 
on account of their wealth, were struck dead 
by men who passed by, apparently unarm- 
ed, and as peaceably disposed as themselves. 
Even the Temple was not a place of safety ; 
the worshiper did not know but that the 
man who knelt by his side was preparing to 
plunge his dagger to his heart. The chief 
priest was slain while performing public 
worship. High-priests and priests quarrel- 
ed over their share of the tithes, and resort- 
ed even to acts of violence. God, in seem- 
ing abhorrence of his guilty city, and dis- 
daining any longer to dwell in his contami- 
nated temple, brought the Romans to pun- 
ish with fire the sins of the nation. In the 
mean time wild and awful prodigies, accord- 
ing to the Jewish annalist, Josephus, from 
whom our knowledge of the destruction of 
Jerusalem is chiefly derived, filled the timid 
with api^rehensions of the approaching des- 
olation. A comet which had the appearance 
of a sword hung above the city for a whole 
year. At the Feast of Unleavened Bread, at 
the sixth hour of the night, a sudden light 
as bright as day shone about the altar and 
the Temple, and continued for about half an 
hour. The immense brazen inner gate on 
the eastern side of the Temple, which re- 
quired tAventy men to swifig it, and which 
was fastened by strong iron bolts let into 
the stone door-posts, flew open suddenly. 
Oue day before sunset chariots and armed 
squadrons were seen in the heavens, seem- 
ing to encircle the city in their rapid and 
terrific career. On the Pentecost the priests 
who entered by night into the Temple said 
they heard a movement and a noise, and 
jiresently the voice as of a great host, which 
said, " Let us depart hence." A man, whom 
no scourgiug could compel to utter any thing 
else, traversed the narrow streets of the city 
day and night for four years, until the bit- 
ter end, crying, ^'Woe, woe to Jerusalem. 
Woe, woe to the city aud to the Temple." 
History hastened to the fulfillment of God's 
prophecies of the punishment of the city 
which had crucified his only-begotten Son. 
Driven to madness by the massacre of their 
brethren in Csesarea, and apparently ai^point- 
ed everywhere else for slaughter, they deter- 
mined, if mankind thus warred upon them, 
to wage unrelenting war upon mankind. By, 
an organized and desperate outbreak they se- 
cured the most important posts in the coun- 
try ; and by inflicting upon the Roman army 
such a defeat as they had not received since 
the defeat of Varus in the forests of Germa- 
ny, they rallied the whole nation headlong 
into revolt. Judea was thus brought into 
open rebellion against Rome, aud defiance 
against the whole civilized world. Vespa- 
sian and Titus were sent to chastise her, 
and terrible was her punishment. Oue af- 



ter another of her cities was swept away, 
until Titus at last laid siege to Jerusalem 
itself. In the spring of a.d. 70, when the 
city was crowded with the multitudes who 
came up to the Feast of the Passover, he 
drew up his legions before the Holy City. 
From his camp on the heights to the north 
and east attack was made upon the suburb 
on the north of "the city. The defenders 
made a brave resistance, but were at length 
driven back by the missiles thrown from 
the lofty towers erected by the besiegers ; a 
breach was made in the wall on the fifteenth 
day of the siege ; the gates were thrown 
open ; aud the whole of that suburb was in 
the hands of Titus. From this position Ti- 
tus had now three points of attack before 
him — the upper city, facing him on the west ; 
the Temple and its precincts, on the east ; 
and the lower city, protected by the second 
wall cropping out toward him in the middle. 
Within this second wall the Jewish leader, 
Simon, had retired. The same scenes were 
now repeated as at the first wall. The Jews 
sallied out and attacked their invaders with 
desperate bravery ; the Romans drove them 
back with equal courage. After five days 
of such work, a breach was made in the sec- 
ond wall. Titus did as little harm as he 
could, hoping the people would now surren- 
der. He entered with a thousand picked 
men. They were met Avith determined ob- 
stinacy by constantly increasing numbers, 
in the narrow streets and lanes of the lower 
city, and were at length driven back. But 
Titus again effected an entrance, demolish- 
ed the whole wall, and became master of all 
that portion of the city which was not sur- 
rounded by the innermost wall. Within 
that wall were the Temple, with the Tower 
of Antonia and the adjoining structures, and 
the upper city. Engines on the Mount of 
Olives had been hurling their huge project- 
iles on the Temple and its precincts since the 
beginning of the siege. Four great mounds 
were now erected within the suburb, two 
facing the Temple, and two facing the up- 
per city, to act upon those places from the 
north. But the two mounds opposite the 
Temple were undermined and sunk by the 
untiring efforts and skill of one of the Jew- 
ish leaders, John of Giscala, and the engines 
on the other two were burned by the no less 
pertinacious bravery of Simon and his men. 
Meantime, however, famine had begun its 
horrors. Many daily crept out of the city 
on its uninvested sides to seek for food. 
They were caught and crucified by scores, 
and left to die in sight of the very walls of 
the besieged city. Every fugitive lessened 
the horrors of famine, and so protracted the 
resistance. To prevent further escape, Ti- 
tus constructed a wall around the entire 
city. It was nearly five miles in length, yet 
was completed, by the united efforts of the 
army, in three days. In awful fulfillment 



JERUSALEM 



493 



JERUSALEM 



of Christ's prediction, the people were shut 
up as sheep for the slaughter/ The pen fal 
ters and fails in the attempt to describe the 
scenes of carnage which ensued. Nor did 
they end till Titus had fought his way from 
street to street, and from court to court, in 
hand-to-hand encounters, and reduced the 
whole city, with its resplendent Temple, to 
ashes, and utterly put its last soldiery to 
death with the sword. The numbers that 
perished in this frightful butchery are stated 
by Josephus to have been over a million ; 
and though his statement is generally dis- 
credited, the number, at the smallest esti- 
mate, was such as to render the siege, in its 
results as in its incidents, one of the most 
awful of all history. The treasures of the 
Temple and the sacred vessels were carried 
away as trophies, to be borne in triumj)h by 
the proud procession which swept through 
the streets of Rome, in honor of the victory 
of Titus. And their representation may be 
seen to the present day in the city of Rome, 
on the yet existing arch constructed in his 
honor, and bearing his name ;^ and a -medal 
is yet preserved which commemorates this 
subjugation of the sons of Jacob. 

But the cup of retribution was even yet 
not full. There was a Roman garrison on 
the spot ; some inhabitants returned, and a 
town gradually gathered round. At length 
the Emperor Adrian placed a military colony 
there. But the Jev/s rose in violent rebell- 
ion under Bar-chochebas, who pretended to 
be the Messiah, and possessed themselves of 
the restored Jerusalem. It required all the 
might of the empire again to subdue it. But 
this war having been terminated, in a.d. 135 
the Emperor Adrian rebuilt Jerusalem as an 
entirely heathen city. The site was occu- 
pied by a colony of soldiers, the Jews were 
rigorously excluded, foreigners only might 
dwell in it, temples to the heathen deities 
were erected, and the name was changed to 
JElia Capitolina. 

When the empire became Christian, the an- 
cient designation revived, though the name 
^lia was not obsolete for many centuries. 
Helena, mother of Constantine the Great, 
made a pilgrimage thither, and tried to iden- 
tify the holy places. Churches were erect- 
ed, and Jerusalem was a Christian city. Jul- 
ian, in his hatred of the Gospel, allowed the 
Jews to rebuild the Temple. But the design 
was frustrated. There can be no question 
that the work was interrupted by fire, which 
was attributed to supernatural causes. For 
a long while afterward Jerusalem appears to 
have been unmolested. The Persian, Chos- 
roes II., took it in a.d. 614. It was re-occu- 
pied by the Emperor Heraclius in 628, but 
surrendered to the Caliph Omar in 637. Then 
it became one of the sacred cities of the Mo- 
hammedans. Little more remains to be said. 



1 Luke xix., 43, 44.-2 See, for illustration, art. Can- 
dlestick ; Eo.ME. 



It passed from one conqueror to another, tiU 
on July 15, 1099, it was stormed by the Cru- 
saders under Godfrey of Bouillon, who was 
elected king. In 1187 it was taken by Sala- 
din. Again and again assaulted and cap- 
tured, it passed, in 1517, into the possession 
of the Ottoman monarch, Selim I. His son 
Solyman built the present walls. Moham- 
med All of Egypt occupied it in 1832, but in 
1840 it was restored to the Turkish sceptre. 
And so the Holy City is still ^' trodden down 
of the Gentiles," for ^' the times of the Gen- 
tiles" are not yet '' fulfilled."^ 

II. Topography. — Jerusalem is literally a 
city set on a hill. '' Beautiful for situation, 
the joy of the whole earth is Mount Zion," 
sang its poet-founder. It is built on a prom- 
ontory of rock that juts out from the table- 
land of Judea. Deep but narrow gorges sep- 
arate it from surrounding hills. On the west 
and south, the valley of Hinnom lies between 
Zion and the neighboring highlands. On the 
east, between Moriah and the Mount of Ol- 
ives, flows during the wet season the brook 
Kedron, in the valley which it christens with 
its name. Only on the north does the city 
adjoin the mountain range of which it is a 
part. Its uplifted towers are twenty -five 
hundred feet above the level of the Mediter- 
ranean Sea, the blue of whose waves is dis- 
cernible from a neighboring eminence — thir- 
ty-six hundred feet above the valley of the 
Jordan, whose waters empty into the Dead 
Sea eighteen miles to the eastward. 

This city is really two. Valleys on either 
side environ it. A third valley, penetrating 
its heart, divides its rock foundation into 
two hills, and the city itself into an upper 
and lower town. This division into two cit- 
ies will be rendered clearer to the reader by 
an examination of the annexed plan, and is 
also indicated in the picture of modern Jeru- 
salem which accompanies this article. This 
much of the topography of Jerusalem is ap- 
parent to the most casual observer. It is 
also agreed by nearly all antiquarians that 
somewhere on the eastern hill, which was 
the Mount Moriah of the Bible,^ was the site 
of the ancient Temple. But from this point 
of agreement commences a wide divergence. 
While tradition points out not only every 
real but every imaginary site, with equal 
confidence the spot where Christ was cruci- 
fied and the two houses where the Dives and 
Lazarus of the parable respectively lived! 
there is almost no agreement whatever 
among scholars as to the trustworthiness of 
any of these traditions. Recent explora- 
tions have, indeed, thrown some light upon 
some of the disputed points. Availing our- 
selves of these researches, we shall give in 
this article only what seems to be, on the 



1 Luke xsi., 24.-2 It is true that even this is donht- 
ed, but we think without reasou, and adhere in this 
respect to the old opiuiou, despite Mr. Fergussou's at- 
tempts to shake it. 



JERUSALEM 



494 



JERUSALEM 




Plan of Jerusalem. 

-whole, pretty well established, leaving tlie 
reader to find in the large dictionaries a de- 
tailed account of the warm and earnest, but, 
thus far, fruitless discussions respecting oth- 
er sites. 

It may at first seem strange that the sites 
in such a city as Jerusalem should be in- 
volved in so much uncertainty. The truth 
is, however, that the superstitious interest 
which attaches to the place has hitherto pre- 
vented any impartial inquiry into the truth. 
The earlier Christian pilgrims came not to 
investigate, but to receive with unquestion- 
ing faith the statements of ignorant and in- 
terested monks. When, at length, a spirit 
of skepticism and inquiry was aroused, it 
seemed, to those interested in maintaining the 
traditional systems, a gross impiety. When 
Captain Warren, 'of the Palestine Explora- 
tion Fund, made his first application to the 



military Pasha for per- 
mission to investigate 
the foundation of Jeru- 
salem, he received for re- 
ply that the Moslem tra- 
ditions gave every possi- 
ble information, and ap- 
parently in perfect sin- 
cerity and good faith, 
the a ssurance that the sa- 
cred rock which crowns 
the summit of Mount 
Moriah lies on the top 
leaves of a palm-tree 
from the roots of which 
spring all the rivers of 
the earth, and that the 
attempt of a Frank to 
pry into such matters 
could only be attend- 
ed with dire calamities. 
When every impediment 
which traditional super- 
stition, enforced by Mos- 
lem bigotry, can put in 
the way of a scientific 
exploration has been re- 
moved or evaded, the 
difficulties of investi- 
gation were but just be- 
gun. The successiA^e 
sieges and devastations 
to which, as we have 
seen, Jerusalem has, in 
its history, been sub- 
jected, coupled with the 
uneven nature of the 
ground on which it was 
built, have filled its val- 
leys with an incredible 
amount of rubbish, ly- 
ing in successive lay- 



ive eras of rebuilding. 
Through this detritus 
Captain Warren con- 
ducted his explorations, sinking his perpen- 
dicular shafts through the accumulations of 
centuries — in some instances one hundred 
and twenty-five feet — before the original 
surface of the ground was reached, and in 
one of the valleys excavating more than six 
hundred feet of shaft and gallery. By these 
under-ground operations there have been dis- 
covered ancient road-beds — in one instance 
two, one above the other — aqueducts, cis- 
terns, and ancient bridges. Of the walls 
which are marked upon one map no small 
part are deep under ground. Of the north 
wall no modern has ever seen any portion. 
The point at which it started and that at 
which it ended are alike unknown; its course 
is, in fact, purely conjectural. 

At the south-eastern corner of modern Je- 
rusalem, built upon what was the ancient Mo- 
riah, are two noted Mohammedan mosques, 



JERUSALEM 



495 



JERUSALEM 






i 



K ^v 
» 



■iJiiiiii 




JS'iiilllliii 



JERUSALEM 



496 



JERUSALEM 



those of Omar and el-Aksa. This unques- 
tionably was the site of the Jewish Temple. 
The rock beneath is honey-combed with cis- 
terns, for some idea of which the reader is 
referred to the article Cistern, and to the il- 
lustration given there. We think it is equal- 
ly clear that the western hill, separated from 
the Mosque of Omar by the Tyropceon val- 
ley, now so largely filled up with detritus, is 
the Mount Zion of Scripture/ Here Herod 
had his palace. Across one of the bridges 
which spanned the chasm, and the remains 
of which have been recently discovered, 
Christ was probably conducted on that mem- 
orable day when Pilate and Herod were rec- 
onciled by the Roman procurator's sending 
the King of the Jews to be mocked by Herod. 
Adjoining the Temple, on its north-east cor- 
ner, was probably the Tower of Antonia, 
where Pilate held his court, and whence Je- 




Moderu Jerusalem. 

SU8 was led to his execution. A little north 
and west of this tower was the Pool of Be- 
thesda (q. v.). Not far, probably, from that 
pool, was the gate through M^hich Christ 
passed when, during the Passion - week, he 
went to and fro between Jerusalem and Beth- 
any. Separated from Jerusalem by the val- 
ley of the Kedron, lies the Mount of Olives 
on the east, now barren, but in the time of 
Christ crowned with herbage and covered 
with the gardens wliich supplied the city 
with its summer fruits. Somewiiere on this 
hill-side, doubtless, was the garden of Geth- 
scmane (q. v.). There is nothing inherently 
in) probable in the tradition which entitles 
with the name of the first niartyr the Gate 
of St. Stephen, close by the Pool of Bethesda, 
through which gate he is said to have been 
hurried to his execution. This much con- 



See ZlON. 



cerning the topography of Jerusalem is, we 
think, pretty well established, though over 
even this doubt has been thrown. Mr. Fer- 
gusson has maintained that the Mount Zion 
of the sacred writers is not the western hill 
on which the city of Jerusalem now stands, 
but the eastern hill, or that on which the Tem- 
ple stood ; and that the place of Christ's exe- 
cution and burial were close adjoining the 
Temple, his sepulchre being in the rock over 
which the Mosque of Omar has been erected. 
But in this view, maintained with consider- 
able ingenuity, he stands almost alone. We 
have not thought it worth while to give our 
reasons for disregarding it. The reader who 
is desirous to investigate his discussion will 
find the materials in Smith's " Bible Diction- 
ary," Am. edit., which contains both Mr. Fer- 
gusson's article and an able review of and 
critique upon it. The recent explorations 
of Captain Warren 
seem to demonstrate 
that the foundations 
of the Haram are 
" =^1 unquestionably the 

substructions of the 
Temple itself, and 
:^_^- ' so to disprove an es- 
sential point in Mr. 
Fergusson's theory. 
The rest of the 
topography of an- 
cient Jerusalem is 
all matter of con- 
jecture. The pious 
priests show the 
tourist the " Ecce 
Homo Arch " where 
Pilate brought out 
Jesus, hoping thus 
to appeal to the 
sympathies of the 
mob ; the very win- 
dow from which 
Pilate's wife warn- 
ed her husband to 
have nothing to do with the persecution 
of that just man ; the street along which 
he was carried to his execution ; the places 
where he rested upon the journey ; the pil- 
lar where he was scourged ; the place where 
he was crucified ; the very holes on the top 
of the rock in which the crosses stood ; the 
place occupied by the Roman soldier who, 
in view of the crucifixion, bore witness, 
" Surely this was the Son of God ;" the Stone 
of Unction whereon the body of the Sav- 
iour was laid to prepare it for burial ; the 
sepulchre hewn in the rock wherein he was 
entombed; and the spot Avhere he appear- 
ed to Mary Magdelene in the likeness of a 
gardener. But they show with equal con- 
fidence the spot where he fell under the 
weight of his cross, and in attestation a great 
granite column broken by the blow ; two 
deep indentations in the stone wall where 



JESHIMON 



497 



JESUITS 




Wilson's Arch. (Remains of ancient Bridge between Mount Moriah and Mount Zion.) 



he stumbled and fell ; the house of the Saint 
Veronica, who, according to the Roman Cath- 
olic legends, undaunted by the hootings of 
the mob, came out and wiped the perspira- 
tion from his brow, bearing away with her 
as her reward the imprint of the Saviour's 
face upon her handkerchief, half a dozen 
copies of which are still shown in the cathe- 
drals of Europe. It is impossible for the 
Protestant mind to place any credence in 
such traditions ; and although the tradition- 
al site of the crucifixion and entombment, 
now covered by the Church of the Holy Sep- 
ulchre, is accepted by many Protestants, it 
has nothing but tradition to support it. In 
truth, it is a singular and significant fact 
that history is unable to fix with precision 
any of the places which the life of Christ has 
made forever sacred. The manger where 
he was cradled, the house where his boyhood 
was spent, the synagogue where he preach- 
ed his first discourse, the city consecrated by 
his earlier ministry, the mount where he 
preached the great sermon, that whereon he 
was transfigured in glory, the two halls where 
his two trials were held, the hill where he 
was crucified, the sepulchre where he was 
buried, are hid by an impenetrable veil from 
the loving hearts that would hallow every 
spot Christ has made sacred by his presence. 
Jeshimon (the desert, or waste), a word oc- 
curring several times in the Bible. It seems 
to designate the desolate region which skirts 
the north and north-west shores of the Dead 
Sea, between the mouth of the Jordan and 
the neighborhood of 'Ain Jidy, or Engedi. 
32 



[Numb, xxi., 20 ; xxiii., 28 ; 1 Sam. xxiii., 19, 
24; xxvi., 1, 3.] 

Jesse (strong), the father of David, and 
thus the immediate progenitor of the whole 
line of the kings of Judah, and so, ultimate- 
ly, of Christ. He was the son of Obed, the 
grandson of Boaz and the Moabitess Ruth, 
while his great-grandmother was no less a 
personage than Rachab, the Canaauite of 
Jericho.^ His genealogy is twice given in 
full in the O. T.^ He is called " the Ephrath- 
ite of Bethlehem Judah,"^ but more ordi- 
narily " Jesse the Bethlehemite."* He is an 
old man when we first meet him, with a 
family of eight sons ; possesses considerable 
wealth, in sheep and goats, and is, seemingly, 
one of the elders of the town.^ His wife's 
name is not given. The last that is record- 
ed of him in Scripture is his being taken by 
David to Moab, where he probably had fam- 
ily friends through his grandmother, Ruth ; 
and this thoughtfulness of David for his fa- 
ther and mother in the hour of his own ex- 
tremest peril is one of the tender and touch- 
ing incidents of his life. An ancient tradi- 
tion reports that he was subsequently put 
to death by the King of Moab. His name 
was held in reverence among the Jews, as 
the father of David, down to a very late pe- 
riod in their national history." See Nahash. 
[1 Sam. xvi., 1-13, 19 ; xvii., 17, 18 ; xxii., 3.] 

Jesuits, the popular name of a society 



1 Matt, i., 5.-2 Euth iv., 18-22; 1 Chron. ii., 5-12. 
See David. — ^ 1 Sam. xvii., 12,—* 1 Sam. xvi., 1, 18 ; 
xvii., 58.— 5 1 Sara, xvi., 4, 5.-8 1 Chron. xi., 1, 10 ; 
xxix., 26 ; Psa. Ixxii., 20. 



JESUITS 



498 



JESUITS 



more properly entitled the " Society of Je- 
sus " — of all the religious orders of the Eo- 
man Catholic Church the most important. 
Its history is intimately connected with the 
political and military as well as the religious 
history of Christendom for the past three 
centuries. 

I. Origin and Organization. — The Society 
of Jesus was founded in 1554, by Ignatius 
Loyola. He was a Spanish cavalier; was 
wounded in battle ; was by his wounds, 
which impaired the use of one of his legs, 
deprived of the gratification of his military 
ambition, and during his long subsequent 
confinement found emplojTuent and relief 
in reading a life of Christ and lives of the 
saints. This enkindled a new ambition for 
a life of religious glory and religious con- 
quest ; he threw himself, with all the ardor 
of his old devotion, into his new life ; car- 
ried his military spirit of austerity and self- 
denial into his religious career ; hung up his 
arms at the shrine of the virgin ; exchanged 
his rich dress for a beggar's rags ; lived upon 
alms ; practiced austerities which weakened 
his iron frame, but not his military spirit ; 
and thus he i^repared his mind for those dis- 
eased fancies which characterized this pe- 
riod of his extraordinary career. In one of 
these visions he saw the hosts of Babylon, 
the world, the flesh, and the devil, fighting 
against Jerusalem, the holy city, and he re- 
solved to form a saintly brotherhood for the 
rescue and deliverance of the Church. He 
possessed none of the intellectual require- 
ments which seemed to be necessary for the 
new leadership which he proposed to him- 
self The age despised learning, and left it 
to priests ; and this Spanish cavalier, at the 
age of thirty-three, could do little more than 
read and write. He commenced at once, 
with enthusiasm, the acquisition of those 
elements of knowledge which are ordinarily 
acquired long before that age. He entered 
the lowest class of the college at Barcelona, 
where he was persecuted and derided by the 
rich ecclesiastics to whose luxury his self- 
denial was a perpetual reproach. He fled 
at last , from their machinations to Paris, 
where he continued his studies under more 
favorable auspices. Prominent among his 
associates here was Francis Xavier, a brill- 
iant scholar, who at first shrunk from the 
ill- educated soldier, yet gradually learned 
to admire his intense enthusiasm, and then 
to yield allegiance to it and its possessor. 
Several other Spaniards were drawn around 
the ascetic. At length, in 1534, Loyola and 
five associates, in a subterranean chapel in 
Paris, pledged themselves to a religious life, 
and with solemn rites made sacred their 
mutual pledges to each other and to God. 

This was the beginning of the order of the 
Jesuits. The original design was a pilgrim- 
age to the Holy Land, and a mission for the 
conversion of infidels. But as all access to 



the Holy Land was precluded by a war with 
the Turks, Loyola and his associates soon 
turned their thoughts to a more comprehen- 
sive organization, specially designed to meet 
those exigencies which the Reformation had 
brought upon the Church. For, to under- 
stand the history of Loyola, we must remem- 
ber that Luther was eight years his senior. 
To comprehend the organization of the or- 
der of the Jesuits, we must remember that 
it was born of the troublous times which 
produced the Reformation. The awakening 
heart and conscience of Europe strove to 
cast off the fetters of ecclesiastical bondage. 
The Jesuits sought to bind them more firm- 
ly than before. Luther preached liberty. 
Loyola replied with the doctrine of submis- 
sion. The sword of the Reformation was 
an open Bible. The shield of the Romish 
Church was a secret society. 

Loyola therefore introduced into the new 
order of which he was the founder the prin- 
ciple of absolute obedience, which he had 
acquired in his military career. The name 
given to its chief was the military title of 
'^ General." The organization was not per- 
fected so as to receive the sanction of the 
pope until 1541. Its motto was ^^Ad majo- 
ram Dei gloriam^' (To the greater glory of 
God). Its vows embraced not only the ob- 
ligations of chastity, poverty, and obedience, 
but also a pledge on the part of every mem- 
ber to go as missionary to any country which 
the pope might designate. Loyola himself 
was the first general of the new order. Its 
constitution, due to him, is practically that 
of an absolute monarchy. The general is 
elected by a general congregation selected 
for the purpose by the whole body of pro- 
fessed members in the various provinces. 
He holds his ofiice for life. A council of as- 
sistants aids him, but he is not bound by 
their vote. He may not alter the constitu- 
tion of the society ; and he is subject to 
deposition in certain contingencies ; but no 
instance of the deposition of a general has 
ever occurred. Practically his will is ab- 
solute law, from which there is no appeal. 
The body over which this general presides 
consists of four classes. First are the ^' pro- 
fessed," who have passed through all the pre- 
paratory stages, usually occupying ten or 
twelve years, and have taken the full and 
final vows of the order. It is from this class 
alone that the higher officials of the order, 
including the general, are taken. Second 
are the '' coadjutors," spiritual and temporal. 
The former are designed to assist the " pro- 
fessed " in preaching, teaching, and the di- 
rection of souls ; to the latter are assigned 
various lay duties of an apparently subor- 
dinate character. Third are " scholastics," 
who are scholars or teachers. Fourth are 
'^ novices," who, after a short trial as ''post- 
ulants," are engaged for two years exclu- 
sively in spiritual exercises, prayer, medi- 



JESUITS 



499 



JESUITS 



tation, ascetic reading, or ascetic practices, 
and generally in a course of disciplinary 
training. The administrative and executive 
government of the society, throughout the 
various countries into which it is divided, 
is intrusted, under the general, to provin- 
cials who are named by the general, and who 
hold office, as do all the other officials, for 
three years. In each separate province there 
are three kinds of communities — professed 
houses or residences, colleges, and novitiates. 
Not only the superiors of these houses, but 
also all the various office-bearers in each, are 
appointed by the general, who receives at 
stated intervals a detailed report of the char- 
acter, conduct, and position of each member 
of the society. 

Two features characterize the system thus 
organized — absolute obedience and a per- 
fect system of espionage. It is true that the 
rules of the order prescribe obedience, "un- 
less where the superior should command 
what is sinful." But since assassination, 
and thefts, and intrigues innumerable, have 
been carried out under this vow of obedi- 
ence, the Protestant is at least excusable for 
regarding the reservation with suspicion. 
Obedience is enforced by a system of espi- 
onage which is almost absolutely perfect. 
Every officer of the order has his shadow. 
The higher his office the more closely is 
he watched. And the general has not only 
the monthly or quarterly reports from every 
subordinate, but also reports concerning him 
from spies who watch with alert suspicion 
every act and movement. It is the combi- 
nation of these two principles which has 
made the order of Jesuits such a power in 
the Church, and not unfrequeutly such a 
menace to society and government. The op- 
erations of all its members are secret ; and 
their allegiance is avowedly first to the so- 
ciety, afterward to . the government under 
which they live. It needs very little reflec- 
tion to perceive the danger to any nation of 
a large and well -organized secret society, 
whose members, inspired by a misplaced en- 
thusiasm, which amounts to fanaticism, and 
trained by years of ascetic discipline to hab- 
its of absolute obedience, are bound by the 
most solemn vows to obey any orders, what- 
ever the consequences to themselves or oth- 
ers, which they may receive from a general, 
who owes no allegiance to the country, and 
who is indifferent to its welfare or even its 
existence. 

It should be added that the Jesuits are 
not distinguished by any peculiar dress or 
peculiar practices. They are jjermitted to 
mix with the world and to conform to its 
habits, if necessary, for the attainment of 
their ends. Their widest influence has been 
exerted in political circles, where, as laymen, 
they have attained the highest political 
positions without exciting any suspicion of 
their connection with the Society of Jesus, 



and in education, where they have been em- 
inent as teachers, in which position they 
have exercised an incalculable influence over 
the Church by instilling into the minds of 
the young the principle of absolute obedi- 
ence to ecclesiastical superiors, in opposi- 
tion to the principle of the Reformation, of 
freedom to worship God according to the 
individual conscience. 

It should also be added that the enemies 
of the order allege that, in addition to the 
public and avowed constitution of the soci- 
ety, there is a secret code, called Monita Se- 
creta (Secret Instructions), which is reserved 
exclusively for the private guidance of the 
more advanced members. But this secret 
code is disavowed by the society ; and since 
its authority is at least doubtful, it is not 
necessary to describe it here in detail. 

II. History. — The history of the order of 
the Jesuits has been one of an extraordina- 
rily romantic character. It is here possible 
only to allude, and that very briefly, to the 
outlines of that history. In Italy, before the 
death of the first general, Ignatius, in 1556, 
the Italian Jesuits had swelled to one thou- 
sand in number, and the order was establish- 
ed in twelve provinces. The earliest settle- 
ments of the Jesuits outside of Italy were in 
Portugal and Spain. In 1540, Rodriguez, who 
was a Portuguese nobleman, and Francis 
Xavier opened colleges in Portugal, at the in- 
vitation of the king. Francis Borgia, duke 
of Gandia, in Si>ain, was equally well received 
in his native country, where the order flour- 
ished so rapidly that, at the time of the sup- 
pression in the following century, the Span- 
ish Jesuits numbered above six thousand. In 
France, although a house for novices was 
founded in Paris by Ignatius, in 1542, the 
University opposed their introduction as un- 
necessary, and irreconcilable with its priv- 
ileges. They were distasteful to supporters 
of the Galilean liberties, and still more to the 
Huguenots. The jurists, the parliament, and 
the partisans of absolutism, were^alarmed by 
the free political opinions which had found 
expression in some of the Jesuit schools. On 
the other hand, the democratic party attrib- 
uted to them a sinister use of their influence 
with courts. Thus their progress was slow, 
and their position at all times precarious. 
In 1594 they were expelled fi'om France ; in 
1603 reinstated. In the controversy which 
ensued with the Jansenists (q. v.), they were 
apparently victorious ; but the shafts of Pas- 
cal's ridicule were more effective with the 
people than with the state, and the Jesuits 
in France have not to this day fully recov- 
ered from the effect of the keen and polished 
satire of the author of the " Provincial Let- 
ters," and the bitter attacks of the later nov- 
elists and play- writers. In Germany the Jes- 
uit institute was received with general fa- 
vor. Before the death of the first general, 
Ignatius, the order could reckon in Germany 



JESUITS 



500 



JESUITS 



twenty-six colleges and ten professed houses ; 
and Lainez, the second general, was able to 
say that there was scarce a German town of 
note which had not a Jesuit college. In the 
Netherlands they encountered some opposi- 
tion at first ; hut in 1562, Lainez, the second 
general of the order, came to the Low Coun- 
tries, and a college was opened at Louvain, 
which eventually became one of the great- 
est colleges of the order. In the Netherlands 
the Jansenistical party was less numerous 
and less influential than in France, and the 
conflict with them was less permanently 
prejudicial to the Jesuits. In the Protest- 
ant kingdoms the Jesuits obtained entrance 
only as missionaries, and in some, as in En- 
gland, Scotland, and Ireland, under circum- 
stances of great difficulty and peril. From 
England they were excluded by law under 
pain of death ; nevertheless, they maintain- 
ed through the worst times an unbroken 
succession of missionaries in that country. 
They often resorted to the most singular dis- 
guises, and generally bore false names ; and 
several of the old Eoman Catholic mansions 
still show the " Priest-hole," which was con- 
trived as a retreat for them in cases of sud- 
den emergency. Into Ireland they effected 
an entrance almost at the first foundation 
of the order ; and after many vicissitudes, 
toward the close of the reign of Charles II., 
they had more than one considerable college 
for the education of youth. But a still more 
fertile field for the enterprise of the order 
was that of the missions to the heathen, in 
which, from their very origin, they engaged, 
and in which they soon attained to a success 
which outstripped all the older orders in the 
Church. Yet their successes were superfi- 
cial. They baptized innumerable crowds, 
but did little to change the hearts of the peo- 
ple or the civilization of the countries where 
they labored. They adopted the supersti- 
tious rites of the heathen, left their moral 
character unchanged, and by their employ- 
ment of a doubtful complaisance gave rise 
to the sarcastic saying, "It is hard to say 
whether the Jesuits have converted the 
heathen, or the heathen the Jesuits." Meas- 
ured by the number of their professed con- 
verts, however, their missionary success has 
been marvelous — the Roman Catholic mis- 
sions in India, China, Japan, North, Central, 
and South America, being largely the results 
of Jesuit labors, and iu some exceptional 
cases giving evidence of real religious work 
and sound intellectual culture. 

Such, in its various branches, was this 
great and wonderfully organized association 
in the first stage of its history. At the cele- 
bration of their first centenary jubilee, they 
already numbered 18,112 members, distribu- 
ted over 32 provinces. At the date of their 
suppression, a century later, they had in- 
creased to 22,589, and were possessed of 24 
professed houses, 669 colleges, 176 seminaries, 



61 novitiates, 335 residences, and 275 mis- 
sionary stations in infidel countries, or in 
the Protestant states of Europe. The de- 
cline in the fortunes of the Jesuits, although 
its origin dates far back in the seventeenth 
century, was rapid and decisive in its con- 
summation. The first blow which they sus- 
tained was in Portugal, where, in 1759, by a 
royal decree, the whole order was expelled 
from the kingdom. This example was fol- 
lowed in other kingdoms. In France its 
suppression was more creditable to itself 
than to its enemies. The Jesuit confessor 
of Madame de Pompadour refused her abso- 
lution unless she would separate from the 
king. Her powerful influence was thence- 
forth excited against the order, and, sustain- 
ed by the public press and the rising influ- 
ence of the infidels, it succeeded in securing 
a royal edict, in 1764, suppressing the socie- 
ty. This example was followed by Spain in 
1767, accompanied by circumstances of great 
harshness and severity; and by the minor 
Bourbon courts of Naples, Parma, and Mode- 
na. And in 1773, Clement XIY., inclining in 
this, as in all other questions of Church and 
State, to the side of peace, issued a bull, by 
which, without adopting the charges made 
against the society, he suppressed it in all 
the states of Christendom. The bull was 
put into execution without delay. In Spain 
and Portugal the members of the society 
were driven into exile. In other Catholic 
countries they were permitted to remain as 
individuals engaged in the ministry, or in 
literary occupations ; and in two kingdoms — 
Prussia under Frederick the Great, and Eus- 
sia under Catherine — they were even permit- 
ted to retain a quasi-corporate existence as 
a society for education. What was meant, 
however, to be the suj)pression of the socie- 
ty proved but a temj^orary suspension. In 
1801, Pius YII. permitted the re - establish- 
ment of the society in Lithuania and White 
Russia ; and, with still more formality, in 
Sicily, in the year 1804. In 1814 the com- 
X)lete rehabilitation of the Jesuit order was 
effected by the publication of a papal bull. 
In the same year the Jesuits opened a novi- 
tiate at Rome ; and in 1824 their ancient col- 
lege, the Collegio Romano, was restored to 
them. In Modena, Sardinia, and Naples, 
they were re-established in 1815, as also in 
Spain, where they were reinstated in the 
possession of their ancient property. 

Of the present condition of the Jesuits it 
would be idle to attempt to inform the read- 
er. The revolution has expelled them again 
from Spain ; but their intrigues may rein- 
state them in that kingdom before this page 
shall reach the eye of the public. Every- 
where — in France, Germany, Holland, Spain, 
Italy — the old conflict is renewed between 
the friends of progress and freedom and the 
old Jesuit order, whose fundamental princi- 
ple is absolute obedience, and whose pros- 



JESUS CHRIST 



501 



JESUS CHRIST 



perity and power is, therefore, irreconcilably 
opposed to the spirit of liberal institutions 
in Church and State. In Germany, at the 
time of our writing, a law has been passed 
expelling them from the empire ; and in 
England the subject of reviving and enfor- 
cing a similar, but long since forgotten, law 
is under consideration. It is not, however, 
too much to say that the Jesuits have re- 
gained almost absolute control of the Roman 
Catholic Church ; that the Council of the 
Vatican was called, organized, and maintain- 
ed by the order ; that the object of the de- 
cree of papal infallibility was to give the Jes- 
uit faction control of the Church of Rome, 
since it could with comparative ease obtain 
and maintain control of the pope ; and that, 
at least, during the lifetime of Pope Pius IX., 
the Jesuit order will probably retain its su- 
joremacy in the papal Church. It is now 
probably more influential in England and 
America than in any avowedly Roman Cath- 
olic countries, where the civil government 
recognizes its existence more directly, and 
is prepared to take more direct and stringent 
measures against the dangers with which 
its mere existence threatens any country in 
which it obtains a foothold. 

Jesus Christ. Name. — The name Jesus is 
of Hebrew origin, and signifies Deliverer, or 
Saviour. It is the same as that translated 
in the Old Testament Joshua, whose name 
is once given in the New Testament, to the 
perplexity of ordinary readers, as Jesus.^ 
The word Christ, of Greek origin, is proper- 
ly not a name, but a title, signifying " The 
Anointed." The whole name is therefore Je- 
sus the Anointed, or Jesus the Messiah. The 
former name was given to him by the com- 
mand of the angel, because he was a Saviour 
from sin f the latter by his followers as an 
expression of their faith in his Messiahship.^ 

Prophecies. — From the earliest period of 
Hebrew history there were x^rophecies of the 
advent of a Messiah. His perfect sacrifice 
was not only typified by the Jewish sacri- 
fices, and by such national feasts as the Pass- 
over, but the prophets, in direct language, 
declared both his advent and his crucifixion. 
These prophecies were at first so vague, that 
it is no wonder that they were but imper- 
fectly apprehended, but they grew more def- 
inite as the time of his advent drew near. 
At first nothing more was intimated than 
that, in some mysterious way, the Serpent, 
emblem of Satan, should be conquered by 
some one born of woman.^ But this germ 
of a prophecy was amplified and expanded 
by the later prophets until almost all the 
critical events in the life of Jesus were fore- 
told. One who is interested in tracing the 
development of prophecy may easily do so 
by examining the passages of Scripture giv- 
en below, and noticing how it was unfolded 



1 Heb. iv., 8.-2 Matt, i., 21.— 3 Acts ii., 36,— ■» Gen. 
iii., 15. 



in fuller and fuller detail. He was to be of 
the race of the Hebrews, of the seed of Abra- 
ham, of the line of Isaac, a descendant of Ja- 
cob, of the tribe of Judah, of the house of 
David, born at Bethlehem, to be despised, a 
man of sorrows, rejected by his own nation, 
sold for thirty pieces of silver, put to death, 
not a bone of his body to be broken (though 
the Jewish death -sentence was invariably 
executed by stoning), to have his hands and 
feet and side pierced (though crucifixion was 
unknown to the Hebrews), to hang upon the 
tree, to have gall and wormwood given him 
to drink, to be exposed to derision with the 
cry, " He trusted in the Lord that he would 
deliver him ; let him deliver him if he de- 
light in him," and to cry himself, " My God, 
my God, why hast thou forsaken me ?" to 
have a portion of his garments divided for 
a spoil and lots cast for the rest, to be buried 
in a rich man's grave, to rise from the dead, 
and to ascend into heaven. At the same 
time, his divine character was in other pas- 
sages described with great and glowing elo- 
quence. He was to be the Holy One, the 
Just, the Oracle of God, the Redeemer of 
Mankind, the Lamb of God, the Mediator 
and Advocate, the Great High -priest, the 
true Prophet, the Chief Captain, the Messi- 
ah, the King of Israel, the Son of God, the 
Lord of Hosts, the God of Israel. At length 
the book of prophecy was closed. That the 
world might entertain no reasonable doubt 
that these singular and seemingly contra- 
dictory declarations were truly prophetic, 
over three hundred years was allowed to 
elapse between the voice of the last of the 
ancient prophets and the first outcry of John 
the Baptist, the immediate forerunner of the 
Lord.^ 

Life. — These prophecies had produced a 
general expectation of a Messiah. The Jews, 
subjugated by the Roman legions, had in- 
deed learned to look for a temporal deliver- 
er. Accustomed to great and absolute em- 
pires, whose boundaries were those of the civ- 
ilized world — the Assyrian, the Persian, the 



I The following are the principal prophecies in the 
O. T. of Christ's life. See also Appendix. For some 
of the principal Scriptures relating to his divine char- 
acter and mission, see under Christot.ogy. The seed 
of the woman (Gen. iii., 15) ; born of a virgin (Psa. 
xxii., 10; lxix.,8; Ixxxvi., 16; cxvi., 16; Isa. vii.,14; 
xlix., 1 ; Jer. xxxi., 22 ; Mic. iv., B) ; a Hebrew (Exod. 
iii., 18) ; of the seed of Abraham (Gen. xii., 3 ; xviii., 
18; xxii., 18) ; of the line of Isaac (Gen. xvii., 19; xxi., 
12; xxvi.,42); of Jacob (Gen. xxviii., 4-14 ; Exod. iv., 
22; Numb, xxiv., 7-17; Psa. cxxxv., 4; Isa. xli., 8; 
xlix., 6 ; Jer. xiv., 8) ; of the tribe of Judah (Gen. xlix., 
10 ; 1 Chron. v., 2 ; Mic. v., 12) ; of the house of David 
(2 Sam. vii., 12-15; 1 Chron. xvii., 11-14; 2 Chron. vi., 
42 ; Psa. Ixxxix., 4r-36 ; cxxxii., 10-17 ; Isa. ix., 7 ; xi., 
1; Iv., 3, 4; Jer. xxiii., 5, 6; Amos ix., 11) ; born at 
Bethlehem (Mic. v., 2); his sufferings (Gen. iii., 15; 
Psa. xxii., 1-18 ; xxxi., 13 ; Ixxxix., 38-45 ; Isa. liii., 1- 
12; Dan. ix., 26; Zech. xiii., 6, 7); his death (Numb, 
xxi., 9; Psa. xvi., 10; xxii., 16; xxxi., 22; xlix., 15; 
Isa. liii., 8, 9) ; entombment (Isa. liii., 9) ; resurrec- 
tion (Psa. xvi., 10; xvii., 15; xlix., 15; Ixxiii., 24) ; as- 
cension (Psa. viii., 5, 6; xlvii., 5; Ixviii., 18; ex., 1); 
future coming (Job xix., 25-29; Psa. 1., 1-0; Isa. xl., 
10; Ixii., 11; Jer. xxiii., 5, 6; Dan. vii., 13,14; xii., 2, 
3 ; Hos. iii., 5 ; Mic. v., 3 ; Hab. ii., 7 ; Eccles. xii., 14). 



JESUS CHRIST 



502 



JESUS CHRIST 



Macedonian, the Roman — it is not strange 
that they conceived the idea of a Jewish 
empire equally general and more permanent, 
of a Messiah who should do for the Hebrews 
what Cyrus had done for the Persians, Al- 
exander for the Greeks, and Csesar for the 
Romans. At the same time, they believed 
that he would be clothed with supernatural 
powers, and would accomplish their triumph 
less by any human achievement than by the 
direct Interposition of Jehovah. But there 
were some, at least, who entertained a more 
correct idea of the Messiah, as a deliverer 
from sin,^ nor Avas the expectation of his 
coming confined to the Jews alone. It had 
spread over the entire civilized world. Soc- 
rates, in his last hours, had commended his 
disciples to search the world for a charmer 
able to deliver from fear of death. Confu- 
cius had prophesied the appearance of a 
sage in the West, whose coming should rev- 
olutionize the world ; and a deputation sent 
forth from China to learn of him had brought 
back the reformed religion, but heartless 
philosophy, of Buddha. "Among many," 
writes Tacitus, " there was a persuasion that 
in the ancient books of the priesthood it was 
written that at this precise time the East 
would become mighty, and that the sover- 
eign of the world would issue from Judea." 
*' In the East," writes Suetonius, " an ancient 
and consistent opinion prevailed that it was 
foretold there should issue at this time from 
Judea those who should obtain universal 
dominion." Among these prophecies of the 
coming man, none was so clear and definite 
as that of Zoroaster, the founder of the Per- 
sian religion. He had foretold the coming 
of a prophet who should be begotten in a 
supernatural way ; should bring a new rev- 
elation to a waiting world ; should conquer 
Ahriman, the spirit of evil ; should found a 
kingdom of righteousness and peace. Later 
traditions, borrowed, perhaps, from the Jews 
during their captivity, led his disciples to 
expect that he would come of the seed of 
Abraham.^ Whether these expectations be 
attributed simply to the want of the human 
heart for some clearer revelation of truth 
and duty, and some more satisfactory meth- 
od of salvation than was provided by heathen 
worship and heathen philosophy, or wheth- 
er it be attributed to tradition, conveyed by 
the Jews already dispersed over the whole 
habitable globe, there is no doubt of the 
fact itself. 

Augustus Caesar was emperor of Rome; 
Herod was called king of the Jews, but 
held his sceptre at the will and as the rep- 
resentative of Rome, when, 7.50 years after 
the building of Rome, and 4000, according 
to Hebrew chronology, after the creation 
of the world, Jesus was born, according to 
prophecy, in Bethlehem of Judea. The ex- 



J Luke ii., 25-32.-2 Lyman Abbott's "Jesus of Naz- 
areth," p. TO. 



act date of his birth is unknown. Accord- 
ing to the received chronology, which is, in 
fact, that of Dionysius Exiguus in the fourth 
century, it occurred in the year of Rome 754 
(a.d. 1) ; but it is now generally believed by 
the best scholars that it took place as early 
as 750 (B.C. 4). The data on which this con- 
clusion is based are, 1st, the death of Herod, 
who was living at the time of Jesus's birth, 
and did not die, according to profane histo- 
ry, till four years after the date formerly as- 
signed to the birth of Jesus; 2d, the appear- 
ance of the star in the east, supposing that 
to be the conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn;' 
3d, the taxing, or emolument, under Augus- 
tus, which led to the journey of Joseph to 
Bethlehem ; 4th, the statement of the Phar- 
isees at the commencement of Christ's min- 
istry, at which time he was about thirty 
years of age,^ that the Temple, which was 
commenced twenty years before the com- 
mencement of the Christian era, had been 
forty-and-six years in building.^ The fol- 
lowing tabular statement makes clear this 
calculation : 

The Temple was commenced b.c. 20 

Was completed a.d. 26 

Total 46 

Jesus Christ was born b.c. ~i 

Add tweuty-six years of Temple creation after his 
birth 26 

30 



The age indicated by Luke. 



The time of the year of Christ's birth is 
unknown.^ His mother, Mary, was betroth- 
ed to Joseph,^ a Galilean. Before they were 
married, an angel appeared to her announ- 
cing that she should give birth to a son by 
a supernatural conception;^ and a little later 
the Lord appeared to her espoused husband, 
warning him not to put her away, because, 
said he, " That which is conceived in her is 
of the Holy Ghost."^ A decree of Caesar is- 
sued at this time provided for taking the 
census of his empire f and, in accordance 
with the Hebrew custom, which required 
every household in such case to go up to its 
native city, where the family records were 
kept, Joseph and Mary, both of whom were 
of the house of David,^ went up to Bethle- 
hem. The town was crowded. There was 
no room for them in the inn, and Joseph and 
Mary found their accommodation in a sta- 
ble. The limestone hills of Judea abound 
with caves often used for this purpose, and 
the Roman Catholic monks point out with 
credulous faith the one in which tradition 
asserts Jesus to have been born. There he 
was visited by the shepherds, thence he was 
brought to Jerusalem to be presented to the 
Lord,'" and at his circumcision received the 
name of Jesus. At the same time, his divine 
character and mission were recognized by 



1 See Stati in the East.— 2 Luke iii., 23.— 3 John ii., 
20.— 4 See Christmas.— 5 See Handicraft; Marriage. 
—6 Luke i., 30-35.— ■^ Matt, i., 18-25.— 8 See Taxing.— 
8 See Genealogy. — i" See Purification. 



JESUS CHRIST 



503 



JESUS CHRIST 



Simeon and the prophetess Anna.^ On the 
return of the holy family to Bethlehem — for 
as yet Mary was unable to bear the danger- 
ous and difficult journey to Galilee — they 
found room in a house f and here the Magi 
visited the infant Jesus, and offered . him 
their treasures of gold and frankincense and 
myrrh. An angel soon after warned Joseph 
of the danger which was threatened by Her- 
od's jealousy, and he fled with the child and 
its mother into Egypt in time to escape the 
wholesale massacre of the infant children 
which Herod ordered in the hope thus to in- 
sure the destruction of the prophesied King of 
Israel. They did not remain long in Egypt, 
but at Herod's death returned to Joseph's 
former home, Nazareth in Galilee.^ Other 
children were here born,* and here Jesus 
spent his youth with his brother and sisters, 
working, probably, at his father's bench,^ 
but receiving no education except such as a 
godly mother would impart, or as could be 
obtained from the parish school which was 
managed in connection with every syna- 
gogue. The apocryphal gospels'' contain 
many absurd traditions of his childhood ; 
but the evangelists give only a single inci- 
dent — one which, however, indicates that, as 
a child, he was more interested in the study 
of God's truth than in the imposing but now 
soulless ceremonials of the Temple-service, 
and that his though tfulness at the early age 
of twelve already impressed even casual ob- 
servers as seeming almost supernatural.'^ 

He reached his thirtieth year (a.d. 26) be- 
fore he entered upon his public life. In the 
mean time Herod the Great had died, and 
Palestine, dismembered, became, in fact as 
well as in form, a dependency of the Roman 
Empire.^ The general expectancy of a Mes- 
siah was heightened by the predictions of 
Christ's cousin, John the Baptist, from whom 
at this time he received the rite of baptism 
at the ford of Bethabara,^ whence he enter- 
ed the wilderness, to undergo the mysterious 
experience of the Temptation.^" Immediate- 
ly on emerging from the wilderness where 
this preparatory conflict took place, he went 
to Cana, in Galilee, to attend, as invited 
guest, a wedding, which tradition reports to 
have been that of his beloved disciple, John. 
There, by a miracle, he converted water into 
wine, to the great astonishment of all the 
observers.^^ This was now the time of the 
Passover (a.d. 27), and he went up to Jeru- 
salem in accordance with the Jewish law. 
His indignation was aroused at observing 
the desecration of the Temple, and he drove 
out the cattle which had been gathered there 
for sacrifice, and overturned the tables of the 



1 Luke ii., 38.-2 Matt, ii., 11.— 3 Matt. ii. ; Luke ii., 
39. — ■* See James, the Lokd's Bkothek ; Immaculate 
CoNOEPTiON. — 5 Matt, xiii., 55; Mark v., 3. — ^ yee 
Apocrypha.—'^ Luke ii., 40-52.— « See Heeob.— » Or 
perhaps Bethany; the reading? of John i., 28, is uncer- 
tain.— lo Matt. iii. ; iv., 1-11 ; Mark i., 13 ; Luke iii.-iv., 
1-13. John makes no mention of the temptation, but 
reports the baptism. John i., 15-34.— ^^ John ii., 1-11. 



money-changers ; and when called on for his 
authority, prophesied, enigmatically, his res- 
urrection. His preaching produced a pro- 
found conviction on the miuds of some of 
the more honest of the Pharisees ; and in a 
conversation with Nicodemus, he opened the 
whole system of truth which he had come at 
once to perfect and to reveal — the depravity 
of man, the need of regeneration, the neces- 
sity of an atonement, the provision made by 
his death for the salvation of the race, the 
condition of salvation — faith in him — and 
the eternal death of those who reject him. 
He was not yet, however, ready to enter 
upon his public ministry. He temporarily 
joined John the Baptist, who had removed 
from the ford at Bethabara to Enon, near Sa- 
lim. But a controversy arising between his 
disciples and those of the Baptist, he with- 
drew, and passed through Samaria, where he 
entered into conversation with the woman 
at the well, whom he led to repentance and 
faith, and where he remained for two days, 
at the entreaty of the Samaritans, to preach 
the Gospel, the fruits of which preaching 
were gathered four years after by Philip, Pe- 
ter, and John.^ Joseph appears to have died 
before this time — at least so it is supposed, 
from the fact that no reference is subsequent- 
ly made to him ; and Mary, who had re- 
moved from Nazareth, had not yet taken up 
her residence in Capernaum.'^ Jesus there- 
fore rex^aired to Cana, where he followed the 
miracle at the marriage with the healing of 
the son of the Roman officer,^ who is conjec- 
tured to be that Chuza, steward of Herod, 
whose wife afterward accompanied and min- 
istered to Jesus.* It was about this time 
that John the Baptist was arrested and im- 
prisoned by Herod Antipas ; and this was ac- 
counted by Christ as an indication that the 
hour for the inauguration of his public min- 
istry had arrived.^ He preached his first 
public sermon in the synagogue at Nazareth, 
was mobbed for indicating that the salva- 
tion which he had come to bring was to be 
offered to the whole Avorld, and narrowly es- 
caped the threatening Nazarenes with his 
life.^ Thence he went down to Capernaum, 
where he found Andrew, Simon Peter, James, 
and John, fishing, of whom three were among 
the adherents of John the Baptist, and had 
met Jesus before at the ford of Bethabara.' 
At his command they left their nets to be- 
come fishers of men, their faith strengthened 
by the miraculous draught of fishes.^ From 
this time Capernaum became the home of 
Jesus — ^if he who had not where to lay his 
head can be said to have had a home ; and 
from it, as a suitable centre, he made mis- 

i Of this brief excursion into Judea and Samaria, 
John alone gives any account (ii., 13; iv., 42). The 
other evangelists commence their history of his labors 
by describing the first preaching in Galilee. — 2 John 
ii., 12.-3 John iv., 43-54.-4 Luke viii., 3.-5 Matt, iv., 
12 ; Mark i., 14.-6 Luke ii., 16-32. No other evangel- 
ist mentions the fact.—'' John i., 85-42.-8 Matt, iv., 
lS-22; Luke v., 1-11. 



JESUS CHRIST 



504 



JESUS CHEIST 



sionary journeys tlirougliout Galilee. His 
preaching, full of direct appeals to Scripture/ 
and of analogies taken from common life,^ 
was both popular and powerful among the 
people, who were heartily sick of the ab- 
surd and incomprehensible subtleties of the 
Scribes and Pharisees. He said little about 
himself as the Messiah, or about the nature 
and universality of the kingdom of God he 
had come to establish, but contented him- 
self with proclaiming it as at hand, and urg- 
ing upon the people personal repentance and 
practical reformation as the only true prep- 
aration for it.^ His popularity was enhanced 
by his miracles of healing, which were re- 
garded by the people with the greater grati- 
tude, since medicine as an art was unknown ; 
and with greater reverence, since disease was 
believed to be an infliction of God, or a curse 
of the devil. The casting out of the unclean 
spirit in the synagogue f the extraordinary 
cures of the multitude in front of Peter's 
house, which followed it f the healing of the 
leper ;^ the cure of the paralytic'^ — all belong 
to this period of Christ's ministry. It was 
at this time, too, that Matthew or Levi was 
added to the discipleship.^ 

Jesus was now in his thirty-second year. 
His popularity was unbounded. Only the 
faintest whispers of opposition manifested 
themselves against him. These all came 
from rabbis who found their own influence 
and power vanishing as that of Jesus Christ 
increased. The first serious opposition which 
he encountered was in Judea, and was in 
consequence of his liberal teaching respect- 
ing the true object and proper observation 
of the Sabbath. The event which gave rise 
to this opposition was the healing of the im- 
potent man at the pool of Bethesda in Jeru- 
salem (a.d. 28),^ followed, almost immediate- 
ly after, in Galilee by the act of Jesus's dis- 
ciples in plucking wheat to eat on the Sab- 
bath, and by that of their Master in healing 
a paralytic in the synagogue." Christ's re- 
buke of the Pharisees who had followed him 
to Galilee, to watch him there, intensified 
their indignation ; while the fact that he 
silenced them by his response to their sin- 
gularly unreasonable complaints, enhanced 
his popularity with the common people. 
Crowds flocked to see and hear him from all 
parts of Palestine.^^ He procured a boat by 
which to escape, at times, from the throng.^^ 
At the same time, he began to take measures 
for the organization of a church to co-oper- 
ate with him in preaching the Gospel while 
he lived, and to carry on the work after his 



1 Matt, xii., 5-T ; Mark ii., 25, 26 ; John v., 39.- 
2 Matt, vi., 26, 28, 29 ; vii., 24-2T ; xiii.— 3 Matt, iv., IT 
Mark i., 14, 15.— ■* See Demoniac— & Mark i., 24-34 
Luke iv., .34-41.-6 Matt, viii., 1^; Mark i., 40-45 
Luke v., 12-15. See Leprosy.-'' Mark ii., 1-12 ; Luke 
v., 17-26.— 8 Matt, ix., 9-13.-8 johu v. We suppose 
the feast at which this o'ccnrred to have been the sec- 
ond Passover in Christ's ministry, thon<;h it is uncer- 
tain.— i" Matt, xii., 1-21; Mark ii., 23-28; iii., 1-12; 
Luke vi., 1-11.— ii Mark iii., 7, 8.— 12 Mark iii., 9. 



death. For this purpose he chose twelve 
apostles,^ and taking them with him up into 
the Mount of Beatitudes, he there consecrated 
them to their life-work by a solemn ordi- 
nation,^ and by preaching, in a public dis- 
course, to the crowd who followed him thith- 
er, what may be properly called his inaugu- 
ral address.^ Something like a year of in- 
dustrious and fruitful ministry followed, con- 
fined, for the most part, to Galilee — a period 
of constantly -increasing popularity among 
the middle and lower classes, but of con- 
stantly-increasing opposition and hatred on 
the part of the Jewish rabbis and the Jew- 
ish Church. To this period belong the cure of 
the centurion's servant ;* the resurrection of 
Jairus's daughter,^ and of the son of the grief- 
stricken widow of Nain;^ the stilling of the 
Sea of Galilee f the cure of the demoniacs 
of Gergeza f and the healing of the woman 
with an issue of blood f also, the parable of 
the two debtors in the house of Simon the 
Pharisee ;" the charge openly brought against 
Jesus of casting out devils by Beelzebub, the 
prince of devils ; his solemn warning against 
the unpardonable sin ;^^ his first invectives 
against the spirit of Phariseeism, and his al- 
most contemptuous disregard of the Phari- 
saic ritual.^^ This was the period of Jesus's 
greatest popularity.^^ Throngs accompanied 
him wherever he went, intruding upon his 
privacy, blocking up the streets, breaking in 
upon his hours for sleep and meals, and com- 
pelling him more than once to escape to the 
wild country east of the Sea of Galilee, for 
much-needed repose.^* At the same time, it 
was one of increasing danger. His mother 
and brethren attempted to interfere and take 
him from his work ; but he gently, though 
firmly, repelled their presumption.^^ His dis- 
ciples were filled with not unnatural fears 
at the storm which was arising. He made 
no attempt to veil the future from them; 
hinted at the baptism of blood which await- 
ed both them and him ; began to employ the 
oft-repeated but as yet enigmatical apho- 
rism, " He that taketh not his cross, and fol- 
loweth not after me, is not worthy of me ;" 
but yet comforted their hearts by his own 
calm courage, and assured them that God, 
who numbered the very hairs of their heads, 
would, despite their weakness, give them 
final victory.^^ From this time he more and 



1 See, for information respectino: individual apos- 
tles, under their several names.— 2 Matt, vi., 1 ; x., 1--4 ; 
Mark iii., 13-19 ; Luke vi., 12-16.— s Matt, v.-vii. ; Luke 
vi., 20-49. See Sermon on tue Mount.—* Matt, viii., 
5-13 ; Luke vii., 2-10.— s Matt, ix., 18, 19, 23-26; Mark 
v., 22, 23, .35-43 ; Luke viii., 41, 42, 49-56.-6 Luke vii., 
11-16.- ■! Matt, viii., 23-27 ; Mark iv., 37-41 ; Luke viii., 
22-25.-8 Matt, viii., 28-34; Mark v., 1-21; Luke viii., 
26-40.— 9 Matt, ix., 20-22; Mark v., 25-34; Luke viii., 
43-4S.— 10 Luke vii., 36-50.— n Matt, xii., 22-37; Luke 
xi., 17-23. See Blasphemy.— 12 Matt, xii., 38-42 ; Luke 
xi., 37-54. See Washing.— '^ Matt, ix., 10; xiv., 13; 
Mark i., 37; ii., 1, 2, 15; iii., 9, 20; v., 24; Luke vii., 
11; viii., 45; xii., 41.— 1* Matt, ix., 10 ; xiv., 13; Mark 
i., 37 ; ii., 1, 2, 15 ; iii., 9, 20 ; v., 24 ; Luke vii., 11 ; viii., 
45 ; xii., 41.— i^ Matt, xii., 46-50 ; Mark iii., 9 — lo jyi^tt. 
X. ; Luke xii., 1-12, 22-53. 



JESUS CHRIST 



505 



JESUS CHRIST 



more employed parables in his public minis- 
try ; and to this period belong those of the 
fruitless fig-tree^ and of the sullen children 
in the market-place f to this period those 
matchless illustrations of the kingdom of 
God ^hich Matthew has gathered in the 
thirteenth chapter of his gospel, and whose 
mutual connection is such as to justify the 
belief that they constituted a single dis- 
course. The death of John the Baptist (a.d. 
29), so far from leading Jesus to withdraw 
from his work, led him to extend it ; and 
upon learning of his forerunner's martyr- 
dom, he gave his apostles a special commis- 
sion to go forth two by two, and preach in 
the smaller towns and villages^ the Gospel 
which he himself continued personally to 
preach in the cities.* 

So a year passed away. The time of the 
third Passover drew nigh. Partly to escape 
threatened danger from Herod, who believed 
that Jesus was John the Baptist risen from 
the dead, partly to secure a period of quiet 
conference with his disciples, Jesus and the 
twelve crossed the Sea of Galilee, and sought 
a brief respite from their toil among the sol- 
itudes of the Jordan range, near the plain 
of Bethsaida. But the crowd followed him 
on foot. The hours he had set apart for rest 
he devoted to teaching, and closed the labors 
of the day by feeding the five thousand with 
five small loaves and two small fishes^ mi- 
raculously multiplied till all were provided. 
The crown which the enthusiastic people 
proffered him he refused, and, sending them 
away, bade his disciples take to their boats, 
promising to rejoin them by-and-by, a prom- 
ise which, despite the storm which in the 
mean time arose, he fulfilled by walking out 
upon the sea to their boat.^ The following 
day, which was the Sabbath, found him in 
the s;yTiagogue at Capernaum, where he ex- 
pounded, as if in answer to the offer of a 
crown, the nature of the kingdom which he 
had come to establish, and his own person- 
al sacrifice by which it was to be accom- 
plished.'^ The enthusiasm of the people was 
quickly changed to cold distrust and open 
enmity by the revelations of his sermon; 
and with liis twelve still faithful compan- 
ions, the latent treachery in one of whom, 
however,® already began to appear, he turn- 
ed his back upon Jerusalem, to spend the 
hours of the festal week in solitude. For this 
purpose he retired with his twelve friends 
into the coasts of Tyre and Sidon, where 
occurred the incident with the Syro -Phoe- 
nician woman.® Passing northward, along 
the southern terminus of the Lebanon range, 
he sought the solitude of Mount Hermon. 
He at length returned to the shore of the 



1 Luke xiii., 6-9.-2 Matt, xi., 16-19; Luke vii., 
31-35.— 3 Luke xvii,, 6.— ■» Matt, xi., 1.— s See Food.— 
« Mark vi., 30-56; Luke ix., 10-17; Johu vi., 1-21.— 
"^ This sermon is reported only by John vi., 21-71.— 
8 See Judas.- 9 Matt, xv., 21-28 ; Mark vii,, 28-30. See 
Syko-Ph(enioian. 



Sea of Galilee, where he fed four thousand 
with seven loaves and a few small fishes,^ 
and healed the blind man and the deaf-and- 
dumb man,^ and, later, at the foot of the 
Mount of Transfiguration, cast the demoniac 
out of the boy whom his disciples could not 
cure. But after the sermon at Capernaum, 
recorded in the sixth chapter of John, he 
did not resume his public teaching in Gali- 
lee.^ He confined his instructions during this 
brief period chiefly to his own disciples, to 
whom he spoke of himself and his mission 
in language more distinct and less enigmatic- 
al than any he had employed before. It was 
during this time that the remarkable con- 
ference with his disciple occurred in which 
he accepted Peter's faith that he was " the 
Christ, the Son of the living God," as the rock 
on which his Church should be founded.* He 
also set forth some laws for the government 
of his Church ; interpreted to his followers 
the difference between the Jewish national 
and the Christian free Church by the inci- 
dent of the tribute-money taken from a fish's 
mouth ;^ prophesied, more unmistakably than 
before, his own suffering and death ;^ and re- 
vealed his glory to his three friends on the 
Mount of Transfiguration.^ Then, still con- 
cealing himself from the people,** and bidding 
his disciples go up to Jerusalem without him, 
he followed them up to the Feast of Taber- 
nacles (October, a.d. 29). 

Three months of ministry in the city of 
Jerusalem followed. The Judeans, hattghty, 
bigoted, exclusive, and entirely under the 
control of the priesthood, resented the claims 
of the Galilean rabbi, contemptuously de- 
nied his right to preach, and threatened vi- 
olence against his person. Twice he was 
mobbed.® Once the attempt was made to 
arrest him.^" Secret plans for his assassina- 
tion were laid.^^ He rarely, or never, slept 
within tlie city walls.^'^ Apparently John 
alone of the disciples remained with him. 
John alone, at least, has preserved any ade- 
quate record of his teaching at this time. 
All that we know of the events and instruc- 
tions of the Judean ministry, which lasted 
only from the Feast of Tabernacles, in Octo- 
ber (a.d. 29), to the Feast of Dedication, in 
December following, is contained in chapters 
vii., viii., ix., and x., of John's gospel, unless 
the parables of the Good Samaritan and the 
Pharisee and Publican, and the incident at 
the house of Martha and Mary,'^ be attrib- 
uted to the same epoch to which internal 
evidence would indicate they belong. 



1 Matt. XV., 32-39; Mark viii., 1-9.-2 Mark vii., 
31-37; viii., 22-26.-3 This is by no means agreed to 
by all, perhaps not by most, of the harmonists, but 
seems to me to agree best with the course of the nar- 
ration (Mark vii., 33, 36 ; viii., 26, 30 ; ix., 30 ; xvL, 20; 
Luke ix., 21).— ■* Matt, xvi., 13-20.-5 Matt, xvii., 24- 
27.— « Matt, xvi., 21.— ^ Matt, xvii., 1-13; Mark ix., 
2-13; Luke ix., 28-36.-8 Mark ix., 30; John vii., 3-8. 
—9 John viii., .59 ; x., 31.— lo John vii., .32, 45.— n John 
vii., 19, 25; viii., 37.— 12 Johu viii., 1.— i^ Luke x., 25- 
42; XYiii.,9-14. 



JESUS CHEIST 



506 



JESUS CHEIST 




Maps illustrating the Principal Eveuts 



JESUS CHRIST 



507 



JESUS CHRIST 



-^ WEDfJESD/\y. 

fiq Tf^EE WITtfEf\ED QUESflOf^S, ScC. IN TEMPLE. 

2. tlEf\ODI/\!^S Tl^lBUfE. 

3.-S/\DDUCEES SeVE/J BFjOJliEflS 

4.A/\WYE!\. l^f\E/[T COMM^lJoi^El^f. Dy^WO'S ^o/. 

S.-W/0:OW'S MrfE.l 6 G-FfEEl(S. 




'Eetejsst 



In the last Days of the Life of Jesns Christ. 



JESUS CHRIST 



508 



JESUS CHEIST 



At length Christ's clear declaration of his 
divine character and mission excited a storm 
of opposition which he did not attempt to 
face, since his time had not yet come, and 
he withdrew from the Holy City, to return 
no more till he should come to oifer himself 
a sacrifice for sin beneath the shadow of its 
walls. The period which follows is confess- 
edly the most difficult in the chronology of 
Christ's life. Apparently, however, Jesus 
went from Jerusalem into the region beyond 
Jordan,^ and prosecuted his ministry there 
(winter of a.d. 29-30) — a ministry of which 
Luke gives us the chief account — and thence 
returned through the borders of Galilee, Sa- 
maria, and Perea, to Bethabara, where Mat- 
thew and Mark resume their narrative with 
an account of their Master's teaching con- 
cerning divorce. To the Perean ministry, 
according to this explanation, belong the 
parables of the lost sheep, the lost money, the 
prodigal son, the marriage of the king's son, 
Dives and Lazarus, the unjust steward, the 
rich fool, the laborer in the vineyard ; to this 
period, too, the blessing of the little children, 
the instructions concerning divorce, the ap- 
plication of the rich young man for admis- 
sion into the discipleship, and the answer 
of Jesus, " Go sell that thou hast and 'give 
to the poor ;" to this period, too, the com- 
mission of the seventy to preach and to 
heal, and, we are inclined to think, the cure 
of the ten lepers, though the latter incident 
is more generally placed during the earlier 
journey to Jerusalem, to attend the Feast 
of Tabernacles. In short, a large portion 
of the incidents and sayings which Luke 
alone has recorded, and which are to be 
found in his gospel, from chap. x. to xviii., 
is supposed to belong to this Perean minis- 
try, though no accurate discrimination or re- 
liable chronology concerning them is possi- 
ble. This ministry was at length interrupted 
by the message sent from the sisters of Laz- 
arus, that their brother, whom Jesus loved, 
was sick, and by the most remarkable and 
glorious miracle in the record of his won- 
drous life of mercy — the resurrection of Laz- 
arus from the dead.'^ This miracle, so far 
from diminishing, intensified the enmity of 
the Pharisees against Jesus, and he a second 
time retreated from the vicinity of Jerusa- 
lem to the village of Ephraim, where he de- 
voted the remaining hours which intervened 
before the Passover to instructing his own 
disciples, especially in the duty, or rather 
privilege, of prayer, the nature of which he 
illustrated by that sublime form which has 
ever since been known as the Lord's Prayer.^ 

The fourth Passover (a.d. 30) drew nigh ; 
to the amazement of his disciples, Jesus, now 
in his thirty-fourth year, prepared to attend 

1 See Perea.— 2 Eecorderl alone by John, chap. xi. 
—3 Matt, vi., 9-13 ; Luke xi., 1-13; xviii., 1-8. But 
the chronology, it must be coiifessed, is very uncer- 
tain. 



' it.^ The news of the resurrection of Laza- 
rus preceded him, and converted his journey 
into a triumphal procession. Crowds throng- 
I ed his path. His road lay through Jericho, 
j where he shocked the prejudices of the Phar- 
isees, but added to the enthusiasm of the 
people, by condescending to spend the night 
I with Zaccheus.^ There he healed two blind 
! men sitting by the road-side f endeavored, 
by the parable of the ten pounds,^ to check 
; the delusive enthusiasm of the people, who 
' expected to see the kingdom of God imme- 
diately ushered in ; rebuked the ambition of 
' James and John, who, with their mother, Sa- 
! lome, sought offices of state in the new the- 
ocracy f entered Jerusalem in triumph ; and 
! found the Temple, which he had purified 
three years before, desecrated by the presence 
of the cattle and the money-changers, whom 
i he therefore a second time expelled.^ That 
and the following days, Sunday and Mon- 
day, April 2d and 3d (a.d. 30), he spent in 
public instructions in the Temple, listened 
to by wondering and attentive audiences.'' 
The priests and Pharisees were filled with 
impotent rage. "The world is gone after 
him," is their own testimony to his popular- 
ity.* The popular enthusiasm was, howev- 
er, as fickle as it was false. It was based 
on an expectation that Jesus had come to 
restore the sceptre to Judah, and make Je- 
rusalem what Rome had hitherto been — the 
mistress of the world. On Tuesday, April 
4, Christ, in unmistakable language, disa- 
I bused the people of this idea. To this event- 
I ful day belong the teachings recorded in 
Matt, xxi.-xxv. ; Mark xi.-xiii. ; Luke xx.- 
, xxi. He began by declaring, under the guise 
I of a parable, that the Jewish nation would 
j reject the Son of God, and would be misera- 
bly destroyed ; that, so far from receiving 
universal dominion, they would reject the 
I stone which God had selected for the head 
' of the corner, and would be ground to pieces 
' by it. A brief but pungent controversy en- 
j sued, in which he silenced in turn the Hero- 
dians, the Sadducees, and the Pharisees ; and 
[ at the close of which he launched against 
the latter invectives which, for sublime but 
terrible eloquence, are without a parallel in 
the annals of history. Then withdrawing 
from the city he would fain have saved, and 
sitting with his twelve disciples upon the 
neighboring Mount of Olives, looking down 
upon the dome of the sacred Temple glow- 
ing in the light of the setting sun, he de- 
clared to his disciples the coming doom of 
Israel, and the far-off day, of which the de- 
struction of Jerusalem is but a symbol, when 
all nations and peoples will be called before 



1 Matt. XX., lT-19 ; Mark x., 32-34 ; Luke xviii., 31-34. 
—2 Luke alone narrates the incident of Zaccheus and 
the parable of the ten pounds. Luke xix., 1-2S.— 
3 Matt. XX., 29-34.-4 Luke xviii., 35-43. See Money. 
— Matt. XX., 20-28; Mark x., 35^5.— « See Temple. 
— '' Matt, xxi., 1-lG; Mark xi., 1-11, IS; Luke xix., 
29-44, 48 ; John xii., 12-19.-8 John xii., IS, 19. 



JESUS CHRIST 



509 



JESUS CHRIST 



God's judgment throne — the wise and fool- 
ish virgins, the faithful and unfaithful serv- 
ants, they that go away into everlasting 
punishment, and the righteous who are wel- 
comed into life eternal. Descending from 
the Mount of Olives, Jesus and his friends 
found a supper prepared for them at the 
house of Martha and Mary, the latter of 
whom anointed her Master's head with oint- 
ment, and poured the remainder upon his 
feet,^ 

Judas Iscariot, bitterly disappointed by 
Christ's revelation of his own death and of 
the destruction of the Jewish nation, which 
all the disciples had imagined the Messiah 
would ransom from bondage and clothe with 
power, i)rotested against the waste, and even 
succeeded in inspiring some of the others 
with his own infectious spirit, and, angered 
at Christ's rebuke, went straightway to the 
house of the chief priest, where he covenant- 
ed to betray his Master for thirty pieces of 
silver.^ Wednesday, April 5, Jesus did not 
return to the city ; and no opportunity for 
the consummation of the treachery occur- 
red till Thursday night, April 6. Jesus then 
went, by previous appointment, with his dis- 
ciples into the city, to celebrate the Passover, 
in connection with which he instituted the 
Lord's Supper. Of this incident,^ strangely 
enough, John gives no account, while of the 
teachings and of the prayer which accom- 
panied it he has preserved a very full report 
in chapters xiii., xiv., xv., xvi., xvii., of his 
gospel. 

From the supper -table Jesus withdrew 
to the Garden of Gethsemane,^ where, in an 
inexplicable struggle, he prepared for the 
terrible events of the ensuing day. There 
he was found by Judas, who, accompanied 
by a band of jjolice from the Temple,^ came 
out to secure him. Disdaining to flee ; for- 
bidding his disciples to offer any resistance ; 
healing the ear of Malchus, whom Peter 
wounded in an impetuous onslaught ; prov- 
ing, by the supernatural power before which 
the soldiers retreated and fell backward to 
the ground, that he surrendered himself whol- 
ly of his own free-will ; asking no favor for 
himself, but not forgetting to intercede for 
his disciples, that they might escape, he suf- 
fered himself, though not without a protest 
against the indignity, to be bound and led 
away to the palace of Ananias, and thence to 
that of Caiaphas. After a preliminary and 
informal examination, during which the de- 
nial of Peter took place, ^ the Sanhedrim were 
assembled just at day-break, and, after a tri- 



1 Matt, xxvi., 6-16; Mark xiv., 3-11 ; John xii., 1-8. 
In placing the supper here, for internal reasons, chiefly 
connected with the treachery of Judas, we differ from 
most authorities, who place it earlier by two or three 
days. See Anointing ; Judas. — ^ See Monet. — ^ Matt. 
xxvi., 17-35; Mark xiv., 12-31 ; Luke xxii., T-38. See 
Lord's Supper.— ^ Matt, xxvi., 36-56 ; Mark xiv., 32- 
54 ; Luke xxii., 1-15.— ^ See Temple-guard.— ^ Matt. 
xxvi., 69-75 ; Mark xiv., 66-72 ; Luke xxii., 54-62 ; John 
xviii., 13-18, 25-27. 



al^ in which the provisions of the Jewish 
code were disregarded without scruple, and 
in which no evidence could be secured ade- 
quate to justify even a partisan court in 
pronouncing a judgment of condemnation, 
Jesus was himself put upon oath, declared 
his divine character and mission, and was 
instantly condemned to death. A secret ses- 
sion of the Sanhedrim followed,'^ either to re- 
peat more formally the sentence or to con- 
sider how, since the Jews were under Ro- 
man law, it could be carried out. Judas 
Iscariot presented himself at this second ses- 
sion, gave back the money he had received, 
and demanded the right to testify to the in- 
nocence of Jesus, as under the Jewish law 
conld always be done. This right was, 
however, contemptuously overriden. Mean- 
while the rumor that Jesus had been arrest- 
ed and was upon trial for his life quickly 
spread throughout the city. A mob of Ju- 
deans gathered, which impatiently demand- 
ed the prisoner's death. He was carried 
from the Temple, where the Sanhedrim held 
its sessions, to the adjoining Tower of Anto- 
nia, which constituted the head-quarters of 
Pilate. The Roman procurator was reluc- 
tant to condemn. As the trial proceeded 
his reluctance increased. He endeavored by 
one compromise after another to avoid do- 
ing so, without coming into open opposition 
with the increasing mob.^ At length the 
threatening cry, " If thou let this man go, 
thou art not Caesar's friend," frightened him 
into complying with the demands of the 
priesthood. He ordered the cruel scourging 
to be inflicted. A crown of thorns and a 
robe of royal purple were put upon Jesus in 
derision of his claims, and, after one more 
ineffectual effort to appease the mob, Pilate 
assented to their demand, and Jesus was led 
away to suffer the most cruel death which 
human ingenuity had then invented — the 
barbarous crucifixion.* This was at about 
noon of Friday, April 7 (a.d. 30).^ The ago- 
ny of a heart burdened with the sin and 
shame of the whole world — far greater than 
the physical agony of the cross — hastened 
the death of the sufferer, already weakened 
by the night of watching in the garden and 
the loss of blood ; and when, a little after 
three o'clock in the afternoon,^ the soldiers 
came to inspect the bodies of the condemned 
and to insure the death of the thieves by 
breaking their legs, Jesus was already dead.'' 
His body was begged by Joseph of Arima- 
thea ; and as the shades of that momentous 
Friday evening gathered over the earth, his 
remains, carefully prepared according to the 



1 Matt. 57-68; Mark xiv., 53-65; Luke xxii., 63-71. 
John only describes the preliminary examination 
(xviii., 19-23) ; but he gives the fullest account of the 
proceedingbeforePilate.— 2Matt. xxvii.,1-10.— 3Matt. 
xxvii., 11-25 ; Mark xv., 1-15; Luke xxiii., 1-24; John 
xviii., 28 ; xix., 16.—* Matt, xxvii., 32-61 ; Mark xv., 
21-47; Luke xxiii., 26-56; John xix., 17-42.— & John 
xix., 14.-6 Mark xv., 33.—'' For a discussion of the 
physical cause of Christ's death, see Crucifixion. 



r 



JETHEO 



510 



JEW 



Jewish forms of burial, were laid in a new 
tomb wherein no man ever lay ; and the 
earthly life of Jesus of Nazareth was ended.^ 

The facts in respect to the resurrection 
of Jesus are considered under that title ; and 
detailed explanations of the circumstances 
attending the various incidents in his life — 
the Lord's Supper, the trials, the crucifixion, 
etc. — are to be found under their respective 
titles. It is but proper to add that many 
questions respecting the chronology of the 
life of Christ never have been, and probably 
never can be, definitely settled. No one of 
the gospels gives a connected biography. 
No one of them follows a chronological or- 
der. No one of them gives a single definite 
date. Even the years of Christ's birth and 
of his crucifixion are involved in uncertainty. 
The duration of his public ministry is also 
uncertain ; we think it to have lasted from 
April, A.D. 27, to April, a.d. 31 — to have in- 
cluded, in other words, four Passovers, at 
one of which Jesus was not in Jerusalem. 
In this sketch, condensed mainly from Ly- 
man Abbott's " Jesus of Nazareth," we have 
endeavored simply to outline the life of 
Christ as it appears from a careful compari- 
son of the different harmonies. The reader 
who desires to investigate the chronological 
questions for himself is referred to the larger 
Bible dictionaries, especially M'Clintock and 
Strong's " Cyclopaedia ;" and to Eobinson's 
" Harmony of the Gospels," and notes ; Clark's 
" Harmony of the Gospel," and notes ; Ab- 
bott's " Jesus of Nazareth ;" and Andrews's 
" Life of our Lord." 

Jethro (Ms excellence), the same as Jether, 
the name of the father-in-law of Moses — 
sometimes, but we think erroneously, identi- 
fied with Hobab (q. v.) He was a priest, or 
prince, of Midian, with whom Moses spent 
the forty years of his exile from Egj^t. Af- 
ter the passage of the Red Sea, Jethro visit- 
ed the Hebrew camp, bringing with him the 
family of Moses. He was most cordially re- 
ceived; joined in offering sacrifice to Jeho- 
vah ; wisely suggested to Moses the appoint- 
ment of deputies to judge the congregation 
and share the burden of government ; and, 
on account of his local knowledge, was en- 
treated to remain with the Israelites through- 
out the journey to Canaan ; which, howev- 
er, he declined to do. [Exod. ii., 18 ; iii., 1 ; 
iv., 18 ; xviii. ; Numb, x., 31, 32.] 

Jevr. This name properly belongs to a 
member of the kingdom of Judah after the 
separation of the ten tribes.^ After the re- 
turn from Babylon, owing partly to the pre- 
dominance of the members of the old king- 
dom of Judah among those who returned to 
Palestine, partly to the identification of Ju- 
dah with the religious ideas and hopes of 
the people, all the members of the new state 



1 Matt, xxvii., 57-66; Mark xv., 42-47; Luke xxiii., 
50-56; John xix., 38-42.-2 jer. xxxii., 12; xxxiv., 9; 
xxxviii., 19; xl., 12; xli.,3; xliv., 1; Iii., 28. 



were called Jews, and the name was extended 
to the remnants of the race scattered through 
the nations ;^ though in the N. T. it is fre- 
quently used, especially in the Gospel of 
John, to characterize the inhabitants of Ju- 
dea in contrast with those of Northern Pal- 
estine.^ The history of the Jews, in the 
larger sense of that term, may most easily 
be regarded as divided into four eras — L, 
from the organization of the Commonwealth 
under Moses to the establishment of the 
monarchy under Saul ; IL, from the estab- 
lishment of the monarchy under Saul to the 
Captivity under Zedekiah ; HI., from the 
Captivity under Zedekiah to the destruction 
of Jerusalem, a.d. 70 ; and, IV., from the de- 
struction of Jerusalem to the present time. 
In this article we x^ropose to sketch this his- 
tory in outline very briefly, referring the 
reader for fuller information respecting par- 
ticular eras to subordinate articles. 

I. The Commonwealth. — The history of the 
Jews properly begins with the account of 
their deliverance from bondage in Egy;^t, 
prior to which time, though they possessed 
the germs of a national organization in the 
division into tribes and families, they can 
not be said to have constituted a distinct 
nation. They had customs, but not laws ; 
religion, but not a Church. The remains of 
the ancient patriarchal institutions consti- 
tuted the only semblance of political organ- 
ization. Each household was an independ- 
ent community ; and the father — and on his 
death, the eldest son — was the sole priest. 
After the Exodus (q. v.) from Egypt, the peo- 
ple, crossing the Eed Sea and journeying 
down its eastern shore, assembled on an ex- 
tended plain in the midst of a wild and grand 
rocky fastness, well fitted to be the cradle 
of a free people,^ that they might receive 
from God the gift of national life and liber- 
ty. Of the laws which were there enacted 
for their government we speak more in de- 
tail elsewhere ;^ here it is enough to call at- 
tention, briefly, to the principles of political 
economy which underlaid the nation as it was 
organized by Moses, by the direction of God. 

Religion is the foundation of the state. 
This truth, which the failures, in ancient 
times, of the Grecian and Roman republics ; 
in modern times, of the French republics, 
have taught the world, was recognized by 
Moses in the very inception of the Jewish 
nation. The laws he promulgated were 
based upon the allegiance due to God,^ and 
embraced precepts of the purest morality and 
religion.^ The equality and liberty of the 
people were recognized as self-evident truths,^ 



1 Ezra i v., 12, 23; Neh, i.,2; ii.,16; v., 1 ; Esth. iii., 
4; Dan. iii., 8, 12.— 2 John v., 10, IS; vii., 13, 15, 35; 
ix., IS; X., 19, 81.— 3 See Sinai.—'* See under various 
titles, such as Alms; Divokck : Slavery: and "Laws 
of Moses," in Appendix.- ^ Exod. xx., 2, 3, 8, 10 ; Lev. 
XXV., 17, 23.— « Exod. XX., 3-17; xxi., 14-27; xxii., 21, 
22; Dent, x., 12; xi., 1,22; xxiv., 14; Lev. xix., 10— 
T Lev. xix., 15; xxiv., 22; Deut. L, 17; XYi.,19; x., 17. 



JEW 



511 



JEW 



as, three thousand years later, by the framers 
of the Declaration of American Independence, 
^Yho unconsciously borrowed their princi- 
ples from the Hebraic constitution. The 
government established was based upon the 
free suffrage of all the people ; the constitu- 
tion proposed for their government was sub- 
mitted to their vote; the Ten Command- 
ments were solemnly accepted as a law in 
mass meetiug ; and God himself was acknowl- 
edged as their supreme civil ruler by a solemn 
and public assent of the entire nation/ The 
government w^as not, however, that of a pure 
democracy : it was a representative repub- 
lic. Two constituent assemblies were or- 
gauized. The first was the Great Congre- 
gation. Ifc was the Jewish House of Eepre- 
sentatives, and reflected the popular will.^ 
The second, composed of seventy men, select- 
ed from the different tribes, constituted Mo- 
ses's chief counselors. It made treaties, tried 
capital offenses, and enforced the execution 
of the laws. It was Cabinet, Senate, and 
Supreme Court.^ A complete judicial sys- 
tem was also organized. The judges were 
elected by the people, but appear to have 
held their office for life, and constituted a ju- 
dicial order, embracing officers from a mag- 
istrate of purely local jurisdiction, like our 
Justice of the Peace, to the Council of Sev- 
enty — the Supreme Court of the nation.^ 
Local independence was preserved without 
sacrificing national unity and strength, by 
means similar to those employed in the or-, 
gauization of the United States of America. 
Moses recognized the tribal divisions, pro- 
vided for their local organization, allotted 
them independent territory, and recognized 
and maintaiued their right to elect their 
own local officers,^ thus assigning them pow- 
ers and duties analogous to those of the 
State. At the same time he fused them in 
one nation, instructed them in the truth that 
their God was one, provided one worship 
and ritual, and scattered through them all 
one priesthood, held together not less by the 
common ties of blood and ancestry than by 
those of a common order ; provided one chief 
magistrate ; and organized, as we have said, a 
Senate and House of Representatives, which 
included delegates from all the tribes.^ The 
truth that popular education is essential to 
the maintenance of freedom was also recog- 
nized. Parents were required to instruct 
their children in the laws and principles of 
the commonwealth ; a Levitical order was es- 
tablished, whose duty it was to educate the 
people upon great state occasions ; and a 
prophetic order was established (of which 
Moses was himself the first representative), 
who combined the functions of the modern 



press and those of the modern pulpit.^ Free- 
dom of speech was carefully guarded, and 
not even a false prophet could be ordinarily 
punished until the events which he had as- 
sumed to foretell, belying his predictions, 
had proved him an impostor.^ An estab- 
lished Church was organized, and a priest- 
hood constituted ; but guards were provided 
to prevent the ritual of the one from degen- 
erating into a form, w^hile the other was 
completely shorn of those ecclesiastical pow- 
ers which subsequent experience has proved 
to be dangerous for the liberties and moral 
welfare of mankind. Careful provisions were 
made against that which history proves to 
be the greatest danger to which a free peo- 
ple is ever subjected — the concentration of 
the land in the hands of a few; God was 
proclaimed the owner of the land, the peo- 
ple his tenants ; every man was made a land- 
holder ; and, lest in future ages this democ- 
racy of wealth should be destroyed, provis- 
ion was made that at the end of every half 
century the heirs might redeem the estates 
which their fathers had sold.^ At the same 
time the people w^ere taught that industry 
is the true basis of national glory. War 
was discouraged ; a militia served the pur- 
pose in other nations fulfilled by a standing 
army ; and cavalry, the chief arm of offen- 
sive warfare, was absolutely prohibited.* To 
guard against the corruptions which would 
inevitably creep in if the laws of the land 
were trusted to oral tradition, they were 
committed to w^riting, and these sacred writ- 
ings were deposited in the Ark of the Cove- 
nant, the most sacred spot in the tabernacle.^ 

Such, briefly outlined, are the salient fea- 
tures of the Hebrew commonwealth as framed 
and propounded by Moses, but under the in- 
spiration and guidance of God. Never was 
any nation more magnificently equipped 
with civil and religious institutions than 
were the ancient Hebrews. Never did any 
nation, by a history more terrible, illustrate 
how utterly insufficient are even divine in- 
stitutions to preserve a people not wise and 
virtuous to maintain and administer them. 

Under Joshua, the successor of Moses, the 
Jews concluded a successful campaign against 
the inhabitants of the land which they were 
about to colonize. Never completely suc- 
cessful in driving them out from the plains, 
they yet became complete masters of the hill 
country of Central Palestine. Then com- 
menced what has been well called the Mid- 
dle Ages of Jewish history. Forgetting that 



1 Exod. xix., 5, T, 8; xxiv., 3; Dent, i., 13-18.— 
2 Numb, xiv., 1-5, 10 ; 1 Kings viii., 1-5 ; 1 Chron. xiii., 
1_S._3 Numb, xi., 16, 17 : Josh, ix., 18-21 ; Jer. xxvi., 
10_lG.— * Exod. xviii. ; Numb, xi., 24 ; Deut. i., 13.— 
■s Numb. i. : Josh. xiii. ; xiv., 1-5.—® Exod. xxxiv., 23; 
Lev. iii. ; Numb, xxvii., 15-23. 



1 Exod. xiii., 14, 15 ; Deut. vi., 7 ; xxxi., 9-13 ; xxxiii., 

10 ; 2 Chrou. xvii., 8, 9 ; xxx., 22 ; xxxv., 3 ; Neh. viii., 

I 5-8. See Prophet.— 2 Deut. xviii., 21, 22. For illus- 

j trations of this freedom of speech iu actual exercise, 

see 2 Sam. xii., 1-T: 1 Kings xxi., 17-24; Jer. xxxviil. 

1—3 Lev. XXV., 10, 13, 23-28; Numb, xxxiii., 54.— 

j 4 Numb. i. ; xxvi., 2-4; Deut. viii., 9, 10; xvii., 16; 

XX., 1-9 ; Judg. v., 2.8. Observe that both king and 

prophet were taken from the farm more tlian once in 

subsequent history. 1 Sam. ix., 2, 3 ; xi.. 4, 5 ; xvi., 11, 

i 12; 1 Kings xix., 19; Amos i., 1.— ^ See BiiiLB. 



JEW 



512 



JEW 



God and tliat worship which constituted 
their national unity, when they were not en- 
gaged in a common conflict with a common 
foe, they were engaged in internal conflict 
among themselves. ''There was no king in 
Israel, hut every man did that which was 
right in his own eyes."^ A wild revenge, such 
as almost obliterated the tribe of Benjamin, 
took the place of careful and well-considered 
justice ; while many crimes, like that of the 
abduction of Micah's priest and property, 
went utterly unpunished.^ The history of 
this era, which extended from B.C. 1451 to B.C. 
1095, is told chiefly in the books of Joshua 
and Judges. To it belong the weird story of 
Jephthah with his terrible vow ; the strange 
story of Samson and his marvelous but mis- 
directed strength ; and the touching story 
of Ruth and her simple, earnest, and child- 
like devotion — an era of half- savage life, 
which, with an occasional gleam, such as 
that which the story of Ruth affords, is, for 
the most part, full of violence and cruelty 
and dark superstitions — an era whose hero- 
ine is a Jael and whose hero is a Samson. 
During this period pretty much all the laws 
of Moses fell into neglect, and his instruc- 
tions into oblivion. Here and there, as in 
the election of Jephthah,^ some trace of the 
old legislative bodies is to be seen, and the 
name and personality of Jehovah is not en- 
tirely forgotten ; but the divine character is 
strangely misunderstood, and the divine wor- 
ship is curiously intermingled, even by the 
priests and Levites themselves, with the cer- 
emonies of the false religions by which they 
are surrounded.* At length, weary of anar- 
chy, and disgusted with the avarice of Sam- 
uel's sons, whom his paternal partiality had 
appointed as judges in his stead, the people 
sought relief, not by returning to the half- 
forgotten faith and order of their fathers, but 
by conforming to the institutions of their 
neighbors. They demanded a king, overruled 
the expostulations of Samuel, disregarded 
his warnings, and so brought to an end the 
first era of their history by supplanting the 
half-ruined commonwealth with a monarchy 
which was to prove their utter ruin. 

II. The Monarchy. — Moses had perceived 
that the time would come when the degen- 
erate people would demand a king ; and he 
had established a system of checks and re- 
straints, in case royalty should be establish- 
ed.^ The first king, Saul, on assuming the 
crown, seems to have ratified, in a solemn 
and public manner, the laws of the com- 
monwealth.^ But his sudden elevation turn- 
ed his head. The modesty and humanity 
which characterized the opening of his reign^ 
was soon exchanged for a proud, assuming, 
and vindictive disposition. The energies 
which should have been spent in organiz- 



1 Judg. xvii., 6; xxi., 25.-2 Juclg. xviii. -xxi. — 
3 Juds. xi., 8, 10.— 4 Jndg. xvii.— & Dent, xvii., 14-20. 
—6 1 Sam. x., 24, 25.— '^ 1 Sam. x., 21, 22 ; xi., 13. 



ing his kingdom and defending it against 
external foes were misdirected to the pur- 
suit of David, who had already been pri- 
vately anointed to succeed him. His mel- 
ancholy death, followed by a brief division 
of the tribes and the short and insignificant 
reign of Ishbosheth over Northern Pales- 
tine, was soon succeeded by the establish- 
ment of the throne of David, who has been 
so justly celebrated for his religious experi- 
ence and his incomparable Psalms, that his 
military and civil genius has been, compara- 
tively, forgotten. He combined, in this re- 
spect, qualities seldom united in a single 
man. His firm and wise administration at 
home, and his vigorous prosecution of wars 
abroad, gave his kingdom comparative do- 
mestic peace, broken in upon only by the 
brief and tragical rebellion of his son Absa- 
lom (q. v.); while, at the same time, he or- 
ganized the government into departments, 
answering to those of modern times, and thus 
relaid the foundations of the future institu- 
tions of the Jewish people. He may proper- 
ly be regarded the founder of the monarchy, 
as Moses w^as of the commonwealth. To him 
is due the revival of the Jewish ritual on a 
scale of magniticence which Moses never im- 
agined, and the establishment of a service of 
praise conducted in a manner which modern 
ritualism has never surpassed, and with a 
collection of Psalms from which the modern 
Church draws her most inspiring lyrics.^ 
The nation thus organized under David out- 
rivaled, under his son Solomon, its neighbors 
in a false glory, which, like the magnificence 
of autumn leaves, only indicated approach- 
ing decay. The people submitted to the 
burdensome tribute imposed by the energetic 
though voluptuous king, but rebelled against 
his sou, who inherited his father's vices with- 
out possessing his virtues. The result of the 
rebellion was a division of the nation, and 
from this time the history of the Jews flows 
in a divided stream, as that of the kingdoms 
of Israel and Judah. 

Jeroboam, the king of Israel, a man of 
unbounded ambition and of unscrupulous 
wiles, introduced into his kingdom the sa- 
cred calves of Egypt, that he might more 
efiectually separate the Israelites from their 
neighbors the Judeans, who retained the 
Holy City, the Temple, and the Priesthood. 
Idolatry once thus introduced was never 
again banished from the land. From the 
sacred calves of Egypt to the sacrifices of 
Baal, the licentious rites of Astarte, and the 
infernal fires of Moloch, was but a step. 
Despite some vigorous but vain attempts at 
reformation, at first under Jehu, and subse- 
quently under Jeroboam II., the profligacy 
and corruption of the people steadily in- 
creased, until at length, after two hundred 
and fifty years of growing degeneracy, the 
kingdom came to an end under the reign of, 
1 See David ; Psalms. 



JEW 



513 



JEW 



Hosliea, the people were carried away cap- 
tive by the Assjaians, and tUeir country was 
repopulated by a colony from the land of 
their captors.^ The two remaining tribes, 
retaining the national capital and Temple, 
preserved their nationality under the name 
of Judah, but, changing their religion with 
the fluctuating opinions of their rulers, ere 
long outrivaled their sister Israel in corrup- 
tion.^ Occasional reforms, as those under 
Joash, Jotham, Hezekiah, and Josiah, gave 
a delusive promise of a permanent national 
life ; but the reform never outlived the mon- 
arch who introduced it. At length, after 
the successive reigns of four nominal mon- 
archs, but real vassals to neighboring na- 
tions, Judah fell under the avenging sword 
of Nebuchadnezzar; Jerusalem was besieged, 
captured, and given up to pillage and de- 
struction ; and the people were carried away 
captive to Babylon. The kingdom of Israel 
had lasted two hundred and fifty-four years, 
the kingdom of Judah three hundred and 
eighty-seven years, from the division of the 
tribes at the death of Solomon. 

The chronology of this period of history 
is ofteu involved in uncertainty. The sa- 
cred writers rarely, or never, give dates ; and 
it is certain that the references to periods of 
time which their narratives contain, as they 
appear in our English version, are not always 
accurate, since they are not always consist- 
ent. Whetlier these errors, which are not 
very numerous and not at all important, 
are to be attributed to the transcribers, or 
whether it is to be supposed that in the mat- 
ter of mere chronology the writers were left 
to ascertain the truth by such means as they 
had, is a question which will be differently 
settled by different readers, according to the 
theory of inspiration which they entertain. 
To this period belong most of the prophets 
whose sacred writings have been preserved 
to us. Their instructions were really scat- 
tered through the four centuries whose his- 
tory is contained chiefly in the books of 
Samuel, Kings, and Chronicles; but they 
have been gathered up in separate books at 
the close of our O. T. canon. The exact date 
of these prophets, also, is not always known. 
The reader is referred, for further informa- 
tion in respect to particular prophets and to 
particular kings, to the appropriate titles, 
and to a chronological table indicating the 
probable date of the reigns of the one and 
the principal prophecies of the other, which 
is appended, with some other tables, to this 
Dictionary. In this table we have not at- 
tempted to afford an accurate chronology of 
the ministry of the prophets, but only the 
reign during which that ministry is supposed 
to have commenced. 

III. From the Captivity to the Destruction of 
J&rusalem, B.C. 586- a.d. 70. — For seventy 
years the Jews remained in captivity. They 



1 See Samaria. — 2 j^r. iU., 2. 
33 



did not forget their native land, the religion 
of their fathers, nor their God. The subju- 
gation of Babylon by Cyrus, the Persian con- 
queror, resulted in their restoration to Pal- 
estine, the rebuilding of the Temple at Jeru- 
salem under Nehemiah, and the re-establish- 
ment of the Temple service under Ezra. To 
this period belong the books of Daniel, Ne- 
hemiah, Ezra, Esther, Haggai, Zechariah, and 
Malachi. The Captivity had only strength- 
ened the attachment of the Jews to their re- 
ligious faith, and intensified their patriotism. 
It had, indeed, converted the one into bigot- 
ry, the other into a national arrogance. The 
period of their return marks a revival of Ju- 
daism, but in a modified form. The proph- 
ets became scribes. The saints became Phar- 
isees. The court of seventy established by 
Moses was transformed from a free senate 
into the fanatical, yet subservient. Sanhe- 
drim. The Temple, whose services were 
necessarily interrupted during the seventy 
years' captivity, was supplemented by the 
Synagogues (q. v.) which the Jews brought 
back with them from the land of their bond- 
age. The king was superseded by the High- 
priest (q. v.), who became the civil ruler as 
well as the religious head of the liberated, 
but not free, nation.^ A few years later, Pal- 
estine, with all Asia Minor, became tributary 
to Alexander the Great. His gigantic, but 
unorganized, empire did not long survive him. 
It was divided at his death between his lead- 
ing generals ; and the last funeral rites were 
scarcely performed over his grave before a 
series of desolating wars for the supremacy 
broke out between them. Palestine, the 
natural highway between Egypt, Babylon, 
Syria, and Greece, became the perpetual 
battle-ground between these contending dy- 
nasties, and changed its rulers with every 
change of fortunes in an almost ceaseless 
war. At length the intolerable persecutions 
of Antiochus Epiphanes led to a war of in- 
dependence under the Maccabees. Success 
was achieved only to be followed by a war 
of factions, whose contests for political su- 
premacy were intensified by a relentless 
religious animosity between' Sadducee and 
Pharisee, until, finally, the victorious legions 
of Rome under Pompey seized upon Jerusa- 
lem, and Herod, misnamed The Great, was 
placed upon the throne of David by the 
power and decree of Rome. The last of the 
Jewish kings, his advent was signalized by 
the destruction of Judaism, both as a nation- 
ality and as a religion, and by the birth of 
Christ, and that system of grace and truth 
which came through him.^ 

IV. Modern Jews.— The history of the Jews 
from the death of Christ, or rather from the 
destruction of Jerusalem, which so soon fol- 



1 See Sanhedrim ; Synagogues ; Sapditcees ; Phae- 
1SEE8 ; Scribes.— 2 For account of the final destrnction 
of Jerusalem and the dispersion of the Jews, see ar- 
ticle Jerusalem. 



JEW 



514 



JEW 



lowed it, is one of exile and of persecution. 
The Cliurch of the Middle Ages appeared to 
think that it honored Christ hy despising 
and maltreating the Jews. Their history is 
one of the most pathetic which the world's 
drama affords; and the patient endurance 
with which they have adhered to their na- 
tional faith under all obloquy and suffering 
is sublime. Where they were not subjected 
to absolute persecution, threatening their 
property and their lives, they were placed 
under the most degrading and servile re- 
strictions. They could own no land, belong 
to no guild of mechanics, enter no universi- 
ty, engage in no form of art, employ no 
Christian service. They were shut up to 
trade, and then taunted with being a nation 
of traders. Eomanism can not rightfully be 
held alone responsible for this hideously un- 
christian treatment ; for even Luther i)ro- 
posed to burn their prayer-books, Talmuds, 
schools, synagogues, and houses ; lodge them 
in stables, like gypsies ; deny them the use 
of the public highways ; and compel them to 
manual labor. Some remains of this feeling 
still show themselves in social affronts and 
popular sarcasms; but the period of civil 
and religious persecution has passed away. 
They are protected in the enjoyment of full 
civil rights in the United States and in En- 
gland, and partially so in Germany, and even 
in Austria. In France Jewish rabbis are paid 
from the public treasury as the ministers of 
their religious denomination. Even in Spain 
religious fi-eedom is accorded to them ; and a 
magnificent synagogue is in process of erec- 
tion in the city of Madrid at the time of our 
writing. The Ghetto, in which, until a very 
recent period, all the Jews in Eome were 
compelled to reside, is abolished, although 
custom has still the effect of law, and it still 
continues to be the Jews' quarters, from 
choice, not from necessity. Of course, the 
destruction of the Temple has put an end to 
the Temple service, and to all the magnifi- 
cent ritualistic services which belonged to 
it. The religious services of the Jews are 
conducted in synagogues. Saturday is their 
Sabbath ; and it is observed with great strict- 
ness. The service is generally conducted in 
the Hebrew tongue, the ancient forms being 
observed in many of the synagogues. The 
O. T. (which of course constitutes their only 
Scriptures) is preserved in the ancient form, 
on scrolls of parchment, which are kept in 
an ark, or closet, placed usually at the east- 
ern end of the audience-room. In the exact 
middle of the synagogue is a somewhat spa- 
cious platform, raised four or five feet from 
the floor, which answers somewhat the pur- 
pose of a pulpit. The women are seated apart 
from the men, either in galleries or on the op- 
posite side of a central aisle ; but this distinc- 
tion of the sexes is already abolished in many 
Jewish congregations. Among the Orthodox 
congregations the service often degenerates 



into a meaningless ritual. The service is so 
long that it has to be hurried over with a 
rapidity which would seem, to the mind of a 
Protestant Christian, quite inconsistent with 
feelings of devotion, and which certainly is 
inconsistent with any thing like intelligent 
prayer. 

In doctrine the Jews are divided into two 
great parties — the Orthodox and the Radi- 
cals. Between them is a third party — the 
Conservative Jews. It is not possible to 
draw a definite line of division, since they 
are not organically distinct; and from the 
extreme Orthodox to the extreme Eadical 
there is a regular gradation of belief. The 
Orthodox Jew believes what his fathers be- 
lieved before him, and practices what his fa- 
thers practiced, with very little reference to 
the present state of society, and with very 
little independent consideration of the truth 
of his creed or the meaning of his ritual. 
He believes that the Messiah will yet come ; 
that all Israel will then be gathered togeth- 
er and conducted to the Holy Land, with 
the Redeemer as their king. He remembers 
that he is still an exile, and allows no organ 
in his synagogue and no sound of instru- 
ment in his house upon the Sabbath. He 
is strict not only to remember to keep that 
day holy for himself, but so to adjust his 
household as that his servants shall also 
find rest upon it. He maintains all the old 
distinctions of clean and unclean, and all 
the ancient ceremonies for ceremonial puri- 
fication, as far as his exile allows him so to 
do. The extreme Eadical, on the other hand, 
is a theist, if, indeed, he is not an atheist. 
He denies that any Messiah is to come ; if 
he does not disregard the prophecy altogeth- 
er, he explains that the Jewish nation is it- 
self the Messiah, and is reforming the world 
by gradually teaching the truth ; or asserts 
that "the Saviour's name is humanity and 
civilization." His synagogue approaches 
more nearly a Protestant church ; his rabbi 
a Protestant minister ; his family sits with 
him in his pew ; his church is furnished 
with organ and choir ; he is quite indiffer- 
ent whether he observes Saturday or Sun- 
day, so that he gets his day of rest. A con- 
vention of extreme Radicals was held in Cin- 
cinnati lately. It passed a series of resolu- 
tions which deny both miracles and prophe- 
cy ; reject all faith in sacrifice or a Messiah, 
or an expected return to the Holy Land; 
deny not only the necessity of an atonement, - 
but even the possibility of a divine forgive- 
ness ; and declare that the idea of a personal 
God is one which is peculiar to Christianity. 
The results of this Convention were indig- 
nantly repudiated by the Jewish press al- 
most without exception ; and they are quoted 
here only as an indication of the extreme re- 
sults which the ultra Radicals have reached. 
Between this infidelity, on the one hand, and 
the conservatism which does not suffer a line 



JEW (WANDERING) 



515 



JEZEBEL 



or letter of the ancient law to be modiiied, 
or a single observance of the ancient ritual 
to be changed, there is an almost infinite 
variety of practices and of beliefs which calls 
itself Judaism. In a word, the same dif- 
ferences which divided the ancient Jewish 
Church into Pharisees and Sadducees, and 
which divides the modern Protestant Church 
into orthodox and '' liberal Christians," ex- 
ists in the modern Jewish Church. For a 
history of the Jews between the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem and the present time, see 
M'Clintock and Strong's " Cyclopaedia," ar- 
ticle Jews; for a more detailed statement 
of the beliefs of the different parties in the 
present Church, see in same book, article 
Judaism. 

Jevr (Wandering), a popular legend which 
has been the subject of poems, prose-romances, 
and pictures. The subject of it is a Jew who, 
according to the story, refused to allow the 
Saviour a resting-place in his shop when on 
the way to crucifixion. He was for this rea- 
son condemned to traverse the earth, with- 
out possibility of stopping or resting, until 
the second coming of Christ. In his cease- 
less wanderings from that time he has in 
vain sought death amidst all the greatest 
dangers and calamities to which human life 
is subject. In some forms of the legend he is 
called Cartaphilus, a servant of Pilate ; and 
in others, Ahasuerus. He is represented to 
have been of the tribe of Naphtali, the son 
of a carpenter or shoe-maker, and only seven 
or eight years older than Jesus. 

Jezebel (probably chaste, and said to be 
the same as our word Isabel), wife of Ahab, 
king of Israel, and mother of Athaliah, queen 
of Judah, and Ahaziah and Joram, kings of 
Israel. She was a Phoenician princess, daugh- 
ter of "Ethbaal, king of the Zidonians." 
Her marriage with Ahab was a turning-point 
in the history of Israel. She was a woman 
in whom, with the reckless and licentious 
habits of an Oriental queen, were united the 
sternest and fiercest qualities inherent in the 
Phoenician people. The royal family of Tyre 
was remarkable at that time both for its re- 
ligious fanaticism and its savage temper. 
Her father, Ethbaal, united with his royal 
office the priesthood of the goddess Astarte, 
and had come to the throne by the mur- 
der of his predecessor, Phelles. In Jezebel's 
hands her husband became a mere puppet.^ 
Even after his death, through the reigns of 
his sons, her influence was the evil genius 
of the dynasty. Through the marriage of 
her daughter Athaliah with the King of Ju- 
dah, it extended even to the rival kingdom. 
The wild license of her life, the magical fas- 
cination of her arts or of her character, be- 
came a proverb in the nation.^ Long after- 
ward her name lived as the by-word for all 
that was execrable ; and in the Apocalypse 
it is given to a Church, or an individual, in 



1 1 Kings xsi., 25.-2 2 Kings ix. 



22. 



Asia Minor, combining in like manner fa- 
naticism and profligacy.^ 

The first effect of her influence was the 
immediate establishment of the Phoenician 
worship on a grand scale in the court of 
Ahab. At her table were supported no less 
than four hundred and fifty prophets of Baal, 
and four hundred of Astarte.^ The prophets 
of Jehovah, -who up to this time had found 
their chief refuge in the northern kingdom, 
were attacked by her orders and put to the 
sword.^ When, at last, the people, at the 
instigation of Elijah, rose against her min- 
isters, and slaughtered them at the foot of 
Carmel, and when Ahab was terrified into 
submission, she alone retained her evil cour- 
age, and at her threatening message Elijah, 
who had encountered the wrath of the king 
and the whole force of the prophets of Baal, 
fled for his life beyond the limits of Israel. 
The story of Naboth is not less character- 
istic of her unscrupulous audacity. She 
played the part of Lady Macbeth to her 
coward king ; wrote the warrant in Ahab's 
name ; sealed it with his seal ; and received 
from the tools of the court the announce- 
ment of her victims' death. She survived 
her husband fourteen years, and retained 
under the successive reigns of her sons Aha- 
ziah and Jehoram the control she possessed 
^^nder their weak and wicked father. When 
the hour of vengeance came, and Jehu ap- 
proached the palace of Jezreel fresh from 
the murder of her son, she faced the inevi- 
table death as boldly as she had played the 
game of life. She painted her face in Ori- 
ental fashion, and dressed her head ; and so 
attired, to meet her death in royal fashion, 
looked from her latticed window to greet 
the avenger of her sins with no plea for 
mercy, but with a defiant reminder of the 
fate which had overtaken the murderer of 
Baasha: "Had Zimri peace, who slew his 
master ?" The two eunuchs at her side, in 
true courtier fashion, were ready to exchange 
their allegiance, on a moment's notice, from 
the past to the future dynasty. At Jehu's 
command they dashed her down from the 
chamber window. The horses trampled her 
under their feet. Her blood was spattered 
on them, and on the palace walls. The 
avenging Jehu entered the palace to eat and 
drink after his fierce carnival of blood. But 
the excitement over, some feeling of contri- 
tion came over him. She was at least a 
king's daughter,cur8ed woman that she was, 
and, for royalty's sake, should have a decent 
burial. He sent out to have her buried. 
The attendants brought back the ghastly 
intelligence that nothing of her was left 
but the skull, the feet, and the palms of 
hands; the fierce and hungry dogs that 
infest the cities of the East had pounced 
upon the body and devoured every other 



1 Rev. ii., 20.— 2 1 Kings xvi., 31, 32 ; xviii., 19. 
3 1 Kings xviii., 13 ; 2 Kings ix., 7. 



JEZEEEL 



516 



JOAB 



part. And the sobered Jehu remembered 
the word of Elijah, and quoted it solemnly 
to his awe-stricken servants: "In the por- 
tion of Jezreel shall dogs eat the flesh of Jez- 
ebel ; and the carcass of Jezebel shall be as 
dung upon the face of the field in the por- 
tion of Jezreel ; so that they shall not say, 
This is Jezebel." So perished the worst wom- 
an of sacred history — the Catherine de Me- 
dicis of the Hebrew nation. 

Jezreel (God has planted), a border-city of 
Issachar, at the opening of the central arm 
which branches out of the plain of Esdrae- 
lon and runs east and south-east toward the 
Jordan. Its chief importance arises from 
its having been the royal residence during 
the reigns of Ahab, Ahaziah, and Jehoram, 
though Samaria seems still to have been the 
capital of the country. The palace of Ahab 
seems to have been on the eastern side of the 
city, looking down the valley toward the 




Map of the Valley of Jezreel. 

Jordan, and probably contained the "ivory 
house." Whether the vineyard of Naboth 
was here or at Samaria is a doubtful ques- 
tion. In the neighborhood — probably with- 
in the town — were a temple and grove of 
Astarte, with an establishment of four hun- 
dred priests, supported by Jezebel. The 
true site of the city of Jezreel was known 
to the Crusaders, but has since been lost 
sight of and confused with Jenin, the an- 
cient Engaimim. It has been clearly iden- 
tified by Dr. Robinson with the modern vil- 
lage of Zerin, which lies at the base of Gil- 
boa, ten miles south by east of Nazareth. 
The modern village contains about twenty 
houses and a square tower, which may be 
seen from a great distance, and its immedi- 
ate neighborhood has still a park-like ap- 
pearance. Seated upon a hill, it commands 
a wide and noble view extending down the 
broad, low valley on the east to Beisan and 
to the mountains beyond the Jordan ; while 
toward the west it includes the whole great 
plain quite to the loug ridge of Carmel. It 



is a most magnificent site for a city, which, 
being thus a conspicuous object in every 
part, would naturally give its name to the 
whole region. About a mile east of Zerin, 
on the northern base of Mount Gilboa, is still 
to be seen a very large fountain, which there 
is every reason to regard as the ancient 
fountain of Jezreel. By this fountain the 
army of Israel pitched before the fatal battle 
of Gilboa. [Josh, xix., 18 ; 1 Kings xvi., 33 ; 
xviii., 46 ; xxi., 1 ; xxii., 10, 39 ; 2 Kings ix., 
15, 17, 25, 30, 33 ; x., 11 ; 1 Sam. xxix., 1.] 

Joab (ivJiose father is Jehovah), the eldest 
and most remarkable of the three nephews 
of David, viz., Joab, Abishai, and Asahel, the 
children of Zeruiah, David's sister. Their fa- 
ther is unknown, but seems to have resided 
at Bethlehem, and to have died before his 
sons.^ They all exhibit the activity and 
courage of David's constitutional character. 
But they never rise beyond this to the no- 
ble qualities which lift him 
above the wild soldiers and 
chieftains of the time. Joab 
first appears, after David's ac- 
cession to the throne, at He- 
bron, going out at the head 
of David's guards, to keep a 
watch on the movements of 
Abner, Ishbosheth's command- 
er-in-chief, who with a consid- 
erable force of Benjamites had 
crossed the Jordan and come as 
far as Gibeon. The two parties 
sat opposite each other, on each 
I side of the tank by that city. 
Abner's challenge, to which 
Joab assented, led to a desper- 
ate struggle between twelve 
champions from either side.^ 
The left-handed Benjamites, and 
the right-handed men of Judah 
— their sword hands thus coming together 
— seized each his adversary by the head, 
and the whole number fell by the mutual 
wounds they received. In the battle which 
followed, between the followers of David 
and those of Saul's family, Abner and his 
company were defeated; nor was Joab's 
pursuit of the fleeing Israelites checked till 
the setting sun. The Israelites lost three 
hundred and sixty men, Joab's army but 
twenty, one of whom, however, was Joab's 
brother, the fleet-footed and youthful fa- 
vorite, Asahel. Joab never forgot nor for- 
gave Abner for his brother's death, and, two 
years later, avenged it by the treacherous 
assassination of the great captain by the 
gate of Hebron.^ This assassination, insti- 
gated not less by ambition than revenge, left 
the way clear for Joab's advancement ; and 
by his gallantry at the siege of Jebus, after- 
ward Jerusalem, he earned the office award- 
ed to him, of captain of the host, the same 

1 2 Sam. ii., 32.-2 gee Gibeon.— 3 See Asahel; Ab- 



JOAB 



517 



JOASH 



office that Abner had held under Saul, the 
highest in the State, after the king. Abish- 
ai, his brother, still accompanied him, as cap- 
tain of the king's '' mighty men."^ He had 
a chief armor -bearer of his own, Nahari, a 
Beerothite,^ and ten attendants to carry his 
equipment and baggage.^ He had the charge, 
formerly belonging to the king or judge, of 
giving the signal by trumpet for advance or 
retreat." He was called by the almost regal 
title of lord," and " the prince of the king's 
army."^ His usual residence (except when 
campaigning) was in Jerusalem ; but he had 
a house and property, Avith barley-fields ad- 
joining, in the country, in the " wilderness," , 
probably on the north-east of Jerusalem, 
near an ancient sanctuary called, from its 
nomadic village, " Baal-hazor,"^ where there 
were extensive sheep-walks. The accounts ; 
of his campaigns against Ammon and Edom 
are recorded in 2 Sam. x. ; xi. ; xii. ; and in 
1 Kings xi., 14-22. There is, perhaps, no 
better witness to the terror of his name than 
the fact that it was not till the fugitive 
prince of Edom in the Egyptian court heard 
that '' David slept with his fathers, and that 
Joab, the captain of the host, was dead," 
that he ventured to return to his own coun- 
try^ — no better illustration of his gallant 
loyalty than the fact that at the siege of 
Eabbah (q. v.), after capturing the lower 
city, he sent to David to come and take the 
citadel, lest the glory of its capture should 
pass from the king to his general® — and no 
better exemplification of the kind of confi- 
dence the king reposed in his bloody cap- 
tain, and the kind of influence the captain 
had over his king, than in the two facts 
that it was to Joab David sent to have Uri- 
ah treacherously slain ; and that Joab put 
the parable into the mouth of the woman of 
Tekoah, that he might reconcile the mourn- 
ing king to his son Absalom, and finally, by 
his personal influence, perfected that rec- 
onciliation.^ When Absalom's revolt broke 
out Joab adhered to the fortunes of the de- 
throned king ; despite the royal command, 
slew the rebel prince when no one else had 
the courage to do so ; and, after the victory, 
aroused David from the stupor of grief into 
which the death of his rebellious son had 
thrown him.^° Not even Joab's victory was 
sufficient, however, to counterbalance in Da- 
vid's eyes the slaying of his son Absalom ; 
and the office which the great captain had 
filled so successfully was taken from him 
and given to Amasa, who had even sided 
with the insurgents. .Joab was not a man 
to suffer any one to stand between him and 
the gratification of his own ambition ; and 

1 2 Sam. X., 10 ; 1 Chron. xi., 20.— 2 2 Sam. xxiii., 37 ; 
1 Chron. xi., 39.-3 2 Sara, xviii., 15.—* 2 Sam. xviii., 
16.-5 2 Sam. xi., 11 ; 1 Chron. xxvii., .34.-6 2 Sam. 
xiv., 30; 1 Kings ii., 34 ; comp. Josh, xiii., 15, 20; 1 
Sam. xiii., 18; 2 Sam. xiii., 23; xiv., 30. — M Kings 
xi., 21, 22.-8 2 Sam, xii., 26-28.-9 2 Sam. xi., 14-25; 
xiv.— 10 2 Sam. xviii., 2, 5, 9-17 ; xix., 1-8. 



he who had assassinated his rival, Abner, did 
not stop at the assassination of his second 
cousin. He met him while they were both 
pursuing the remnants of Absalom's army, 
offered him the kiss and embrace — the usu- 
al salutation of the East — and in the act 
dispatched him with one blow of his short 
sword ; and leaving him to welter in his own 
blood, re-assumed the command which David 
had taken from him, and pressed on with 
the pursuit, which he did not give over till 
the head of Sheba was thrown to him from 
the walls of Abel of Beth-maachah — the 
last trophy of that bitter rebellion.^ The 
horror of that day, and of Joab's appearance, 
covered over wdth the blood which had 
spurted from the body of his foe, was long 
remembered in Israel.^ Man of war that 
David was, he had the true hero's detestation 
of assassination, as is evident not only from 
his refusal to take the life of the implacable 
Saul, but by his punishment of the murderer 
of Saul and Ishbosheth. It must be counted 
one of the weaknesses of his administration 
that he left the crime unpunished, though 
not forgiven. Among his last charges to 
Solomon was one not to forget the murderer 
of Abner and Amasa. Joab possibly realized 
that he had but little hope of preferment 
under Solomon. He joined his fortunes with 
those of Adonijah. When the tidings of 
Adonijah's death were brought to him he 
lost heart, fled up the steep ascent of Gib- 
eon, and clung to the ancient brazen altar 
which stood in front of the Sacred Tent. To 
Solomon justice was more sacred than the 
altar; and the white-headed warrior^ of a 
hundred fights, with his hands still clasping 
the consecrated structure, was slaughtered 
by his ancient companion and successor in 
office, Benaiah. His body was buried in fu- 
neral state at his own property, in the hills 
overhanging the Jordan Valley." He left 
descendants ; but nothing is known of them. 
Joash ( God-given). 1. A contraction of Je- 
hoash, son of Ahaziah, and eighth king of Ju- 
dah. He began his reign at the age of sev- 
en, and reigned forty years, B.C. 878-839. In 
the general massacre of the i)rinces by Ath- 
aliah (q. v.) one boy, still a babe in arms, 
was rescued by his aunt Jehosheba,^ wife of 
the high-priest Jehoiada. For six years he 
was concealed in the Temple, while Athaliah 
reigned over the land.'' At length measures 
were concerted by Jehoiada for placing Jo- 
ash, who Avas known a^ the "king's son," 
upon the throne of his fathers.'' The revo- 
lution was successful ; Athaliah was put to 
death, and the little prince was anointed 
with the sacred oil and proclaimed king 
amidst the rejoicings of the assembled mul- 
titude.® The early part of the reign of Jo- 

1 2 Sam. XX.— 2 1 Kings ii., 5.— ^ 1 Kings ii., 6.— 
* 1 Kings ii.— 5 2 Kings xi., 1; 2 Chron. xxii., 10.— 
« 2 Chron. xxii., 12.—'' 2 Kings xi., 12 ; 2 Chron. xxiii., 
3, 11.— 8 See Jehoiada, for an account of this revolu- 
tion. 



JOB 



518 



JOB 



ash, under the influence of the wise and 
faithful Jehoiada, was prosperous ; hut after 
the death of that high-priest the king listen- 
ed to evil counselors, and revived idol wor- 
ship.^ This return to idolatry drew forth 
severe denunciations from Zechariah, who 
had succeeded Jehoiada as high-priest. At 
the exi)ress command of the king, the faith- 
ful priest was stoned to death in the very 
court of the Lord's house.'^ The vengeance 
imprecated by the martyred priest was not 
long delayed. A Syrian host under Hazael 
made an incursion into Judea, and Joash 
himself, suffering under a painful malady, 
was slain by his own servants. The cloud 
under which he died followed him to the 
tomb ; for while he was buried in the City 
of David, it was not in the sepulchres of the 
kings of Judah. His son Amaziah succeed- 
ed to the throne. [2 Kings xi. ; xii. ; 2 Chron. 
xxii., 10-12 ; xxiii. ; xxiv.] 

2. The twelfth king of Israel, the son and 
successor of Jehoahaz, who reigned about 
sixteen years, B.C. 840-825. He was for a 
short time contemporary with Joash, king of 
Judah. At the time of his ascension to the 
throne the kingdom of Israel was in a very 
reduced state, in consequence of the ravages 
of Hazael, king of Syria. Joash proved 
himself to be a person of military ability, 
by reclaiming the cities which his father 
had lost.^ Though it is stated that he " did 
evil in the sight of the Lord,"* yet the fact 
that he regarded the prophet Elisha with 
great respect, looking upon him as a father, 
indicated some good disposition in his char- 
acter. During the last illness of Elisha, Jo- 
ash visited him, and received a promise of 
victory over the Syrians, which was accom- 
plished after the prophet's death. Joash 
seems to have died in peace, and was buried 
in Samaria, in the sepulchre of his fathers. 
His son Jeroboam II. succeeded him. [2 
Kings xiii., 1-20 ; 2 Chron. xxv., 17-24.] 

Job (one persecuted), an eminent patriarch 
who resided in the land of Uz. The story 
of his life is contained in that book of the 
Bible which bears his name. It is not nec- 
essary to repeat that story here. Leaving 
the reader to find in the book itself the very 
simx)le, though eventful, biography, we shall 
consider briefly some questions which have 
been raised and discussed concerning both 
the book and the man. 

I. Character of the Boole. — Three opinions 
concerning the chaji-acter of the story have 
been entertained by scholars. One, that it 
is a literal history ; another, that it is a pure- 
ly fictitious poem — a parable, whose value 
does not depend upon any historical accu- 
racy ; a third, that it is a dramatic poem, 
founded upon some historical event which 
the author has treated, however, with a 



1 2 Chron. xxiv., 17, IS.— 2 2 Chron. xxiv., 21 ; Matt, 
xxiii., 35. See Zechariah. — ^ 2 Kinnjs xiii., 25; 2 
Chron. xxv., 17-28. See Amaziah.—'* 2 Kin^s xiii., 11. 



poet's freedom. The latter view, which is 
the one now most generally accepted by 
Christian scholars, was first suggested by 
Luther, who says of it, "I look upon the 
Book of Job as a true history, yet I do not 
believe that all took place just as it is writ- 
ten, but that an ingenious, pious, and learned 
man brought it into its present form." Sev- 
eral circumstances conspire to strengthen the 
opinion that it has a historical basis. The 
references to Job by subsequent insx)ired 
writers^ are not consistent with the theory 
that he was a purely imaginary character. 
Moreover, the extreme circumstantiality of 
the details ; the description of the patriarch 
himself, his family, his property, his country, 
his friends, with their names and special 
designations; the genealogy of Elihu; the 
exact account of the feasting of Job's sons ; 
the particular mention of the plunderers — 
these and other similar points mark a his- 
tory rather than a parable. No such minute 
details are found in any Scripture parable. 
It seems, therefore, a necessary inference 
that these details are not the play of fancy, 
but all historically true. On the other hand, 
the poetic style of the book, which is even 
more apparent in the original than in our 
English version; the long, elaborate, and 
carefully constructed speeches of Job and 
his friends; the magnificent imagery with 
which their thoughts are clothed — the lan- 
guage of poetry rather than of common life ; 
the dramatic cast of the narrative, in which 
disaster follows disaster with an almost in- 
credible rapidity;^ the poetic recompense 
which, at the close of the narrative, gives 
Job just the same number of sons and daugh- 
ters which he had at the beginning, and ex- 
actly double the number of cattle ; the pic- 
ture of Jehovah holding court on certain 
state occasions, and receiving communica- 
tions from evil as well as good angels — all 
combine to indicate unmistakably that there 
is a poetic or imaginative element interwo- 
ven with the historical. Various attempts 
have been made to determine what is history 
and what poetry, but without success. It 
is not important that this should be done. 
The real religious value of the book depends 
far less upon the determination of this and 
the next question than upon the proper in- 
terpretation and application of its great les- 
son. 

II. Date, Place, and Authorship. — These are 
involved in the greatest uncertainty. Job, 
Elihu, Moses, Solomon, Isaiah, Ezekiel, and 
Ezra, have each been suggested as its au- 
thor ; and one sage, minutely informed of 
every particular, gives us his exact residence 
— "in the south of Judea, near a caravan 
road." Even the nationality of the author 
is uncertain. Critics variously suggest an 
Egyptian, a Nahorite, an Idumean, and a 
Hebrew who lived in Idumea. The date of 



Ezra xix., 14-20 ; Jas. v., 11.— 2 Job i., 13-19. 



JOB 



519 



JOEL 



the Ibook is eqnallY uncertain, some scholars 
regarding it as written before the days of 
Abraham, while others place the time as 
even later than the Captivity. There is no 
clear evidence which throws any light upon 
these questions except such as is contained 
in the book itself. While they must be re- 
garded as among the unsolved problems of 
Biblical criticism, we think, for reasons some 
of which will appear hereafter, that the bet- 
ter opinion fixes the date of Job's life as to- 
ward the close of the patriarchal age, and 
certainly prior to the time of Moses, and re- 
gards the scene of the story as laid in patri- 
archal times, and in the vicinity, but prob- 
ably not within the bounds, of Palestine. 
This question, like the former, though un- 
certain, is important only as it bears upon : 

III. The Interpreiaiion of tlie ^oofc.— There 
is, perhaps, no book, the explanation of which 
has given rise to greater discussions and dif- 
ferences of opinion. This is undoubtedly 
partly due to the fact that it is a book of 
poetry, and should be interpreted by poetic- 
al rather than by theological canons ; but 
the style is often very obscure, the meaning 
of the writer uncertain, the problems dis- 
cussed among the gravest and most insolu- 
ble which ever perplex the human soul ; and 
the lesson of the book is partly conveyed by 
the very mystery and obscurity which en- 
shrouds it. It has been regarded as a di- 
vinely-given record of a historical example 
of patience; as a divine rebuke of that pre- 
sumption which expects by searching to find 
out the Almighty to perfection ; as a discus- 
sion of the much-vexed "problem of evil," 
for the very purpose of exhibiting its insolu- 
ble character ; and as a simple but powerful 
exhibition of the possibility and reality of 
unselfish and disinterested piety. All these 
lessons are incidentally taught. But a more 
important lesson seems to us to constitute 
the foundation of the poem ; and to that we 
briefly advert, referring the reader for a full- 
er interpretation to an admirable paper, by 
Eev. George B. Bacon, in the New Englander 
for October, 1862, entitled " The Gospel ac- 
cording to Job." 

We assume that Job lived in the dim twi- 
light of the world's history ; that even if 
his life were later than that of Moses, he was 
certainly ignorant of the revelation made to 
him ; and that he was a stranger to the 
promise made to Abraham. There is no ref- 
erence to law or prophet, or dream or vision. 
There is nothing to indicate that Job had 
ever received any clear revelation of the di- 
vine character and will. His religion is that 
of nature — that which a devout and godly 
mind derives from the external world and 
his own consciousness. From these sources 
he had derived his faith in a just and good 
God, who, he believed, would reward with 
length of days, riches, and honor, those who 
trusted in him, and punish with adversity 



and disaster those who were disobedient and 
rebellious. The whole tenor of his i^rosper- 
ous life had confirmed his faith. Suddenly, 
in a single day, he is cast down. Disaster af- 
ter disaster falls upon him. Yesterday the 
kingliest of all the patriarchs, to-day he is 
a childless and unhappy man, almost an out- 
cast, nothing left to him but life, which it 
would be a mercy to take away. The dis- 
tress and anguish which ensues is not mere- 
ly that of one who has suffered temporal re- 
verses, but that of a devout soul, the very 
foundations of whose religious faith have 
been shaken. Sorrow works its bitterest fruit 
in him — skepticism. He will not relinquish 
his belief in a just and good God, yet he can 
not reconcile it with the experiences which 
have befallen him ; and the attempt of his 
friends to throw light upon his perplexity 
only intensifies it. He cries out for a " days- 
man" — i. e., a mediator — for a clear and def- 
inite revelation from the God who seems to 
him as a foe — a disclosure of the unseen, un- 
known God^ — in short, for all that blessed 
revelation which has been made in the Gos- 
pel of Jesus Christ, and upon which rests 
the faith of the Christian, who is able to 
glory also in tribulations. In other words, 
while the Book of Job incidentally teaches 
the other lessons referred to above, its grand 
lesson is this — that the boasted light of na- 
ture is an inadequate guide in hours of dark- 
ness, that a Christless religion gives no song 
in the night, and that the most devout and 
godly man, left with no other revelation than 
that which nature and his own soul afford 
him, gropes blindly, but with an agonizing 
earnestness, for just that which the Cross of 
Christ affords. 

Joel (icliose God is Jehovah). There is no 
further knowledge of this prophet than what 
is furnished by the title of his book, or may 
be gathered from circumstances incidentally 
mentioned in it. That he lived in Judah, 
and in all probability at Jerusalem, may be 
inferred from his not making the most dis- 
tant reference to the kingdom of Israel ; 
while, on the other hand, he speaks of Jeru- 
salem, the Temple, priests, and ceremonies 
with a familiarity which proves them to 
been before his eyes.^ Opinions have dif- 
fered in respect to the age in which he flour- 
ished. The most probable hypothesis is that 
his predictions were delivered in the early 
days f of Joash, B.C. 870-865. No reference 
being made to the Babylonian, the Assyrian, 
or even the Syrian invasion, and the only 
enemies of whom mention is made being the 
Phoenicians, Philistines, Edomites, and Egyp- 
tians, it seems evident that Joel was unac- 
quainted with any but the latter. Had he 
lived after the death of Joash, he could 
scarcely have omitted to notice the Syrians, 
when speaking of hostile powers, since they 



1 Job vii., 21; ix., 33; xiii., 24; xxiii., 3; xxxi., 85. 
—2 Joel i., 9 ; ii., 1, 1&-1T ; iiL, 20, 21. 



JOHANAN 



520 



JOHN 



not only invaded the land, but took Jerusa- 
lem, destroyed the princes, and carried away 
immense spoil to Damascus/ The state of 
religious affairs as presented in the hook 
is altogether in favor of this position. No 
mention is made of idolatrous practices ; the 
priests and people are represented as occu- 
pied with the services of religion ; and Je- 
rusalem, the Temple, and its worship appear 
in a flourishing condition. This was pre- 
cisely the state of things during the high- 
priesthood of Jehoiada, through whose influ- 
ence Joash had been placed upon the throne.^ 
It will follow that Joel is the oldest of all 
the Hebrew prophets whose written predic- 
tions have come down to us. 

The delivery of his prophecy was occa- 
sioned by the devastations produced by suc- 
cessive swarms of locusts, and by an excess- 
ive drought which pervaded the country, 
and threatened the inhabitants with utter 
destruction. This calamity, however, was 
merely symbolical of another and a more 
dreadful scourge — the invasion of the land 
by foreign enemies, on which the prophet 
expatiates in the second chapter. In order 
that such calamity might be removed, he is 
commissioned to order a universal fast, to an- 
nounce, as consequent upon repentance and 
humiliation, a period of great temporal pros- 
perity, to predict the effusion of the Holy 
Spirit at a future period of the history of his 
people, to denounce judgments against their 
enemies, and to foretell their restoration from 
the final dispersion. 

In point of style, Joel stands pre-eminent 
among the Hebrew, prophets. He not only 
possesses a singular degree of purity, but is 
distinguished by his smoothness and fluency 
— the animated and rapid character of his 
rhythm — the perfect regularity of his paral- 
lelisms — and the degree of roundness he gives 
to his sentences. He has no abrupt transi- 
tions, is everywhere connected, and finishes 
whatever he takes up. In description he is 
graphic and perspicuous; in arrangement, 
lucid; in imagery, original, copious, and va- 
ried. He most resembles Amos in regularity, 
Nahum in animation, and in both respects 
Habakkuk ; but is surpassed by none of them. 

Johanan {whom Jehovah bestows), one of 
the captains who after the taking of Jeru- 
salem joined Gedaliah, the governor Nebu- 
chadnezzar had appointed. He warned that 
officer of the treacherous designs of Ishmael ; 
but his warning was slighted, and Gedaliah 
was murdered. He pursued the assassins, 
rescued those they had taken prisoners ; but, 
fearing the anger of the Babylonish king, he 
with the rest went into Egypt, in spite of 
the divine prohibition conveyed to them by 
Jeremiah. We have no further account of 
him. [2 Kings xxv., 23-26 ; Jer. xl., 7-16 ; 
xli. ; xlii. ; xliii.] 



1 2 Chron. xxiv., 23, 24.-2 2 Kings xi., IT, 18 ; xiL, 
2-16 ; 2 Chrou. xxiv., 4-14. 



John. 1. The forerunner of the Messiah, 
usually denominated the Baptist — more prop- 
erly, the bai:)tizer.^ His birth, like that of 
Jesus, whose second cousin he was, was pre- 
ceded by singular and supernatural indi- 
cations of his future character and mission. 
He was consecrated from his infancy to the 
life of a Nazarite,^ the hermit of ancient Ju- 
daism. Both his parents belonged to the 
priestly order, but shared not the priestly 
vices.^ He probably received from them an 
education for the priesthood. In this case 
he was taught the ancient Hebrew, and was 
thoroughly instructed in all the details of 
the Jewish ceremonial law; but he never 
performed priestly functions : at an early 
age, disgusted with the political and relig- 
ious degeneracy of his times, he withdrew 
from Judea into the wilderness beyond Jor- 
dan. Here he lived a solitary life of prayer, 
of study of the Scripture, and of self-denial.* 
From this seclusion he at length issued, a 
little before the commencement of Christ's 
public ministry, first, to preach the duty of 
repentance, and then to point the expectant 
people to the Messiah whom God revealed to 
him. His very appearance compelled atten- 
tion. He wore a simple dress, a garment of 
camel's hair — not the camel's skin with the 
hair on, which would be too heavy to wear, 
but raiment woven of camel's hair. It was 
gathered about his loins with a leathern gir- 
dle. His food was as simple as his dress, 
and, like it, marked the ascetic. He neither 
ate bread nor drank wine, but lived on lo- 
custs and wild honey. His preaching was 
as singular as his dress. In the commence- 
ment of his ministry he startled the people 
by the boldness of his denunciations ; was 
strong, earnest, and practical, but more pow- 
erful in a fiery assault on wrong than in ten- 
der and winning invitations to right ; aroused 
the conscience, but did not attempt to awak- 
en the affections. Yet, whether we test his 
preaching by its character or its effects, it 
was certainly remarkable. He scouted the 
idea that Jewish birth gave favor with God ; 
denounced with vehemence the ceremonial- 
ism of the age ; demanded a pure morality, 
as the evidence of godliness. To the tax- 
gatherer he preached integrity ; to the sol- 
diers, abstinence from violence; to all the 
people, practical benevolence. Crowds flock- 
ed to hear him ; all Judea felt the influence of 
his teaching ; the people almost universally 
accepted him as a prophet ; some thought him 
the Messiah ; many of the lower classes were 
effectually refbrmed.^ Both Pharisees and 
Sadducees endeavored, at first, to secure the 
prestige of his name by ranking themselves 
among his disciples. A deputation of priests 
and Levites was even sent out by the Sanhe- 
drim to obtain more accurate information as 



1 Matt, iii., 1.— ^ Luke i., 15; comp. with Numb. vi. 
—3 Luke i., 5, 6.— * Luke i., 80.— ^ Matt, iii., T-9 ; xxi., 
32 : Luke iii., 10-14, 15. 



JOHN 



521 



JOHN 



to his character and mission/ In answer to 
their inquiries, he distinctly disavowed being 
the Messiah. The disclosure of Jesus to him 
as the Messiah, at the time of the baptism of 
the latter, seems to have wrought a change 
in the character of his ministry. The key- 
note to his subsequent preaching was, " Be- 
hold the Lamb of God, which taketh away 
the sin of the world." He no longer de- 
nounced the sins of the people ; he pointed 
them to their divine Saviour.^ Indeed, there 
is hardly to be found in the later apostles a 
clearer testimony to Christ's divine charac- 
ter and atoning work than that afforded by 
this last of the Jewish prophets, before Christ 
had yet entered officially upon his ministry. 

His office of projjhecy having been fulfill- 
ed, John's mission came suddenly to a close. 
For his righteous rebuke of Herod Antipas 
in marrying his brother Philip's wife, the 
prophet was cast into prison. The fame of 
Jesus's ministry reached him in prison, and 
he sent some of his disciples to inquire wheth- 
er this was truly the Messiah. It may be 
that he grew discouraged because the king- 
dom of God did not immediately appear ; for 
repose is always full of temptation to men 
of action. It may be, however, that he only 
wished to strengthen the wavering faith of 
his disciples.^ His death was not long de- 
layed. Herod dared not avenge the rebuke 
he had received; but his guilty paramour 
could not forgive it, and by a strategy wrung 
from the king a reluctant consent to the 
prophet's execution in prison. The memo- 
ry of the murdered man long haunted the 
guilty king, who, later, imagined that Jesus 
was John the Baptist risen from the dead.^ 
See Baptism. 

2. The apostle. He was the son of Zebe- 
dee and Salome, and a brother of James. 
He is generally regarded as a younger broth- 
er; but this is by no means certain. His 
father was a Galilean, and by occupation a 
fisherman on the Lake of Galilee. Where 
he resided is uncertain— perhaps at Bethsai- 
da; but the circumstance of Simon Peter, 
who was of that place, being partner in the 
fishing trade, ^ or, perhaps, in that particular 
expedition only, with the sons of Zebedee, is 
no proof as to their residence there also. 
The family of John seems not to have been 
one of the lowest class : we find hired serv- 
ants in the ship with Zebedee f their moth- 
er, Salome, was one of those women who 
came with Jesus from Galilee, and minister- 
ed to him of their substance;^ the same Sa- 
lome was one of those who bought sweet 
spices and ointments to anoint him; and, 
after the crucifixion, we find John himself 
taking the mother of our Lord " to his own 
home," which, though it need not imply that 

1 Matt, iii., 7 ; John i., 19.— 2 Compare, for a contrast 
between John's preaching before and after his baptism 
of Christ, Luke iii., 1-18; and John i., 15-36.— s Matt. 
xi.,2-15.— ^Matt.xiv., 1-12.— ^ Luke v., 10.— « Mark)., 
20.—'^ Luke viii., 3 ; xxiii., 55; comp. Mark xvi., 1. 



John had then a house at Jerusalem, cer- 
tainly denotes that he had some fixed hab- 
itation, into which she was received. It 
would seem, also, from John xviii., 15, that 
he was personally known to the high-priest, 
Caiaphas. From all these facts, the infer- 
ence is that his family belonged to the mid- 
dle class of society — the higher grade of 
those who carried on the by-no-means de- 
spised or ungainful business of fishermen on 
the Sea of Galilee. If the second of the two 
disciples who heard the Baptist's testimony 
to Jesus, and followed him in consequence, 
was John himself, we have his acquaintance 
with our Lord dating from the very begin- 
ning of his ministry ; and with this agree the 
contents of chaps, ii. to v., containing par- 
ticulars of the ministry at Jerusalem and 
in Galilee which happened previous to the 
commencement of the inspired record of the 
other evangelists. In the intervals of our 
Lord's first circuits and journeys the apos- 
tles seem to have returned to their families 
and occupations. Thus in Luke v., 1-11, we 
find the sons of Zebedee, as well as Simon 
Peter, again engaged in fishing, and solemn- 
ly and finally summoned by Jesus to follow 
him. But from that time John belonged to 
that chosen number known as ''the Twelve," 
who were nearest to the person of Jesus dur- 
ing his ministry. And of that number he 
seems to have been the most personally be- 
loved of our Lord.^ He, together with his 
brother James, and Peter, was witness of 
the raising of Jairus's daughter ; also of the 
transfiguration, and <of the agony in Geth- 
semane ; he lay on the bosom of Jesus at the 
last supper ; he was recognized by Peter as 
being the innermost in his personal confi- 
dence ; and to him was committed the charge 
of Mary, the mother of Jesus, when the lat- 
ter was dying on the cross.^ He probably 
did not quit Palestine so long as Mary lived. 
But apparently he did not reside in the cap- 
ital, for there is no evidence that he was at 
Jerusalem when Saul was brought to the 
apostles; and when he was there subse- 
quently, it was on occasion of the meeting 
of the Council.^ For the subsequent history 
of John we are dependent on tradition. All 
that is known with any degree of certainty 
is that he went into Asia ; that he exercised 
pastoral superintendence over the Asiatic 
churches ; that he was banished to Patmos ; 
and that he had to contend against arrogant 
and erroneous teachers in the Church. We 
may safely conclude, too, that he died, in ex- 
treme old age, a natural death, and that Ig- 
natius and Polycarp were among his person- 
al disciples. Of his authorship of the books 
which bear his name we have spoken under 
their respective titles. 

Of John's peculiar personal character very 



1 John xiii., 23: xix., 26; xx., 2; xxi., 7, 20, 24.— 
2 Matt, xvii., 1; Mark v., 37; John xiii., 23; xix., 26, 
27.-3 Acts ix., 26-28; xv,, 6; Gal. i., 18, 19; ii., 9. 



JOHN (EPISTLES OF) 



522 



JOHN (EPISTLES OF^ 



mucli has been written ; but it is certain tliat 
it has often been misunderstood. That he 
did not by nature possess the mild, gentle, 
and unworldly spirit which the popular im- 
pression has frequently imputed to iiim is 
clear from the Scripture narrative. It was 
John who, with his brother, was called "a 
son of thunder." It was John who wished 
to call down fire from heaven on the Sa- 
maritan village. It was John's mother who 
sought for her two sons the promise of a 
place, one at Christ's right hand, the other 
at his left, when he should come into his 
kingdom; and it is only too evident that 
they shared in their mother's ambition — ap- 
parently participated in her request.^ There 
is no Scriptural authority for supposing that 
John was not among the disciples who for- 
bade the little children to come unto Christ, 
or that he was exempted from the rebuke 
more than once administered to them be- 
cause they were of little faith. John, as well 
as Paul, was a man of like passions as we all 
are. He was not a native-born saint, enter- 
ing the kingdom of God without a struggle, 
but, of all the disciples, he appears to have 
been the most studious of his Master's char- 
acter and teaching. Of all, he was most 
ready to lay aside his old prejudices and 
prei)OSsessions, his former self, indeed, and 
put on the Lord Jesus Christ. Of all, he was 
the most receptive. Of them all, he display- 
ed by far the greatest quiet courage. He is 
the only one who records the earlier ministry 
of Jesus in Jerusalem ; and the conclusion 
from the minute detail t)f his narrative is ir- 
resistible that he shared all the dangers of 
that ministry with his Master. He alone 
was present during the trial of Jesus in the 
court of Caiaphas, and, judging from his mi- 
nute report, was at the subsequent trial before 
Pilate's judgment-seat. In a word, through- 
out the fearful scenes which characterized 
the closing hours of Jesus's earthly life, 
though at first he forsook his Lord and fled, 
love triumphed over fear, and the beloved 
disciple, returning to his Master's side, clung 
to him to the end. 

John (Epistles of). There are three gen- 
eral epistles which bear the name of the apos- 
tle John. Even the casual reader of our En- 
glish version will hardly fail to notice in the 
first of these epistles that spirit of gentleness, 
tenderness, and love, which is so character- 
istic of the apostle John and of his gospel. 
The external testimony in favor of the opin- 
ion that he is the author of this epistle is as 
strong as that which exists in the case of any 
of the canonical books of the N. T. It ap- 
pears to have been written not to any par- 
ticular church, but to a cycle of churches, 
consisting largely of Gentile converts. It is 
evident, also, that the apostle is the spiritual 
teacher of those to whom he is writing. This 
fact, coupled with the general belief, founded 



1 Matt. XX., 20, 21 ; MarkiiL, 17; x., 35-37 ; Luke ix., 54. 



on an apparently trustworthy tradition, that 
John exercised an apostolic supervision over 
the churches of Ephesus and vicinity, is an 
indication that the letter was addressed pri- 
marily to those churches. The time and 
place of composition are left in uncertainty, 
excejit that the best opinion appears to be 
that the writer assumes that his readers are 
familiar with the gospel narrative, which 
would indicate that its date was subsequent 
to that of John's gospel. This would bring 
it toward the close of the first century. The 
character of the epistle, which is throughout 
rather a tender effusion of Christian feehng 
than a logical exposition of systematic the- 
ology, renders it difficult, if not impossible, 
to present any table of contents, or '' arrange- 
ment." The critics who have attempted this 
work have dift'ered so much among them- 
selves, that we should perplex rather than 
help our readers were we to endeavor to give 
the results of their labors. It should be add- 
ed, that in the seventh and eighth verses of 
chap, v., the words, " in heaven, the Father, 
the "Word, and the Holy Ghost ; and these 
three are one : and there are three that bear 
witness in earth," are found in only three 
Greek manuscripts, neither of which is older 
than the fifteenth century, one of them being 
a worthless transcript of a printed Greek Tes- 
tament. These words are not cited by any 
of the Greek fathers, and are also wanting 
in the oldest and genuine copies of the an- 
cient Latin version now called the Vulgate, 
in which they were surreptitiously insert- 
ed about the eighth century. Evangelical 
scholars of all denominations now agree that 
these words are spurious, and that the two 
verses should read as follows : (ver. 7), " For 
there are three that bear witness" (ver. 8), 
" the Spirit, and the water, and the blood ; 
and the three agree in the one." In the 
one thing is meant, namely, that " Jesus is 
the Son of God," as asserted in ver. 5, and 
declared in A^er. 7 to be testified by the " wit- 
ness of God." The apostle's argument is 
clearly exhibited by Neander, " Commentary 
on the First Epistle of John," pp. 285-289 of 
Mrs. Conant's translation. 

The authorship of the second and third 
epistles of John does not rest upon evidence 
so conclusive as that which exists in the case 
of the first epistle, yet many of the early 
Christian writers cite or allude to them ; and, 
on the whole, the evidence that these letters 
proceeded from the pen of the apostle John 
is sufficient to make out a probable, though 
not a conclusive, case. Both epistles are 
addressed to individuals, though it is not 
known who is the " elect lady" of the second 
epistle, or the " Gains " of the third. The 
time and place of the writing of these epistles 
are also uncertain, though most critics fix the 
probable time of composition as subsequent 
both to that of the gospel and that of the 
book of Revelation. 



JOHN (GOSPEL OF) 



523 



JOHN (GOSPEL OF) 



John (Gospel of). The almost unani- 
mous testimony of antiquity supports the 
opinion that the Gospel of John was written 
by the apostle who bears that name. The 
author in several places plainly declares that 
he relates what he has seen and heard ;^ and 
with these assertions the contents of the 
gospel agree. In almost every narrative we 
have undoubted marks of the testimony of 
an eye-witness. It is, for example, impossi- 
ble to doubt that John's account of the res- 
urrection of Lazarus, and of the trial of Je- 
sus before Pilate, was written by one who 
was present on both occasions, unless, in- 
deed, we were to imagine that both narra- 
tives were fictitious. In modern times, how- 
ever, an attempt has been made to impugn 
the genuineness of John's gospel, by those 
who admit in a qualified form the historic 
truthfulness of the other evangelists. The 
ground upon which this attack is based is, 
chiefly, the difference in character which 
really exists between the Gospel of John 
and those of the other evangelists, and a 
difference which is assumed to exist between 
the Jesus of Nazareth depicted by them and 
the Son of God whose divine character and 
mission it was the avowed object of John to 
demonstrate.^ Any adequate discussion of 
this question in detail, a discussion which 
has filled volumes of criticism, would be 
utterly out of the question in these pages. 
It must suffice to assure the reader that 
the question thus raised has been carefully 
and conscientiously considered by Christian 
scholars of all sects and parties, Eoman Cath- 
olic and Protestant, Orthodox and Unitari- 
an ; and the only result has been to confirm 
the opinion of the early Church that the 
Gospel of John as we now possess it is the 
genuine work of Christ's dearest earthly 
friend. 

It is, however, undoubtedly true that there 
is a marked difference between the Gospel 
of John and the other gospels — a difference 
which the most casual reader can not fail 
to recognize, and which a more careful study 
only brings out more clearly. This differ- 
ence exists both in the external character 
of the history and in its interior spirit. Very 
few of the miracles or discourses recorded 
by the other evangelists find any place in 
John's gospel ; he says nothing concerning 
the sermon on the mount, the parables by the 
Sea of Galilee, or those recorded by Luke, 
which were uttered in Perea ; nothing of 
the transfiguration ; nothing of the invec- 
tives against the Pharisees and the prophe- 
cies of the destruction of Jerusalem. Even 
incidents which we should have expected to 
find in his gospel are omitted ; thus he gives 
no account of the institution of the Lord's 
Supper, and makes no reference to the ago- 
ny in Gethsemane. On the other hand, he 



1 John i., 
XX., 31. 



14; xviii., 15; xix., 26-35; xx., 2.— 2 John 



is the only one who gives any account of 
Christ's ministry in Judea, except as this is 
indirectly included by the others, in their 
account of our Lord's trial and crucifixion. 
In John's gospel alone do we find the ac- 
count of the miracle at the marriage in 
Cana ; of the healing, first, of the impotent 
man, and afterward of the blind man, at Je- 
rusalem ; and of that miracle of miracles, 
the resurrection of Lazarus from the dead. 
He alone gives the conversation with Nicode- 
mus concerning the new birth, and that with 
the woman of Samaria concerning the wa- 
ter of life ; he alone reports the discourse 
delivered in Capernaum concerning the true 
bread from heaven, and that delivered in Je- 
rusalem on the Good Shepherd ; and while 
he barely alludes to the Supper, whose in- 
stitution the other evangelists record more 
fully, he alone has preserved a report of 
Christ's discourses on that occasion. Yet 
this external difference, though more easily 
described, is less remarkable than the differ- 
ence in tone and spirit between the Gospel 
of John and that of the other evangelists. 
While the latter recognize Christ's divine 
character and mission, they either but dim- 
ly appreciate it or write for those who can 
not bear any thing more than the fragment- 
ary disclosures of the incarnation. John 
opens his gospel with what is, perhaps, the 
most explicit declaration to be found in 
Scripture of Christ's divinity ; lingers rev- 
erentially over every utterance in which 
Christ brings to the light this truth, hidden, 
for the most part, from common apprehen- 
sion during his earthly life ; and closes his 
account by declaring that, from the various 
signs wrought by Jesus in the presence of 
his disciples, he has selected those written 
in this book, " that ye might believe that 
Jesus is the Christ, the Son of God ; and that 
believing ye might have life through his 
name."^ 

But while these differences between the 
Gospel of John and those of the synoptists 
are fully recognized by Christian scholars, 
they give no ground for doubting the genu- 
ineness of the former work. They are suf- 
ficiently accounted for by a consideration of 
the circumstances, the character, and the 
object of its author. Of all the disciples, 
John was the one who possessed the most vi- 
tal sympathy with Christ, and best appreci- 
ated his character and his teachings. While 
Jesus lived, this characteristic was so mark- 
ed that John received the appellation of the 
'' beloved disciple." It was not until after 
the resurrection of Christ that the other dis- 
ciples appreciated the spiritual nature of 
the kingdom which he had come to estab- 
lish. The events which produced so power- 
ful an influence upon their hearts and minds 
must have operated equally powerfully upon 



1 Chap. xxi. was probably added by John as an ap- 
pendix some time after the completion of his gospel. 



JOKTAN 



524 



JONAH 



himself. And yet he did not make haste to 
write. Not until many of the events which 
Christ had foretold had taken place ; not 
until Jerusalem had been destroyed and the 
Jewish nation scattered ; not until John had 
seen the Christian Church growing up en- 
dued with the power of God, bearing as its 
only instrument of warfare the Cross of 
Christ, and supplanting in Palestine the 
Jewish synagogue, and in Greece and Rome 
the heathen temples; not until after Paul 
had preached in the cities of Greece Christ 
crucified, the power of God and the wisdom 
of God — in a word, not until the mustard- 
seed, whose planting the other evangelists 
recorded, had grown to be a great tree, un- 
der whose shelter the nations of the earth 
were gathering, did John write his gospel. 
It would be strange, indeed, if, writing with 
their gospels before him, as, despite the opin- 
ions of some excellent critics, we are com- 
pelled to think he did, he had been content 
to repeat in a different dress their narra- 
tives ; stranger still, if, writing after heret- 
ical sects had sprung up in the Church it- 
self, denying in effect, if not in words, the 
divine character and work of Christ, and 
endeavoring to transform Christianity now 
into a Jewish sect, now into a heathen school 
of philosophy, he had not seized upon those 
miracles and discourses best calculated to 
refute these errors so derogatory to his Lord ; 
strangest of all, if, writing in that full light 
afforded by prophecy accomplished in the 
destruction of the Jewish theocracy and the 
inauguration of Christ's kingdom, he had not 
obtained himself, and imparted to his read- 
ers, deeper, broader, and more spiritual views 
than the previous evangelists of the nature 
of that kingdom and its divine Lord. 

We have, in this discussion concerning the 
authenticity of John's gospel, incidentally 
considered its character and the purpose for 
which it was composed. It only remains to 
be added that it was written originally in 
Greek — where, is unknown, though tradi- 
tion, confirmed by some references in the 
gospel itself, points to Ephesus — and that 
the date of its composition was toward the 
close of the first century, probably during 
its last quarter. 

Joktan (ivho is made small), one of the de- 
scendants of Shem, whose posterity peopled 
the whole of the south of the Arabian pen- 
insula. His sons were the progenitors of 
various tribes; and he himself appears to 
be identical with the Kahtan of the Arabs. 
[Gen. X., 25-30 ; 1 Chron. i., 19-23.] 

Jonadab {wJiom Jehovah impels), son of 
Shimeah and nephew of David, a cunning 
but unprincipled courtier, who gave Amnon 
the fatal advice for ensnaring his sister Ta- 
mar, and, apparently, was afterward acces- 
sory to his assassination. [2 Sam. xiii.] 

Jonah (dove), a prophet, son of Amittai, 
and identified by tradition with the son of 



the widow of Zarephath, whom Elijah raised 
from the dead,' and with the young man, a 
prophet and son of a prophet, who anointed 
Jehu king of Israel, at the command of Eli- 
sha.^ Nothing really is known of him, how- 
ever, in addition to what is stated in the 
book which bears his name, except the state- 
ment that he was of the town of Gath-he- 
pher, of Lower Galilee, in Zebulun, and the 
intimation that he lived about the times of 
Jeroboam II., of Israel, B.C. 825-789.' This 
would make him a child when Homer was 
an old blind bard ; a contemporary of the 
Spartan lawyer, Lycurgus ; by a century the 
senior of Romulus ; and four centuries old- 
er than Herodotus. The King of Nineveh, 
at the time of his mission to that city, is 
thought to have been either Pul or Adram- 
melech. 

The story of Jonah's extraordinary mis- 
adventure, while it renders his history one 
of the most interesting and instructive in 
the Bible, has also made it the most subject 
of them all to skepticism, both honest and 
scoffing. As early as the fourth century it 
was ridiculed by the pagans, who accused 
the Christians of credulity for believing the 
story of deliverance by means of a fish ; and 
in modern times, while the enemies of rev- 
elation have evinced the same spirit, the 
friends have resorted to methods of inter- 
pretation which are more trying to creduli- 
ty than the simple historical account itself. 
It has been regarded by some skeptical crit- 
ics as a dream, and by others as an allegory 
or a parable, analogous to the famous story 
of Lilliput, by Dean Swift. According to 
one author, Jonah is symbolical of kings 
Manasseh and Josiah ; the ship is the Jew- 
ish State; the storm, the political convul- 
sions which threatened its safety ; the master 
of the ship, Zadok,the high-priest ; the great 
fish, the city of Orontes, where Manasseh was 
detained a prisorier. Some of the attempts 
of the German critics to preserve a historic- 
al basis for the book, and explain away the 
miracle, are curious as illustrations of skep- 
tical interpretation. One of them thinks a 
ship, bearing perhaps the sign of a fish, res- 
cued the prophet ; another imagines that he 
lighted on the back of a fish ; while a third 
suggests that he was thrown by the waves on 
shore, and took refuge in an inn with the sign 
of a whale ! There is really nothing for an 
honest inquirer to do but to regard the book 
as a simple myth, or to accept it as it stands 
as veritable history; and it is difficult to 
see how any one who accepts Christ as even 
a divinely inspired teacher can reconcile his 
references to the prophet's history with a 
denial of its literal truthfulness.* 

The popular impression that it was a 
whale which swallowed Jonah has nothing 
in the Bible to sustain it. The Scripture 

1 1 Kin2;s xvii., 17-23.— 2 2 Kings ix., 1-4.— 3 2 Kings 
xiv., 25.-4 Matt, xii., 39-41 ; xvi., 1-4 ; Luke xi., 29-32. 



JONAH 



525 



JONATHAN 



statement is simply tliat God had appointed 
a "great fish" for the purpose. The word 
translated "whale" in the N. T. signifies 
nothing more nor dififerent. It has been by 
some supposed to be a species of shark 
which abounds in the Mediterranean, and 
in the belly of which whole men have been 
found ; while oth- 
ers maintain that 
it was a whale. 
Much has been 
written in the at- 
tempt to solve the 
question, but noth- 
ing has been solv- 
ed; it is left, af- 
ter all, where the 
Scripture leaves it, 
and the result is 
summed np by one 
of the ablest of 
Biblical critics in 
the terse verdict, 

" The whole of this ^_^ 

discussion • about ^ 

the fish of Jonah 
is vain and use- 
less." The spot where he was cast ashore is 
equally uncertain, though the Moslems point 
outthe identical beach, with great confidence, 
at Porphyreon, between Sidon and Beirut, 
where a building is erected which passes for 
his tomb. 

There has also been some discussion as to 
the nature of the gourd which the Bible tells 
us God prepared for the protection of Jonah 
from the sun. The implication of the histo- 
rian is that it grew up in a day and wither- 
ed on the morrow,^ though this is not quite 
clear ; for the description in chap, iv., 10, is, 
literally, " which was the son of a night, and 
perished the son of a night," and may be sim- 



etrable to the sun's hottest rays ; flourishes 
best in the hottest part of summer ; and 
when injured or cut withers away with 
equal rapidity. The reality of Jonah's his- 
tory receives a curious confirmation from 
the traditions of other nations, in which the 
story is preserved in a modified form. It is 






Aibor coveied ^Mth a (jrouid. 
ply a poetical form employed to indicate the 
rapidity of its growth and of its decay. 
There is no vine which would naturally grow 
so rapidly ; but there is one much used in the 
East for shade, which otherwise answers the 
description. It is very commonly used for 
trailing over arbors ; grows with extraordi- 
nary rapidity; in a few days will entirely 
cover an arbor ; forms a shade almost impen- 



Jonah iv., 4-8. 



The Tomb of JoDah. 

given at length in the Koran, though not ex- 
actly as in the Bible ; and the respect shown 
by the Mohammedans to the memory of the 
prophet is extraordinary. See Gath-he- 
pher; Tarshish; Nineveh. 

Jonathan {the gift of Jeliovali). The name 
corresponds exactly to our Theodore. There 
are no less than fifteen persons of this name 
mentioned in the Scriptures, of whom the 
following are the chief: 

1. The eldest son of King Saul. He first 
appears some time after his father's acces- 
sion.^ If his younger brother, Ishbosheth, 
was forty at the time of Saul's death,^ Jona- 
than must have been at least thirty when 
he is first mentioned. 
He was regarded in 
his father's lifetime 
as heir to the throne. 
Like Saul, a man of 
great strength and 
activity,^ he was fa- 
mous for the pecul- 
iar martial exercises 
in which his tribe 
excelled — archery 
and slinging.* It is 
through his relation 
with David that he 
is chiefly known to us, probably as com- 
memorated by his descendants at David's 
court. But there is a background, not so 
clearly given, of his relation with his fa- 
ther. The whole story implies, without ex- 
pressing, the deep attachment of the fa- 
ther and son. Jonathan can only go on 
his dangerous expedition against the Phi- 



1 1 Sam. xiii., 2.-2 2 Sam. ii. 
4 1 Sam. xviii., 4 ; xx., 35 ; 2 Sam. 



;.— 3 2 Sam. i., 23.— 
,22; 1 Chi-OD. xii., 2. 



JONATHAN 



526 



JONATHAN 



listines by concealing it from Saul.^ Saul's 
vow is confirmed, and its tragic effect deepen- 
ed, by his feeling for bis son.'^ Jonathan can 
not bear to believe his father's enmity to Da- 
vid.^ To him if to any one the wild frenzy of 
the king was amenable.* Their mutual affec- 
tion was indeed interrupted by the growth 
of Saul's insanity, and at length Jonathan 
left the royal presence in fierce anger. But 
he cast his lot with his father's decline, not 
with his friend's rise; and "in death they 
were not divided."^ When first mentioned 
he is already of great importance in the 
state. Of the three thousand men of whom 
Saul's standing army was formed,® one thou- 
sand were under command of Jonathan, at 
Gibeah. The Philistines were still in the 
general command of the country ; an officer 
was stationed at Geba, either the same as 
Jonathan's position or close to it. In a sud- 
den act of youthful daring, as when Tell rose 
against Gesler, or as, in sacred history, Moses 
rose against the Egyptian, Jonathan slew 
this officer, and thus gave the signal for a 
general revolt. Saul took advantage of it, 
and the whole population rose. But it was 
a premature attempt. The Philistines pour- 
ed in from the plain, and the tyranny became 
more deeply rooted than ever. From this 
oppression, as Jonathan by his former act 
had been the first to provoke it, so now he 
was the first to deliver his people. Without 
communicating his project to any one, except 
the young man whom, like all the chiefs of 
that age, he retained as his armor-bearer, he 
sallied forth from Gibeah to attack the gar- 
rison of the Philistines stationed on the other 
side of the steep defile of Michmash. Strong 
and active as he was, " strong as a lion, and 
swift as an eagle,"^ he was fully equal to the 
adventure of climbing on his hands and feet 
up the face of the cliff. When he came di- 
rectly in view of the foe, with his armor-bear- 
er behind him, they both, after the manner 
of their tribe,® discharged a flight of arrows, 
stones, and pebbles from their bows, cross- 
bows, and slings,^ with such effect that twen- 
ty men fell at the first outset. A panic seized 
the garrison ; an earthquake combined Avith 
the terror of the moment ; the confusion in- 
creased ; the Israelites who had been taken 
slaves by the Philistines during the last three 
days^" rose in mutiny ; the Israelites who lay 
hid in the numerous caverns and deep holes 
in which the rocks of the neighborhood 
abound, sprang out of their subterranean 
dwellings. Saul and his little band joined 
in the headlong pursuit after the fugitives, 
over the rugged plateau of Bethel, and down 
the pass of Beth-horon to Ajalon. Jona- 
than, who had not heard of the rash curse 
which Saul had invoked on any who ate be- 



1 1 Sam. xiv., 1.— 2 1 Sam. xiv., 30, 4.3.-3 1 gam. ss., 
—4 1 Sam. xix., 6.— ^ 1 Sam. xxiii., 16; 2 Sam. i., 23. 
-6 1 Sam. xiii., 2 ; xxiv., 2 ; xxvi., 1, 2.—'' 2 Sam. i., 28. 
-» 1 Chron. xii., 2.— » See Arms.— i" Septuagint. 



fore evening, tasted the honey which lay on 
the ground as they passed through the forest ; 
and he would have fallen a victim to Saul's 
superstitious oath if the people had not in- 
terposed to save the hero of the day. 

This is the only great exploit of Jona- 
than's life. But the chief interest of his ca- 
reer is derived from the friendship with Da- 
vid, which began on the day of David's return 
from the victory over the champion of Gath, 
and continued till his death. It is the first 
Biblical instance of a romantic friendship 
such as was common afterward in Greece, 
and has been since in Christendom, and is 
remarkable both as giving its sanction to 
these and as filled with a pathos of its own, 
which has been imitated, but never surpass- 
ed, in modern works of fiction.^ Each found 
in the other the affection that he found not 
in his own family; no jealousy of rivalry 
between the two, as claimants for the same 
throne, ever interposed. The friendship was 
confirmed, after the manner of the time, by a 
solemn com^jact often repeated. Twice after 
David's flight the friends met clandestinely, 
once by the stone of Ezel, once far away in 
the forest of Ziph, during Saul's pursuit of 
David.^ From this time forth we hear no 
more till the battle of Gilboa. In that bat- 
tle he fell, with his two brothers and his fa- 
ther, and his corpse shared their fate. His 
ashes were buried first at Jabesh-Gilead, but 
afterward removed, with those of his father, 
to Zelah, in Benjamin.^ The news of their 
death occasioned the celebrated elegy of 
David, called ''The Bow," from the use of 
that word in ver. 22.* He left one son, 
Mephibosheth, five years old at the time of 
his death.^ Through him the line of de- 
scendants was continued down to the time 
of Ezra;" and even then their great ances- 
tor's archery was practiced among them. 
See Saul. [1 Sam. xxxi. ; 2 Sam. i. 

2. Son of Shimeah, brother of Jonadab, 
nephew of David. He inherited something 
of his uncle's civil and military gifts ; en- 
gaged, like him, in a successful single com- 
bat with a Philistine giant,'' and, if he is 
to be identified with the person mentioned 
in 1 Chron. xxvii., 32, where the word uncle 
probably is in lieu of a general term for rel- 
ative, afterward held a prominent office un- 
der David as counselor and secretary. 

3. The son of Abiathar the high -priest, 
and the last descendant of Eli of whom we 
hear any thing. A trusty messenger and 
sagacious spy, he adhered to the fortunes of 
David against Absalom,® but, like his father 
Abiathar, to those of Adonijah against his 
brother Solomon.® 

4. The son or descendant of Gershom, the 
son of Moses, the story of whose apostasy in 



1 1 Sam. xviii., 1 ; 2 Sam. i., 26.-2 1 Sam. xix., 1-7; 
XX. ; xxiii., 10-18.- 3 2 Sam. xxi., 12-14.— ^ 2 Sam. i., 
IT, 18.— 6 2 Sam., iv., 4.-6 1 Chron. ix., 40.— ^ 2 Sam. 
xxi., 21; 1 Chron. xx., 7.— ^ 2 Sam. xv., 27; xvii., 
17-22.— » 1 Kings i., 42-48. 



JOPPA 



527 



JOPPA 



connection with Micati (q.v.) is one of the 
most striking illustrations of the degenera- 
cy of the Hebrews in the time of the Judges. 
[Judg. xviii.] ^ 

5. Son of Joiada, and his successor m the 
high - priesthood ; mentioned in Scripture 
only in Neh. xii., 14, 22, where he is also 
caUed Johanau— i. e., John. Josephus says 
he murdered his brother Jesus in the Tem- 
ple, because Jesus was endeavoring to get 
the high-priesthood from him, through the 
influence of the Persian general. 

Joppa, or Japho {to he heautiful, to shine), 
now Jaffa, is supposed to have got its name 
from its beauty, from the masses of sunshine 



his ships," selfishly refusing to come up to 
the help of Jehovah against the mighty. 
Owing to its having a harbor, though a 
dangerous one, it became in the days of Sol- 
omon the port of Jerusalem, and has re- 
mained so ever since. To this place Hiram 
floated down from Tyre the fir-trees of Leb- 
anon ; and hither, five hundred years later, 
Zerubbabel caused the cedar-trees from the 
same mountain to be brought. Here Jonah 
took ship to flee from the presence of his Ma- 
ker ; here the Jewish patriots, in the days of 
the Maccabees, waged not a little of their war; 
here Peter wrought the miracle on Tabitha ; 
and here, while tarrying with Simon the 




Jaffa fiom the iSoith. 



which its houses reflect, like the Schonbergs, 
the Bellevilles, and Formosas, of more re- 
cent times. It is one of the oldest cities in 
the world, ranking with Hebron, Zoan, and 
Damascus. Indeed early geographers as- 
cribe to it an antediluvian paternity, and 
derive its name from Japheth. The local 
habitation of many mythical stories, it is 
the scene of the legend of Andromeda's res- 
cue from the sea -monster, which no doubt 
has some foundation in the early story of 
the city, though whether grafted on Jonah's 
miraculous deliverance, as some have sup- 
posed, is questionable. Joppa was in the 
inheritance of Dan, who there '' remained in 



tanner, whose house and skin-vat, made of 
stone, on the shore, tradition still points out, 
the apostle saw the vision that taught him 
that Jew and Gentile were one in Christ. 
Here, too, he received the summons from 
Cornelius. In its neighborhood are many 
of the noted places of Scripture story. The 
plain of Sharon encircles it. Lydda, Ono, 
Ekron, Beth-dagon — still existing in Ludd — 
Arma, Akir, Beit-dejan, are all in its neigh- 
borhood. The only sea-port on the southern 
coast of Palestine, it became a centre of in- 
fluence, and raised up towns, so that we nev- 
er lose sight of it from the days of Jonah. 
Early in the Christian era it became the 



JOPPA 



528 



JORDAN 



haunt of pirates, and twice suffered destruc- 
tion by the Romans. In the era of the Cru- 
sades it became the scene of many a conflict, 
and for more than half a century was alter- 
nately built and destroyed. Many a siege 
has it stood, many a conflagration has it ex- 
perienced, from the days of the Romans to 
those of the French, who laid all its gardens 
waste. Judas Maccabaeus, Antiochus, Her- 
od, Cestius, Vespasian, Omar, Saladin, Rich- 
ard, Godfrey, Napoleon, have all in their 
turn laid siege to it. Perhaps no city save 
Jerusalem has seen so many foes and stood 
so many assaults. 

Within this century, especially within the 
last thirty years, Joppa has risen considera- 
bly. It is built on an eminence which slopes 
backward from the sea, and, with its castle, 
is one hundred and ninety feet high. On 
this slope the houses rise, tier upon tier, ir- 
regular but beautiful, especially when ap- 
proached from the sea at sunset. Its envi- 
rons are exquisite ; and the endless groves 
of olive, orange, lemon, citron, mulberry, fig, 
and palm delight the traveler with their 
shade and fragrance. But the interior of 
the city is as displeasing as its exterior is 
attractive. Dr. Thomson gives its popula- 
tion as 15,000 ; and as commerce seems to 
be returning to it with wonderful strides, 



and a railroad is proposed between it and 
Jerusalem, it is likely to increase in impor- 
tance. [2 Chron. ii., 16 ; Ezra iii., 7 ; Jonah 
i., 3 ; Acts ix., 36, 42, 43 ; x., 5, 23, 32 ; xi., 5.] 
Jordan (flowing down), the name of the 
great — it may almost be said the only — riv- 
er of Palestine, the boundary between Ca- 
naan, properly so called, and that eastern re- 
gion, the dominions of Sihon and Og, which 
was occupied by Reuben, Gad, and half 
Manasseh. The source of the Jordan is to 
be found in certain mountain streams and 
springs supplied by the perpetual snows 
which, even in the hottest summer weather, 
cap Mount Hermon — the " White Mountain" 
of the Holy Land. For six miles the uni- 
ted waters of these mountain streams flow 
through a marshy plain, to enter Lake Hu- 
leh (the ancient Merom). Quitting this 
lake at its southern extremity, the river 
descends to the Lake of Gennesaret, a dis- 
tance of about nine miles. Within this space 
the fall of the river is about six hundred 
feet. At first the banks are low, and the 
current not very hasty ; then it passes rap- 
idly through a narrow winding ravine with 
precipitous banks. At its entrance into the 
lake, two miles beloAv the ruins of Julias, 
the ancient Bethsaida of Gaulonitis, it is a 
lazy, turbid stream seventy feet wide. Quit- 




Source of the Jordan. 



JORDAN 



529 



JOSEPH 



ting this lake at its southern extremity, it 
becomes a headlong torrent, winding in its 
course, with many a precipitous fall, through 
a strange, lonely valley, hot and desolate, 
where no city over crowned its hank, joined 
here and there hy a few mountain torrents, 
the only tributaries of any importance be- 
ing the Hieroniax, now Yarmiik, and the Jab- 
bok, now the Zerha. The crooked character 
of its course is indicated by the fact that it 
occupies two hundred miles in traversing a 
direct line of not over sixty. It sinks low- 
er and lower, till at length it empties itself 
into the mysterious basin of the Salt or Dead 
Sea, the surface of which is one thousand 
three hundred and sixteen feet below the 
Mediterranean sea-level. From the Lake of 
Galilee to the Salt Sea, the Jordan descends 
nearly, if not quite, seven hundred feet. Its 
width, according to Lieutenant Lynch, va- 
ries : he found it sometimes seventy and 
sometimes eighty yards, while at its mouth 
it was one hundred and eighty, and but 
three feet deep. There seem to be two sets 
of banks, or " two terraces," says Lieutenant 
Lynch, '^ and through the lowest one the riv- 
er runs its labyrinthine course. From the 
stream, above the innnediate banks, there 
is on each side a singular terrace of low 
hills, like trnncated cones, which is the blufil: 
terminus of an extended table-land reaching 
quite to the base of the mountains of Hau- 
ran on the east, and the high hills on the 
western side." 

The fords of the Jordan have always been 
important in connection with the history of 
the country. The first ford, on the southern 
section of the Jordan, is about half a mile 
from the lake. It was the means of com- 
munication between Tiberias and Gadara, 
and it was doubtless at this point our Lord 
crossed when he went from Galilee to Judea 
"by the farther side of Jordan."^ At Snc- 
coth is another ford, one of the best and 
most important over the Jordan. Here Ja- 
cob crossed with his cattle. This, too, is pos- 
sibly the Beth-abarah, " house, or ford of pas- 
sage,^' where the Israelites intercepted the 
routed Midianites ; and it was probably here 
that the men of Gilead slew the Ephraim- 
ites. Not far off, in " the clay ground be- 
tween Succoth and Zarthan," were the brass 
foundries of King Solomon.'^ It is still the 
j)lace at which the eastern Bedouins cross 
in their periodical invasions of Esdraelon. 
From Succoth to the mouth of the Jabbok 
the river becomes very low during the sum- 
mer, and is fordable at many points. The 
only other fords of note are those in the 
plain of Jericho, one above and one below 
the pilgrim's bathing-place. They are much 
deeper than those higher up, ami when the 
river is swollen they become impassable. 

The historical references to the Jordan in 



1 Matt, xix., 1, 2; Mark x., 1.— 2 Judg. vii., 24; xii., 
G; 1 Kings vii., 46. 

34 



the Scripture are of considerable impor- 
tance ; but for an account of the part the 
river has played in the history of Palestine 
the reader must be referred to larger works. 
Of these historical incidents, some of the 
most important are the crossing of the river 
by. the Israelites, Josh. iii. ; iv. ; by Elijah 
and Elisha, 2 Kings ii., 7-14 ; by David, 2 
Sam. xvii., 22; xix., 15-39; and in various 
military expeditions, Judg. viii., 4; x., 9; 2 
Sam. ii., 29 ; Naaman's cure, 2 Kings v., 10- 
14 ; Elisha's miracle, 2 Kings vi,, 2-7 ; John's 
baptism of the people. Matt, iii., 6 ; Mark i., 
5 ; and of Christ, Matt, iii., 13 ; Mark i., 9. 
An annual ceremony of bathing in the Jor- 
dan is maintained by certain of the Oriental 
Christians, Syrians, Greeks, and others. 

Joseph (he unll add). 1. The first-born of 
the two sons which Rachel bore to Jacob. 
He was born in Padan-aram, after his mother, 
jealous that her sister Leah was blessed with 
children, had resorted to a superstitious de- 
vice, and by her impatience at her own bar- 
renness had caused even Jacob's great love 
for her to be clouded by anger ;^ and she 
named him Joseph, saying, " God hath taken 
away my reproach," and " The Lord will add 
to mo another son " — a hope fulfilled in the 
birth of Benjamin. 

As the child of Rachel and the son of his 
old age, and doubtless also because of the 
excellence of his character, Joseph was be- 
loved by his fixther above all his brethren, 
and was distinguished by a dress of pecul- 
iar richness, probably the long tunic with 
sleeves worn by young men and maidens of 
the wealthier class.'"^ The children of Leah 
hated the children of Rachel, their mother's 
rival. This hatred was increased by the fact 
that Joseph reported to their father the ill- 
conduct of his brothers, and that two dreams 
which he related seemed to indicate that 
he should have pre-eminence over them. 
Jacob was jDrobably unconscious of this ill- 
feeling between his sons when he sent Jo- 
seph, a lad of seventeen years, to the fields 
where the brethren were tending their flocks, 
that he might bring back to the father ti- 
dings of their welfare. Disappointed in his 
expectation of finding them at Shechem, Jo- 
seph followed on to Dothan. As they saw 
him approaching, these envious men con- 
spired for his death, and Reuben and Judah 
alone, among them, showed a touch of hu- 
manity. Judah, desiring not to have their 
brother's blood on their hands, appealed to 
the greed of the brothers, proposing to dis- 
pose of Joseph quite as effectually, and more 
to their profit, by selling him to an approach- 
ing caravan of Midianitish, or Ishmaelitish, 
merchants.#This plan was carried out ; and 
while Joseph was carried to Egypt, to pro- 
vide subsequently for the deliverance of his 
brethren from the famine, they returned to 
the patriarch carrying with them the frag- 
1 Gen. XXX., 2.-2 Gen. xxxvii., 3. 



JOSEPH 



530 



JOSEPHUS 



merits of Joseph's coat dipped in the blood 
of a kid, in attestation of the story that their 
brother had been killed by a wild beast. 
Taken by the merchants to Egypt, and there 
sold to Potiphar (q. v.), captain of Pharaoh's 
guard, Joseph, by his integrity, won his mas- 
ter's confidence, and was appointed to the 
highest position of trust in the household, 
until, in consequence of the perfidy and false 
accusation of Potiphar's wife, he was put 
into prison. There again he obtained favor ; 
and his interpretation of the strange dreams 
of Pharaoh's chief butler and chief baker 
coming to the ears of the king, he was sum- 
moned to the court, that he might explain 
two remarkable dreams which had been dis- 
quieting the king. Eeading these dreams, 
Joseph predicted the seven years of plenty, 
to be followed by seven years of famine, and 
Pharaoh made him prime minister, ordered 
special honors to be paid to him, and gave 
him Asenath (q. y.) for his wife, who bore 
him two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim. In 
confirmation of the Scripture narrative, there 
is monumental evidence that at a time con- 
temporary with Joseph the risings of the 
Nile reached a remarkable height, and the 
consequence was a largely increased fertil- 
ity.. During the years of plenty Joseph 
stored away immense quantities of grain ; 
and when the predicted famine came, sup- 
plied the Egyptians from the stores he had 
collected, purchasing, as their wants in- 
creased, their lands (those of the priests 
excepted) for Pharaoh, but so that they af- 
terward held them from the crown on pay- 
ment of a fifth of the produce. We may be- 
lieve that this was no impolitic or inequita- 
ble arrangement ; for the Egyptians regard- 
ed Joseph as their great benefactor. As the 
famine extended, Jacob and his sons in Ca- 
naan were forced to seek bread from Egypt, 
where they found their brother Joseph the 
chief man of the kingdom. There the pa- 
triarch came to spend his last days with his 
long-lost son, and Joseph received his father's 
blessing, and continued a prosperous admin- 
istration until his own death, at the age of 
one hundred and ten years. In accordance 
with his request, his descendants carried his 
bones with them when they went out of 
Egypt, and buried them in Shechem.^ 

There is scarcely in sacred or profane his- 
tory a more remarkable character, or a more 
dramatic and romantic life, than Joseph's. 
Not only in modern literature has it been 
the theme of mjiny a story, song, and sermon, 
but traces of it in modified forms are to be 
found in the Koran, in the canonical books 
of the Armenian Church, in the pages of Jus- 
tin, and in the hieroglyphics and remains of 
Egypt. His dignity and self-possession are 
sublime ; disaster never prostrates, prosper- 
ity never intoxicates ; when accused by Pot- 
iphar's wife, he utters no defense ; he receives 



1 Exod. xiii., 19. 



the summons from the prison to the court 
with perfect calmness ; with unswerving 
steadfastness of faith, he hesitates not to 
avow his religious faith even before the 
idolatrous king ; when his brethren come 
before him to buy corn, he is not startled, 
and holds complete mastery over himself in 
their presence while he plans to have his 
dearly-beloved brother Benjamin brought to 
him. No pen of romance can exceed the in- 
terest of those interviews between the breth- 
ren, Joseph's self-control giving way only 
when the impetuous Judah, after the arrest 
of Benjamin for the alleged theft, offers him- 
self as a ransom, depicts the sorrow of their 
father at the loss of Joseph, whom he does 
not yet recognize, and portrays the unutter- 
able agony which the loss of Benjamin will 
surely occasion to the aged patriarch. The 
moral of his life lies upon the surface — the 
value of reliance upon God, that reliance 
which adversity can not shake, and from 
which prosperity is powerless to allure. 
[Gen. xxxvii.-L] 

2. The reputed father of our Lord, hus- 
band of the Virgin. Little is told of him in 
Scripture, save that he was of the seed of 
David, and a just man, who carried on the 
trade of a carpenter at Nazareth. He was 
several times favored with divine communi- 
cations. He was still alive when Jesus at 
twelve years went up to Jerusalem; but 
there is reason to believe that he died be- 
fore our Lord closed his public ministry. Had 
she then had a husband, Mary would not at 
the crucifixion have been intrusted to the 
care of John. [Matt, i., 16, 18-2.5 ; ii., 13-15, 
19-23 ; xiii., 55 ; Luke i., 27 ; ii., 4, 5, 16, 27, 
33, 41-51 ; John xix., 26, 27.] 

3. Joseph of Arimathea, a rich and pious 
Israelite, probably a member of the Sanhe- 
drim,^ who either was not present at the 
trial of Jesus, or at least did not vote for his 
condemnation.* Though hoping for the ad- 
vent of a Messiah, ready to receive Christ, 
and secretly a disciple, he lacked the cour- 
age to avow himself one. The crucifixion 
of Christ seems to have emboldened him ; 
for it is said he " went in boldly unto Pilate, 
and craved the body of Jesus."^ Nothing 
more is known of him, nor have scholars 
been able to identify the place indicated by 
the phrase " of Arimathea." 

Josephus, a celebrated Jewish historian 
of the first century. His works are one of 
the chief sources of information, outside of 
the Bible, respecting Jewish history, and es- 
pecially Jewish manners and customs. His 
most important works are "Antiquities of 
the Jews " and " Wars of the Jews." These 
are frequently cited by religious writers in 
their works. His history is, however, con- 
fessedly not altogether trustworthy, owing 
partly to his Oriental love of exaggeration 
and his desire to reflect glory on his nation. 



Mark xv., 43.-2 Luke xxiii., 51.— 3 Mark xv., 43. 



JOSHUA 



531 



JOSHUA (THE BOOK OF) 



and partly to his rationalistic tendencies, 
and his desire to make his works as accept- 
able as possible to tlie Greeks and Romans. 

Joshua (Saviour), otherwise written Je- 
HOSHUA, Jeshua, Oshea, Hoshea, and Je- 
sus.* In the form Joshua it is commonly used 
of the sou of Nun, the successor of Moses, 
and the commander-in-chief of the armies of 
Israel during the conquest of Canaan. He 
was of the tribe of Ephraim, and was near- 
ly forty years old when he shared in the 
hurried triumph of the Exodus. He is men- 
tioned first in connection with the fight 
against Amalek at Rephidim. He is spe- 
cially called the minister, or personal attend- 
ant, of Moses, and accompanied him part of 
the way when he set out to ascend Mount 
Sinai. He was then a young man. After- 
ward he was one of the twelve spies who 
were sent to explore the land of Canaan, 
and one of the two who gave an encourag- 
ing report of their journey, and who alone 
were spared to inherit the land. Toward 
the close of the wandering he Avas solemnly 
and publicly invested with definite author- 
ity over the people, and j ust before Moses's 
death received a special charge from God 
through the lips of the great lawgiver. He 
had had at this time forty years of public 
life, and was well trained to enter upon his 
career as leader of the people. When he 
had put Israel in possession of the Promised 
Land, and had .established a regular organi- 
zation in civil and social affairs, he died, at 
the age of one hundred and ten years, and 
was buried in his own city, Timnath-serah, 
in Mount Ephraim, a city which the children 
of Israel assigned to him when the division 
of the land was complete. 

The contrast between Joshua and his pred- 
ecessor, Moses, was very great. Moses was 
leader, lawgiver, prophet. Joshua was a sim- 
ple, straightforward, undaunted soldier. He 
is always known by his spear, or javelin, 
slung between his shoulders, or stretched out 
in his hand. The one quality which is re- 
quii-ed of him, and described in him, is that 
he was "very courageous." He turned nei- 
ther to the right hand nor to the left, but, 
at the head of the hosts of Israel, he went 
right forward from Jordan to Jericho, from 
Jericho to Ai, from Ai to Gibeon, to Beth-ho- 
ron, to Merom. He wavered not for a mo- 
ment ; he was here, he was there, he was ev- 
erywhere, as the emergency called for him. 
He had no words of wisdom, except those 
which shrewd common sense and public spir- 
it dictated. To him the divine revelation 
was made not in the burning bush, nor in 
the still small voice, but by " the captain 
of the Lord's host, with a drawn sword in 
his hand ;"^ and that drawn and glittering 
sword was the vision which went before 
him through the land, till all the kings of Ca- 

1 Exod. xvii., 9 ; Numb, xiv., 8, 16 ; Deut. xxsii., 14 ; 
Neh. viii., 17 ; Heb. iv., 8.-2 Josh, v., 13-15. 



naan were subdued beneath his feet. [Exod. 
xvii., 9; xxiv., 13; xxxii., 17; xxxiii., 11; 
Numb, xi., 28, 29; xiii., 2; xiv., 6, 30, 38; 
xxvi., 65; xxvii,, 18-23 ; xxxii., 18; Deut. 
xxxi., 14, 23 ; Josh, vii.; viii. ; xix., 49, 50 ; 
xxiv., 30.] 

Joshua (The Book of). This book re- 
ceives its name from its recordiug the con- 
quest and appropriation of the land of Ca- 
naan by the Israelites, under the leadership 
of Joshua. Its object is to set forth the fidel- 
ity of Jehovah to his covenant by an histor- 
ical proof of the fulfillment of his promises. 
Historically a continuation of the Penta- 
teuch, it has been regarded by some critics 
as a part of that work, and as a completion 
of Deuteronomy ; but there do not appear to 
be sufficient grounds for this opinion. The 
references to the " book of the law "* rather 
show that that book was distinct from Josh- 
ua; and references to events recorded in the 
Pentateuch tend in the same direction. 

The book of Joshua may be considered as 
comprising three parts : 1. The conquest of 
Canaan ; 2. The partition of Canaan ; 3. 
Joshua's farewell and death. By the Jew- 
ish writers and the Christian fathers the 
authorship of the book is generally ascribed 
to Joshua ; but nothiug is certainly known 
upon this point. Several modern critics re- 
gard the book as a compilation from various 
documents — two or more — and as a work 
much more recent than the times to which 
it relates. That Joshua wrote something is 
plainly stated in xxiv., 26 ; but this assertion 
evidently does not apply to the entire book. 
It is also plain that the notice of Joshua's 
death and burial was added after his decease. 
All that we can safely affirm is that it is 
substantially the work of a contemporary 
and witness of the events it narrates. It is 
unmistakably an authentic history. Its mi- 
nuteness and accuracy of detail imply a 
most intimate acquaintance with the events 
recorded. This is not only true of the sim- 
ple historical portions, but remarkably so of 
the topographical and local allusions. It 
reads like an official document in many 
places; and its second division, which re- 
lates to the partition of Canaan, has been 
aptly compared to the Doomsday-book of 
the Norman conquerors of England. The 
accuracy of the book in the names and local- 
ities of places, so far as it can now be test- 
ed, is one of the best evidences of its au- 
thenticity. It is true that attempts are made 
by several modern critics to dismember the 
book. It is alleged that there are discrepan- 
cies and interpolations which could not have 
existed if it had been a contemporary record 
by a single writer. Some of these discreji- 
aucies can be easily explained, and we may 
hence infer that the others might in like man- 
ner be accounted for if we knew all the facts 
of the case. Some linguistic peculiarities are 
1 Josh, i., S; viii., 31; xxiii., 6; xxiv., 20. 



JOSHUA (THE BOOK OF) 



532 



JOSIAH 



also urged against the book, and the traces of 
three authors are said to be found in it ; but 
the proofs brought to support this are insuf- 
ficient, and the critics who profess to find 
the traces of diverse origin do not agree as 
to where they are. Equally insufiScient and 
shadowy is the criticism as to the actual date 
of the book. 

In fact, there are but two objections to 
the authenticity and inspiration of the book 
which are worthy of serious consideration. 
One is bg^sed upon scientific objections to the 
record of the miracles which it contains. In 
this respect, however, the history must stand 
or fall with the Biblical account of miracles 
in general ; and we must not forget the con- 
stant indications of the special and super- 
natural intervention of God during the whole 
period preceding and subsequent. The dry- 
ing up of the Jordan as Joshua led the peo- 
ple out of the Wilderness into Canaan is the 
counterpart of the drying of the Red Sea as 
Moses led them out of Egypt into the Wil- 
derness. The overthrow of the walls of Jer- 
icho is paralleled by the overthrow of the 
Egyptians on that day when the Israelites 
stood still and saw the salvation of the Lord. 
The standing still of the sun and moon at 
the word of Joshua is certainly without a 
parallel. We need not, however, enter here 
into a discussion of this miracle ; it is enough 
to say that the doctrine of the divine inspi- 
ration of the Scriptures does not necessarily 
involve scientific accuracy in its description 
of phenomena,^ and that we may believe that 
the lengthening of the day, however pro- 
duced, is described not according to the sci- 
entific fact, but according to the visible ap- 
pearance to an unscientific beholder. In- 
deed the authenticity of the book of Joshua 
does not in any sense depend upon a literal 
interpretation of this famous passage, which 
is a quotation from the book of Jasher (q. 
v.), and which is certainly siisceptible of 
being understood, as many critics do un- 
derstand it, as a poetical fragment, and in- 
tended to be poetically understood. It is no 
more necessary to suppose that the sun and 
moon were actually arrested in their courses, 
or, rather, that the revolution of the earth was 
stopped, than, from the declaration in Judg. 
v., 20, that " the stars in their courses fought 
against Sisera," to conclude that they left 
their place in the heavens to participate in 
the conflict of the battle-field. The other 
objection is one which has probably been felt 
by Christian readers as well as by skeptics. 
It is the objection that the account of the ex- 
termination of the Canaaiiites by divine di- 
rection does not harmonize with the precepts 
and principles of the religion of love as in- 
culcated by Jesus Christ. It is a sufficient 
reply to this to say that the difi"erence be- 
tween the Old and the New dispensations is 
constantly recognized both by our Lord and 
1 See Ckeation; Inspiration. 



by his disciples. As the child is forbidden 
all intercourse with profane and vicious com- 
panions, but w^hen he comes to mature age 
freely mingles with the lowest and worst, 
that he may convert them to Christ, so the 
world in its infancy was rightly required to 
act upon principles somewhat different from 
those to which it was finally brought in the 
fullness of time. Thus the divine command 
to Joshua can not be construed into a divine 
command to us, nor the course of the Israel- 
ites in exterminating the idolatrous tribes 
into an example for us to follow, or any jus- 
tification for any form of religious persecu- 
tion. " Now," says Chrysostom, speaking of 
David's declaration concerning the enemies 
of God, " ' I hate them with perfect hatred,' 
now a higher philosox^hy is required of us 

than of them They are ordered to hate 

not only impiety, but the persons of the im- 
pious, lest their friendship should be an oc- 
casion of going astray. Therefore he cut 
off all intercourse, and freed them on every 
side." 

Our conclusion, then, is, that none of the 
objections to the authenticity and inspira- 
tion of the book of Joshua are sufficient to 
cast doubt upon the general opinion of the 
Christian Church that it was written sub- 
stantially by Joshua, or, in his time, by one 
who had access to authoritative information; 
but that it received its finishing strokes some 
time, but not long, after his death.^ 

Josiah {Jehovah heals), sixteenth king of 
Judah, and son of Ammon, whom he succeed- 
ed at the early age of eight, and reigned thir- 
ty-one years, B.C. 641-610. When but six- 
teen years old, he began to manifest that en- 
mity to idolatry which marked his character 
and reign. Four years later he commenced 
a thorough purification of the land from the 
grosser forms of superstition and idolatry. 
He even went so far as to violate the sanc- 
tity of the sepulchre, and the bones of the 
idolatrous priests were exhumed and burned 
upon their own altars. This unparalleled 
deed was the fulfillment of a prophecy ut- 
tered more than three hundred years before.^ 
During the repairs that Josiah made upon 
the Temple, Hilkiah (q. v.), the high-priest, 
discovered the book of the law given by 
Moses, which appears to have been lost for 
many years. The great event in Josiah's 
life was the celebration of the Passover, in 
the eighteenth year of his reign, on a scale 
of unexampled magnificence,^ and with a 
careful attention to all the directions given 
in the law. But the time drew near when 
the prediction* of Huldah (q. v.) the proph- 
etess was to be fulfilled ; yet first Josiah was 
to be gathered to his fathers in peace, and 
was not to see the evil destined to fall on 
Jerusalem.^ In attempting to resist the 



1 Comp. chaps, iv., 14; vi., 25; xxiv., 31.— ^ 1 Kings 
xiii., 2.-3 2 Chrou. xxxv., IS. — ■* 2 Chrou. xxxiv., 24, 
25.-5 2 ChroD. xxxiv., 28. 



JOT 



533 



JUDAH 



progress of Pharaoh -necho, who sought a 
passage through his territories, against the 
Assyrians, Josiah was wounded and died. 
No king of Israel was ever more deeply la- 
mented. All Judah and Jerusalem mourned 
for their fallen king, and the prophet Jere- 
miah himself joined in the general expres- 
sion of public grief.^ He left four sons, Zed- 
ekiah, Johanan, Jehoiakim, and Jehoahaz, or 
Sallum,^ of whom the two latter occupied, 
successively, his throne after his death. [2 
Kings xxii. ; xxiii., 1-30 ; 2 Chron. xxxiv; ; 

XXXV. 

Jot. The word jot, or yod, is the name of 
the Hebrew letter Y, the smallest letter in 
the Hebrew alphabet. See Tittle. 

Jotham {Jehovah is upright), the eleventh 
king of Judah, and son of Uzziah, whom he 
succeeded. From the time his father was 
smitten with leprosy Jotham had charge 
of affairs in the kingdom.^ On his father's 
death, at the age of twenty-five, he ascended 
the throne, and reigned sixteen years, B.C. 
758-742. Jotham ruled in the fear of God, 
though he was not able to correct all the 
corrupt practices into which the people had 
fallen.* He was rewarded by a prosperous 
reign, and was successful in his wars against 
the Ammonites. Many important public 
works were undertaken by Jotham. The 
principal gate of the Temple was rebuilt by 
him on a more magnificent scale, the city 
was strengthened by new fortifications, and 
castles and towers of defense were erected 
in the wilderness. His son Ahaz succeeded 
Mm. [2 Kings xv., 32-38 ; 2 Chron. xxvii.] 

Journey. Among the ancient Jews a 
day's journey was probably ten to twenty 
miles. A Sabbath-day's journey was two 
thousand cubits, or paces — about six fur- 
longs, or three-quarters of a mile. The meas- 
ure is supposed to have been borrowed from 
the space left between the people and the 
ark when they passed the Jordan. [Josh, 
iii., 4; Acts i., 12.] 

Jubal (tru7npet), a son of Lamech. He is 
described in the Scripture as the father of 
all such as handle the harp or organ — i. e., 
the inventor of those instruments. Howev- 
er, neither the word harp nor the modern 
organ is probably indicated. The terms are 
general in their character, and indicate sim- 
ply that he was the originator of stringed 
and wind instruments, both of which were 
doubtless of simple and rude construction. 
[Gen.iv.,21.] 

Jubilee (The Year of), the fiftieth year af- 
ter the succession of seven Sabbatical years, 
in which all the land which had been alien- 
ated returned to the families of those to 
whom it had been allotted in the original 
distribution, and all bondmen of Hebrew 
blood were liberated. The relation in which 



1 2 Chron. xxxv., 25.-2 2 Kings xxiii., 31 ; 1 Chron. 
iii., 15; Jer. xxxvii., 1.— ^ 2 Kings xv., 5; 2 Chron. 
xxvi., 21.—* 2 Chron. xxvii., 2. 



it stood to the Sabbatical year, and the gen- 
eral directions for its observance, are given 
in Lev. xxv., 8-16 and 23-55. Its bearing 
on lands dedicated to Jehovah is stated in 
Lev. xxvii., 16-25. There is no mention of 
the Jubilee in the Book of Deuteronomy, and 
the only other reference to it in the Penta- 
teuch is in Numb, xxxvi., 4. The year Was 
inaugurated on the Day of Atonement, with 
the blowing of truni^ets throughout the 
land, and by a proclamation of universal lib- 
erty. Josephus states that all debts were 
remitted in the year of Jubilee ; but there 
is no hint of this in the Law, and the Jew- 
ish writers expressly deny it. The latter 
generally consider that the Jubilee was ob- 
served till the destruction of the first tem- 
ple ; but there is no direct historical notice 
of this either in the books of the O. T. or in 
any other records. The only passages in 
the prophets which can be regarded, with 
much confidence, as referring to the Jubilee 
in any way, are Isa. v., 7, 8, 9, 10 ; Ixi., 1, 2 ; 
Ezek. vii., 12, 13 ; xlvi., 16, 17, 18. The year 
was political in its character rather than 
religious, and was not distinguished by any 
prescribed religious observances peculiar to 
itself, like the rites of the Sabbath-day and 
of the Sabbatical month. Its object appears 
to have been to restore, as far as legislation 
could go, that equality in outward circum- 
stances which was instituted in the first set- 
tlement of the land by Joshua. See Inher- 

ITAJSrCE. 

Judah (praised), the fourth son of Jacob 
and Leah, so called from the joyful gratitude 
expressed by his mother at his birth. After 
the return of Jacob with his family to Ca- 
naan, Judah took a woman of the country 
to wife. Judah's character improves as we 
follow out the circumstances of the history. 
It was at his suggestion that Joseph was sold 
by the brothers, instead of being put to death^ 
and afterward his conduct in Egypt, in inter- 
ceding for Benj'amin, was in every respect 
praiseworthy. At the descent into Egypt, 
Judah had three sons living : the two grand- 
sons afterward distinguished as heads of fam- 
ilies in the tribe were probably not thenborn.^ 

The prophetic blessing pronounced by Ja- 
cob augured a splendid destiny to the de- 
scendants of this son. Though not the eld- 
est, yet the royalty of Israel was to be with 
Judah, and his imperial power and the pro- 
ductiveness of his territory, in wine and as 
pasturage, were foretold.'^ 

At the first census in the wilderness the 
tribe numbered 74,600 ; and though the early 
leaders of Israel, Moses, Aaron, Joshua, were 
of other families, yet Judah as a tribe took 
always the foremost place, marched at the 
head, and mustered under their standard 



1 Gen. xxxvii., 26-28; xlii.,3-14; xliv., 14-34; xlvi., 
12.— 2 Gen.xxix,, 35; xxvii., 26-28 ; xliii.,3-14; xliv., 
13-34; xlvi., 12; xlix., 8-12 ;*1 Chron. v., 2. See Shi- 

LOH. 



JUDAH 



534 



JUDAH 




the largest host. In the second census Ju- 
dah had multiplied to 76,500. The inspired 
benediction of Moses was short, yet it never- 
theless indicated the increasing strength of 
this tribe. Accordingly, we find a noble 
inheritance provided for Judah. Its terri- 
tory was in average length about forty-five 
miles, with a breadth of fifty, and compre- 
hended four regions — the south, ^'toward 
the coast of Edom;" the "valley," plain, or 
Shefelah, the tract lying between the central 
hill - country and the Mediterranean ; the 
mountains; and the wilderness, the slopes 
and sunken region adjoining the Dead Sea. 
A portion of this territory was afterward 



deducted for Simeon. Dan, too, had some 
places previously allotted to Judah. In the 
lot of this tribe were one hundred and fifteen 
cities. They were divided into — the utter- 
most cities, cities of the valley, cities in the 
wilderness, and cities on the shores of the 
Dead Sea. 

Among the towns of chief note may be 
enumerated Bethlehem, Hebron, Kirjath-jea- 
rim, Lachish, and Libnah.^ 

The region of Judah was much diversified. 
The low jdain along the sea-coast was em- 
phatically a corn -producing country; the 



1 Numb, i., 2G, 27 ; ii., 3-9 ; vii. 
Josh. XV. ; xix., 1-9 ; comp. 40-iS. 



12; XXVi., 19-22; 



JUDAS 



535 



JUDAS 



hills were admirably adapted for the culture 
of the vine; and the wilder districts supplied 
ahuudant pasture for the flocks and herds. 
But powerful as the tribe was, it did not 
subdue and occupy the whole of its terri- 
tory. At flrst portions of the Sliefelah were 
conquered by Joshua, and certain towns in 
the hill-country were taken. After Joshua's 
death, Jiulah and Simeon together destroyed 
the chief Philistine cities and sacked Jerusa- 
lem. But some of these conquests were not 
retained. The Canaanites, who had chariots 
of iron, were too strong to be exterminated ; 
and the tribe would seem to have settled 
mainly in the central mountains, holding for 
the most part the south and the wilderness, 
and according to circumstances gaining or 
losing the tracts adjacent to the Philistines. 

During the period of the judges we hear 
little of Judah. Only one judge, Othniel, is 
known certainly to have been of this tribe. 
Like the rest of Israel, they submitted to 
the Philistine yoke ; and their pusillanimous 
conduct is strongly marked in their behavior 
toward Samson. They preserved, however, 
an independent spirit in regard to the other 
tribes; and while they acquiesced in the 
Benjamite Saul's appointment as king, it 
could hardly have been with a very good 
grace, as may be inferred from the very 
small contingent they supplied to that mon- 
arch's army when proceeding against Ama- 
lek.^ Gladly, therefore, did they embrace 
the opportunity of Saul's death to anoint 
their own tribesman, David, king in He- 
bron ; and for some years they maintained a 
separate monarchy. When the nation Avas 
reunited under David's sceptre, the haughty 
men of Judah thought little of and cared lit- 
tle for th^ rest of the tribes, an omen of the 
entire separation which occurred after Solo- 
mon's death.^ 

The breaking of the Hebrew monarchy 
into two kingdoms, though the special judg- 
ment of God on sin, was, nevertheless, the 
natural consequence of tribal jealousy. Had 
Rehoboam (q. v.) possessed tact, he might 
still, after the rupture, have been a powerful 
king. But his folly provoked the anger of 
the Lord ; and Shishak, king of Egypt, swept 
like a storm from the desert over his domin- 
ions, plundered Jerusalem and carried off the 
wealth of the Temple, and left the King of 
Judah humiliated and impoverished. The 
story of Judah from this point is briefly 
summed up in the article Jews, where the 
reader will also find a list of its successive 
kings. For full information respecting its 
history after the disruption, he is referred 
to the articles under those titles respectively. 

Judas. 1. IsCARiOT, the betrayer of our 
Lord. The course of his life and the appar- 
ent contradictions of his character have giv- 



1 1 Sam. xv„ 4.-2 Josh, x., 2S-40 ; xi., 21 ; Judg. i., 
1-20 ; ii., 9-11 ; xv., 9-13 ; 2 Sam. ii., 1-11 ; xix., 40^8 ; 
XX., 2, 4. 



en rise to some perplexity. On the one hand, 
a certain class of critics have supposed that 
he was actuated solely by selfish and world- 
ly motives, in joining the apostles ; that 
Christ, though he knew what was in the 
man, chose him, despite his intrinsic badness, 
as one of his especial companions for reasons 
of his own — possibly as a warning to his 
Church in time to come ; that from the bo- 
ginning the traitor had no sympathy or fel- 
low-feeling with the other disciples; that 
after his betrayal of Christ his repentance 
was a pretense, and his real remorse was 
only occasioned by his failure to obtain the 
honors and emoluments which he thought 
it would bring him ; and that his death was 
that only of one slain by his own ambition, 
that overleaped itself. On the other ex- 
treme, the view has been advanced that he 
was a sincere disciple of Christ ; that he sin- 
cerely desired and earnestly looked for the 
coming of his king ; that he believed Christ 
to be the Messiah ; that he was disappoint- 
ed that Jesus did not declare himself so, and 
take by a miracle the authority which be- 
longed to him ; that, impatient of delay, he 
resorted to a stratagem, betrayed him to the 
rulers, and contrived his arrest; that he 
fully expected that Christ, thus compelled, 
to call into play his miraculous powers, 
would assert his Messiahship, and take the 
throne which, in common with the other 
disciples, he believed his Lord aud Master 
was to occupy ; and that when he saw the 
fatal result of his unintentional treachery, 
he was overwhelmed with remorse, and went 
and hung himself. And critics who have 
taken this ground have even gone so far as 
to assert that his repentance was genuine 
and was accepted, and that Judas Iscariot 
is among the pardoned and redeemed of 
heaven. We think that alike the theory 
that makes him a curious monster of iniqui- 
ty and that which regards him as a deluded 
saint are erroneous, and that the truth lies 
between the two. 

There is some uncertainty as to the mean- 
ing of the word Iscariot. The most proba- 
ble derivation is, of Kerioth. Kerioth was a 
town of Southern Judea; and thus Judas 
would appear to be the only Judean among 
the disciples. As such, he would have been 
educated to regard Judaism with much great- 
er reverence than his Galilean companions. 
To him Jerusalem was the holy city, the 
Temple was the very throne of God on earth, 
and the priesthood were God's authoritative 
representatives. He may have seen that 
Judaism was corrupt ; he may have desired 
its reformation ; he may have been among 
those who listened to the preacliing of John 
the Baptist, and were affected by it, and 
among the "many" who saw the miracles 
which Jesus wrought at Jerusalem, aud " be- 
lieved in his name.'" At all events, there is 



Jolin ii., 23. 



JUDAS 



536 



JUDE (EPISTLE OF) 



no reason to doubt that when lie joined the 
new movement which Christ inaugurated, 
he did so sincerely ; gave himself heartily 
to it ; believed, as did all the rest, that 
Jesus was the Messiah, and would es^^ablish 
on a firm foundation the Jewish throne, and 
emancipate from the Roman yoke the Jew- 
ish people ; and in this faith followed with 
feverish enthusiasm his new Master. There 
is no reason to suppose that Christ chose a 
conscious hypocrite. There was nothing in 
Christ's cause at the outset to attract a con- 
scious hypocrite. Yet even then, along with 
pure desires for an emancipated land and a 
reformed religion, there may have mingled a 
personal ambition for wealth and influence in 
the new kingdom, and a shrewd expectancy 
that those who shared the Messiah's humil- 
ity would share in his glory. As Christ in- 
dicated more and more clearly the spiritual 
nature of his kingdom, and the sufterings 
through which he and his followers must 
enter upon it, many of his followers fell off 
from him. The twelve, or rather, to speak 
more accurately, the eleven, remained faith- 
ful, and, gradually imbibing their Master's 
spirit, prepared to share with him his cross. 
In all of them, however, there is noticeable 
the conflict between love for their Lord and 
personal auabition, appearing ever and anon, 
as in the rebuke offered by Peter to Christ 
for his prophesying of the crucifixion ; in 
the application of James and John for the 
chief places in the new kingdom ; and in the 
apostasy of some of the disciples, less direct- 
ly attached to the person of Christ.^ But 
while in the eleven faith and love triumphed 
over ambition and selfishness, in Judas am- 
bition and selfishness triumphed over faith 
and love. When Christ finally and irrevo- 
cably broke with the ecclesiastical authori- 
ties in Jerusalem, and openly and vehement- 
ly denounced them, and afterward, sitting 
on Mount Olivet, prophesied in no uncertain 
language the destruction of Jerusalem and 
the Temple, and his own crucifixion, and the 
scattering of his disciples, Judas, disappoint- 
ed in his expectations, and angered by his 
disappointment, resolved to gain in anoth- 
er way that prestige and power which the 
Messiah's kingdom denied him. He thought, 
at least it is reasonable so to suppose, that 
if he could be the means of delivering Christ 
into the hands of the chief priests, he would 
become an honored leader in that party to 
which, by birth and early education, he be- 
longed. The severe rebuke which Christ 
administered to him at Bethany, on the oc- 
casion of Mary's offering,^ and the aversion 
with which the disciples began, apparently, 
to look upon him, intensified tliis resolution, 
which, however, he kept to himself. When 
Christ disclosed, at the last supper, that ho 
knew Judas's purpose, the traitor was thun- 



1 Matt, xvi., 21, 
xii., 4-7. 



XX., 20-22 ; John vi. 



John 



derstruck, and hastened out to accomplish it 
before it was too late. His treachery re- 
sulted, however, as treachery always does. 
Those that used him despised him ; and as 
soon as Christ was in the hands of the 
priests, they evidently ignored Judas alto- 
gether. Contemned alike by the disciples, 
whose Lord he had betrayed, and by those 
into whose hands he had betrayed him, Ju- 
das made one desperate eftbrt to undo his 
work and secure the release of his Master. 
The Jewish law requir^cT that, even after 
trial, testimony on behalf of the accused 
should be received at any time ; and Jndas, 
in compliance with this provision, came to 
the Sanhedrim, offering to prove Christ's in- 
nocence, at the same time returning the mon- 
ey. But the offer and the money were alike 
contemptuously rejected, and the traitor, out- 
cast and with no hope, and having no faith 
in his Saviour to lead him to Jesus's feet for 
pardon, took the coward's last resort, and 
went out and hanged himself. [Matt, x., 4 ; 
xxvi., 14-16, 21-25, 47-50 ; xxvii., 3-5 ; John 
vi., 40; xii., 4-6; xiii., 29; Acts i., 16-20. 
For a particular account of his death, see 
Aceldama. 

2. Judas of Galilee, a leader of insur- 
rection. According to Josephus, this man 
was a native of Gamala, in Gaulonitis. He 
boldly declared it unlawful to acknowledge 
any foreign authority, and drew after him 
vast multitudes of followers; the insurrection 
beginning in Galilee, about a.d. 6. When 
he perished, though his adherents were dis- 
persed, yet it AYoul<i seem that from them 
sprung the Zealots and Sicarii of later times. 
[Acts v., 37.] 

3. One of the Lord's brethren. He is call- 
ed Juda in Mark vi., 3 ; and Jude in the epis- 
tle which bears his name. He is, we think/ 
distinct from, 

4. A brotheri of James, and one of the 
apostles, called also ThaddsBus and Lebbse- 
us. [Matt. X., 3'; Mark iii., 18 ; Luke vi., 16 ; 
John xiv., 22 ; Acts i., 13.] 

Jude (Bpistl^ of). The name Jude is 
only another form of Judas, a frequent name 
among the Jews. The epistle is attributed 
by different scholars |o two persons of this 
name, Judas the Lorl's brother, and Judas 
the brother of Jame^and:'One of the apos- 



tles, called also 
We adopt the forme 
opinion, though the 
the best critics are 
in part upon ano 
tion — whether we 
ren of the Lord 
only as relative 
" brother of Ja: 
known as a le 




uk-j.and ThaddsBus.^ 

t more probable 

i^ Gffie on which 

It depends 

^iiieult ques- 

vt|.e "breth- 

b]rtthren, or 

himself the 

j^es? was well 

hurcli, and be- 

oif%YXfethef the Lord's 
g;':ft>f only cousins, see 



1 For a discussion 
brethren were really b; 

Bketuken of tiik LoRb;.jAjj[Jss.— 2 See Judab, 3 and 
4.-3 See Brethren qf,.; the Loed ; James.— ^ Jude, 
verse 1. ".■'' ..'' y- 



JUDEA 



537 



JUDGES 



cause to have designated himself as the 
brother of tlie Lord would have been incon- 
sistent with that spirit of humility which 
led the early disciples to avoid claiming any 
pre-eminence over each other. Nothing is 
known of the time or place of the writing 
of this epistle, except that incidental allu- 
sions in the letter itself indicate an early 
date. Its object appears to be to warn the 
early Christians against practical unbeliev- 
ers and scoffers. It was, therefore, proba- 
bly addressed to a church situated in the 
midst of an abundant and wicked popula- 
tion ; but there is nothing to indicate which 
one of the various cities proposed — Cor- 
inth, Egypt, or some of the commercial cit- 
ies of Syria — is the more probable. 

Judea. This name is now frequently ap- 
plied to the whole of the Holy Land, more 
generally designated as Palestine (q. v.). 
Properly speaking, however, it only signi- 
fies one of the three provinces into which 
Palestine, west of the Jordan, was divided 
at the time of Christ — Galilee, Samaria, 
Judea. It occurs frequently in the N. T., but 
only twice in the O. T., and never till aljout 
the time of the restoration of the Jews 
from their captivity. These captives were 
chiefly those of the kingdom of Judah. 
They returned to rebuild Jerusalem, their 
holy city, and to occupy the region imme- 
diately about it. North of them was Sa- 
maria, shutting them out from all familiar 
intercourse with even such of their Jewish 
neighbors as occupied Galilee. Their cap- 
tivity had taught them not only to abhor 
idolatry, but to hate also the idolaters, and 
had given rise to that Pharisaical party 
which, at first a party of reform, became one 
of intense bigotry. Hence, in the time of 
Christ, a marked contrast between the in- 
habitants of Galilee, taught by their com- 
mercial position to cultivate intimacy with 
the heathen, and the inhabitants of Judea, 
taught by their history to abhor all foreign- 
ers, whom they remembered only as con- 
querors. The word Jew is used, in the Gos- 
pel of John, almost exclusively to designate 
the Judeans ; and the difference between 
the teaching of Christ represented in John 
and that portrayed in the other evangelists 
is owing largely to the fact that they re- 
port his ministry chiefly in Galilee, while 
John recounts his ministry chiefly in Judea. 
Proud of their national blood, tracing their 
ancestry back to patriarchs who lived long 
before their national organization ; glorying, 
not in the purity of their lives, but in that 
of their descent; not in their intellectual 
and moral worth, but in this, that theirs was 
the Holy City, theirs the ordained priest- 
hood and the holy i^rophets — these Judeans 
were the ecclesiastical autocrats of the first 
century. The reception which would have 
been accorded to the preaching of Luther in 
Italy in the sixteenth century was accorded 



to the preaching of Christ in Judea in the 
first. The province of Judea comprised the 
territories of Judah, Benjamin, Simeon, and 
parts of Dan, from the Jordan to the Medi- 
terranean, and from the wilderness on the 
south to Shiloh on the north, running up, 
however, on the sea-coast west of Samaria 
to a point north of Ca^sarea. After the dis- 
grace of Archelaus, Judea was attached to 
the Roman province of Syria ; the procura- 
tor, subordinate to the Governor of Syria, 
residing at Csesarea. 

Judges. A certain judicial authority ap- 
pears to have been exercised in very early 
times by the heads of families ; but we have 
no notice of any such jurisdiction during 
the residence of Israel in Egypt. From 
Exod. xviii., 13-18, it appears that Moses 
was the only regular judge when the people 
first came out of Egypt. He introduced, 
however, a systematic arrangement of infe- 
rior judicatures, with an appeal finally to 
himself, in order that he might bring any 
difficult case before God. This arrangement, 
which was made on genealogical principles, 
among tens and hundreds and thousands, 
seems to have been modified, with a regard 
to locality as the leading principle, after the 
people took possession of the land of Canaan, 
in accordance with the direction of Moses 
himself, before his death. With these tri- 
bunals the Levites seem to have had much 
to do, since they were the very men who 
made the law of God their study. Proba- 
bly they acted in company with the local 
magistrates, the elders of every city, who are 
frequentlj^ described as sitting in the gates 
of the city, and there executing judgment. 

Some of the "judges," who were specially 
raised up to deliver Israel from servitude to 
neighboring nations, seem to have also ad- 
ministered civil and criminal justice, though 
inferior judges were still continued. And 
when a king was appointed, he seems to 
have exercised judicial authority, consult- 
ing, very probably, on occasion the high- 
priest as to the interpretation of the law ; 
the right of asking counsel of God through 
the priest being claimed as a royal preroga- 
tive.^ In later times we find mention of 
provincial courts in Judah, and apparently 
a central tribunal in Jerusalem, while in Is- 
rael the elders of cities exercised capital ju- 
risdiction.^ Instances of the administration 
of supreme judicial power by the sovereign 
personally, with or without assessors, are 
very numerous. [1 Sam. xxii., 16-18 ; 2 Sam. 
i., 13-16 ; iv., 9-12 ; 1 Kings ii., 23-34, 42-46 ; 
iii., 16-28 ; xxii., 26, 27 ; 2 Kings vi., 31 ; xiv., 
5, 6; Jer. xxxviii., 4, 5.] 

After the Captivity various courts were 
by degrees established, and the synagogues 
exercised a judicial power. ^ Before such tri- 



1 Josh, xvii., 4; 1 Sam. xiv., 18; xxii., 10, 13, 15; xxiil., 
6.-2 1 Kings xxi., 9-14 ; 2 Chron. xix., 5-11.— ^ See San- 
hedeim; Synagogue. 



JUDGES 



538 



JUDGES (THE BOOK OF) 



bunals a more formal kiud of procedure was 
used : advocates were employed, aud customs 
adopted from the nations to whom the Jews 
had been or were subject/ 

The incorruptibility of judges is strongly 
enforced in various parts of Scripture. They 
were to receive no bribes ; they were to be 
no respecters of persons. They were neither 
to disregard the cry of the needy aud op- 
pressed, nor to court popularity by a vain 
pretense of being the friends of the people. 
Repeated were the denunciations of the 
prophets against such corruption, and terri- 
ble the threats of deserved vengeance on 
such unrighteous rulers.^ [Isa. i., 17, 23, 26 ; 
v., 7 ; X., 2 ; Ivi., 1 ; lix., 4 ; Jer. v., 1 ; vii., 5- 
7 ; xxi., 12 ; xxii., 3, 4, 15-17 ; Ezek. xlv., 8, 
9; Zech. vii., 9-14.] 

The word judge is used in a restricted, 
technical sense, to denote that officer who 
stood at the head of the Hebrew state in 
the intermediate period between the times 
of Moses and Joshua and those of the kings. 
These j udges were men whom God raised up 
on special occasions to deliver his people from 
the oppression of their enemies, and to man- 
age and restore their affairs. For the most 
part tlui?y were military leaders, commission- 
ed in some emergency, without any regular 
transmission of their authority, and not su- 
preme magistrates succeeding to the author- 
ity of Moses and Joshua. Their power only 
extended over portions of the country, and 
some of them were contemporaneous. Their 
name in Hebrew is the same as that for or- 
dinary judges ; nor is it api)lied to them in a 
different sense. In its Latinized form we find 
it applied to the Carthaginian magistrates 
of the time of the Punic wars. Though their 
chief work was that of deliverers and leaders 
in war, they also administered justice to the 
people, and their authority supplied the want 
of a regular government. The origin of that 
authority must in all cases be traced ulti- 
mately to Jehovah, owing to the very nature 
of the theocracy. The j udges acted frequent- 
ly by a divine suggestion, and were endowed 
with preternatural strength and fortitude. 

It is most difficult to fix the chronology of 
the judges. Their histories are given under 
their respective names, of which the follow- 
ing is a list : 

First Servitude, to Mesopotamia. 

First Judge : Othniel. 
Second Servitude, to Moab. 

Second Judge: Ehud;^ 

Third Judge : Shamgae. 
Third Servitude, to Jabin and Sisera. 

Fourth Judge : Deborah and Bakak. 
Fourth Servitude, to Midian. 

Fifth Judge: Gideon; 

Sixth Judge: Aiumeleou ; 

Seventh Judge : Tola;3 

Eighth Judge: Jatr. 
Fifth Servitude, to Ammon. 

yinth Judge: jEriiTUAu; 

Tenth Judge : I J5Z an ; ^ 

Eleventh Judge: Elon ;3 

Twelfth Judge: Aubon. 



1 See Trial.— 2 Lev. xix., 15, 35 ; Deut. xvi., 19 ; Psa. 
Ixxxii. ; Prov. xxiv., 23.— ^ tee Index. 



Sixth Servitude, to the Philistines. 
Thirteenth Judge : Samson ; 
Fourteenth Judge : Eli ; 
Fifteenth Judge : Samuel. 

Judges (The Book of). The Book of 
Judges derives its name from the fact that 
it contains the history of the Israelites from 
the death of Joshua to the time of Eli un- 
der the administration of the judges (q. v.). 
It comprises the history of about three hun- 
dred years, and consists of three parts. The 
first embraces an introductory history of the 
elders who ruled the Israelites after the 
death of Joshua, and the subsequent trans- 
actions to the commencement of their trou- 
bles — chaps, i.-iii., 4. The second part con- 
tains the history of the judges from Othniel 
to Eli — chaps, iii., 5-xvi. The third, some- 
times called the Appendix, narrates several 
memorable actions performed not long after 
the death of Joshua, and is thrown to the 
end of the book, that it might not interrupt 
the thread of the narrative. Many attem^Dts 
have been made to cut this book up into 
shreds more or less minute, according to the 
taste of the critic ; but these attacks upon 
the unity of the book rest upon very trifling 
grounds. The chief one is the existence of 
the Appendix, though it is not difficult to 
see two good reasons for this part of the 
book assuming such a form — the one, that 
the historical development might not be in- 
terrupted ; the other, that the two disgrace- 
ful events which it narrates are to be re- 
garded less as single events than as perma- 
nent influences. The permanence of the 
worship at Dan is expressly mentioned in 
chap, xviii., 30, 31 ; and the captivity of the 
land for the twenty years before Samuel as- 
sumed office is traced to it with tolerable 
distinctness. The permanence of the moral 
evil which came out of Gibeah is not so 
plainly intimated, and might have been sup- 
posed to be eradicated by the vengeance 
taken on Benjamin ; yet its existence among 
the tribes is indicated by their share in the 
terrible chastisement ; and there is a hint 
of the continuance of some equally potent 
mischievous influence in the similar slaugh- 
ter of the tribe of Ephraim by Jephthah. 
And the prophet Hosea informs us, in so 
many words, that the days of Gibeah never 
ceased in Israel, aud that the root of the 
evil had not been taken away.^ As to the 
date of composition aud the authorship we 
can say very little, though a certain class 
of writers have run riot in speculations on 
sources written as well as traditional, aud 
on the supposed blending of materials by 
the editors. On such ground we shall not 
tread. On the one hand, the date of com- 
position could not be earlier than the end 
of that servitude to the Philistines which is 
understood to have terminated at the death 
of Samson. On the other hand, there is 
ground for thinking that it must h ave been 
1 Hos. ix., 9 ; X., 9. 



JUDGMENT (DAY OF) 



539 



JUGGERNAUT 



written "before David took Jerusalem and 
expelled the Jebusites, at the beginning of j 
his reign over all Israel. The book was very j 
likely written in Saul's reign, or in the ear- 
ly part of David's reign. The Jews believe 
that Samuel was the author. He may have 
been, and excellent scholars down to our 
own time think that he was. It is enough 
to know, however, that in the scliools of the 
prophets which Samuel organized there were 
likely to be many instruments well fitted, 
under the guidance of God's Spirit, to write 
this history of their nation in that modified 
sense in which it may be called a history. 
For it is not a connected history, relating 
every thing that happened : long periods are 
often passed over without notice. But, as 
we find elsewhere in Scripture narrative, 
individual persons are brought forward as 
the central figures around which the events 
of their times may be grouped. We have 
glimpses of the history of Israel from the 
time of their early youth as a nation until 
their adult age, but only glimpses, for ena- 
bling us to study their self-education in the 
law of the Lord (at one time neglected, at 
another resumed), and the false and true 
progress which thus continually alternated 
during their time of greatest liberty and 
most decisive formation of national charac- 
ter. The true object of the book may there- 
fore be said to be, to exhibit the theocracy 
— the presence and working of God in the 
administration of the afiairs of his people — 
and thus to show, for the warning and in- 
struction of future ages, how the covenant 
Lord dealt in judgment and in mercy. It 
may be read as a living commentary upon 
the inspired maxim : " Righteousness exalt- 
eth a nation ; but sin is a reproach to any 
people."^ 

Judgment (Day of). The inequalities and 
apparent iu justice of this life have led to a 
universal belief in a future judgment, in 
which men will be tried, and their lives and 
characters tested, by certain divine stand- 
ards, and sentence passed upon them accord- 
ingly. This belief is by no means confined 
to Christian nations, but exists, in different 
forms, in nearly all religions. The Script- 
ures represent the day of judgment under 
various tropes and figures ; and there is per- 
haps danger of rendering them too literally. 
From them, however, we may gather the fol- 
lowing principal facts : There will be a day 
of judgment, which will come without warn- 
ing, at the coming of Christ, who will ad- 
minister it. He will be accompanied by his 
holy angels, and some of the saints will in 
some way participate in its administration. 
There will be a general resurrection of the 
dead. All nations will be gathered before 
his throne, and all men will answer for their 
deeds, words, and thoughts. The wicked 
will be condemned ; and to them it will be 
1 Prov. xiv., 34. 



a day of perdition and destruction. None 
by nature can claim acquittance, and it is 
only by faith in Christ and pardon through 
his blood that any will be enabled to stand. 
It will be x)receded by certain great signs, 
such as convulsions in nature, and will be 
accompanied by the destruction of the world, 
and followed by the making of a new heav- 
en and a new earth. See Millenarians ; 
Resurrection; Future Life; Mohammed- 
anism. [Psa. cxxx., 3; Eccles. iii., 17; Matt, 
xii., 36, 37 ; xxiv., 3 ; xxv., 31, 32, 34-40, 41 ; 
Mark xiii., 32 ; John v., 22, 27 ; Acts xvii., 31 ; 
Rom. viii., 33, 34 ; 1 Cor. iv., 5 ; vi., 2 ; 2 Cor. 
v., 10 ; 2 Pet. iii., 7, 10, 13 ; Rev. xxi., 1.] 

Judgment-hall. The word Prcetorium is 
so translated five times in the N. T. ; and in 
those five passages it denotes two different 
places. 1. In John xviii., 28, 33 ; xix., 9, it 
is the residence which Pilate occupied when 
he visited Jerusalem. The site of Pilate's 
prsetorium in Jerusalem has given rise to 
much dispute, some supposing it to be the 
palace of King Herod ; others, the Tower of 
Antonia; but it was probably the latter, 
which was then and long afterward the cit- 
adel of Jerusalem. 2. That mentioned in 
Acts xxiii., 35, was a jjart of the palace erect- 
ed by Herod at Csesarea. See Pr^torium. 

Judith (The Book of), one of the books 
of the Apocrypha (q. v.). It professes to 
relate the history of a great deliverance of 
the Jews from the Assyrians, by the instru- 
mentality of Judith, who is described as a 
beautiful, bold, unscrupulous character. The 
narrative is agreeably written ; but though 
some critics have imagined that it carries 
with it an air of truth, yet there are difficul- 
ties, chronological, historical, and geograph- 
ical, so great that its authority is now all but 
universally given up. It does not, howev- 
er, by any means follow that it was written 
without a purpose. It may have been in- 
tended, by an allegorical representation, to 
stir up the Jews to a bold resistance against 
the enemies that then threatened them. The 
author of this book was probably a Pales- 
tinian Jew, and it was written in the first or 
second century B.C. 

Juggernaut, or Juggemath, a popular ob- 
ject of worship in Hindoostan. This Hindoo 
deity is a form of Vislinu. The pagoda, or 
temple, dedicated to the worship of Jugger- 
naut stands close to the sea-shore, and, from 
its peculiar prominence, serves as an impor- 
tant sea-mark in guiding mariners to the 
mouth of the Gauges. The image is a carved 
block of wood of frightful aspect, painted 
black, with a distended mouth of a bloody 
color. On festival days the throne of the 
idol is placed upon a stupendous movable 
tower sixty feet high, resting on wlieels. 
Juggernaut is accompanied with two other 
idols, each on a separate tower, aud sitting 
upon thrones of nearly an equal height. At- 
i tached to the principal tower are six ropes, 



JUNIPEE 



540 



JUSTIFICATION 



by which the people drag it along. The of- 
ficiating high-priest is stationed in front of 
the idol, and all around it are thousands of 
massive sculptures, which emblematically 
represent those scenes of revolting indecen- 
cy and horrid cruelty which are the essential 
characteristics of this worship. As the car 
moves with its monstrous idol, numbers of 
devotees cast themselves under its wheels 
and are instantly crushed to pieces, while 
such instances of self-immolation are hailed 
with the acclamations of applauding thou- 
sands. The worship of this idol in his tem- 
ple exhibits only a scene of the most dis- 
gusting obscenity. The temple of Jugger- 
nath is regarded as the most sacred of all 
the Hindoo places of worship, and immense 
crowds of pilgrims resort thither annually, 
multitudes of whom die by the way from 
want, disease, or exhaustion. At fifty miles' 
distance, the sands are whitened with the 
skulls and bones of pilgrims who have per- 
ished before reaching the sacred spot. The 
temple of this deity at Orissa is undoubtedly 
the most celebrated of all the buildings erect- 
ed for his worship ; but many other shrines 
sacred to Juggernath are found throughout 
Hindoostan. 

Juniper. The word so translated is gen- 
erally understood to be a species of broom. 
It is a leguminous plant, and bears a white 
flower. It grows in Spain, Portugal, and 
Palestine, and is abundant in the desert of 
Sinai, where it affords shade and protection 
to travelers. The roots are bitter, and could 
be eaten only in extreme hunger ; but they 
are much valued by the Arabs for charcoal. 
[1 Kings xix., 4, 5 ; Job xxx., 4 ; Psa. cxx., 4.] 

Jupiter. Jupiter is mentioned twice in 
the N. T,, once in describing the mob at Eph- 
esus, where the image of Diana is described 
as having fallen down from Jupiter, and 
once in Acts xiv., 8-18, where Bariiab4.8 is 
taken for Jupiter and Paul for Mercurius. 
Jupiter was the most powerful of all the 
gods of the ancients. He is represented as 
the son of Saturn, and was educated in a 
cave on Mount Ida, in the island of Crete. 
The worship of Jupiter was almost univer- 
sal. He was the Amnion of Africa, the Be- 
lus of Babylon, the Osiris of Egypt. His 
common appellation was, " The Father of 
gods and men." He was usually portrayed 
as sitting upon a golden or an ivory throne, 
holding in one hand a thunder-bolt, and in 
the other a sceptre of cypress. His power 
was supposed to extend over other gods, 
and every thing was subservient to his will 
except the Fates. There is the most abun- 
dant proof that he was worshiped in the re- 
gion of Lycaonia and throughout Asia Minor. 
There was, besides, a fable among the inhab- 
itants of Lycaonia that Jupiter and Mercury 
had once visited that place. 

Justification. Justification is a forensic 
term — i. e., a term borrowed from the law 



courts — and signifies a change, not in the 
character of the soul, but in its condition 
and, so to speak, legal relations. A crimi- 
nal, when he is pardoned out of State Pris- 
on, may or may not be reformed; but his 
pardon operates legally in all respects as an 
acquittal, and restores him to the same con- 
dition in society, so far as the law can do so, 
which he occupied before. When it is said 
that we are justified, it is simply meant that 
the penalty pronounced against our sins is 
taken away, and we are restored to God's 
favor as before, so that he treats us in all 
respects and regards us as though we were 
innocent. Justification thus differs from re- 
generation and sanctification ; the one af- 
fecting only the status or condition of the 
soul, and its relation to its heavenly Father ; 
the other affecting its real character, and 
operating to cleanse it from its sin and pre- 
sent it faultless before the throne of grace. 
The one relates only to the past transgres- 
sions, the legal effect of which it takes away; 
while the other relates also to the future, 
delivering the soul from the power and do- 
minion of iirospective sin. It is right to ad- 
vise our readers, however, that this distinc- 
tion has not always been accepted; some the- 
ologians, especially, though not exclusively, 
in the Eoman Catholic Church, apparently 
recognizing no distinction between justifica- 
tion and sanctification, between, i, e., the re- 
lation of the soul to God and its own inher- 
ent character. If, however, with the great 
body of Protestants, we accept this distinc- 
tion as sound, the various discriminations 
concerning justification may be all said to 
concern one question, viz., how is man jus- 
tified before God ? how, in other words, can 
the sinner secure a restoration of divine fa- 
vor, and a re-establishment of relations of 
love and confidence between himself and 
the justly- offended Deity? In answer to 
this question, there are three principal opin- 
ions. 

1. The doctrine, often called that of Lu- 
ther, but, as we believe, taught even more 
clearly by Paul and by Christ, and even by 
the O. T. writers, is that of "justification by 
faith." According to this doctrine, God is 
not hard to be entreated ; he is not unwill- 
ing to forgive ; he is slow to anger and 
lilenteous in mercy. His feeling toward the 
sinner is always that of love, though not of 
approval. He always feels toward him as a 
Father of infinite patience and love toward 
an erring son, and needs not to have pardon 
procured by any acts of meritoriousness, or 
any process of placation, or any suffering of 
penalty. If the wicked will forsake his way 
and the unrighteous man his thoughts, and 
return unto the Lord, he will have mercy 
upon him and will abundantly pardon. In 
other words, to secure a return of the divine 
favor, and a re-establishment of relations 
of love and confidence, it is only necessary, 



KADESH 



541 



KEDAR 



with, entire trust in the pardoning love of 
God, to throw ourselves ui^on his ruercy and 
ask his forgiveness, and he will grant it, '■'■ for 
his own great name's sake." And in order 
to make pardon possible ; in order that he 
may he both just and the justifier of him 
that believeth, he has given his only begot- 
ten Son to bear our sins for us.^ This is the 
doctrine of justification by faith alone — the 
doctrine that, to secure the favor of God, 
the sinner has only to abandon his sins, and 
cast himself on God without any merit, or 
virtue, or experience, or plea, of his own. 
This is the first step in the sinner's refor- 
mation. After he has thus returned to and 
been received by God, comes the more grad- 
ual work of undoing the evil of his life, cor- 
recting his sinful habits, and, by the grace 
of God and the discipline of his Providence, 
being perfected in holiness. 

2. The second opinion is that of the Roman 
Catholic Church. As we have intimated, 
that Church recognizes no difference between 
justification and sanctification. Justifica- 
tion is, according to the Roman Catholic 
Church, not the treating as just, but the 
making just. Faith is the beginning of sal- 
vation, but not the consummation. It must 
be accompanied by charity and good works. 
The latter are a necessary condition of di- 
vine pardon and favor. Moreover, Christ 
does not by his atonement make full provis- 
ion for the sins of his people. He has borne 
only the eternal punishment of their sins. 
It still remains necessary for them to bear 
the temporal punishment, either in disci- 
pline inflicted by God, in penances (q. v.) 
voluntarily undergone, or in the pains of 
purgatory (q. v.). It is, however, taught by 
the Roman Catholic divines that it is possi- 
ble for saints to perform works of superero- 
gation, and 80 to earn, as it were, a balance 



of favor with God, which may be passed to 
the account of another. 

3. The third view is that of a certain class 
of rationalists, who in effect deny that there 
is any such thing as justification. They) 
deny that there is forgiveness with God; 
assert that law is inexorable, and that ev- 
ery soul must bear the punishment of its 
own sins. They admit that if sin ceases 
and a life of virtue be commenced, the re- 
sult will be a cessation, eventually if not 
immediately, of the punishment or suffering 
which sin involves. But this is not because 
the sin is pardoned or the sinner justified, 
but because he does not deserve to suffer af- 
ter his transgression has ended, and its just 
and adequate punishment has been borne. 

In other words, the Rationalists hold that 
God never regards or treats as innocent any 
who have not actually become holy in fact, 
and then not until they have borne the full 
penalty of their sins ; the Roman Catholics 
hold that God treats none as holy except as 
they become so, and that the remission of 
their sins is partial, a part of the penalty 
being left to be borne by them, either in 
penalties inflicted by divine Providence, in 
Church penances, or in purgatory ; while the 
Protestant believer holds that on simple re- 
pentance and faith, God fully and entirely 
pardons the offender, and receives him back 
to divine favor, without any merit on the 
part of the sinner ; that in the blood of Christ 
Jesus he has made atonement for the sins of 
the world, in order to offer this free forgive- 
ness to all who will repent of their sins and 
turn to him; and that this act of free jus- 
tification precedes and prepares the way for 
the more gradual process of sanctification, 
by which, through the discipline of life, he 
is cleansed from his sins, aud made pure and 
holy. See Atonement ; Faith. 



K. 



Kadesh, Kadesh-barnea {sacred, sac/i-ed 
desert of ivandering), the scene of Miriam's 
death, and the farthest point which the Is- 
raelites reached on their direct route to Ca- 
naan. It was from thence that Moses sent 
the spies to traverse the land of Canaan, and 
thither they returned bringing an evil report 
of it. Its site is a matter of great uncertain- 
ty ; and so difficult has it been found to group 
satisfactorily all the passages in which men- 
tion is made of Kadesh, that some commen- 
tators have come to the conclusion that two 
places having the same name are mentioned. 
Referring the reader to the larger works, and 
especially to an elaborate note in the so-call- 
ed " Speaker's Commentary" on Numb, xiii., 
for a discussion of this question, it is enough 
for us to say that the more common opinion 



See Atonement. 



places Kadesh in a direct line south of the 
southernmost point of the Dead Sea, as indi- 
cated in the map accompanying the article 
Wilderness of the Wandering (q. v.). 
[Gen. xiv., 7; compare Ezek. xlvii., 19; 
xlviii., 28 ; Numb, xiii., 3, 26 ; xiv., 29 ; xx., 
1 ; xxxii., 8 ; Dent, ii,, 14 ; Josh, xv., 3. 

Kadmonites (The), a people named in 
Gen. XV., 19, only ; one of the nations who 
at that time occupied the land promised to 
the descendants of Abram. The name is 
probably a synonym for the Bene-Kedem — 
the " Children of the East." 

Kedar (black), a son of Ishmael; placed 
second in order among the sons of Ishmael, 
probably because he was the second in age, 
and a powerful tribe sprung from him, to 
which reference is frequently made in Scrip- 
ture. It would seem from some of the passa- 



KEDESH 



542 



KEY 



ges as if Kedar was taken in a kind of repre- 
sentative sense, the most powerful of the Ara- 
bian tribes known to the covenant people 
being put for those tribes generally, much 
as Ephraim was employed in relation to the 
ten tribes of Israel. The reference made in 
some of the passages to Kedar's multitudes 
of flocks, their pastoral habits, and rocky 
haunts, leaves it beyond a doubt that their 
manners were of the true Ishmaelite type ; 
and it is hence impossible to fix definitely 
their local boundaries, for these would natu- 
rally vary from time to time. 

Kedesh, a Canaanitish city, whose king 
Joshua smote. It was assigned to the tribe 
of Naphtali, hence was sometimes called Ke- 
desli-naphtali ; and was subsequently given 
to the Levites, and made a city of refuge. 
Barak was a native of Kedesh, and thither 
he summoned the northern tribes. In later 
times it was seized, with the neighboring 
district, by Tiglath-pileser. The modern 
village, Kudes, is four miles from the 
lake Merom, and stands upon a hill, 
where are many ruins, fragments of 
pillars, sarcophagi, and huge door- 
posts. Also in the mountain cliffs 
to the south-west are many rock- 
tombs. [Josh, xii., 22; xix., 37; xx., 
7; xxi., 32; Jndg. iv., 6-11 ; 2 Kiugs 
XV., 29; 1 Chron.vi.,76.] 

Keilah {fortress), a city in the 
plain - country of Judah, near the 
Philistine border. The inhabitants 
are disgracefully distinguished for 
endeavoring to betray David to Saul 
just after he had protected them 
from a Philistine invasion. The 
rulers of Keilah took part in repair- 
ing the wall of Jerusalem. It is said 
to have been about eight miles east 
of Eleutheropolis, toward Hebron. [Josh. 
XV., 44 ; 1 Sam. xxui., 1-13 ; Neh. iii., 17, 18.] 

Kenites, an ancient people inhabiting 
rocky and mountainous regions to the south 
of Canaan, near the Amalekites. Nothing 
beyond conjecture is known of their origin ; 
but we may fairly infer that they were a 
branch of the larger nation of Midian, from 
the fact that Jethro, a dweller in the land 
of Midian and a prince of that nation, is dis- 
tinctly said to have been a Kenite. Their 
history is strangely interwoven with that 
of the chosen people, by whom many of the 
tribe were treated with marked favor. The 
important services rendered by the sheik 
of the Kenites to Moses during a time of 
great difficulty were followed by a friendship 
which lasted as firmly as a friendship could 
last between a settled people like Israel and 
one whose tendencies were so ineradicably 
nomadic as were those of the Kenites. They 
seem to have accompanied the Hebrews dur 



" the wilderness of Judah, which is to the 
south of Arad ;" some, who followed Heber, 
to the north of Palestine. [Gen. xv., 19; 
Exod. ii., 15, 16 ; iv., 19 ; Numb, xxiv., 21, 22; 
Judg. i., 16 ; iv., 11 ; 2 Chron. xxviii., 15.] 

Keturah {incense), the person taken to 
wife by Abraham after the death of Sarah, 
and by whom he had six sons. She is call- 
ed, also, his concubine, either because, as is 
not improbable, she had occupied an infe- 
rior position in the household previously, or 
because her sons were not to take rank with 
the sons of Sarah, but to have only such a 
place as was usually assigned to the sons of 
concubines. Nothing is said of the race or 
family to which she herseK belonged. [Gen. 
XXV., 1,2; 1 Chron. i., 32.] 

Key. In Palestine keys and locks are 
made of wood, and are frequently large, as 
was probably the case in ancient times. 
The handle is sometimes of brass or silver, 
ornamented with filagree work. Ancient 




riz 




:S^ 



^ 



E 



Lock aud Key. 

keys are described as crooked, bent into the 
shape of a sickle, and usually borne on the 
shoulder : if a bunch was to be carried, they 
were divided : a single key was secured by 
a handkerchief tied to the ring, and thus 
suspended. Hence a key in Scripture is a 
symbol of authority ; and a bestowal of keys 
is equivalent to the intrusting any one with 
a weighty charge.^ There is a similar cus- 
tom in modern times, certain officers of 
state in England receiving, on appointment, 
a golden key. The Jewish teachers are cen- 
sured for taking away the *• key of knowl- 
edge "^ — I. e., the right understanding of the 
law and the prophets, shutting, so to speak, 
the door of the kingdom of heaven against 
themselves, and others who would enter. 

Locks were often so large that one of 
them was almost a load to carry : their con- 
struction was such that it would have been 
difficult to fit them with a false key. These 
locks are placed on the inside of the doors 



ing their wanderiugs ; but those being over, I of gardens and outer courts, and even of 
they forsook the neighborhood of the towns, | 



, ^, 1 ^ /. . ^1 Isa. xxii.,22; Matt, xvj.,19; Kev. i.,lS 
and betook themselves to u-eer air — some to 1 1 • sx., i ^ Luke xi., 52. 



IX., 



KING 



543 



KINGS (THE BOOKS OF) 



those of inner rooms, in some places. To 
enable tlie owner to unlock them, a hole is 
cut in the door, through which he thrusts 
his arm and inserts the key. This explains 
the expression in Sol. Song v., 4 : " My be- 
loved put in his hand by the hole of the 
door." 

King. This term is used with considera- 
ble latitude in Scripture for the ruler of a 
great empire, as Egypt, Assyria, Babylon, 
Persia ; and also of some small city or dis- 
trict, as when thirty-one of them are enu- 
merated as having had authority in Canaan 
at the time of the Israelitish conquest.^ 
Some of these last must have been as insig- 
nificant as not a few of the black kings on 
the African coast. The authority exercised 
by the Hebrew kings was great. They made 
war and peace : they exercised the power of 
life and death, and administered justice, per- 
sonally or by inferior judges. Yet, both in 
theory and in practice the monarchy was a 
limited one, differing in this respect both 
from the Oriental despotisms which sur- 
rounded the Jews, and those of the present 
day. Even in the most corrupt period of 
the nation's life, under Ahab,the king dared 
not deprive a subject of his life or his prop- 
erty without at least the form of law.^ 
Nevertheless, the authority of the Israelitish 
monarch was very great. He was the vice- 
gerent of the Deity, specially anointed and 
enthroned, his person being on that account 
deemed sacred.^ He had also much ecclesi- 
astical power, arranging the services of the 
sanctuary, and sometimes deposing the high- 
priest.* The most effectual check to misgov- 
ernment seems to have been in the free ex- 
postulations of the prophets, who did not 
hesitate to rebuke the most powerful sover- 
eigns, and who were dreaded by the worst.^ 

The magnificence of the Hebrew monarchs 
was great. That of Solomon is particularly 
described in 1 Kings x. ; and the royal robes, 
and crown, and sceptre, etc., are elsewhere 
mentioned.^ They were approached with 
the deepest reverence, the most powerful 
subjects, and even prophets, bowing before 
them to the groimd.^ 

In all monarchical countries the kingly 
office is still regarded, at least in theory, as 
a religious office, and the coronation as a sa- 
cred service — not merely an investiture of 
the person with the civil authority of the 
state. Formerly kings claimed to receive 
their authority and prerogatives directly 
from God, by inheritance or succession — not 
through the consent of the people — and this 
claim is still maintained, though by a con- 
stantly decreasing number. See Queen. 



1 Josh, xii., 7-24.-2 i Kings xxi.— 3 1 Sam. x., 1; 
xvi., 13 ; xxiv., 6-10 ; xxvi., 9 ; 1 Kings i., 39 ; Lam. iv., 
20.— 4 1 Kings ii., 26, 27 ; 1 Chron. xxiii.-xxvi.— J" 2 Sam. 
xii., 1-14 ; 1 Kings i., 11-14 ; xiii., 1-3 ; xiv., 5-16 ; xvi., 
1-4 ; xvii., 1 ; xxi., 17-26 ; 2 Chron. xvi., 7-9 ; xix., 2, 3 ; 
XX., 37.-8 1 Kings xxii., 10 ; 2 Kings xi., 12 ; Psa. xlv., 
6.—'' 2 Sam. xiv., 22 ; 1 Kings i., 23. 



For a history, or list, of kings of Israel and 
Judah, see Jews. 

Kingdom, This word is used in the N. T., 
sometimes alone, more frequently in compo- 
sition, as, "kingdom of God," "kingdom of 
Christ," " kingdom of heaven," with mean- 
ings apparently somewhat different, but re- 
ally essentially the same. It always indi- 
cates a state of cheerful submission to the 
divine authority. Thus, when applied to 
the individual, it indicates a state of heart 
into which he is brought through Christ. 
Hence it is said : " Blessed are the poor in 
spirit, for theirs is the kingdom of heaven " 
— i. e., to those who are the reverse of proud- 
spirited such submission is not difficult. Ap- ^ 
plied to the community the term kingdom 
of heaven, of God, or of Christ, indicates the 
advent of the Messiah as the supreme Lord. 
Thus John the Baptist, and subsequently 
Christ, proclaimed the kingdom of heaven 
as at hand. As applied to the future, the 
phrase kingdom, or kingdom of heaven, in- 
dicates that state in which there will be 
perfect submission to the divine will. The 
expression kingdom of God, or kingdom of 
heaven, is common in the rabbinical writers, 
who generally mean by it the Jewish relig- 
ion — i. e. , the theocracy. Nothin g aroused so 
much indignation against Christ as his teach- 
ing that the kingdom of heaven did not in- 
volve the supremacy of the Jewish nation — 
in other words, that submission to God did 
not require submission to tbe Pharisaic teach- 
ers ; just as nothing in the sixteenth century 
so aroused the anger of the Romish prelates 
as the teaching of the Reformers that true 
religion did not require obedience to the Ro- 
man Catholic Church. 

Kings (The Books of). The two books 
of Kings, which in the English Bible follow 
the two books of Samuel and precede the 
two books of Chronicles, were originally one 
book. In Hebrew manuscripts they are un- 
divided, and form a continuous narrative of 
the Hebrew people from the latter days of 
King David to the captivity of Judah in 
Babylon. The division iiito two books was 
first made in the Septuagint version, and 
then in the Vulgate. In the Septuagint they 
are called the third and fourth books of King- 
doms, because they contain the history of the 
kingdoms of Israel and Judah. In the Vul- 
gate they are named the third and fourth 
books of Kings, because they contain a his- 
tory of the successive kings of Israel and 
Judah. In both cases the two books of 
Samuel, with which the bool^s of Kings are 
closely connected, rank as first and second. 
And it has been thought by some writers 
that there was a large historical work, em- 
bracing the principal parts of the Pentateuch, 
Joshua, Judges, Samuel, and Kings, out of 
which these several books as we now have 
them have been formed. But there are good 
reasons for regarding the Kings as together 



y 



d 



KINGS (THE BOOKS OF) 



544 



KINGS (THE BOOKS OF) 



forming an entire and independent work: 
among these are the similarity of style and 
language which pervades the two books, but 
distinguishes them from others ; the uniform 
system of quotation observed in them, but 
not in the books which precede them ; the 
same careful attention to chronology, and 
the recurrence of certain x)hrases and forms 
of speech peculiar to them. A great number 
of words occur in Kings, and are found in 
them only, chiefly names of materials and 
utensils, and architectural terms. Words 
and forms of words occur which are only 
found here and in writers of the same peri- 
od, as Isaiah and Jeremiah, but not in Sam- 
uel or Judges. It is generally allowed that 
the books of Kings form a complete whole, 
and evince a sufiScient unity to show that 
they were composed by one and the same 
author. They are compiled, indeed, from 
particular annals; but they are no mere 
compilation, but a whole, wrought out after 
a settled plan, giving in method and in style 
a substantial proof of their independent com- 
pleteness. 

The time of the composition of these books 
may be very nearly ascertained. The style 
and diction indicate the later age of the He- 
brew language, but not the latest ; and with 
this conclusion the internal evidence of the 
contents agrees. The history is carried down 
to the Captivity in detail, and, by way of 
supplement, to the reign of Evil-merodach, 
king of Babylon. The closing verse implies 
that the writer survived Jehoiachin, but no 
hint whatever is given of the termination of 
the Captivity, as there surely would have 
been had he written after the return from 
Babylon. We may therefore safely conclude 
that the work was composed before the end 
of the Captivity, but after the twenty-sixth 
year of its continuance. This is all that can 
be ascertained : the individual writer is un- 
certain. Jewish tradition fixes on Jeremiah, 
and with this tradition some of our best 
scholars agree, while others dissent. It can 
at best be only characterized as a probable 
opinion. 

The source from which the author, who- 
ever he may have been, mainly drew his ma- 
terials is indicated by himself. It may truly 
be said that we have the narrative of con- 
temporary writers throughout. There was 
a regular series of state-annals both for the 
kingdom of Judah and for that of Israel, 
which embraced the whole time compre- 
hended in the books of Kings, or at least to 
the end of the reign of Jehoiakim. These 
annals are probably the writings constantly 
cited by name as "the Book of the Acts of 
Solomon ;" and, after Solomon, " the Book of 
the Chronicles of the Kings of Judah," or 
" Israel ;" and it is manifest that tlie author 
of Kings had them before him while he drew 
up his history, in which the reigns of the two 
kingdoms are harmonized and these annals 



constantly appealed to. But, in addition to 
these national annals, there were also extant 
at the time that the books of Kings were 
I prepared, and very probably used in their 
j preparation, separate works of the several 
! prophets who had lived in Judah and Israel. 
Thus, whoever wrote the books of Kings, it 
I is reasonably certain that they contain, for 
the most part, the testimony of eye-witnesses 
to the events recorded. The divine author- 
ity of the books of Kings is attested by the 
many predictions they contain. They are 
cited as authentic and canonical by Christ 
and by his apostles, and have been so regard- 
ed by the Jewish and Christian churches of 
every age. Their truth and authenticity 
derive, also, additional confirmation from 
the corresponding testimonies of ancient pro- 
fane writers. 

The books of Kings contain the history of 
a period of 427 years, from David's death and 
Solomon's accession to the destruction of the 
kingdom of Judah and the desolation of Je- 
rusalem— 1015-588 B.C. — with a further men- 
tion of an event which occurred during the 
Captivity, twenty-six years later, and an al- 
lusion to a still more recent date. This pe- 
riod embraces the reigns of all the kings of 
Israel and Judah, except Saul's, and most 
of David's. The historical notices in these 
books of the affairs of foreign nations and 
the relation of Israel to those nations, though 
in the earlier times scanty, are most valu- 
able, and in striking accordance with the 
latest additions to our knowledge of contem- 
porary profane history. The names of Omri, 
Jehu, Menahem, Hoshea, Hezekiah, etc., are 
believed to have been deciphered in the cu-^ 
neiform inscriptions, which also contain pret- 
ty full accounts of the campaigns of Tigiath- 
pileser, Sargon, Sennacherib, and Esar-had- 
don. 

The books contain much more than an ac- 
count of the kings who successively reigned 
over Israel and Judah, and of their personal 
and political history. They contain also a 
religious history of the people, and unfold 
the progress of the theocratical government 
of the descendants of Abraham in the lines 
of Isaac and Jacob. No attempt is made to 
give a full and complete history of the po- 
litical condition and acts of the kingdom. 
Only, or chiefly, such facts are recorded as 
exhibit the nature of the divine government 
under which the people were placed, and the 
development of their religious life. On these 
points, also, what is related of the lives and 
characters of the kings, the acts and influ- 
ences of the prophets, and the conduct of the 
people, has a direct bearing. A most impor- 
tant aid to a right understanding of the his- 
tory in these books, and to the filling up of 
its outline, is to be found in the books of the 
prophets, and especially in Isaiah and Jere- 
miah. The aim of the whole is to exhibit 
the carrying out of God's promise to David. 



KIR 



545 



KISS 



This promise is the thread running through 
the history from Solomon to the Captivity. 
How the Lord fulfilled this gracious word — 
how, though he chastised the house of Da- 
vid for their transgressions, he yet preserved 
them an inheritance, and did not rend away 
all the kingdom — how he bore long with 
Israel as well as with Judah, and how, even 
after Judah, not warned by the fall of the 
sister kingdom, had provoked him to remove 
them from their land, he yet remembered his 
mercy to David's line, in showing favor to 
Jehoiachin in the land of captivity — all this 
the author designs to exhibit. And such an 
exhibition was of precious value, inasmuch 
as, vnrapped up in the promise of temporal 
blessing, there was an indication of that 
spiritual glory in which one of David's de- 
scendants should sit upon his throne, ruling 
a kingdom of which there was to be no end. 

Kir {a walled place). 1. A city or district 
to which the King of Assyria carried away 
the people of Damascus. Kir is also named 
with Elam ; and the Syrians are said to have 
been brought from Kir. Its site is uncertain. 
[2 Kings xvi., 9 ; Isa. xxii., 6 ; Amos i., 5 ; 
ix., 7.] 

2. Kir of Moab, one of the two chief 
strongholds of Moab, the other being Ar of 
Moab. The name occurs only in Isa. xv., 1. 
It is almost identical with the name KeraJc, 
by which the site of an important city in a 
high and very strong position at the south- 
east of the Dead Sea is known at this day. 
It is built upon the top of a steep hill, sur- 
rounded on all sides by a deep and narrow 
valley, which again is completely inclosed 
l)y mountains rising higher than the town, 
and overlooking it on all sides. 

BZirchentag, an association of ministers 
and laymen of the Lutheran, German Re- 
formed, United Evangelical, and Moravian 
churches in Germany, for the promotion of 
the interests of religion, without reference 
to their denominational differences. It holds 
an annual meeting, the place of which is 
changed from year to year. The first meet- 
ing took place in 1848, at Wittenberg, in the 
church to which Luther affixed his theses. 
Its discussions and resolutions have exer- 
cised a considerable influence in Germany. 

Kir-haraseth {h'iclc fortress), sl city and 
important fortress of Moab, known also as 
Kir-hareseth, Kir-haresh, Kir-heres, and Kir 
of Moab. It is now called Kerak, seated on 
a high calcareous rock, rising from a deep 
and narrow glen, which thence descends 
westward, under the name of Wady Kerak, 
to the Dead Sea. It Avas a place of impor- 
tance in the time of the Crusaders. [Isa. 
XV., 1 ; 2 Kings iii., 25.] 

Kirjath-jearim (city of woods), one of the 
cities of the Gibeonites. On the allotment 
of Canaan it was on the border of Judah 
and Benjamin, but yet belonging to Judah. 
It was variously called Baalah, Baale of Ju- 
35 



dah, Kirjath-baal, Kirjath-arim. It was to 
this place that the ark was brought after 
the catastrophe at Beth-shemesh, and from 
thence carried by David to Jerusalem. Some 
of the families who settled in it are men- 
tioned in 1 Chron. ii., 50, 52, 53 ; and a num- 
ber of its inhabitants returned from Babylon 
after the Captivity. Urijah, the prophet put 
to death by Jehoiakim, was of Kirjath-jea- 
rim. The modern Kuriet el Aineb is satis- 
factorily identified with Kirjath-jearim. It 
is but a poor village, with a ruined Latin 
church. On the hill to the north - west, 
probably, stood the house of Abinadab. 
[Josh, ix., 17 ; xv., 9, 10, 60 ; xviii., 12, 14, 15 ; 
1 Sam. vi., 21 ; vii., 1, 2 ; 2 Sam. vi., 1, 2 ; 
Ezra ii., 25 ; 1 Chron. xiii., 5, 6 ; 2 Chron. i., 
4; Neh.vii.,29; Jer. xxvi., 20-23.] 

Kishon {lent like a low, tortuous), a river, 
or rather a torrent, which issues from the 
mountain of Carmel, and discharges itself, 
after a very short course, into the Bay of 
Acre. There is, however, a more remote 
source near En - gannim (the fountain of 
Jenim). But the water which flows hence, 
though augmented by winter torrents still 
farther to the east, fails during the summer 
and autumn. It is only, therefore, in cer- 
tain seasons of the year that the Kishon is 
full. The stream is chiefly famous in sacred 
history for its part in the overthrow of Sis- 
era and the host of Jabin. It was also to 
its banks that Elijah, on the day of Carmel, 
brought down the idol priests for execution. 
The Kishon is now the Mukutta. [ Judg. iv., 
7,13; v., 21; 1 Kings xviii., 40; Psa.lxxxiii.,9.] 

Kiss. Kissing the lips by way of affec- 
tionate salutation was customary with the 
Hebrews among near relations of both sexes, 
or intimate friends. In the East it has been 
continued with but little diminution to the 
present day. Among the Arabs the women 
and children kiss the beards of their hus- 
bands and fathers. The superior returns 
the kiss by a salute on the forehead. In 
Egypt an inferior kisses the hand of a supe- 
rior, generally on the back, but sometimes, 
as a special favor, on the palm also. To tes- 
tify abject submission, and in asking favors, 
the feet are often kissed instead of the hand. 
In Scripture, however, the kiss sometimes 
appears as the mark of homage and venera- 
tion, not less than of love and endearment. 
Thus it was given to earthly rulers, in re- 
spectful and loyal acknowledgment of their 
dignity ; whence Samuel kissed Saul imme- 
diately after having anointed him, and the 
exhortation to kiss the Son as anointed King 
of Zion follows directly on the proclamation 
of his divine appointment to the office.^ It 
is also spoken of as a mark of respect or ad- 
oration to idols. And the Mohammedan pil- 
grims, as a religious duty, kiss the black 
stone in the Kaaba at Mecca. 



1 1 Sam. X., 1 ; 1 Kings xix., 18 ; Psa. ii., 12; Hos. 
xiii., 2. 



KITE 



546 



KNIGHTHOOD 



In the Christian Chiirch the kiss of chari- 
ty was practiced not only as a friendly salu- 
tation, but as an act symbolical of love and 
Christian brotherhood, and was regarded as 
the special token of perfect reconciliation 
and concord among the members of the 
Church, and was called simply the peace, or 
the kiss of peace. The Roman Catholics 
make very frequent use of this ceremony in 
religious worship, repeatedly kissing, as a 
token of veneration, the crucifix and the rel- 
ics of saints. One of the most extraordinary 
instances, however, of the use of this mode 
of expressing homage and respect is that of 
kissing the pope's foot or toe, which has been 
required by popes as a token of respect from 
the secular power since the sixth century. 
The first who received this honor was Pope 
Constantine I. It was paid him by the Em- 
peror Justinian II., on his entry into Con- 
stantinople, A.D. 710. But the first pope who 
made it imperative was Valentine I., about 
A.D. 827, who required every one to kiss his 
foot ; and from that time this mark of rev- 
erence appears to have been expected by all 
the popes. When this ceremony is to be 
performed, the pope wears 
a slipper with a cross upon 
it, which is kissed. [Gen. 
xxix., 11; xxvii., 26, 27; 
xxxi., 28, 55; xxxiii., 4; 
xlv., 15; xlviii., 10; 1., 1; 
Exod.iv.,27; xviii.,7; Ruth 
i., 9, 14 ; 1 Sam. xx., 41 ; 2 
Sam. xiv., 33; xv., 5; xx., 9; 1 Kings xix., 
20 ; Psa. Ixxxv., 10 ; Prov. xxvii., 6 ; Luke 
vii., 45 ; xv., 20 ; xxii., 48 ; Acts xx., 37 ; Rom. 
xvi., 16; 1 Cor. xvi., 20; 2 Cor. xiii., 12; 1 
Thess. v., 26 ; 1 Pet. v., 14.] 

KZite. The Hebrew word which has been 
so translated occurs in a list of unclean birds 
found in two parallel passages, and the same 
word is used auain in Job, tlioujih in that 



tion : " There is a path which no fowl know- 
eth, and which the vulture^s eye hath not 
seen." It is, then, a bird distinguished for 
keenness of vision. Commentators are not 
agreed as to the etymological signification 
of the Hebrew word : some derive it from a 
root meaning "to turn ;" others, from one sig- 
nifying " a cry." If either meaning is cor- 
rect, the word seems an appropriate name 
for the kite, which is noticeable for its hab- 
it of soaring in circles, directing its course 
by means of its rudder-like tail, and has also 
a shrill cry. The piercing sight of the kite 
is proverbially well known. It has been 
suggested that " the glede and the kite and 
the vulture after his kind " is an enumera- 
tion of all the various species of the kite 
family, which are plentiful in both Egypt 
and Palestine. 

Kiiife. Various terms in the Hebrew Scrip- 
ture are rendered by knife in the English Bi- 
ble. The most common one is a derivative 
of the root to eat, a word signifying eating- 
instrument, or food-cutter, as in Prov. xxx., 
14. The knives of the Egyptians, and of 
other nations in early times, were probably 





vul- 



Eed Kite. 

case our translators have rendered it 
ture."^ The allusion in Job furnishes the 
only clue wliich we have to its identifica- 



1 Lev. xi., 14; Deut. xiv., 13; Job xxviii., 7. 



FliDt Kuives*. 



only of hard stone, and the use of the flint, 
or stone knife, was sometimes retained for 
sacred purposes after the introduction of 
iron and steel. The Jews, like other Ori- 
entals, made in their meals but little use of 
knives, but employed them for slaughtering 
animals, either for food or sacrifice, as well as 
for cutting up the carcass. Smaller knives 
were in use for paring fruit, and for sharp- 
ening pens. The razor was often used for 
Nazaritic purposes, for which a special cham- 
ber was reserved in the Temple. The prun- 
ing -hooks of Isa. xviiL, 5, were probably 
curved knives ; and the lancets of the priests 
of Baal were doubtless pointed knives. In- 
stead of " sharp knives," in Josh, v., 2, the 
margin reads " knives of flint," which is 
more exact. The Abyssinian tribes at the 
present day use flint knives in performing, 
circumcision. [Lev. vii., 33, 34 ; viii., 15, 20, 
25 ; ix., 13 ; Numb, vi., 5, 9, 19 ; xviii., 18 ; 1 
Sam. ix., 24 ; 1 Kings xviii., 28 ; Ezra i., 9 ; 
Isa. vii., 20; Jer. xxxvi., 23; Ezek.v.,1; xxiv., 
4 ; Matt, xxvi., 23 ; Acts, xviii., 18.] 

Knighthood (Ecclesiastical Orders of). 
During the time of the Crusades (q. v.) a 
spirit of chivalry developed itself in vari- 
ous parts of Europe, which accounted it the 
highest of all deeds of piety to do battle 
with the infidels. The warlike spirit came 
to be combined with the monastic, and from 
this apparently incongruous union arose the 



KOHATHITES 



547 



KORAH 



several orders of Christian knighthood. The 
three principal of these orders, as organized 
against the infidels, were : 1. The Knights of 
St. John of Jerusalem, whose primary object 
was to relieve and assist the crowds of pil- 
grims who visited the Holy Land. 2. The 
Knights Templars, who were a strictly mili- 
tary order, intended to gnard the roads, and 
to protect the Christians from the assanlts of 
the Mohammedans. 3. The Teutonic Knights 
of St. Mary, whose office it was to care for 
and specially tend the soldiers wounded in 
the holy wars. The two latter orders have 
been long extinct, the Templars having been 
abolished by Pope Clement in 1311 ; but the 
Knights of St. John have found<^ asylum 
in the island of Malta, where they still exist. 

Kohathites, descendants of Kohath, the 
second son of Levi, who was born, most prob- 
ably, in Canaan. We know almost nothing 
of his history, save that he died at the age 
of 133 years. The Kohathites, one of the 
three great families of the tribe of Levi, 
numbered at the time of the Exodus 8600 
males upward of a month old, of whom 2750 
were between the ages of thirty and fifty. 
They were divided into the distinct families 
of Amramites, Izharites, Hebronites, and Uz- 
zielites, after Kohath's four sons. To them, 
with the exception of Aaron and his sons, 
was given the charge of bearing the ark and 
its furniture during the march through the 
wilderness. [Gen. xlvi., 11; Exod. vi., 18; 
Numb, iii., 27-31; iv.,2-15; 34-37.] 

Korah {ice, hail, or laldness), son of Izhar, 
the son of Kohath, the son of Levi. A bold, 
haughty, and ambitious man,^ who, stung by 
his exclusion from the office of the priesthood 
and his confinement to the inferior service of 
the Tabernacle, and perhaps also by the ap- 
pointment of Elizaphan to be chief of the 
Kohathites,^ became chief ringleader of a 
rebellion that was raised against Moses and 
Aaron in the wilderness.^ He seems to have 
been the only Levite of note in the conspir- 
acy, his coadjutors being Dathan, Abiram, 
and On, of the tribe of Reuben. Their form- 
al plea was that the Lord himself had de- 
clared the whole congregation to be a king- 
dom of priests,* while Moses and Aaron were 
acting as if they alone had the right to draw 
near to God, and minister in holy things. 
This plausible objection drew to them from 
the congregation two hundred and fifty men 
of influence. These conspirators were fear- 
fully punished. The earth opened and swal- 
lowed Dathan and Abiram, with their im- 
mediate adherents, while fire from the Lord 
came forth and consumed the two hundred 
and fifty men — among whom doubtless was 
Korah — who offered incense against the di- 
vine command. It is expressly stated that 
the sons of Korah did not share in his doom^ 

1 Compare his address to Moses, Numb, xvi., 3.— 
2 Numb, iii,, 30.— 3 Exod. vi., 21, 24 ; Numb, xvi., 1-50 ; 
xxvi, 9-11.— 4 Numb, xvi., 3.-5 Numb, xxvi., 11. 



— doubtless because they did not participate 
in his guilt. This fearful example seems to 
have operated on the survivors as a salutary 
warning, and contributed to the distinction 
which the family of the Korahites,^ or, as 
sometimes incorrectly written, Korathites,^ 
or Korhites,^ afterward attained. 

Assir, Elkanah, and Abiasaph, were re- 
spectively the son, grandson, and great- 
grandson of Korah,* being his sons, as would 
be inferred from Exod. vi., 24, only in the 
sense in which all the Korahites are frequent- 
ly styled sons of Korah. Samuel was one 
of this family,^ and the Korahites had the 
chief place assigned them by David in keep- 
ing the doors of the Tabernacle, and con- 
ducting the psalmody of the congregation." 
They were an important branch of the sing- 
ers,'' and among them was Heman, the son of 
Joel, and grandson of Samuel the prophet. 
He is called the " musician,"® and was the 
first of the three chief Levites to whom was 
committed the music of the Temple-service,^ 
Asaj)h and Ethan, or Jeduthan," being his 
colleagues. He is also called, in common 
with these colleagues, "the king's seer in 
the matters of God."^^ His fourteen sons as- 
sisted him, and continued to hold the same 
position, each one being head of one of the 
twenty -four wards of Levites who "were 
instructed in the songs of the Lord." The 
Eighty-eighth Psalm does not seem, at first 
thought, to be ascribed to this, but to anoth- 
er Heman, called the Ezrahite, and reckoned 
of the family of Zerah, the son of Judah. 
And yet this is probably but another name 
for the same person. It was not unusual for 
Levites to connect themselves with particu- 
lar families of the other tribes with whom 
they lived as sojourners, so that they were 
associated with two tribes, though in differ- 
ent respects. As the father of Samuel was 
called an Ephrathite because he had lived 
on Mount Ephraim, so, probably, Heman was 
associated with the family of Zerah, which 
belonged to Judah, while by birth he was 
of the tribe of Levi. There are ten psalms 
which bear the inscription of the name of the 
Korahites,^^ most of which were indited by 
persons of their family, and are remarkable 
for their depth of spiritual thought and their 
fervent glow of sanctified feeling. They are 
purely lyrical, and, in a poetic point of view, 
among the most exquisite pieces in the Psal- 
ter. It was a son of Korah, a door-keeper in 
the Temple, that sung the beautiful Eighty- 
fourth Psalm, and those words — " For a day 
in thy courts is better than a thousand. I 
had rather be a doorkeeper in the house of 



1 1 Chron. ix., 19, 31.-2 Numb, xxvi., 58.- 3 Exod. 
vi., 24; 1 Chrou. xii., 6; xxvi., 1; 2 Chron. xx., 19. 
— 4 1 Chron. vi., 22, 23, 27. — ^ 1 Chron. vi., 22-28.— 
« 1 Chron. vi., 32-3T ; ix., 19-33.—^ 2 Chron. xx., 19.— 
8 1 Chron. vi., 33.-9 j Chron. xv., 16-22.— lo 1 Chron. 
XXV., 1-3.-11 1 Chron. vi., 33 ; xv., 17, 19 ; xvi., 41, 42 ; 
XXV., 1, 4-6; 2 Chron. v., 12; xxv., 15; xxix., 14.— 
12 Psa. xlil. ; xliv. ; xlv.-xlix.; Ixxxiv. ; Ixxxv. ; Ixxxvii. 



KORAN 



548 



LABARUM 



my God, than to dwell in the tents of wick- 
edness '" — words so full of meaning when we 
know the experience that prompted them, 
containing a truth which Korah forgot and 
perished, hut which his children remember- 
ed ; and the songs of the sons of Korah will 
be sung for all time. 

Koran, Al (the reading), the sacred book 
of the Mohammedans, which probably de- 
rives its name from the passage which the 
angel Gabriel is said to have first revealed 
to the prophet — " Read in the name of thy 
Lord." It claims to be coeval with God 
himself, to have been conveyed to the lowest 
heaven by the angel Gabriel, and by him to 
have been revealed to the prophet. Wheth- 
er the whole book as it now stands was the 
work of Mohammed, or whether he was aid- 
ed in its composition by others, is uncertain. 
The book consists of 114 chapters of unequal 



length. Its language is of great beauty ; its 
style is at times bold and majestic, at times 
verbose and obscure. No chronological or- 
der is observed in it. It is said that Moham- 
med dictated his inspirations to a scribe who 
threw them promiscuously into a box, and 
that from this promiscuous assortment of 
his utterances the collection constituting the 
Koran was afterward composed. In doctrine 
it teaches the unity of God, the existence of 
one true religion, the duty of prayer, the in - 
evitableness of the divine decrees, and the 
certainty of a future state of rewards and 
punishments. The book itself is held in su- 
perstitious reverence among all faithful Mo- 
hammedans. The Christian longs to put his 
Bible into the hands of every man ; to the 
Mohammedan, the thought of an unbeliever 
having a copy of the Koran is absolutely ab- 
horrent. See Mohammedanism. 



L. 



Laban (white), the son of Bethuel, and 
brother of Rebekah. When first introduced 
in the sacred story he appears to great ad- 
vantage, and in the negotiation of his sis- 
ter's marriage acts with seeming piety in 
referring the matter to the Lord.^ He must 
have been then very young, perhaps but just 
grown to man's estate. But we observe that 
he is sufficiently crafty, even then, to say 
nothing until he hears the full story of Abra- 
ham's wealth ; and the manner in which, at 
a much later period, he acted toward Jacob 
shows him to have been a man of selfish dis- 
position, and by no means scrupulous as to 
the means he employed to effect his pur- 
poses. He was well able to mete to Jacob 
his own measure in artful cunning, and in 
some respects proved even more than a match 
for him. At last, so keenly alive was he to 
his own interests at the expense of those of 
his nephew, that the latter stole away from 
him by night with his family and posses- 
sions, lest some wholesale robbery should be 
jjracticed on him. It is too plain that La- 
ban pursued him with some such intention ; 
but being warned by God in a dream to do 
no violence to Jacob, the two relatives met 
on Mount Gilead, and, after some alterca- 
tion, parted again in peace.^ From this time 
nothing more is heard in sacred history of 
the family of Laban, or of his Syrian rela- 
tives. The removal, a few years later, of 
the household of Jacob to Egypt, and their 
sojourn there for hundreds of years, entirely 
separated them from the kindred races in 
Mesopotamia. Indeed, the grasping policy, 
domestic corruption, and incipient idolatry 
which had already obtained a footing among 
even the better portion of those races, ren- 



1 Verse 10.— " Gen. xxiv., 29-60.— 3 Gen. xxix. ; xxx. 
xxxi. 



dered it manifest that the chosen family 
could henceforth derive from them little of 
a wholesome and elevating influence. 

Labarum, the military standard of the first 
Christian emperor, Constantine. It consist- 
ed of a long pike or lance, with a short trans- 
verse bar of wood attached near its extrem- 
ity, so as to form something like a cross. 
On the point of the lance was a golden 
crown sparkling with gems, 
and in its centre the mono- 
gram of the cross and the ini- 
tial letters of the name of 
Christ, with the occasional ad- 
dition of the Greek letters A 
and Q. From the cross-beam 
depended a square purple ban- 
ner, decorated with precious 
stones, and surrounded by a 
rich border of gold embroid- 
ery. The cross was substi- 
tuted for the eagle, which had 
formerly been depicted on the 
Roman standards, and there 
were sometimes other em- 
blems of the Saviour. In the 
space between the crown and 
the cross were heads of the 
emperor and his family, and 
sometimes a figure of Christ 
woven in gold. Eusebius is 
the only authority for the story of the or- 
igin of the adoption of this standard — a 
story which is not generally credited by 
Protestant scholars. According to the le- 
gend, Constantine had resolved to make an 
attempt to deliver Rome from the tyranny 
of Maxentius ; and feeling that he needed a 
higher than human aid, prayed earnestly to 
God that he would assist him in the diffi- 
cult enterprise in which he was engaged. 




The Labarum. 



LACHISH 



549 



LAMENTATIONS 



About midday, when crossing the country 
with his army, he offered up this prayer, 
and immediately there appeared in heaven, 
near the sun, a bright shining cross, on 
which was inscribed these words, in the 
Greek language: "By this sign conc^uer." 
This sign, which was seen in the sky both 
by the soldiers and their leaders, was fol- 
lowed by a secret vision, in which the Sou of 
God appeared to the emperor, holding in his 
hand the symbol of the cross, and command- 
ed him to form a standard on the same mod- 
el, under which his soldiers would march to 
■\dctory. Fifty men, chosen for their strength, 
valor, and piety, were appointed to the care 
of tl^ labarum, which long continued to be 
carried at the head of the Roman army, and 
to be considered a sure presage of victory. 

Lachish {the smitten, i. e., captured, or tlie 
tenacious, i. e., impregnable), a royal Canaan- 
itish city conquered by Joshua. It was sit- 
uated in the "low country" of Judah, aud 
was one of those cities which Rehoboam 
strongly fortified. In it King Amaziah was 
killed. In the wars of Hezekiah with Sen- 
nacherib it is repeatedly mentioned. The 
King of Assyria was before it when Heze- 
kiah submissively asked terms of peace, and 
from the same place the King of Assyria 
sent his first blasphemous message to Heze- 
kiah ; though, as he had departed from La- 
chish to Libnah, by the time he sent his sec- 
ond message very probably he had to leave 
it untaken ; and this is rather the impres- 
sion conveyed by 2 Chron. xxxii., 9. Among 
the sculptures discovered in the palace of 
Sennacherib are full representations of this 
siege as carried on by that king to a suc- 
cessful completion. Whether his success was 
so complete as his artist would have us be- 
lieve, is uncertain. Lachish and Azekah 
were certainly the two cities of Judah which 
alone remained uncaptured by Nebuchad- 
nezzar. Both of them were inhabited by 
the returned Babylonish captives. The site 
of Lachish has not been certainly identified. 
Some would identify it with Um LaMs, a vil- 
lage on a knoll between Gaza and Beit Jib- 
rin, while others would locate it farther to 
the south. According to Eusebius and Je- 
rome, it lay seven Roman miles south of 
Eleutheropolis. [Josh, x., 3, 5, 23, 31-35; 
xii., 11 ; XV., 39 ; 2 Kings xiv., 19 ; xviii., 13- 
17 ; xix., 8 ; 2 Chron. xi., 9 ; xxv., 27 ; xxxii., 
9 ; Neh. xi., 30 ; Isa. xxxvi., 2 ; xxxvii., 8 ; 
Jer. xxxiv., 7 ; Micah i., 13.] 

Laity (Gr. Liitos, people), a term not found 
in the N. T., but from an early period in the 
history of Christianity used to distinguish 
the people from the body of the clergy (q. v.). 

Lamaism, a corrupted form of Buddhism 
(q. v.), which prevails in Thibet and Mongo- 
lia. It differs from Buddhism in having in- 
grafted on it the worship of a host of gods 
and saints, a thoroughly organized priest- 
hood, and an elaborate ritual. The worship 



of the saints and gods consists in the recital 
of prayers and sacred texts and the intona- 
tion of hymns, accompanied with a chaos of 
the most inharmonious and deafening sounds 
of horns, trumpets, and drums of various de- 
scriptions. Two sacraments are maintained 
— baptism and confirmation. Neither mar- 
riage nor funerals are regarded as strictly 
religious rites ; but religious ceremonies ac- 
company the civil act of marriage, aud death 
is followed by masses for the soul of the 
deceased, which, as in the Roman Catholic 
Church, yield a handsome revenue to the 
priesthood. The hierarchy consists of four 
principal orders : two j)opes, of theoretically 
equal authority and dignity; Khutuktus, 
which answer to the Roman Catholic cardi- 
nals and archbishops ; and a higher and low- 
er order of priests. Of these, the first three 
claim to be the incarnation of Buddhist 
saints. All the members of these orders are 
bound by vows to a life of celibacy. There 
are also Buddhist monasteries and Buddhist 
nunneries, which resemble those of Roman 
Catholic Christendom, having their meeting- 
rooms, libraries, refectories, and dormitories. 
The Lamaist Scriptures — the Kanjur — con- 
tain over one thousand works, and are com- 
prised in over one hundred folio volumes. 

Lamech, the son of Methusael, fifth in de- 
scent from Cain. He was the founder of po- 
lygamy. In his family the arts flourished ; 
for though one of his sons followed the no- 
madic pastoral life, two others, Jubal and 
Tubal-cain, are mentioned — the one as the 
inventor of two musical instruments, the 
other as the introducer of the metallurgic 
arts. The speech, or song, which Lamech 
addressed to his wives is remarkable as be- 
ing the earliest specimen in existence of po- 
etical rhythm — the only specimen extant 
from the antediluvian world. The occasion 
of this effusion is left to be inferred from the 
song itself ; but great differences of opinion 
have been held among scholars as to La- 
mech's procedure aud character — from that 
of an atrocious and heaven-daring criminal, 
exulting over deeds of violence, to that of a 
contrite and humble penitent, making con- 
fession of his own and his forefather's sin. 
[Gen. iv., 18-24.] 

Lamentations. In the Septuagint this 
book stands, as in the English Bible, imme- 
diately after the Book of Jeremiah, of which 
it was probably regarded as forming a con- 
tinuation or appendix, and bears a name 
equivalent to our Lamentations. It belongs 
to that species of Hebrew poetry called the 
historical elegy, or lament. Each of the 
five chapters of the book contains an elegy, 
which may be regarded as complete in it- 
self, and is divided into twenty-two parts, 
according to the number of the letters of the 
Hebrew alphabet. These parts, or stanzas, 
are not of equal length in all the chapters. 
In the fifth chapter they consist each of a 



LAMENTATIONS 



550 



LAMP 



single couplet; in the fourth chapter, of two 
couplets ; and in the first, second, and third 
chapters, of three couplets. In the first four 
stanzas the chapters commence with the suc- 
cessive letters of the alphabet, in the third 
chapter the three couplets of each stanza 
commencing with the same letter. In the 
fifth chapter the alphabetical arrangement 
does not appear. The couplets — or lines, as 
some prefer to regard them — are of nearly 
equal length throughout. Though each ele- 
gy may be regarded as forming by itself a 
complete whole, there is nevertheless a unity 
and orderly arrangement in the entire book 
which can not escape notice. There is a cen- 
tral chapter and a central stanza, by which 
the several parts of the book are bound to- 
gether into one whole. There is also a dis- 
cernible progress from the commencement 
to the close. Chapters iv. and v., amidst all 
their darkness, have gleams of light which 
do not appear in chapters i. and ii. Chapter 
i. is the utterance of deep grief and despond- 
ency. Its characteristic expression is, '^She 
hath none to comfort her J' The second elegy 
is an advance on the first, inasmuch as it 
contains the fullest recognition of the sover- 
eignty of Jehovah in inflicting suffering and 
punishment upon his people. The still more 
decided advance in the third chapter is ap- 
parent at a glance : " The mercies of Jehovah 
are not exhausted ;^^ ^'Adonai ivill not cast off 
forever;" '^He doth not afflict from his heart, 
nor grieve the children of men" And though 
in the concluding chapters we still hear the 
voice of anguish, yet the anguish is at the 
same time deepened and relieved by gleams 
of faith and hope. The poems appear in the 
Hebrew canon with no name attached to 
them, and there is no direct external evi- 
dence to contradict the date given in the 
prefatory historical notice which appears in 
the Septuagint : "And it came to pass after 
Israel had been led captive, and Jerusalem 
desolated, Jeremiah sat weeping, and la- 
mented this lamentation over Jerusalem." 
The date of composition must probably be 
fixed after the taking of the city, while the 
heart- wounds of the nation were still fresh. 
The poem is written by one who speaks with 
the. vividness and intensity of an eye-wit- 
ness of the misery which he bewails. It is 
almost enough to ask, Who else then living 
could have written with that union of strong 
passionate feeling and entire submission to 
Jehovah which characterizes both the Lam- 
entations and the prophecies of Jeremiah ? 
At least, to this question but one answer has 
been given, from the earliest period to which 
our information reaches back down to a pe- 
riod quite recent. Jeremiah has been al- 
most universally regarded as the author of 
Lamentations. And even at the present 
day, in which a traditional belief of two 
thousand years is made of little account, it 
is still allowed, with scarcely a dissenting 



voice, that he was the author. We know on 
Scriptural authority that Jeremiah did write 
elegies ;^ and in the elegies which make up 
the Book of Lamentations it is scarcely pos- 
sible not to recognize the hand and heart 
of the most tender-hearted of all the proph- 
ets. The pathos and beauty of these elegies 
have been universally felt and acknowledged. 
The true test of the excellence of such com- 
positions is their power to awaken in the 
breasts of readers of all classes the feelings 
and emotions of which they are the expres- 
sion. And who has ever read these Lamen- 
tations unmoved ? The book has supplied 
thousands with the fullest utterance for their 
sorrows in the critical periods of national or 
individual suffering. We may well believe 
that it soothed the weary years of the Baby- 
lonian exile. Afterward, on the ninth day 
of the month of Ab (July to August), the 
Lamentations of Jeremiah were read year 
by year, with fasting and weeping, to com- 
memorate the misery out of which the peo- 
ple had been delivered ; and in our day it 
enters largely into the order of the Latin 
Church for the services of Passion - week. 
There are perhaps few portions of the O. T. 
which appear to have done the work they 
were meant to do more effectually than the 
book of the Lamentations of Jeremiah. 

Lamp. For ordinary purposes, lamps 
were the common instruments employed for 
lighting apartments by night, and, as such, 
are frequently mentioned in Scripture ; but 
no indication is anywhere given of their 
form and structure. The natural supposi- 
tion is, that they were similar to those em- 
ployed in other ancient countries, and espe- 
cially in Egypt, to which, in matters of art 
and comfort, the Israelites stood most near- 
ly related. Recent excavations in and about 
Jerusalem have brought to light some re- 
mains of ancient lamps which confirm this 
opinion. 

Lantern is only once used in our English 
Bible,^ and as the equivalent of the same 
word which, in all other cases, has been ren- 
dered lamp, or candle. But as a lantern is 
simply a light with a covering of some sort to 
protect it from the wind, the distinction be- 
tween it and lamp can not be sharply drawn, 
and not infrequently either term might be 
indifferently employed. The lamps, for ex- 
ample, carried by Gideon's band must have 
been lanterns rather than lamps in the or- 
dinary sense.^ In all ages we find lamps 
used in the religious rites and customs of 
various nations. A burning lamp is men- 
tioned at a very early period in connection 
with the ratification of the covenant with 
Abraham,^ and the burning lamp, or fire, is 
still used in the East in confirmation of a 
covenant. Lamps have always been a com- 
mon ornament in the temples of the heathen, 



1 2 Chrou. XXXV., 26.-2 jyhn xviii., 3.-3 Matt. 
XXV., 1-12.— 4 Gen. xv., IT. 



LAODICEA 



551 LAPSED CHRISTIANS 




Lamps belonging to the early Christian Era. 



especially on festivals. The Jews were ac- 
customed to light lamps at their festivals, 
and particularly at that of dedication (q. v.), 
which received from this circumstance the 
name of Feast of Lights. The Christians 
seem to have learned this custom from the 
idolaters around them. Hence we find one 
of the apostolical canons forbidding Chris- 
tians to carry oil to any heathen temple 
or Jewish synagogue, or to set up lights 
on festivals, under penalty of excommunica- 
tion. Hindoo, Japanese, and Chinese have 
brilliant annual festivals of lanterns or 
lamps. 

Laodicea {just ^people), called often Laodi- 
cea on the Lycus, to distinguish it from oth- 
er cities bearing the same name, was a city 
in Southern Phrygia, midway between Phil- 
adelphia and Colosse. Its earliest name was 
Diospolis, then Rhoas. Being rebuilt and 
adorned by Antiochus II., king of Syria, he 
called it Laodicea, after his wife Laodice, 
by whom he was afterward poisoned. In 
Roman times it was a foremost city among 
those of the second rank in Asia Minor. Its 
commerce was considerable, being chiefly in 
the wools grown in the region round about, 
which were celebrated for their richness of 
color and fineness of texture. The city suf- 
fered grievously in the Mithradite war, but 
recovered again; was devastated again in 



the wide-wasting earthquake in the time of 
Tiberius, but was repaired and restored by 
the efibrts of its own citizens, without any 
help asked by them from the Roman Senate. 
St. Paul wrote a letter to the Church at La- 
odicea, which is lost. This Church was also 
one of the Seven Churches of Asia to which 
John wrote the epistles contained in the sec- 
ond and third chapters of Revelation. A 
village called Eski-hissar stands amidst the 
ruins of ancient Laodicea. 

Lapsed Christians, a name given to those 
among the early Christians who, amidst the 
severe persecutions to which they were ex- 
posed, lost their courage and resorted to 
measures which were regarded as a virtual 
denial of the faith, and which actually ex- 
cluded them from the communion of the 
Church. Many of these were afterward 
seized with strong feelings of remorse, and 
made earnest application for restoration to 
the fellowship of the faithful, which led to 
considerable difference of opinion in the 
Church. While some pastors were disposed 
to adopt very severe measures, the great ma- 
jority agreed in following a uniform course 
of discipline which subjected the lapsed 
penitents to a term of probation, shorter or 
longer, according to the aggravation of their 
fall. The lapsed Christians came to be di- 
vided, according to the heinousness of their 



LAPWING 



552 



LAW 



guilt, into — Thurificate, those who, under 
pressure of persecution, offered incense to 
idols; Sacrificate, those who offered sacrifices 
to idols ; Traditores, those who gave up their 
Bibles to be burned ; and Lihellatice, those 
who, without really complying with the de- 
mands of the edict issued by Decius Trajan 
(a.d. 250), requiring Christians to conform to 
idolatrous ceremonies, purchased from leni- 
ent or avaricious magistrates a certificate, 
or libel, attesting that they had done so. 

LapAwing, an unclean bird, forbidden to 
the Hebrews as an article of food/ Vari- 
ous opinions have been entertained as to the 
identity of this bird. The Sadducees sup- 
posed it to be the common hen, which they 
therefore refused to eat ; but most commen- 
tators now agree that the hoopoe is the bird 
intended. There would be no particular 
object in the prohibition of such a bird as 
the lapwing, or any of its kin, while there 
would be very good reasons for the same in- 
junction with regard to the hoopoe. Hoop- 
oes are numerous in Egypt, and can always 
be seen when the Nile has subsided, wad- 
ing in the mud, feeding on worms and in- 
sects. The flesh is sometimes eaten, and has 
been pronounced very good. The hoopoe 
visits several parts of Europe, and is often 
met with in Palestine, where the Arabs have 
a superstitious reverence for it. 

Lares, Manes, and Penates were tutela- 
ry spirits, genii, or deities of the ancient Ro- 
mans. They do not appear to have been 
regarded as essentially different beings, for 
the names are frequently used, either inter- 
changeably or in such a conjunction as al- 
most implies identity. Of the two latter we 
know but little, but of the lares we have a 
fuller account. They were divided into two 
classes, domestic and public lares ; their im- 
ages were kept in the larger houses ; they 
were worshij)ed every day; and particular 
honors were paid to them on special occa- 
sions. 

Lasea, or Lassea, a town in Crete, near 
the Fair Havens, where Paul for a time was 
detained. The place is nowhere else men- 
tioned, but it has been identified in compar- 
atively recent times, and the name is still 
borne by a few ruins. [Acts xxvii., 8.] 

Lasha, a place noticed in Gen. x., 19, as 
marking the limit of the country of the Ca- 
naanites. It lay somewhere in the south- 
east of Palestine. Jerome and other writers 
identify it with Callirrhoe, a spot famous for 
hot springs, near the eastern shore of the 
Dead Sea. 

Latitudinarians. A term applied to those 
divines in England who, in the seventeenth 
century, endeavored to bring Episcopalians, 
Presbyterians, and Independents into one 
comnumion, by compromising their differ- 
ences. These men, and others who agreed 
witli them, were zealous supporters of the 
1 Lev. xi., 19 ; Deut. xiv., 18. 



Church of England, without, however, re- 
garding the Episcopal form of Church gov- 
ernment as essential to the constitution of 
the Christian Church. They were not dis- 
posed, therefore, to exclude from the com- 
munion of the Church those who simply pre- 
ferred other forms of worship and discipline. 
Attaching less importance than many of their 
brethren to a strict adherence to creeds and 
confessions, they were ready to merge the 
Arminianism which then prevailed in the 
Church of England, and the Calvinism which 
prevailed among the Presbyterians and In- 
dependents, in the wider and more compre- 
hensive designation of Christians. Hence 
the rise of the name Latitudinarians , which 
is now applied to those men who, lamenting 
the divisions which exist among Christians, 
are disposed to attach less importance to 
creeds than most Christians do, and to ex- 
tend the hand of Christian brotherhood to 
all, whatever their theological opinions, who 
are willing to unite with them in philan- 
thropic and Christian work. 

Laver, one of the utensils of the Taberna- 
cle, to contain the water necessary for the ab- 
lutions of the priests during their ministra- 
tions.^ It was made of the metallic mirrors 
of the women, and consisted of a large basin 
and a foot, or pedestal. It was to stand in 
the court of the Tabernacle, between the sa- 
cred tent and the altar. Possibly the sacri- 
fices were also washed in this laver. When 
the Temple was built, a much larger basin, 
called the molten or brazen sea, was con- 
structed for the priests ; while, for the wash- 
ing of the things offered, ten lavers were 
made, each holding forty baths — about three 
hundred gallons. Five of them were placed 
on the right hand, and five on the left. These 
lavers stood upon square bases mounted on 
wheels, and were ornamented wdth figures 
of cherubim, lions, and palm-trees. [Exod. 
XXX., 18-21; xxxvii., 8; xL, 30-32; 2 Chron. 
iv., 6.] 

La-w. This term occurs frequently in 
theological and philosophical treatises. It 
is variously defined, and a great deal of con- 
fusion is occasioned by failing to discrimi- 
nate between the different definitions. It 
signifies, primarily, a rule of conduct pre- 
scribed by a competent authority. Thus 
we have civil law and ecclesiastical law, 
i. e., the system of rules and regulations pre- 
scribed by the State or the Church for the 
government of the country. Theologically, 
it implies the system of rules prescribed by 
God for the government of man. It is thus 
used by Paul, who teaches that man can not 
be saved by the law, i. e., by obedience to any 
system of rules or regulations, but by faith, 
i. e., by receiving into his heart the Spirit of 
God, and being governed in all his actions, 
not by specific precepts, but by a spirit of 
child -like love for, and confidence in, his 
1 For illustration, see art. Bbazen Sea. 



LAW 



553 



LAZARUS 



Heavenly Fatlier. The term law is again 
used, in a more extended sense, to embrace 
the whole revealed will of God. It is not to 
be supposed that there is any inconsistency 
between the law thus defined and the Gospel, 
or that the latter frees the soul from its ob- 
ligation to regard the former. Theologians, 
again, discriminate between the moral and 
the ceremonial law of God. The former 
consists of those precepts which involve in- 
herent principles of right and wrong, such 
as the law forbidding idolatry or theft ; the 
latter consists of those which prescribe the 
forms and ceremonies of the Jewish worship. 
It is the belief of nearly all Christian schol- 
ars that the latter were obligatory only on 
the Jews, and only during their separate ex- 
istence as a nation. In respect to the for- 
mer, there is a material difference of opinion. 
Many theologians regard the moral law, es- 
pecially the Ten Commandments, as address- 
ed to the whole human race, and binding on 
all mankind ; others, and among these are to 
be included the names of the early continent- 
al reformers, Luther and Calvin, maintained ! 
that, as law, these were addressed only to [ 
the Jews ; that, for example, the obligation ! 
to abstain from idolatry and theft depends | 
not upon the Ten Commandments, but upon j 
the fact that these sins violate principles j 
which are written by God in the universal ' 
conscience ; and that the Christian is in no j 
proper sense '"'under the law," i. e., he is not j 
under a statutory system, but is only under 
the general obligation to love and serve God. 
This question, which is a somewhat abstruse 
one, is important chiefly in its bearing on 
the Sabbath (q. v.). The term law is also 
used in philosophy, to designate that regular 
method, or sequence, by which certain phe- 
nomena, or effects, follow certain conditions, 
or causes. The phrase "natural law" is 
sometimes used to distinguish this use of 
the word from the other. It is sometimes 
said, in popular language, that the world is 
governed by natural laws ; and so long as it 
is clearly understood that nothing more is 
meant than that the world is governed in 
accordance ^ith certain natural laws — that 
is, according to a regular method — the phrase 
is comparatively unobjectionable ; but it is 
unfortunate in that it sometimes leads those 
who have not thought deeply on the subject 
to attribute natural phenomena to ''law," 
instead of to God. Law, however, does not 
indicate the existence of a power, it only in- 
dicates the method in which a real or sup- 
posed power operates. Thus the "law of 
gravitation" does not mean that there is 
any force which draws bodies toward each 
other, but only that it is an observed fact 
that all bodies act as they would if they 
were attracted toward each other with a 
force proportioned directly to the quantity 
of matter they contain, and inversely to the 
squares of their distances. In other words, 



"natural law" only expresses the way in 
which force acts ; but it affords no explana- 
tion of the existence of force itself, the na- 
ture of which is confessedly too occult for 
the discovery of science. The Latvs of Moses 
are described briefly under the article Jews, 
and in greater detail under the titles Mar- 
riage ; Slavery ; Taxes, etc. See also Ten 
Commandments and Appendix. 

La-wyer. The lawyers mentioned in the 
gospels were not advocates, but rather theo- 
logians, whose special province was the in- 
terpretation of the Mosaic law. [Matt, xxii., 
35 ; Mark xii., 28 ; Luke x., 25 ; Tit. iii., 13.] 

Laying on of Hands. This usage has ex- 
isted from a very early age, at first as a fam- 
ily, and later as a church, ceremony. In it 
there appears to have been expressed the idea 
of the conveyance of spiritual qualities — 
sometimes, as in the case of the consecration 
of Joshua,^ of special gifts ; at other times, 
as in the case of the blasphemer in the wil- 
derness,^ of guilt. In the various sacrificial 
services of the O. T. dispensation it formed 
an important part ; and when the sins of 
the people were, in a symbol, transferred to 
a scape-goat, it was done by the priest lay- 
ing his hands upon the head of the goat and 
confessing over him the iniquities of Israel.^ 
In the apostolic age, the laying on of hands 
was employed by the apostles to symbolize 
the transfer of spiritual gifts, whence it has 
passed into the Christian Church. In near- 
ly all branches of the Church it is employed 
in the ordination of ministers ; and in those 
which use the rite of confirmation, it is also 
made an important part of that rite. [Gen. 
xlviii., 14 ; Matt, ix., 18 ; xix., 15 ; Acts viii., 
17; ITim.iv., 14.] 

Lazarus (God is Ms help). 1. The only 
historic j)erson of this name mentioned in 
the Bible was the brother of Martha and Mary 
— probably a younger brother — who lived 
Avith them at Bethany, was a disciple and 
warm personal friend of Jesus Christ, and 
was by him raised from the dead. If we 
may institute a comparison among the mir- 
acles, and speak of one being greater or more 
wondrous than another, when all are equal- 
ly divine, we may characterize the resurrec- 
tion of Lazarus, next to the resurrection of 
Christ himself, as the most stupendous mir- 
acle of the N. T. It is, at the same time, 
one concerning which there is the least op- 
portunity of doubt. Referring the reader 
to the article Martha for an account of the 
family to which Lazarus belonged, and to 
the eleventh chapter of the Gospel of John 
for the story of tlie raising of Lazarus from 
the dead, we shall here only consider briefly 
the significance and importance of the mira- 
cle as one of the evidences of Christianity. 
Its paramount importance at the time was 
evidently realized by friend and foe. Many 
of the Judeans believed ; and previously near- 



Deut. xxxiv., 9.-2 Lev. xxiv., 14.— 3 Lev. xvi., 21. 



LAZARUS 



554 



LAZARUS 



ly all Christ's disciples had been gathered 
from among the Galileans. The Sanhedrim 
felt the importance of the defection so keen- 
ly that they called a special session to con- 
sider what they should do, and, unable to 
deny the reality of the miracle, undertook to 
obviate its effect by putting not only Jesus, 
but Lazarus, to death/ If the truthfulness 
of the account be admitted, the reality of the 
miracle and the divine nature of Christ's mis- 
sion, to which it attested, must be conceded. 
Accordingly, infidelity has assailed the truth 
of the narrative, and endeavored in various 
ways to account for it on other hypotheses. 
These have been chiefly four : first, that the 
account is substantially true, but that Laz- 
arus was not really dead., but only fallen in a 
syncope ; second, that the story is an inven- 
tion of the evangelists, added to the Gospel 
to give weight to Christ's mission ; third, 
that it is a myth, having been added in a 
later age ; fourth, that it was a deliberate 
deception on the part of Lazarus and his sis- 
ters, to which Jesus lent himself as a nec- 
essary means of securing the adherence of 
the people, who demanded a miracle. With- 
out discussing these theories in detail, it is 
enough to refer the reader to the article 
John (Gospel of) for a consideration of the 
reasons which lead the Christian world to 
accept that gospel as really the product of 
John's pen. ■ This being granted, we must 
believe either that John deliberately con- 
trived to deceive others, or that he was him- 
self deceived. We think there are few read- 
ers who will accept the first hypothesis. The 
whole tenor of his life and the character of 
his writings, especially his epistles, are such 
as to forbid the supposition that he would 
have deliberately resorted to fraud and false- 
hood to make good the claims of the Messiah. 
Moreover, he lacked the opportunity. He 
wrote the account, if at all, while the events 
were still fresh in the memory of living men. 
Those who knew Martha, and Mary, and 
Lazarus, would have known and could in- 
stantly have exposed the falsehood, if false- 
hood there were. Those who were familiar 
with the course of the Sanhedrim, and could 
easily have refuted the charge that its intense 
desire for the death of Jesus was strengthen- 
ed by the miracle, were still living when this 
account was written and published. And it 
is simply incredible that such an account 
should be not only given to the world, but 
accepted by it without question under such 
circumstances, if the events described were 
not so far true, at least, as to justify an hon- 
est eye-witness in believing them to be so. 
The only other hypothesis is, that John was 
deceived. But there was no opportunity for 
mistake unless there was fraud. John was 
an eye-witness. He was with Jesus, prob- 
ably in Perea, when the messenger of the 
sisters came to them. He tarried with him, 



1 Johu xi., 45-55; xii., 10, 11. 



not arriving in Bethany till Lazarus, ap- 
parently dead, had been buried four days. 
He saw the grief of the sisters, went with 
Jesus to the tomb, saw the stone rolled away, 
heard the summons to the dead, saw Lazarus 
come forth, bound hand and foot in his grave- 
clothes. All was done in open day. There 
was no secrecy, and no room for optical illu- 
sion. What impressed him, impressed oth- 
ers equally with himself. If John, then, was 
mistaken, it could only have been because 
there was a deliberate fraud. The resurrec- 
tion of Lazarus is either a fact, or it was a 
trick. If a trick, we must believe that Mary, 
Martha, and Lazarus contrived it, and that 
Jesus was a party to it. This is, in fact, the 
hypothesis of Renan. The only alternative 
left, then, is that we must either accept the 
narrative of the resurrection of Lazarus as a 
fact, or we must believe Jesus to have been 
an impostor, who lent himself to a despicable 
fraud to secure the adherence of the Jews to 
his cause. We shall not insult the intelli- 
gence of our readers by discussing this hy- 
Xjothesis. Even the skepticism of the day — 
that which rejects all miracles as unworthy 
of credence, and accounts Jesus only as an 
estimable man — is nevertheless tireless in its 
praises of him as the wisest and the best of 
men. His purity, truth, hoaesty, love, is no 
longer doubted. And if this be indeed con- 
ceded, then the resurrection of Lazarus could 
have been no trick, and there is no room left 
for the hypothesis that John was deceived. 
It remains to notice the significant fact that 
the account of the resurrection of Lazarus is 
given only by John. It is noticeable, how- 
ever, that there is nothing peculiar in this, 
since it is John alone who gives any account 
of the ministry of Christ in Judea prior to 
the last days. Moreover, it is to be remem- 
bered that Lazarus was made by this mira- 
cle a special object of hostility to the Jews ; 
and thus the same reason which led the oth- 
er evangelists to suppress Peter's name in 
giving the account of the cutting off of Mal- 
chus's jear at the time of Christ's arrest would 
naturally lead them to suppress the account 
of the resurrection of Lazarus» altogether, 
even if it otherwise came within the scope 
of their narrative. John, on the other hand, 
writing at a later date, when very possibly 
Lazarus and his sisters were dead, and when, 
at all events, all danger to them would have 
passed away, would naturally give the ac- 
count, and give it fully and in detail, as he 
has done. Of Lazarus after his resurrection 
nothing is told us in Scripture, with the ex- 
ception of a single reference,^ and we do not 
think it worth while to encumber our pages 
with meaningless and untrustworthy tradi- 
tions. 

2. The same name is introduced by Christ 
into one of his dramatic and most significant 
parables — that of Lazarus and the rich man. 
1 Johu xii., 2. 



LEAD 



555 



LEBANON 



We see no reason to believe that the charac- 
ters of this story are other than imaginary, 
though a contrary opinion has been ad- 
vanced, and the monkish guides in Jerusa- 
lem even show the houses of both the per- 
sonages in the story. 

Lead. This metal is not extensively used 
in the East, nor do we find many references 
to it in Scripture. Its chief use appears to 
have been in connection with refining more 
precious metals. See, however, Writing. 
[ Jer. Yi., 29 ; Ezek. xxii., 18, 20.] 

Leah {weary), the elder daughter of Laban. 
The expression tender-eyed^ is considered to 
indicate some weakness or deformity men- 
tioned in contrast to the beauty of her sister 
Eachel. By the strategy of her father,'^ she 
became the wife of Jacob, her cousin, to 
whom she bore six sons and one daughter.^ 
She seems to have been painfully conscious 
of the superior place which her sister Rachel 
held in her husband's affections, but she ac- 
companied him to Canaan. She probably 
lived to witness the dishonor of her daugh- 
ter,* so cruelly avenged by two of her sons, 
and the subsequent death of Eachel, but 
died before Jacob went to the land of Egypt, 
and was buried in the cave of Machpelah.^ 

Leather. Existing specimens prove that 
the Egyptians were well acquainted with 
the art of tanning. Pieces of leather dyed 
various colors have been discovered in their 
tombs; and they applied 
this article to many dif- - ^ -=^ 

ferent uses. The Israel- - 

ites must have learned JE=-__ - 

its use from them. There ^^= 

could be no lack of the -isE^ 
skius of animals in Pal- 
estine, so numerous were 
the Jewish sacrifices. We 
find these skins, more or 
less dressed, used, ac- 
cordingly, for clothing, 
for coverings, for girdles, 
and for other purposes. 
Leather, too, was em- 
ployed for writing upon. 
The trade of a tanner 
was in very low esteem 
among the Jews, and, on 
account of the unpleas- 
ant smell, was usually 
carried on outside a city, 
near rivers or by the sea- 
side. [Exod. xxvi., 14 ; 
Lev. xiii., 48, 49 ; 2 Kings 
1, 8 ; Job xxxi., 20 ; Matt, iii., 4 ; Acts ix., 
43; x.,6,32; Heb.xi.,37.] 

Leaven, any substance that promotes fer- 
mentation. Sour dough is generally used in 
the East for this purpose: lees of wine are 
also employed. All leaven was prohibited 
in meat-offerings, and specially in the pas- 



chal feast of the Hebrews ; whence this was 
often called " the feast of unleavened bread." 
The nature of leaven, affecting the whole 
lump of the substance to which it is added, 
furnishes some striking illustrations in Scrip- 
ture. [Lev. ii., 11; vii., 12; viii., 2; Exod. 
xii., 3, 19, 20 ; Numb, vi., 15; Matt, xxvi., 17; 
Luke xii., 1 ; 1 Cor. v., 6, 7, 8. 

Lebanon, a double range of mountains in 
the north of Palestine. The name Lebanon 
signifies loMte, and the range is so called from 
the brilliance of its snowy peaks. Lebanon 
does not rise in groups or clusters like the 
Alps, or in one long ridge like the Apen- 
nines, but in two parallel ranges of very 
unequal height, running nearly north and 
south; the western sloping gradually down, 
by many ridges and spurs, to the i)lain of 
Phoenicia; the eastern, in a similar manner, 
to the sandy flats of ancient Aram, ttat en- 
circle Damascus. According to the usual 
reckoning, Lebanon extends about eighty or 
ninety miles in length, and from five to eight 
or ten in breadth. These two ranges were 
well known to classical writers as Libanus 
and Anti-Libanus ; and though this distinc- 
tion is not directly brought out in the Scrip- 
tures, yet it is probable that " Lebanon to- 
ward the sun-rising,"^ is meant as Anti-Li- 
banus, or the eastern range, while the west- 
ern is universally called Ledanon by the sa- 
cred writers. The average elevation of the 




1 Gen. xxix., 17.— ^ See Marriage — 3 Gen. xxix., 
31-35 ; XXX., 17-21.—* Gen. xxxiv., 2.-5 Gen.xlix., 31. 



Lebanon. 

range is from six to eight thousand feet; 
one or two peaks rise higher, and upon these 
the snow lies through all the year. Leba- 
non is composed of limestone of a grayish 
color. Many parts are verdureless, others 
are rich in verdure, and every available spot 
is carefully cultivated. Fig-trees cling to 
the naked rock, vines are trained along nar- 



i Josh, xiii., 5. 



LECTERN 



556 



LEGATE 



row ledges, long ranges of mulberries on ter- 
races cover the declivities, and dense groves 
of olives fill up the bottom of the glens. 
Both in the verdure which clothes its sides, 
and the wild beasts which inhabit its more 
retired regions, it justifies the description of 
it which the Scripture affords.^ Hundreds 
of villages root themselves on its sides and 
heights, and castles and convents are perch- 
ed on its peaks. The cedar is not so plenti- 
ful as it was three thousand years ago ; but 
the little cluster of ancient cedars, now near- 
ly all that remains of Hiram's forests, is still 
visited by travelers, and presents a specimen 
of what Lebanon must once have been. These 
stand more than six thousand feet above the 
sea-level. " That goodly mountain and Leb- 
anon,"^ referred to by Moses, are probably 
two distinct objects; this "goodly mount- 
ain" meaning Hermon (q. v.), which is the 
loftiest peak in the Anti-Libanus range. 
The great central valley between the two 
Lebanons, now simply called El-Buka'a — the 
valley — was anciently known as Ccele-Syria, 
and contains magnificent ruins of the Tem- 
ple of the Sun at Baalbek. Few fragments 
of ancient splendor can equal this, save per- 
haps those of Egypt and India. The conjec- 
ture that this is the Baalgad^ of Scripture is 
not unlikely. Lebanon was originally in- 
habited by the Hivites and Giblites.* The 
whole mountain range was assigned to the 
Israelites, but never conquered by them.^ 
During the Jewish monarchy it appears to 
have been subject 
to the Phoeni- 
cians.^ At the 
present day the 
inhabitants of 
Lebanon are chief- 
ly Druses (q. v.) 
and Maronites (q. 
v.). There are 
also Mohammed- 
ans in difierent 
places. 

Lectern, or Let- 
tem, a reading- 
desk or stand, 
properly movable, 
from which the 
Scripture lessons, 
which form a por- 
tion of the various 
church services, 
are chanted or 
read. The lectern 
is of very ancient 
use, of various 
forms, and of dif- 




Lectern in Kaini^ay Church, 
HuutiuydoDshire. 



ferent materials. It is found both in Roman 
Catholic churches, and in the cathedrals and 



1 1 Kings v., 6; 2 Kings xiv., 9; Psa. xxix., 5; Isa. 
xiv., 8; Sol. Song iv., 8; Ezra iii., 7; Hab. ii., 17.— 
2 Deut. iii., 25.-3 josh, xi., 17; xii., 7; xiii., 5. — 
♦ Judg. iii., 3 ; Josh, xiii., 5, 6.— ^ Judg. iii., 1-3 ; Josh. 
xiii., 2-6.-8 1 Kings v., 2-6 ; Ezra iii., 7. 



college chapels of the Church of England. 
The most ancient lecterns are of wood, but 
they were frequently also made of brass, and 
sometimes in the form of an eagle (the symbol 
of St. John the Evangelist). In some parts of 
the east of Scotland, the precentor's desk in 
the Presbyterian churches is called the lettran. 

Lecturers, in the Church of England, are 
an order of preachers distinct from the rec- 
tor, vicar, and curate. They are chosen by 
the vestry, or chief inhabitants of the parish, 
supported by voluntary subscriptions and leg- 
acies, and are usually the afternoon preach- 
ers, and sometimes officiate on some stated 
day in the week. The lecturer is not en- 
titled to the pulpit without the consent of 
the rector or vicar, who is possessed of the 
freehold of the church. 

Leek. The word chatzir, translated " grass " 
in so many places, is rendered ''leek" in 
Numb, xi., 5. All the early translators and 
the Septuagint agree with our authorized 
version ; and they are justified by the grass- 
like appearance of the leaves of this plant, 
and by its popularity in both ancient and 
modern Egypt. The inhabitants are very 
fond of it, eating it raw, as sauce for their 
roast meat. The poor eat it raw, with bread, 
especially for breakfast, using the earth for 
a table, and would scarcely exchange their 
leeks and a bit of bread for a royal dinner. 

Lees are mentioned thrice in Scripture. 
In Jer. xlviii., 11, it is plain that the undis- 
turbed condition of Moab, and the accumu- 
lations of all good things connected with his 
long unbroken ease, are compared to the 
richest, thickest, and strongest part of such 
a liquid as wine, which, during the lapse of 
time, gathers in the bottom of the cask. A 
similar passage occurs in Zeph. i., 12. So in 
Isa. XXV., 6, the expression "wine on the 
lees " signifies a generous, full-bodied liquor ; 
fof wine was allowed to stand upon the lees, 
in order that its color and body might be 
better preserved'. Before the wine was con- 
sumed, it was necessary to strain off the lees. 
Such wine was then termed " well refined." 
To drink the lees, or " dregs," was an expres- 
sion for the endurance of extreme punish- 
ment . [ Psa. Ixxv. , 8. ] 

Legate, a cardinal or bishop, whom the 
pope sends as his ambassador to sovereign 
princes. He is his vicegerent and represent- 
ative, invested with plenary powers to act 
in his stead at a foreign court. There are 
three kinds of legates: 1. Legates ab latere, 
sent directly from him, and invested with 
most of the functions of the pope himself; 

2. Legati nati, such as hold their commission 
by virtue of their office. Before the Refor- 
mation the Archbishop of Canterbury held 
this species of legatine authority in England ; 

3. Legati dati, special legates, holding their 
authority from the pope by special commis- 
sion. For the time being, they are superior 
to the other two orders. The functions of a 



LEGENDS 



557 



LENTIL 



legate can not be exercised until he is forty 
miles distant from Rome. 

Legends (Lat. legeuda, things to he read, 
lessons) was tlie name given in early times, 
In the Roman Catholic Church, to a hook 
containing the daily lessons which were 
wont to he read as a part of divine service. 
Then the narratives of the lives of saints and 
martyrs, as well as the collections of such 
narratives, received this name, because the 
monks read from them. Such legends were 
also inserted in the breviaries, in order that 
they might be read on the festivals of the 
saints and martyrs. The way in which a 
credulous love of the wonderful, exaggera- 
tion of fancy, ecclesiastical enthusiasm, and 
at times pious fraud, mixed themselves up in 
these narratives with true history, caused 
stories of a religious or ecclesiastical nature 
generally to be designated as legends, in 
contradistinction from authentic ecclesias- 
tical history. Legends in this sense of the 
word, as spiritual and ecclesiastical stories, 
are found not only in the Roman Catholic, 
but also in tlie Greek Church, and their ori- 
gin reaches back to the earliest ages of Chris- 
tianity — Christ himself, the Vii'gin, John the 
Baptist, the apostles, and other prominent 
persons of the Gospel history having become, 
at a very early period, the subject of them. 
But this tendency to mythic embellishment 
showed itself more especially in regard to 
Mary, the later saints, martyrs, and holy men 
and women. These legends form a very con- 
siderable part of Roman Catholic devotional 
literature, but they are not accepted by the 
more honest and intelligent members of the 
Roman Catholic communion. 

Lehi {jaw-hone), the name of a place, or 
district, on the borders of Philistia, where 
Samson slew a thousand Philistines with the 
jaw-bone of an ass. The name fully was 
Ramath-lehi, " tlie hill of Lehi," so called, per- 
haps, from a ridge of craggy, serrated rocks, 
or from Samson's casting away the jaw-bone. 
Athirst and weary with the slaughter he had 
made, he cried to the Lord ; and thereupon 
a stream gushed forth, not from the jaw*- 
bone, as our English version has it, but from 
the place Lehi, as in the marginal reading. 
[Judg. XV., 14-19.] 

Lent, a season of fasting, which precedes 
the festival of Easter, and is supposed to have 
been introduced with the view of commem- 
orating our Saviour's temptation, and his 
fasting forty days in the wilderness. At 
first it seems to have been a voluntary fast, 
continuing forty hours — corresponding to 
Friday and Saturday before Easter — and 
comprising the entire period during which 
our Redeemer lay in the grave. In process 
of time this fast underwent considerable 
changes ; and from a voluntary it beeame a 
regular prescribed fast, observed not by pen- 
itents and catechumens only, but by Chris- 
tians generally. In the fifth and sixth cen- 



turies, the fast was extended to thirty-six 
days. The four days which were afterward 
added, to make it forty days, were introduced 
either by Gregory the Great in the sixth cen- 
tury, or by Gregory II. in the eighth. The 
fast began with Ash- Wednesday, and ended 
with Saturday before Easter, which was ob- 
served with great solemnity, and was de- 
nominated the Great Sabbath. The entire 
week before Easter was termed the Great 
Week and Passion-Week. The forty days 
of the fast of Lent are sometimes accounted 
for by referring to the example of Moses, 
Elias, and our Lord, all of whom fasted forty 
days. The fast of Lent does not include all 
the days between Ash- Wednesday and East- 
er, the Sundays not being counted, because 
the Lord's day has always been held as a 
festival, and not as a fast. Lent is ob- 
served in the Roman Catholic and Episco- 
pal churches, but not in the non-ritualistic 
Protestant churches. It ends with Easter 
(q. v.), and in Roman Catholic countries is 
preceded by the Carnival (q. v.). 

Lentil. A legiTminous plant, producing a 
kind of pulse resembling small beans. They 
are chiefly used for pottage, which is of a red 
or chocolate color, such as that for which 
Esau sold his birthright. The Arabs retain 
the old Hebrew name of this little legume, 
and in the East it is still used as in the early 




Lentils. 



time. Both in Egypt and Syria lentils are 
parched over the fire in shallow pans, and, 
thus dried and cooked, are purchased by the 
natives when setting out on their journeys ; 



LEOPARD 



558 



LEPER, LEPROSY 



and it was with such ]3ortahle provisions 
that Barzillai and other friends supplied 
King David and his people when .'' hungry, 
and weary, and thirsty, in the wilderness." 
Nor is it without good reason that the lentil 
is so much esteemed along the shores of the 
Levant. It abounds in nitrogenous matter, 
and, in the absence of animal food, is a great 
resource in Roman Catholic countries dur- 
ing the season of Lent. [Gen. sxv., 29-34 ; 
2 Sam. xvii., 28 ; Ezek. iv., 9.] 

Leopard (the "sjtotted"). It is probable 
that this word as employed in the Bible 
comprehended three animals — the leopard 
proper, the ounce, and the cheetah, or hunt- 
ing leoi^ard. All these three species belong 
to the cat tribe, and are inhabitants of Asia. 
Of the leopard but little is said in Scripture : 
in the N. T. it is mentioned only once, and 
then in a purely metaphorical sense :^ in the 
O. T. it is casually mentioned seven times, 
but only in two places is the word leopard 
used in the strictly literal sense. Yet, in 
these brief references the various attributes 
of the animal are delineated with such fidel- 
ity that no one can doubt that it was famil- 
iarly known in Palestine. From a passage 
in Canticles^ we learn that the hilly ranges 
of Lebanon were in ancient times frequented 
by tliQ leopard, and it is now not uncommonly 
seen in and about Lebanon and the southern 
maritime mountains of Syria. Jeremiah al- 
ludes to its striking colors.^ The swiftness 
of the leopard is well known. With this Hab- 
akkuk compares the speed of the formida- 
ble Chaldean horses; the ''winged leopard,"* 
in Daniel's vision, is the emblem of Alexan- 
der's rapid conquests. So great is the flex- 
ibility of its body, that it is able to make 
surprising leaps, to climb trees, or stealthi- 
ly to crawl like a snake upon the ground. 
When it has its abode near human dwell- 
ings, it disjilays wonderful craftiness in ob- 
taining its prey from the flocks and herds. 
Hence the use of the leopard as a figure for 
sudden, swift, inevitable destruction pre- 
pared by the Almighty for evil-doers.^ The 
skin of the leopard has always been highly 
valued on account of its beauty. In more 
ancient times it was the official costume of 
a priest ; being sometimes shaped into a gar- 
ment, and sometimes simply thrown over the 
shoulders, with the paws crossed over the 
breast. 

Leper, Leprosy. In the absence of ac- 
curate medical observations, the one term, 
leprosy, was used among the Hebrews to des- 
ignate various cutaneous disorders, widely 
different in inherent character, but possess- 
ing some similarity in symptoms and exter- 
nal characteristics. It is geuerally consider- 
ed that the translation in our English version 
of the original Hebrew term is not a fortu- 
nate one, the proper leprosy being a disease 



1 Eev. xiii., 2.-2 Sol. Song iv., 8.-3 Jer, xiii., 2.S.— 
* Dan. vii., 6; Hab. i., S.— ^ Jer. v., 6: Hos. xiii., 7. 



of a different and much more superficial char- 
acter than that which is ordinarily desig- 
nated by the Hebrew word tzara^atli. It is 
considered by the best authorities that the 
disease indicated is that now known as El- 
ephantiasis, or, more fully, as Elepliantiasis 
Groecorum, to distinguish it from Elepliantia- 
sis Aral) urn, more popularly known as " Bar- 
bados leg." 

In its worst forms, the leprosy of the Bi- 
ble is the most terrible of all the diseases to 
which man is subject. There is no disease 
in which hope of recovery is so nearly extin- 
guished. From a commencement slight in 
appearance, with, but little pain or incon- 
venience, often, in its earlier stage, insidi- 
ously disappearing and re-appearing, it goes 
on in its strong but sluggish course, gener- 
ally in defiance of the efforts of medical skill, 
until it reduces the patient to a mutilated 
crijiple, with dulled or obliterated senses, 
the voice turned to a croak, and ghastly de- 
formity of features. When it reaches some 
vital part, it generally occasions what seem 
like the symptoms of a distinct disease (most 
often dysentery), and so puts an end to the 
life of the sufferer. Its mode of selecting- its 
victims has something of the same mysteri- 
ous deliberation as its mode of attack. It 
passes on slowly from country to country, 
and from race to race, as little checked by 
variations of climate as by artificial reme- 
dies. If the type of disease is in some de- 
gree modified in different countries, or in 
particular cases by local circumstances or 
constitutional peculiarities, it never fails to 
have its own way in the general character 
of the effect produced. From the time of 
Moses till the coming of Christ, we know 
that it prevailed among the Hebrew race. 
At the j)resent time that race, as a whole, 
does not seem to be especially subject to it. 
The disease has moved off, and has in turn 
visited almost every other branch of the hu- 
man family. On the most superficial view 
of the subject, it would seem that no disease 
could so well deserve to be singled out by 
divine wisdom as the object of special laws. 

The origin of leprosy is ascribed to '' an 
animal poison generated in or received into 
the blood, accumulated therein probably by 
a process analogous to fermentation." This 
poison primarily affects either the skin, by 
depositing in it a j)eculiar albuminous sub- 
stance, or in the nerves and nervous centres, 
at last destroying them so as to take away 
sensation. In this way two forms of ele- 
phantiasis are distinguished — the tiiber cilia- 
ted elephantiasis, and the anwsthetic, or non-tii- 
ler ciliated elephantiasis. The ti(l)erculated el- 
ephantiasis is the 'more common form. It 
generally first shows itself by inflamed 
patches in the skin, on the face, ears, or 
hands, of a dull red or purplish hue, from 
half an inch to two inches in diameter. 
These soon chance to a brownish or bronze 



LEPEE, LEPROSY 



559 



LEPER, LEPROSY 



color, with, a metallic or oily lustre, and a 
clearly defined edge ; and in this state they 
often remain for several weeks or months. 
By. degrees the discolored surface becomes 
hard, and rises here and there into tubercles, 
at first reddish, but afterward either bronzed 
or white. The scarf-skin often scales off. 
After another i^eriod of weeks, or months, or 
even of years, many of the tubercles subside, 
and leave a kind of cicatrix, thinner than the 
surrounding skin, which may remain either 
bronzed or white. The tubercles which do 
not subside, or which break out again, may 
vary from the size of a pea to that of a pig- 
eon's egg ; and after continuing, it may be 
for years, with no external change, they ul- 
cerate, discharging a whitish matter. The 
ulcers often eat into the muscle till they ex- 
pose the bones ; occasionally they heal over 
and leave hard white cicatrices. Should 
there be any hair on the tubercles, it either 
falls off or turns white, and the hair of the 
head or eyebrows mostly disappears. From 
the gradual swelling of the features, the face 
assumes a sort of lion-like or satyr-like as- 
pect, which suggested the names which have 
been sometimes applied to the disease, Leon- 
tiasis and Satyriasis. The change on the sur- 
face of the skin has given rise to other names 
in more modern times, such as the hlacTc lep- 
rosy and the humid leprosy. " When the dis- 
ease is fully formed, the distorted face, and 
the livid, incrusted and ulcerated tubercles, 
the deformed, sightless, and uncovered eyes, 
the hoarse, whispering voice, the fetid breath 
and cutaneous excretion, the contorted joints, 
which are often buried in or absolutely dis- 
located by tubercles, the livid patches on 
those parts of the body not yet tuberculous, 
all form a picture which is not exceeded in 
the horror of its features by any other dis- 
ease." The disease, for the most part, creeps 
on with irresistible progress, until it attacks 
some vital organ and occasions death. 

The anwsthetic elephantiasis often com- 
mences in the forehead, with shining white 
or copper-colored patches and vesicles, tech- 
nically called bullae, which are developed 
suddenly without pain, soon burst, and dis- 
charge a milk - like matter. An inflamed 
ulcerated surface is left, which is very ten- 
der, but heals after a time, and leaves a 
smooth, white, insensible cicatrix without 
hair. The hair in some cases returns, but is 
always white and fine. The disease soon at- 
tacks the joints of the fingers and toes, and 
afterward those of the larger limbs, which 
drop off, bone by bone. In some cases the 
bones appear to be absorbed. • The ulcers 
heal with wonderful celerity and complete- 
ness. It is said that amputation by elephan- 
tiasis will often " bear comparison with the 
most finished performance of the surgeon." 
The limbs which are affected, but do not ul- 
cerate, become at last so completely devoid 
of sensation that portions of them may be 



burned, cut, or nibbled off by mice, without 
the person being conscious of it. The face 
never becomes so utterly deformed as in tii- 
herculated elephantiasis, but the skin is for 
the most part tightly strained over the fea- 
tures with a mummy-like aspect, the eyelids 
droop, tears continually flow, and the lower 
lip hangs down and exposes the teeth and 
gums; the taste, sight, and smell fail, but 
the voice is not affected ; the eyebrows and 
lashes, and the other hair, generally fall, or 
become white. The progress of the disease 
is even much slower than that of tuherculated 
elephantiasis, and its fatal termination is not 
so nearly certain. The average duration of 
life after the first appearance of the disease 
in the one is ten years ; in the other, nearly 
twenty, or, in India, above thirty years. In 
each of the two forms death is mostly pre- 
ceded by an attack of dysentery. 

Another form of leprosy is that known to 
the physicians as lepra vulgaris, which has 
nothiugin common with elephantiasis, except 
in some external appearances. This disease 
shows itself in reddish pimples, which spread 
in a circular form till thej^ meet each other, 
and cover large patches of the body. It 
scarcely affects the general health, and for 
the most part disappears of itself, though it 
often lasts for years. This was probably the 
disease referred to in Lev. xiii., 12, 13. K a 
great part of the surface of the body had 
turned white, with none of the proper symp- 
toms of elephantiasis, the man was to be 
pronounced clean. But if, after he had been 
discharged by the priest, ulceration made its 
appearance, he was to be regarded as a leper, 
unless the ulceration proved to be but tem- 
porary. It is probable that the disease of 
Naaman was the lejjra vulgaris, else he could 
hardly have retained his position at court. 

Medical skill appears to have been more 
completely foiled by elephantiasis than by 
any other malady. The Israelites regarded 
it as beyond the reach of natural remedies.^ 
The ancient physicians prescribed treatment 
for it, but it appears to have been commonly 
regarded as incurable in the times of Cyril 
and Augustin. Of modern physicians a great 
number express themselves with entire hope- 
lessness in regard to tuherculated elephantiasis ; 
but the ancesthetic form seems to be, in some 
degree, amenable to remedies and regimen. 
It has, however, been observed that, from 
the false shame usually felt by those who 
are afflicted with it, the disease in either 
form is rarely seen by the physician until it 
has passed the stage in which remedies might 
be applied with hope of success. 

It can not reasonably be doubted that ele- 
phantiasis is hereditary. There are families 
in which it has been handed down for ages. 
It, however, frequently skips over a genera- 
tion, and affects only one or two members 
of a family. The children of leprous parents 



1 2 Kings v., 7. 



LEPER, LEPROSY 



560 



LEPER, LEPROSY 



are in iufancy as fair, and seem to be as 
healthy, as others. The morbid symptoms 
generally make their first appearance about 
the age of puberty, and the work of destruc- 
tion then creeps on, until the comely child 
becomes a disfigured and mutilated man. 
But there are many cases in which the mala- 
dy first appears in more advanced life, when 
there seems to be no hereditary transmission. 
Of two hundred and thirteen cases examined 
in Norway, one hundred and eighty - nine 
proved to be hereditary, and twenty-four of 
spontaneous origin. In Crete, out of one 
hundred and twenty-two cases, seventy were 
hereditary, and forty-six spontaneous. It is 
a well - established fact, that in almost all 
places where the disease prevails, there are 
many more men aifected with it than women. 

Whether leprosy is contagious or not, has 
greatly perplexed both the divines and the 
physicians. The case of Naaman indicates 
very clearly that some forms of the disorder, 
or the disease in some of its stages, was not 
so regarded. The true leprosy is, however, 
universally regarded as contagious now by 
the people of the East. There appear to be 
some well-authenticated cases of its having 
been taken apparently by contagion. On 
the other hand, it is said that several sur- 
geons have wounded themselves in the dis- 
section of leprous bodies, and received no 
characteristic injury. It is still an open 
question, though we are inclined to think 
the truth to be, that the lepra vulgaris and 
the ancesthetic elepliantiasis are not conta- 
gious, while the tuberculated elephantiasis is. 

Directions for the determination of the 
question whether a man had the leprosy or 
no are given in detail in Lev. xiii. The prin- 
cipal object of these directions appears to 
have been to enable the priest to determine 
whether the patient had the real elephan- 
tiasis, or some other cutaneous disorder like 
the lepra vulgaris, of comparatively innocu- 
ous character, though with similar symptoms. 
In the latter case he was pronounced clean ; 
in the former, he was banished from the | 
camp. Such a separation of lepers from 
the familiar intercourse of social life has 
been common to nearly all nations and ages. 
The effect of the malady in disfiguring its 
victims, with the dread of contagion, wheth- 
er justly founded or not, might sufficiently 
account for this practice. But at the same 
time must be noticed the all but universal 
impression that the leprosy, above all other 
diseases, comes upon man as an irresistible 
stroke of superhuman power, either in the 
way of punishment for personal sin, or an 
infliction with some definite purpose. This 
natural suggestion was coufii-med, and real- 
ized upon several occasions in the history of 
the Israelites. A stroke of leprosy was the 
mark of the divine displeasure at the slow 
faith of Moses, at the contumacy of Miriam, 
at the dishonesty of Gehazi, and at the imjii- 



ous presumption of Uzziah. One of the de- 
nunciations against Joab on account of the 
death of Abner was that his children should 
be lepers.^ 

The ancient Persians did not allow their 
lepers to enter a city, nor to have any deal- 
ings with other men, and they excluded for- 
eign lepers from their country. They regard- 
ed the disease as a penalty, a scourge, sent by 
Ahriman. The Greek writers speak of lepro- 
sy as an infliction from Phoebus. Arabs will 
not sleep near a leper, nor eat with him, nor 
contract marriage with a family in which the 
leprosy is known to exist. In China the dis- 
ease is commonly spoken of as a retribution 
for sin, and lepers are excluded from society 
as objects of disgust and aversion. In Ja- 
pan, Madagascar, and New Zealand, the dis- 
ease is looked upon in the same light, and 
lepers are treated in nearly the same man- 
ner. That lepers associated together in the 
Holy Land as they do at present, is evi- 
dent.^ It has been conjectured that a hab- 
itation was provided for them outside of Je- 
rusalem, on the hill Gareb, which is men- 
tioned only in Jer. xxxi., 39. 

Leper-houses have existed in Syria from 
time immemorial, and it can hardly be un- 
reasonable to connect this fact with the op- 
eration of the law of Moses continued from 
age to age. There are at present such homes 
at Jerusalem, Damascus, Nablus, and Ram- 
leh. The home at Jerusalem consists of a 
row of huts inclosed by a wall just within 
the south gate of the city. The lepers are 
maintained in part by a fund left by a pious 
Mussulman, but mainly by alms. Parties 
of four or five take their stand to beg at 
certain spots outside the city. Their re- 
ceipts are equally shared. One of their num- 
ber is appointed as sheik by the Pacha of 
Jerusalem to transact the business of the 
community. They are exempt from taxes. 
They are bound to reside within their quar- 
ter, but they are free to go into the city, and 
to receive visits from their friends. The 
distinction between Christian and Moslem 
is wholly disregarded in their intercourse 
among themselves. In 1860 the home con- 
tained twenty-four males and nine females. 
All the latter were married except one. One 
of the women was in good health, and appear- 
ed to have suffered originally only from the 
lepra vulgaris ; but having been pronounced 
a leper, she could not be liberated, owing to 
the want of some such provision as the puri- 
fication of the Levitical law. 

Whether the provisions of the Mosaic law 
concerning lepers were of a sanitary or a 
spiritual character has given rise to some 
discussion. Probably they partook of the 
double character. Certainly leprosy was 
well chosen as a type of sin. It is heredi- 
tary, insidious, at first apparently not seri- 

1 Exod. iv., 6 ; Numb, xii., 10 ; 2 Chron. xxvi., 20, 21 • 
2 Sam, iii., 29.-2 2 Kings vii., 3 ; Luke xvii., 12. 



LESSONS 



561 



LEVIATHAN 



ous, develops into the most hideous form of 
disease, in which the body lives on even after 
corruption has taken hold of it, so that the 
leper has been well called a "parable of 
death," and finally was incurable, or at least 
was universally so regarded among the an- 
cients. As the hopeless leper was thus the 
most significant and striking picture of the 
gradual but deadly corruption wrought in 
the soul by sin, and his separation from the 
camp a representation of the sinner's es- 
trangement alike from God and the people 
of God, so his cleansing under the Mosaic 
law, and still more, his complete and instan- 
taneous cure by Christ, afi'orded the best 
possible type of redemption. 

What is meant by the leprosy in clothing 
and houses referred to in Lev. xiii., 47-59 ; 
xiv., 33-57, is not very clear. It is now gen- 
erally considered that it does not refer to any 
leprous contagion in either dress or house, 
but rather to some form of decay or mildew 
which was perhaps dangerous to health. 
The regulations concerning it were probably 
at once of a moral and a sanitary character. 

Lessons, portions of Scripture appointed 
in many churches to be read in the course 
of divine service. In the ancient Jewish 
Church the reading of the O. T. Scriptures 
formed a most important part of the worship 
of the synagogue. The books of Moses were 
divided for this purpose into fifty-four sec- 
tions, corresponding to the Sabbaths in the 
year. Selections were also made from the 
historical and prophetical books, which re- 
ceived the general name of the Prophets. 
One of these selections was read every Sab- 
bath-day, along with the corresponding por- 
tions of the law. In the early Christian 
Church the reading of the Scriptures was an 
essential part of public worship. The por- 
tions read were partly taken from the Old 
Testament, and partly from the New. Jus- 
tin Martyr is the first who mentions the 
reading of the Gospels and the Acts of the 
Apostles, together with the Scriptures of 
the Old Testament. This writer also men- 
tions a special officer in the church, call- 
ed a reader, whose duty it was to read the 
Scriptures, after which an exhortation, or 
exposition, bearing on the passages read, was 
delivered by the minister. At first there 
was no established order for the reading ; 
but afterward the bishops appointed the les- 
sons. Even as late as the fourth and fifth 
centuries instances occur of such appoint- 
ments by the bishops. In non-ritualistic 
churches the selection of Scripture for read- 
ing is left to the discretion of the minister. 
In the Episcopal Church a double course of 
lessons, the first and the second — one from 
the O. T., the other from the N. T. — is ap- 
pointed to be read regularly at morning and 
evening services. The greater part of the 
Bible is thus read through at public service 
at least as often as once a year; but the or- 
36 



der is broken into on certain holy-days, for 
which special lessons are provided. 

Levi {a joining), t]iQ third son of Jacob by 
Leah, who gave him his name as an expres- 
sion of her trust that her husband would, 
now that she had borne him three sons, be 
joined in affection with her. Levi, with his 
brother Simeon, took the lead in the dread- 
ful vengeance inflicted upon the Shechemites 
for the defilement of their sister Dinah. Ja- 
cob viewed their conduct with abhorrence, 
and before his death, while prophetically de- 
scribing the future fortunes of his sons and 
their posterity, uttered a solemn denuncia- 
tion upon Simeon and Levi. This appears to 
have had its full effect in regard to Simeon ; 
but the holy zeal of the Levites on occasion 
of the golden calf procured them a remarka- 
ble blessing and distinction. Levi had three 
sons, Gershon, Kohath, and Merari, the heads 
of the families of the tribe. He died in 
Egypt, at the age of one hundred and thir- 
ty-seven. See Levites. [Gen. xxix., 34; 
xxxiv., 25-31 ; xlix., 5-7 ; Exod.xxxii., 26-29.] 

Leviathan. This word, according to its de- 
rivation, properly denotes an animal wreathed, 
gathering itself in folds. It seems to be used 
in Scripture as a general term to designate 
any formidable aquatic monster. In the fa- 
miliar passage in Psalms,^ it evidently sig- 
nifies some large inhabitant of the Mediter- 
ranean, probably one of the whale family. 
There is some uncertainty as to " leA^athan 
the piercing serpent, even leviathan that 
crooked serpent," spoken of in Isa. xxvii., 1 : 
it seems probable that the reference is to 
some species of the large rock-snakes. Bib- 
lical critics are for the most part agreed that 
the magnificent description in Job^ points to 
the crocodile. This reptile still inhabits the 
Nile, and there is evidence that it formerly 
existed in some of the rivers of Palestine. 
The crocodile is one of the many animals to 
which divine honors were paid by the Egyp- 
tians. Various reasons for this worship can 
be discovered, but at the root of them all lies 
the tendency of man to find a type of divin- 
ity in the object which has the greatest ter- 
rors for him. We find, also, that the croco- 
dile must be signified by the Hebrew word 
tannin, which occurs in several passages, 
and which is sometimes translated "dragon," 
sometimes " serpent," sometimes " whale." 
A passage in EzekieP describes the animal 
intended, and evidently points to the croco- 
dile. There is a peculiar significance in 
the comparison of Pharaoh to the croco- 
dile. It is the master and terror of the Nile, 
of whom all animals stand in fear; it is 
ravenous, crafty, fierce, and relentless; keen- 
eyed to espy prey, and swift to devour it. 
Yet, in spite of all these evil qualities, the 
Egyptians venerated it and adorned it with 
costly jewels. Like the crocodile, secure in 
his scaly armor, Pharaoh thought himself 



Psa. civ., 26.-2 Job xli., 1-34.-3 Ezek. xxix., 2-5. 



LEVITES 



562 



LEVITICUS 



invincible ; but tbougli man could not con- 
quer him, God could "put books in bis jaws," 
and draw bim out of bis river of security 
to miserable destruction. In anotber chap- 
ter, containing a like prophecy in regard to 
Pharaoh, the same word has been rendered 
"whale."^ 

Levites, the descendants of Levi (q. v.). 
They were appointed at the time of the Ex- 
odus, by divine direction, to serve as assist- 
ants of the priests, and included all the 
males of the tribe of Levi who were not of 
the family of Aaron, and who were of the 
prescribed age — namely, from thirty to fifty.'^ 
Their duties required a man's full strength. 
After the age of fifty, they were relieved 
from all service except that of superintend- 
ence.^ They bad to assist the priests to car- 
ry the tabernacle and its vessels, to keep 
watch about the sanctuary, to prepare the 
supplies of corn, wine, oil, etc., and to take 
charge of the sacred treasures and revenues. 

The Levites were divided into three fami- 
lies, which bore the names of the three sons 
of Levi — the Gersbonites (q. v.), the Kohath- 
ites(q.v.), and the Merarites (q. v.) ; and they 
severally had their appointed functions in the 
service of the tabernacle. They had no ter- 
ritorial possessions. In place of them, they 
received from the other tribes the tithes of 
the produce of the land, from which they, 
in their turn, offered a tithe to the priests.* 
On their settlement in the promised land, 
the most laborious parts of their duty were 
over, and they were relieved from others by 
the submission of the Gibeonites and the 
conquest of the Hivites, who became " hew- 
ers of wood and drawers of water."^ Heuce 
their concentration about the tabernacle 
was no longer necessary, and it was more 
important for them to live among their breth- 
ren as teachers and religious guides. For- 
ty-eight cities were assigned to the whole 
tribe — that is, on an average, four in the ter- 
ritory of each tribe ; thirteen being given to 
the priests, and the rest to the Levites. After 
their settlement in their cities, they took the 
place of the household priests, sharing in all 
festivals and rejoicings.® They preserved, 
transcribed, and interpreted the law,'^ which 
they solemnly read every seventh year at 
the Feast of Tabernacles.^ They pronounced 
the curses from Mount Ebal.^ At a still 
later time they became the learned class in 
the community, the chroniclers of the time 
in which they lived. One of the first to 
bear the title of " scribe " is a Levite, and 
this is mentioned as one of their special of- 
fices under Josiah. They are described as 
"officers and judges" under David, and as 
such are employed "in all the business of 
Jehovah, and in the service of the kino;." 



1 Ezek. xxxii., 2, 3.-2 Nnmb. iv., 23, 30, 35.-3 Numb, 
viii., 25, 2G.— 4 Numb, xviii., 21, 24, 2G ; Neh. ^., ST.— 
5 Josh, ix., 27.-6 Deut. xii., 19 ; xiv., 26, 27 ; xxvi., 11. 
—'' Deut. xvii., 9-12 ; xxxi., 26.— « Deut. xxxi., 9-18.— 
^ Deut. xxvii., 14. 



They are the agents of Jehosbaphat and 
Hezekiah in their work of reformation, and 
are sent forth to proclaim and enforce the 
law.^ In the N. T. they are only incidental- 
ly alluded to, but evidently continued to fill 
subordinate offices in the service of the Tem- 
ple, and also, probably, to act as scribes and 
teachers. 

Leviticus. The third book of the Penta- 
teuch is thus named in the Septuagint, be- 
cause it contains almost exclusively those 
ritual laws respecting sacrifices, purifica- 
tions, and the like, with the administration 
of which the Levites were charged. The 
modern Jews, after the rabbinical custom, 
call it Vayyikra, after the Hebrew word with 
which it commences. As regards its subject- 
matter, Leviticus is closely connected with 
Exodus at its commencement, and with Num- 
bers at its conclusion. The first link of con- 
nection is clearly shown by the fact that, 
while the directions for the consecration of 
the priests are given in Exodus, the conse- 
cration itself is narrated in Leviticus in near- 
ly the same words, excepting a change in 
the tense of the verbs. The book, however, 
has a character of its own, from the fact that 
so large a portion of it is occupied with in- 
structions for the service of the sanctuary. 
It is true that much matter of the same kind 
is found in Exodus and Numbers, but Le- 
viticus differs from those books in its gener- 
al exclusion of historical narrative. Refer- 
ring to the article Pentateuch for the gen- 
eral discussion as to the unity, antiquity, 
authorship, and credibility of that portion 
of Scripture ascribed to Moses, it is only 
necessary to remark in this place that most, 
even of those who hold a different opiuion 
on the other books of the Pentateuch, ascribe 
Leviticus in the main to the great lawgiver. 
The theories which are counter to its Mosaic 
origin are so much at variance with each 
other — no two of them being in any thing 
like substantial agreement — that it does not 
seem worth while to notice them in this 
place. Leviticus has no pretension to sys- 
tematic arrangement as a whole, nor does it 
appear to haA^e been originally written all at 
one time. Some repetitions occur in it, and 
in many instances certain particulars are 
separated from others with which, by the 
subject-matter, they are immediately con- 
nected. There appear to be in Leviticus, as 
well as in the other books of the Pentateuch, 
pre-Mosaic fragments incorporated with the 
more recent matter. There are also passages 
which may probably have been written by 
Moses on previous occasions, and inserted in 
the places they now occupy when the Pen- 
tateuch was put together. And it is by no 
means impossible that there are insertions 
of a later date which were written or sanc- 
tioned by the prophets and holy men who 



1 1 Chron. xxiv.,i 
22; xxxiv.,13. 



xxvi., 29 ; 2 Chron. xvii., 8 ; xxx., 



LIBERAL CHRISTIANS 



563 



LICE 



after the Captivity arranged and edited the 
Scriptures of the O. T. Indeed the frag- 
mentary way in which the law has been 
chronicled, regarded in connection with the 
jjerfect harmony of its spirit and details, 
confirms both the substantial unity of the 
authorship of the Mosaic books and the true 
inspiration of the lawgiver. The simple 
artlessness of the way in which various 
statutes are here recorded, is no slight proof 
that we have the whole as Moses wrote it. 
A later compiler and interpolator would 
have gone more systematically to work. 

That so elaborate a ritual asTieViticus 
looked beyond itself, we can noMToubt. It 
was a prophecy of things to cqaP^' a shadow 
•whereof the substance was Cnrist and his 
kingdom. We may not always be able to 
say what the exact relation is between the 
type and the antitype ; but we can not ac- 
cept the Epistle to the Hebrews and not ac- 
knowledge that the Levitical priests "served 
the pattern and type of heavenly things ;" 
that the sacrifices of the law pointed to and 
found their interpretation in the Lamb of 
God ; that the ordinances of outward purifi- 
cation signified the true inner cleansing of 
the heart and conscience from dead works to 
serve the living God. One idea, moreover — 
the idea of holiness — penetrates the whole 
of this vast and burdensome ceremonial, and 
gives it a real glory even apart from any 
prophetic significance. 

Liberal Christians, the name assumed in 
common by those denominations who dissent 
from the principal tenets of the orthodox 
denominations. It embraces the Unitarians 
and Universalists, and others who are con- 
nected with no organized sect, but who 
claim to accept Christianity in a certain 
sense without acknowledging the truths of 
what are generally regarded as Christian 
doctrines. The common ground upon which 
all Liberal Christians substantially agree 
is that " Christianity is a life, not a creed." 
See Unitariajs^s ; Universalists, etc. 

Libertines. 1. The descendants of Jew- 
ish freedmen at Rome, who had been expel- 
led — A.D. 19 — by Tiberius. They might very 
well have had a synagogue of their own at 
Jerusalem, as they were numerous, and as 
there are said to have been not fewer than 
four hundred and sixty synagogues in that 
city. [Acts vi., 9.] 

2. A religious sect which arose in 1525, 
whose principal tenets were, that the Deity 
was the sole operating cause in the mind of 
man, and the immediate author of all human 
actions ; that, consequently, the distinction 
of good and evil which had been established 
with regard to those actions were false and 
groundless, and that men could not, proper- 
ly speaking, commit sin ; that religion con- 
sisted in the union of the spirit, or rational 
soul, with the Supreme Being ; that all those 
who had attained this happy union were 



then allowed to indulge, without exception 
or restraint, their appetites or passions ; that 
all their actions and pursuits were then per- 
fectly innocent ; and that after the death of 
the body they were to be united to the Dei- 
ty. These maxims occasioned their being 
called Libertines, and the word has ever 
since been used in an ill sense. 

3. Libertines of Geneva were a cabal of 
rakes rather than of fanatics ; for they made 
no pretense to any religious system, but 
pleaded only for the liberty of leading volup- 
tuous and immoral lives. There were among 
them several who were notorious for their 
dissolute and scandalous manner of living, 
and for their atheistical impiety and con- 
tempt of all religion. 

Libnah {ivMteness). 1. One of the stations 
of Israel in the wilderness. It is generally 
identified with the Labau of Deut. i., 1, and 
was situated on or near either the Elanitic 
Gulf or the Arabah. The name is perhaps 
preserved, though in a corrupted form, in El 
Bey^neh, the designation of a part of the 
mountain plateau and adjacent valley on 
the west of the Arabah, north of Ezion-geber. 
[Numb, xxxiii., 20.] 

2. A city of Canaan which Joshua took. 
It was in the plain -country of Judah, and 
was afterward assigned to the priests. Lib- 
nah revolted in the disastrous reign of Joram, 
king of Judah, but it seems to have been af- 
terward recovered. In Hezekiah's reign it 
was besieged by Sennacherib. After this 
we hear nothing more of Libnah, save that 
Hamutal, a wife of Josiah, and mother of two 
of his sons, Jehoahaz and Zedekiah, was a 
native of the place. Its site has not been 
identified with any certainty. [Josh, x., 29- 
32, 39 ; xii., 15 ; xv., 42; xxi., 13; 2 Kings viii., 
22 ; xix., 8 ; xxiii., 31 ; xxiv., 18 ; 1 Chron. vi., 
57 ; 2 Chron. xxi., 10 ; Isa. xxxvii., 8 ; Jer. 
lii., L] 

Lice. The Hebrew word which has been 
so rendered in our Bible occurs in only two 
passages, both of which have reference to 
the third great plague of Egypt. It is im- 
possible to determine certainly what insect 
is intended. Some persons have supposed it 
to be the musquito-gnat. The annual over- 
flowing of the Nile renders Egypt peculiarly 
liable to this intolerable pest. But these 
gnats could hardly be said to be "in man 
and in beast ;" besides, the insects in ques- 
tion were produced from the " dust," and not 
from the watery ground, which is the breed- 
ing-place of the musquito family. The lice 
which abound in Egypt, infesting the human 
body and hair, have no connection whatever 
with the dust, and, if subjected to a few 
hours' exposure to the dry heat of the burn- 
ing sand, would shrivel and die. Sir Samuel 
Boker thinks that the insect intended must 
be a species of tick, which is found in Egypt 
inhabiting the hot sand and dust, where it 
can not possibly obtain nourishment till 



LIGURE 



564 



LION 



some Tvretched animal lies down upon the 
spot and becomes a victim before he has dis- 
covered his minute enemy. Man and beast 
suffer alike from them. They cling so tight- 
ly that they can scarcely be removed with- 
out being torn in pieces and leaving some 
portion of their heads beneath the skin. It 
is well known that, from the size of a grain 
of sand in their hungry condition, they will 
distend to the size of a hazel-nut, by prey- 
ing for some days on the body of an animal. 
[Esod. viii., 16 ; Psa. cv., 31.] 

Ligure, a precious stone, the first in the 
third row of the high-priest's breastplate. 
The word ligure is unknown in modern min- 
eralogy, and it is impossible to say with any 
certainty what stone is denoted by the He- 
brew term. [Exod. xxviii., 19 ; xxxix., 12.] 

Lily. In our own and many other lan- 
guages the word lily is of large significance, 
and takes in a vast variety of plants which, 
beauty excepted, have not much in common. 
Even the botanist includes among the Lilia- 
cece the tulips, hyacinths, fritillarias, stars of 
Bethlehem, and scarlet lilies, which the Holy 
Land still yields so freely ; and if the lotus 
of the Nile had been naturalized in any res- 
ervoir or river, like the large yellow water- 
lilies which still flourish near the Lake of 
Merom, it would not have been unnatural to 
bestow on it the same name. There has been 
much diversity of opinion as to the class to 
which Scripture alludes; but the Lilium CJial- 
cedonicum, or scarlet martagon, combines all 
the features suggested by the lily of Solo- 
mon's Song and of St. Matthew. It delights 
in the valleys; it is often found among thorns ; 
its dried stem may be used for fuel, and, with 
its stately growth and flowing coronet, it is 
a truly imperial flower, which may well 
challenge Solomon in all his glory. At the 
same time we are quite prepared to believe 
that the architectural ornamentation men- 
tioned in 1 Kings vii., 19, 22, may have been 
taken from the Egyptian lotus, for we can 
not open a book of Egyptian antiquities 
without observing how constantly this lily 
of the Nile recurs as the staple ornament in 
Egyptian art. [Sol. Song ii., 1, 2, 16 ; v., 13 ; 
Matt, vi., 28.] 

Linen. There are several words in He- 
brew which have been rendered linen in our 
English Bible. By much the most common 
term is l)dd, which has the common meaning 
of linen cloth. It is frequently used with 
reference to the garments of the priests, 
which, like those of the priests of Egypt, 
were undoubtedly of linen, and of a white 
appearance.^ Another term, Avhich, from a 
comparison of Exod. xxviii., 42, with xxxix., 
28, is evidently synonymous with had, is 
shesh. Tlie rabbins describe this as signify- 
ing equally with bad a species of flax found 
only in Egypt, slender and white ; this first. 



1 Exod. xxxix., 28 ; Lev. vi., 10 ; 2 Sam. vi., 14 ; Ezelv. 
ix.,2; Dan. X., 5. 



then the cloth made from it. Sliesli is the 
word used in the first allusion to linen in the 
Bible, as the material of the robes in which 
Joseph was arrayed when promoted to the 
dignity of the ruler of Egypt, and it was of 
the sliesJi which the Israelites had brought 
out of Egypt that they made offerings for 
the tabernacle.^ In the later books of the 
Bible we have mention of huts, worn by kings, 
priests, and persons of rank. It is generally 
rendered/??e linen, as is also the correspond- 
ing Greek word hyssos. If huts differed from 
shesh at all, it must have been in the fact 
that the former was the product of Syria, 
the latter of Egypt.'* 

Etun and sddm^ also signify linen ; but the 
general term, which included all those al- 
ready mentioned, was pishteh, which was em- 
ployed — like our " cotton " — to denote not 
only the flax or raw material from which 
the linen was made, but also the plant itself, 
and the manufacture from it. It is gener- 
ally opposed to wool, as a vegetable product 
to an animal, and was used for nets, girdles, 
and measuring-lines, as well as for the dress 
of the priests.^ 

Egypt was celebrated from very early 
times for its flax and fine linen, which was 
put to a variety of uses, and of which speci- 
mens remain to the present day in the cloth 
in which mummies are swathed. It was 
exported to Arabia and India, and probably 
to Palestine. It is very likely that cotton, 
which was well known and largely used in 
ancient times, certainly in India and proba- 
bly in Egypt, was at first considered as a va- 
riety of linen. It was probably included 
under that term, and not distinguished from 
linen till after the Persian dominion. It is 
mentioned only once in Scripture — in Esth. 
i., 6 — where fine white cotton is the correct 
translation of the word rendered in our Bi- 
ble " green." 

Lion. The numerous references to the 
lion which are found in almost every book 
of both the O. T. and N. T. prove that it 
must in ancient times have been plentiful 
in Palestine. It is everywhere mentioned as 
an animal well known and dreaded. But in 
later years, though most of the wild animals 
mentioned in Scri]3ture can be discovered in 
the vicinity, the lion has vanished complete- 
ly out of the land. The thicker population, 
the cutting away of the extensive forests, 
which were the hiding-place of both the lion 
and the weaker animals, which he needed 
as food, and the introduction of fire-arms, 
which are his special dread, are no doubt 
the principal causes of his extinction. There 
are several Hebrew words used for the lion. 
That which indicates the animal in its adult 



1 Exod. XXV., 4; XXXV., 6, 23, 25, 35; xxxviii., 28.— 
2 1 Chron. xv., 29; 2 Chrou. iii., 14; v., 12; Luke xvi., 
19.— 3 Piov. vii., 16 ; Judg. xiv., 12, 13.—* Lev. xiii., 4T, 
48,52, 59; Dent, xxii., 11; Josh, ii., G; Jiid^. xv., 14; 

I Prov. xxxi., 13 ; Hos. ii., 5, 9 ; Isa. xix., 9 ; Jer. xiii., 1 ; 

1 Ezek. xl., 3 ; xliv., 17, IS. 



LITANY 



565 



LITURGY 



state signifies, literally, "the strong one." 
No epithet could be better deserved, for the 
lion seems the very incarnation of strength, 
giving, even when dead, a vivid idea of con- 
centrated power. When the skin is strip- 
ped from the body, the tremendous muscular 
development never fails to create a sensation 
of awe. The muscles of the limbs, them- 
selves so hard as to blunt the knives of the 
dissecter, play upon each other like well- 
oiled machinery, and terminate in tendons 
seemingly as strong as steel, and nearly as 
impervious to the knife. Although usually 
unwilling to attack an armed man, the lion 
is sublimely courageous when driven to fight ; 
and if its anger is excited, it cares little for 
the number of its foes, or the weapons with 
which they are armed. Even the dreaded 
fire-arms lose their terrors to an angry lion ; 
while a lioness, who fears for the safety of 
her young, is simply the most terrible ani- 
mal in existence. There are few sounds 
more awe - inspiring than the lion's roar, 
even when the animal is confined in a strong 
cage, so that the hearer knows himself to be 
safe. Many passages of Scripture refer to 
the lion's roar, and it is remarkable that the 
Hebrew language contains several words to 
designate different kinds of roar; so that 
the low, deep, thunder-like roar of the lion 
seeking its prey, its sudden, exulting cry, as 
it leaps upon its victim, the angry growl 
with which it resents any endeavor to de- 
prive it of its prey, and the peculiar cry of 
the young lion, are distinguished and refer- 
red to with exact appropriateness, in the 
many descriptions and images where they 
are used. Evidently many of the sacred 
writers were familiar with the minutest de- 
tails of the habits and appearance of the 
lion.^ Its nocturnal habits are described in 
a beautiful passage in Psalms.^ Its cus- 
tom of lying in wait is frequently alluded 
to;^ even the peculiar gait and demeanor 
are depicted.* The retired spots, deep in the 
forest, where the lion makes its den, are re- 
peatedly mentioned. Many figures are drawn 
from the modes of hunting the lion. It is 
always introduced as an emblem of strength 
and power, whether used for a good purpose 
or abused for a bad one. Lions that were 
taken in nets seem to have been kept alive 
in dens, either as mere curiosities, or as in- 
struments of royal vengeance.^ 

Litany {supplication), a form of prayer 
adopted by the Roman Catholic and the 
Episcopal churches, consisting of short peti- 
tions by the priest, with responses by the 
people. There are four Roman Catholic 
litanies, and they are frequently used in con- 
nection with processions by the clergy and 
the people. The litany of the Church of En- 
gland is not an exact transcript of any an- 
cient form, though composed of materials of 

1 Jer. li., 3S ; Amos iii., 8.-2 Pea. civ., 21, 22.-3 pga. 
X., 9 ; Lam. iii., 10.—* Psa. xvii., 11, 12.— ^ Dan. vi.,^ T. 



very ancient date. It differs essentially from 
the Romish litanies, in that it contains no in- 
vocations to angels and departed saints. In 
the original arrangement, the litany formed 
a distinct service, not used at the time of 
the other services ; but by later usage it has 
been united with the morning prayer, though 
still retaining its separate place in the 
prayer-book. Formerly it was the custom 
to hold morning prayer at eight o'clock, and 
the litany and the communion at ten ; and 
this practice is still observed in some of the 
Episcopal churches. 

Litter. This word occurs only once in the 
English Bible , and then in the plural. ^ There 
are articles still frequently employed in the 
East which may be regarded as substantial- 
ly coincident with the litters of the prophet. 
These litters resemble cradles, and are cover- 
ed handsomely with cloth, so as to protect 
the persons who are carried in them from sun 
and rain. They are borne on camels, one on 
each side, and have openings, or windows, 
for the admission of light. Sometimes they 
are carried by two camels, one before and the 
other behind. 

Liturgy (public service) signifies, in gen- 
eral, a form of prayer and ceremonial, estab- 
lished by ecclesiastical authority, to be used 
in the public service of the Church, but is 
especially applied to that used in the cele- 
bration and administration of the Lord's 
Supper. The liturgical churches, i. e., those 
which employ in their ordinary services an 
established form of worship, include all the 
Eastern churches, and in the West the Ro- 
man Catholic, Episcopal, and Lutheran 
churches. There are also liturgies provided 
in other churches, but they are not in very 
common use. The question whether the 
public service of the sanctuary should be 
liturgical or not, is one which divides the 
Christian Church, though, including the Ro- 
man Catholic and Greek churches among 
the churches of Christ, the preponderating 
influence is largely in favor of a liturgy. 
We can here but briefly indicate the argu- 
ments in favor and against the liturgical 
forms of worship. 

The advocates of a liturgy assert that it 
is the mode which has been in use from the 
earliest times ; that it has received the de- 
cided sanction of the Holy Spirit, since the 
psalms, which were written under divine in- 
spu'ation, were many of them prepared for 
the use of the Temple service ; that the 
services of the synagogue were liturgical; 
that Christ, who condemned the Pharisees 
for their additions to the law and their cor- 
ruptions of religion, never condemned their 
employment of a liturgy ; that he conform- 
ed to the request of his disciples by giving 
them a form of prayer ; that he requires 
those who assemble to pray together to agree 
touching what thev shall ask, and that such 



1 Isa. Ixvi., 20. 



LIVER 



566 



LOAN 



agreement implies a joining mutually in a 
prayer whicli has before been agreed upon; 
that there are indications in the N. T. of the 
use of liturgical forms from the days of the 
apostles ;^ and that it is universally agreed 
that liturgical forms were a part of the rec- 
ognized service of the Church at least as ear- 
ly as the fourth century; so that to reject 
all liturgical forms is to reject the intima- 
tions of Scripture, and the undoubted ex- 
ample of the early Church. It is further ar- 
gued that the liturgy is essential to congre- 
gational prayer ; that without it the congre- 
gation are only left to listen to the prayers 
of another ; and that it is equally necessary 
in order to preserve the spirit of prayer even 
in the minister himself, who is otherwise left 
to frame his unpremeditated petitions ac- 
cording to the mood of the moment, and to 
convert what should be an act of worship 
into a sermon or an exhortation ; and final- 
ly, it is asserted that, in those churches where 
there is no liturgy, public worship has almost 
universally become subordinate to instruc- 
tion. 

On the other side, it is alleged that even 
the O. T. prescribes no settled forms of prayer, 
and contains no distinct liturgy ; that even 
if the passages referred to in the N. T. are to 
be taken as indicating a use of liturgy in the 
apostolic Church (and this is denied), if the 
employment of a liturgy were a matter of 
any moment, it could hardly be that Christ 
would have left his Church without any spe- 
cific instruction on the subject; that the 
Lord's Prayer prescribes the spirit, rather 
than the form, of devotion, as is evident from 
the fact that the form is differently given by 
the different evangelists; and that the lit- 
urgy did not come into general use till the 
Church began to lose its primitive simplici- 
ty. It is further argued, that the employ- 
ment of a liturgy tends to formalism in re- 
ligion ; that the wants of one age and one 
people are not those of another ; and that 
l)erpetual repetition can not fail to dej^rive 
the written prayer of the spirit and life of 
devotion. It should perhaps be added, that 
this dispute, like most of those of a theolog- 
ical character, has lost much of its bitter- 
ness, and that at the present time the litur- 
gical and non-liturgical churches of Protest- 
antism appear to be approaching one anoth- 
er, many of the non-liturgical churches in- 
troducing some liturgical elements into their 
service, while in the liturgical churches, es- 
pecially the Episcopalian, large room is al- 
lowed for extempore iirayers. For account 
of the liturgy of the Roman Catholic Church, 
see Breviahy ; Missal ; for that of the Epis- 
copal Church, see Phayer-Book. See also 

WOIISHIP. 

Liver. The word often occurs in the 



> The principal passages referred to are 1 Cor. xi., 
23-2G ; 1 Tim. ii., 1, and Ruch references and sayings as 
Eph. v., 14 ; 1 Tim. i., 15 ; 2 Tim. ii., 11-13. 



natural sense, as indicative of a vital organ 
in the animal system, and especially with 
reference to the parts of animals slain in 
sacrifice. The use to which the liver was 
applied for purposes of divination by the an- 
cient heathens, though not employed by the 
Jews, was not unknown to them.^ The chief 
peculiarity among them, as regards the place 
of the liver in the animal system, is that they 
seem to identify it more with the source and 
centre of life than we are wont to do, and 
sometimes put liver where we would sub- 
stitute heart. [Lev. iii., 4, 10 ; iv., 9 ; Prov. 
vii.,23; Jer.ii.,2.] 

Lizard. The Hebrew word which has been 
so translated seems to be a general term un- 
der which, in all probability, the sacred writer 
includes the whole of the lizard family, i e., 
all the cold-blooded animals that have the 
conformation of serpents and the addition of 
two or four feet. Lizards of various kinds 
are found in great numbers in all the Orient- 
al countries. At the present day, in the 
East, certain varieties of the lizard are sup- 
posed to possess medicinal properties, and 
are consequently captured, their bodies dried 
in the sun, and sent to market to be sold for 
the use of physicians. Lizards were forbid- 
den as articles of food by the Mosaic law. 
[Lev. xi., 30.] 

Loan. The Mosaic laws which relate to 
the subject of borrowing, lending, and re- 
paying, are in substance as follows: If an 
Israelite became poor, what he wished to 
borrow was to be freely lent him, and no in- 
terest, either of money or produce, exacted 
in return. Interest might be taken of a for- 
eigner, but not of one Israelite by another. 
At the end of every seven years, every cred- 
itor was to remit what he had lent to a 
brother Israelite, but might exact a loan 
made to a foreigner; and no Israelite was to 
be refused a loan because the year of remis- 
sion was at hand. Pledges might be taken ; 
but if the pledge was raiment, it was to be 
restored before sunset, since it was needed 
for a covering at night ; and on no account 
must either a millstone or the widow's gar- 
ment be taken in pledge, since they were nec- 
essary to life. The law did not forbid tem- 
porary bondage in the case of debtors, but for- 
bade a Hebrew to be detained as a bondsman 
for debt longer than the seventh year, or, 
at furthest, the Year of Jubilee. It appears, 
however, from the parable of the ten talents,'* 
that, in later times, the Jubilee release had 
fallen into disuse, and the debtor was liable 
to be retained in prison until the full dis- 
charge of his debt. This law, as exhibit- 
ed in the parable, evidently belongs to des- 
potic Oriental customs. Some consider it to 
have been introduced by the Romans. This, 
however, is doubtful. The extortionate con- 
duct mentioned with disapprobation in Job 
xxii., 6; xxiv., 3, 7, probably represents a 



1 Ezeli. sxi., 21.— 2 Matt, xviii., 23-35. 



LOCUST 



567 



LOCUST 



state of tilings previous to the law, and such, 
as the law was intended to remedy. As 
commerce increased, the practice of usury 
and suretyship grew up, but the exaction 
of it from a Hebrew was to a late period 
regarded as discreditable. The custom of 
mortgaging land, sometimes at exorbitant 
interest, sprung up among the Jews during 
the Captivity, and was annulled by Nehemi- 
ah after the return, as a systematic breach 
of the law. In later times, the practice of 
borrowing money appears to have prevailed, 
without limitation of race, and to have been 
carried on systematically, though the origi- 
nal spirit of the law was approved by our 
Lord. The money-changers (q. v.) who had 
seats and tables in the Temple were traders 
whose profits arose chiefly from the exchange 
of money with those who came to pay the 
annual half-shekel. [Exod. xxi., 2 ; xxii., 25- 
27 ; Lev. xxv., 36-41 ; Deut. xv., 1-3, 7-10 ; 
xxiii., 19, 20 ; xxiv., 6, 10-13, 17 ; Neh. v., 1 ; 
Psa. XV., .5 ; Prov. vi., 14 ; xi., 15 ; xvii., 18 ; 
XX., 16; xxii., 26, 27; Jer. xv., 10; Ezek. xviii., 
13 ; xxii., 12 ; Matt, v., 42 ; xxi., 12 ; xxv., 27 ; 
Luke vi., 35; xix.,23.] 

Locust. A well-known insect, frequent- 
ly mentioned in Scripture. There are nine 
or ten Hebrew 
words which 
seem to have 
been used to 
distinguish the 
dififereut spe- 
cies, and also 
the different 
forms in the 
development 
of the same 
species. And 
various En- 
glish words are 
used in the 
same way, as 
beetle, grass- 
hopper, can- 
ker-worm, and 
caterpillar, all 
of which prob- 
ably represent 
species of the 
locust and its 
larvsB. Solo- 
mon speaks of 
the presence of 
the locust as 

among the most terrible calamities that can 
befall a country, classing it with famine, 
drought, pestilence, and siege.^ The same 
writer remarks on the curious fact that 
these creatures are gregarious and migra- 
tory, yet have no leader, as is the almost 
universal habit among gregarious animals.^ 
In the account of the great plague of lo- 
custs, the wind is mentioned as the prox- 
1 1 KiBgs viii., 37.— * Prov. xsx., 27. 



imate cause both of their arrival and their 
departure.^ Although locusts have suffi- 
cient strength of flight to remain on the 
wing for a cor^siderable time, and to pass 
over great distances, they have little or no 
command over the direction of their flight, 
and always travel with the wind. If a sud- 
den gust arises, they are tossed about in the 
most helpless manner; and when they hap- 
pen to come across one of the circular air- 
currents that are so frequently found in the 
countries which they inhabit, they are whirl- 
ed round and round without the least power 
of extricating themselves.^ Very few insects 
have been recognized as fit for food even 
among uncivilized nations, and it is rather 
singular that the Israelites, whose diet was 
so scrupulously limited, should have been 
permitted the use of the locust. These in- 
sects are, however, eaten in aU parts of the 
world which they frequent, and in some 
places form an important article of food, 
thus compensating in some degree for the 
amount of vegetable food which they con- 
sume. In Palestine locusts are eaten, either 
roasted or boiled, in salt and water; but 
when preserved for future use, they are dried 
in the sun, their heads, wings, and legs pick- 




Syrian Locust. 



ed off, and the bodies ground into dust. This 
dust has naturally a rather bitter flavor, 
which is corrected by mixing it with camel's 
milk or honey, the latter being the favorite 
substance; hence we may suppose that the 
food of John the Baptist was, like his dress, 
that of a people who lived at a distance from 
towns, and that there was no more hardship 
in the one than in the other. ^ See Beetle. 



1 Exod. X., 12, 13.— 2 Psa. cix., 23.-3 Mark i., 6. 



LOLLARDS 



568 



LOOKING-GLASS 



Lollards, or Lollhards, a semi-monastic 
society the members of which devoted them.- 
selves to the care of the sick and of the dead. 
It was first formed about the year 1300, in 
Antwerp, where some pious persons associ- 
ated themselves for the burial of the dead. 
They acquired the name of Lollards from 
their practice of singing dirges at funerals — 
the Low-German word lollen, or luUen, signi- 
fying to sing softly, or sloivly. They soon 
spread through the Netherlands and Ger- 
many, and in the frequent pestilences of that 
period were useful, and everywhere welcome. 
The clergy and the begging-friars, however, 
disliked and persecuted them, classing them 
Avith the heretical Begliards ; and having 
been reproached with heresy, their name 
was afterward applied to the followers of 
Wycliffe in the fourteenth century. This 
eminent forerunner of the Reformation in 
England was born in 1324, at a small village 
near Richmond, in the county of York. He 
was educated at the University of Oxford, 
where he distinguished himself by his tal- 
ents, and the zeal and diligence with w^hich 
he prosecuted his studies both in philosophy 
and theology. In 1372 he was made doctor 
of theology. As a pastor, he labored inde- 
fatigablj^, seeking, by ardent and prayerful 
study of the Bible, to instruct the people in 
divine things. The Romish priesthood had 
long been accustomed to give the sermon 
a subordinate place in public worship, but 
Wycliffe restored it to its due importance as 
a means of supplying the religious wants of 
the people. With him, too, originated the 
idea of traveling preachers — men who went 
about barefoot preaching salvation through 
the cross of Christ. The greatest service 



opponent of transubstantiation, contending 
against every mode of a bodily presence of 
Christ, and maintaining that the bread and 
wine are nothing more than symbols of 
Christ's body and blood, with the additional 
explanation that, in the case of believers, 
they were active symbols, placing those who 
partook of them with real, living faith, in 
the position of an actual union with Christ. 
The great Protestant principle that Christ 
is the only author of salvation occupied a 
prominent place in his theological system. 
He believed that in the Church two orders of 
the clergy were sufficient — priests and dea- 
cons ; that, in the time of Paul, bishop and 
presbyter were the same. Scripture, in his 
view, was the rule of faith and practice, and 
every doctrine and precept ought to be re- 
jected which does not rest on that founda- 
tion. He held that conversion is solely the 
work of God in the heart of the sinner ; that 
Christ is the all in all of Christianity ; that 
faith is the gift of God ; and that the one es- 
sential principle of spiritual life is commun- 
ion with Christ. The true Church he main- 
tained to be Christ's believing people, and 
their exalted Redeemer the only true Pope. 
From the time of his death until the Ref- 
ormation, the sufferings of the Wycliffites, 
or Lollards, were severe. Their principles, 
however, had taken deep root in England ; 
and during the fifteenth century the papal 
influence gradually decreased, preparing the 
way for the Reformation, which in the suc- 
ceeding century established the Protestant 
faith as the settled religion of the country. 

Looking-glass. This word occurs only 
twice in the O. T.^ The Greek word simply 
rendered glass is found in the N. T. in a few 




■which Wycliffe conferred upon the cause of 
true religion in England, however, Avas the 
publication of his translation of the Bible 
(q. V.) in 1380. In 1381 he appeared as the 



Metal Mirrors. From Wilkinson. 

Glass mirrors were unknown to 



passages.' 
the ancients. 



Some have thought that steel. 



i Exod. xxxviii., 8; Job xxxvii., IS.— 2 1 Cor.xiii., 
12 ; 2 Cor. iii., 18 ; Jas. i., 23. See Glass. 



LORD'S PRAYER 



569 



LORD'S SUPPER 



rather than brass, was the metal of which 
their mirrors were composed, as mirrors of 
that description, also of silver and various 
other materials, are known to have been used 
by the ancients. But those used by the He- 
brew females in the wilderness Avould un- 
doubtedly be such as were common in Egypt ; 
and it appears, from the monuments, that 
they were of mixed metal, of which the chief 
ingredient was copper. They were mostly 
of a round form, and furnished with han- 
dles, which seem to have varied in form and 
device much more than the mirror itself. 
Those carried by the Hebrew women at the 
time of the construction of the vessels of the 
tabernacle were used for making " the laver 
of brass, and the foot of it of brass." 

Lord's Prayer. A form, or rather a mod- 
el, of prayer given by our Lord to his disci- 
ples. It exists in two forms, one in Matt, 
vi., 9-13, and one in Luke xi., 2-4. It is un- 
certain whether the prayer was twice given 
in slightly different forms by Christ, or wheth- 
er it was given at the time indicated in Luke's 
gospel, but was incorporated by Matthew in 
the Sermon on the Mount, because cognate 
to the instructions respecting prayer given 
in that sermon. The opinion of most Bibli- 
cal scholars is that the doxology, which is 
found only in Matthew, was added subse- 
quently, though this is by no means certain. 
It has been said that this prayer is composed 
largely of forms existing in the time of Christ 
among the Jews; but this statement rests 
on very slight authority. The question 
whether Christ prescribed it as a set form of 
prayer, or simply intended it as an indica- 
tion of the nature and spirit of true prayer, 
has been much discussed.^ The early fathers 
treated it as a prescribed form ; but there is 
no indication that it was so used either by 
Christ himself or by his apostles. It first 
appears as part of a ritual in the third cen- 
tury. 

Lord's Supper, the name given to the 
sacrament established by Jesus Christ just 
before his death, as a memorial ordinance to 
be maintained perpetually in his Church. 
The account of the institution of the Lord's 
Supper is given by three of the evangelists, 
and also by Paul.^ John, while he speaks 
of the supper, does not describe the institu- 
tion of the ordinance. Grouping the four 
accounts together, the narrative is substan- 
tially as follows : 

Jesus commenced administering in the 
usual manner, by a blessing on the feast, 
and by pouring out and passing the first 
cup. The presence of Judas, however, whose 
treachery was known to Christ, acted as a 
restraint. Christ declared that he should 
be betrayed. When asked who was the 
traitor, he declined to answer. He simply 
said, sadly, " He that dippeth his hand with 



' See LiTUEGY.— 2 Matt, xxvi., 26-29 ; Mark xiv., 22- 
25 ; Luke xxii., lT-20 ; 1 Cor. xi., 23-25. 



me in the dish, the same shall betray me." 
To betray one with whom you have eaten 
is, according to Oriental ideas, the very ex- 
treme of treachery. At the same time he 
dipped the unleavened bread in the dish of 
sauce made of bitter herbs and passed it to 
the disciples, Judas among the rest. But 
though the other disciples did not comprehend 
Christ, Judas did; and, the supper having 
drawn toward its close, he withdrew to per- 
fect his plans for his Master's betrayal. It 
was not till he had gone out that the insti- 
tution of the Lord's Supper took place. The 
act of our Lord in instituting it is thus de- 
scribed by the sacred writers ; we combine 
the narratives of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and 
Paul. 

"As they were eating, Jesus took bread, 
and blessed, and brake it, and giving to the 
disciples, said. Take, eat ; this is my body 
which is broken for you ; this do in remem- 
brance of me. After the same manner also 
he took the cup when he had supped, and 
when he had given thanks he gave to them ; 
and they all drank of it. And he said to 
them. This cup is the New Testament in my 
blood, shed for you and for many, for the re- 
mission of sins; this do ye, as oft as ye drink 
it, in remembrance of me. But I say unto 
you, I will not drink henceforth of this fruit 
of the vine until that day when I drink it 
new with you in my father's kingdom.^ 

Respecting the proper interpretation of 
this account, four questions have arisen. 1. 
Did our Lord intend this as a permanent or- 
dinance, or only as a direction to the twelve 
to observe the passover in remembrance of 
him, or to remember him whenever they 
broke bread ? The answer to this question 
is found in 1 Cor. xi., 23. It is inconceivable 
that the Lord should have made a special 
revelation to Paul respecting the proper ob- 
servance of the ordinance, if it had not been 
intended for a perpetual ordinance for future 
observance. 2. Did our Lord observe the Pas- 
chal feast with his disciples, or did he simply 
have a supper with them in anticipation of 
the Passover, and as a preparation for and a 
prophecy of his death ? According to Mat- 
thew (xxvi., 17-19), Mark (xiv., 12, 16), and 
Luke (xxii., 7, 13), the day on which the 
Lord's Supper was instituted was the day of 
the Passover, and the supper in connection 
with which it was instituted was the Pas- 
chal feast. John, on the other hand, writes 
as though the Passover did not begin till af- 
ter Christ's death ; for he says of the Jews 
before Pilate's court, that " they themselves 
went not into the judgment-hall, lest they 
should be defiled ; but that they might eat 
the Passover."'* A great deal has been writ- 
ten in endeavoring to solve this seeming 



1 Quoted from Dr. Frederick Gardner's "Life of our 
Lord in the Words of the Gospel." Towneeud's " Har- 
mony" is si;bstantially the same.— ^ Johu xviii., 28; 
comp. xix., 14. 



LORD'S SUPPER 



570 



LOT 



contradiction. Without entering into the 
discussion here, it must suffice to say that, 
while the question is confessedly one of 
great difficulty, and scholars are not agreed 
in its solution, we think the better opinion 
is that Chi'ist ate the true Passover with his 
disciples, and that John refers not to the 
Paschal feast, but to the offerings eaten on 
the subsequent days of the feast. The whole 
question is elaborately discussed in Andrews's 
" Life of our Lord," pp. 423-460, and more 
concisely in Robinson's ^'Harmony of the 
Gospels," p. 196, note, to which the reader is 
referred for a fuller discussion. 3. Did our 
Lord simply adopt and modify the Paschal 
feast, or did he, at its close, institute a new and 
independen t Christian ordinance f Matthew and 
Mark both say, "^s tliey were eating, Jesus 
took bread ;" Luke and Paul both say that 
he took the cup " after supper J^^ Some emi- 
nent scholars, among whom may be men- 
tioned Dr. Conant of this country, and Dr. 
Brown of Scotland, hold the latter view, and 
regard the Lord's Supper as entirely separate 
from the Paschal feast, though instituted at 
its close. The more general opinion is that 
the words "after supper" indicate simply 
that the cup taken was the third or fourth 
in the Paschal supper, which was drank to- 
ward the close of the feast ; and that as Je- 
sus adopted, but gave new significance to 
baptism, so he employed the Paschal feast, 
but gave a new meaning to it, and at once 
fulfilled the ancient type, and converted it 
into a prophecy of the marriage supper of 
the Lamb. This, substantially, appears to 
be the view of Lightfoot, Lange, Ellicott, 
Stanley, Alford, Andrews, and Barnes. 

Some light is thrown upon the character 
and proper observance of the Lord's Supper 
by the references to it in the inspired histo- 
ry of the infant Church. We have frequent 
mention made of the "breaking of bread" in 
the apostolic meetings from house to house; 
and though it is by no means clear that this 
always refers to the Lord's Supper, still, on 
the whole, the indications are that this ordi- 
nance was observed frequently, perhaps ev- 
ery Sabbath, certainly on all the more impor-" 
tant and solemn occasions of the Church.^ 
It was from a very early period combined 
with festive meals of a religious and social 
character, which even in the apostolic age 
degenerated and became the occasion of 
shameful excesses, and were put an end to 
at an early day.^ The memorial ordinance 
itself, however, has continued in divers forms 
to be observed by almost every Christian 
sect, and in every age. Its original simplic- 
ity has been sometimes lost sight of in the 
costly and magnificent rituals which have 
been suffered to overlay it. But wherever 
and however observed, alike in the magnifi- 



1 Matt, xxvi., 26; Mark xiv., 22; Luke xxii., 26; 1 
Cor. xi., 25.-2 Luke xxiv., 30, 31; Acts ii., 42, 46; 
xxvii., 35 3 1 Cor. xi., 20-22. See Agap^. 



cent mass of the costly cathedral and in the 
simple service administered by the itinerant 
preacher in the log-cabin of a Western wild, 
these emblems of Christ's dying love receive, 
though in different methods and different 
measure, the homage of grateful and loving 
hearts. 

For an account of the method in which 
the Paschal supper was celebrated, see Pass- 
over; for a consideration of the later theo- 
logical questions respecting the nature, or- 
der, and conditions of participation in the 
Lord's Supper, see COMMUNioisr; Cojstsub- 

STANTIATION ; TrANSUBSTANTIATION. 

Lot {covering veil), the son of Haran, and 
nephew of Abram. He was born in Ur of 
the Chaldees, where his father died ; thence 
he accompanied his grandfather, Terah, and 
his uncle to Haran. ^ Afterward he went 
with Abram into Canaan, and also into 
Egypt, when there was a famine in Canaan. 
Returning from Egypt, the family establish- 
ed themselves for a while near to Bethel, 
where their property so increased as to ren- 
der it necessary, for the sake of peace and 
for room's sake, for them to part. Abram 
gave Lot his choice, and he fixed upon the 
fruitful plain of Jordan. Here he was cap- 
tured by Chedorlaomer, but delivered by the 
valor of Abram. In the destruction which 
overtook the cities of the plain (q. v.), he 
was miraculously delivered by God ; but his 
wife, on looking back, was turned into a 
pillar of salt — possibly by the incrustations 
of ashes which may have accompanied the 
volcanic phenomena which attended their 
destruction. The legend that the pillar of 
salt has been identified in modern times is 
not worthy of credit ; that which is so en- 
titled is doubtless a natural production. 
Lot is subsequently mentioned as the found- 
er of two nations, Moab and Ammon. [Gen. 
xi., 27-31 ; xiii. ; xiv. ; xii., 4, 5 ; xix. ; Luke 
xvii., 32; 2 Pet. ii., 6-9.] 

Lot, or Lots. The practice of determin- 
ing a doubtful matter by the use of the lot 
must have begun very early ; for at the time 
of the Exodus of the children of Israel it 
comes into notice as a familiar mode of pro- 
cedure. In none of these cases narrated in 
Scripture is any indication given of the 
mode adopted for gaining the result. Very 
commonly, among the Latins, little counters 
of wood were put into a jar with so narrow a 
neck that only one could come out at a time. 
After the jar had been filled with water and 
the contents shaken, the lots were deter- 
mined by the order in which the bits of 
wood, representing the several parties, came 
out with the water. In other cases they 
were put into a wide open jar, and the coun- 
ters were drawn out by the hand. Some- 
times, again, they were cast in the manner 
of dice — a form which must in substance 
have been known and used amonsr the He- 



1 Geu. xi., 27, 28, 31 ; xii., 4, 5. 



LOVE-FEASTS 



571 



LUTHEEANS 



brews/ The sUdiers wlio cast lots for Clirist's 
garments undoubtedly used tbese dice, and 
nothing more strikingly illustrates the sto- 
lidity of the soldiers than this gambling at 
the foot of the cross."'^ As a recognized form 
of obtaining the mind of the Lord in critical 
cases, the use of the lot appears to have been 
employed in a serious manner by the Israel- 
ites, and in the N. T. times by the apostles, 
and commonly accompanied by prayer. Yet 
Proverbs xvi., 33, would seem to indicate that 
the lot was not uniformly so used. Among 
the heathens the foretelling of fortunes by 
means of lots was a common mode of divina- 
tion. [Lev. xvi., 8; Numb, xxvi., 55; xxxiv., 
13 ; Judges xx., 29 ; 1 Sam. xiv., 41 ; Esther 
iii., 7 ; Prov. xvi., 33 ; Acts i., 26.] 

Love-feasts, or Agapse. Among the prim- 
itive Christians these were feasts which were 
observed in token of brotherly love and char- 
ity, usually in connection with, though not 
as a necessary part of, the Lord's Supper. 
The pastor, deacons, and members having 
taken their seats around a table which was 
spread in the church, and the guests having 
washed their hands, public prayer was offer- 
ed, and during the feast a portion of Scrip- 
ture was read, and the presiding elder or 
presbyter having proposed questions arising 
out of the passage, they were answered by 
the persons present. Any encouraging ac- 
counts from other churches were then re- 
ported, and at the close of the feast a collec- 
tion was made for the benefit of widows and 
orphans, the poor, prisoners, or any of the 
brethren who might be in need of pecuniary 
aid. In the beginning of the second centu- 
ry this social meal was separated from the 
Lord's Supper, but still continued to be cele- 
brated within the walls of churches as late 
as the fifth century. But abuses having 
crept into them, as perhaps, indeed, is indi- 
cated as early as in the first century,^ they 
were gradually discontinued. A feast some- 
what analogous to the ancient Agapse has 
been adopted in more modern times by the 
Wesleyan Methodists, the Moravians, and 
the Glassites. 

Lucifer (light - h'inger, or morning - star). 
This title is applied to the King of Babylon 
in Isa. xiv., 12. He had outshone other kings 
as the bright star of the morning surpasses 
other stars. As such a star falling from 
heaven would go down into darkness and 
leave no trace, so this king should be utterly 
overthrown. In po]3ular language Lucifer 
is regarded as an appellation of Satan. 

Luke. Of this x)erson, the author of the 
gospel which bears his name, and probably 
also the author of the book of Acts, not much 
is told us in Scripture. By profession he 
was a physician; by birth he was not a 
Jew.* He was not one of the twelve ; and 
though an ancient tradition reports him to 



1 Prov, xvi., 33.-2 Matt, xxvii., 35. — 3 Jude xii. ; Acts 
vi., 2.-4 Col. iv., 11-14. 



have been one of the seventy, there is no as- 
surance of its truth. After Christ's ascension 
he attached himself to Paul, whom he seems 
to have accompanied in most of his mission- 
ary journeys, traveling with him to Rome.^ 
Of the time and manner of his death nothing 
is certainly known. 

Luke (Gospel of). It has been general- 
ly, and almost unanimously, acknowledged 
that the Gospel of Luke was written and 
published by the one whose name it bears. 
It was written in Greek, about the middle 
of the first century. The object of its com- 
position is stated by the author himself in 
his opening chapter. Whether Theophilus 
{lover of God) there referred to was a real 
person, or whether the title was used to des- 
ignate all those who love God, has been ques- 
tioned. The writer does not profess to have 
been an eye-witness of what he recorded.^ 
The sources from which he derived his infor- 
mation were probably oral reports of those 
who were eye-witnesses ; at least this opin- 
ion appears to us more probable than that 
he wrote with either of the other gospels 
before him. In completeness, Luke's gospel 
must rank first among the four. He alone 
gives any full account of the incidents and 
teachings belonging to what we regard as 
Christ's ministry in Perea.^ He . seems to 
delight to recount instances of our Lord's 
tender compassion and mercy; he alone 
gives the parable of the lost sheep, the lost 
piece of money, and the prodigal son ; and 
indeed nearly all the incidents and instruc- 
tions recorded in chapters xiv. to xix. are ]3e- 
culiar to this writer. It has been asserted 
that Luke wrote under the influence, and in 
part at the suggestion, of St. Paul ; but this 
opinion is not borne out by either his style, 
or by any references in either of his books. 
A remarkable similarity has been noticed 
between his account of the institution of the 
Lord's Supper in Luke xxii., 19, 20, and that 
of Paul in 1 Cor. xi., 23-25 ; but it seems 
more reasonable to suppose that Paul de- 
rived his account from Luke, than that Luke 
obtained his from Paul. 

Lutherans, a designation originally ap- 
plied by their adversaries to the Reformers 
of the sixteenth century, and which after- 
ward was distinctively appropriated among 
Protestants themselves to those who took 
part with Martin Luther against the Swiss 
Reformers, particularly in the controversies 
regarding the Lord's Supper. Lutheranism 
is the prevailing form of Protestantism in 
Saxony, Hanover, and the greater part of 
Northern Germany, as well as in Wiirtem- 
berg ; it also prevails to a considerable ex- 
tent in other parts of Germany. It is the 
national religion of Denmark, Sweden, and 
Norway ; and there are Lutheran* churches 
in Holland, France, Poland, etc. Among the 



1 See Acts of the Apostles, find references there.- 
—2 Luke i., 2, 3.-3 See Jesus Cueist. 



LYCIA 



572 



LYDIA 



Lutheran symbolical books, tbe Augsburg 
Confession^ holds the principal place, but 
the supreme authority of the Holy Scriptures 
is fully recognized. The chief difference be- 
tween the Lutherans and the other Protest- 
ant churches is as to the real presence of 
Christ in the sacrament of the supper, the 
Lutherans holding what is styled the doc- 
trine of consubstantiation (q. v.). Other 
points of difference relate to the allowance 
in Christian worship of things disallowed 
by other Protestants, but regarded by Luther 
as indifferent ; and many of these things, at 
first retained by Luther and his fellow - re- 
formers, have in some localities become fa- 
vorite and distinguishing characteristics of 
the Lutheran churches, as images and pic- 
tures in places of worship, clerical vest- 
ments, etc. In its constitution, the Luther- 
an Church is generally unepiscopal, without 
being Presbyterian. In Denmark, Norway, 
and Sweden, there are bishops, and in Swe- 
den an archbishop, but their powers are very 
limited. Where Lutheranism is the nation- 
al religion, the sovereign is recognized as the 
'supreme bishoj), and the Church is governed 
by consistories aiipointed by him, and com- 
posed both of clergymen and laymen. Where 
the Lutheran Church develops her principles 
apart from State interference, the rights and 
co-operation of the people are carefully se- 
cured. The Lutherans employ various litur- 
gies, each State church having usually one 
of its own. The Lutheran Church in the 
United States and Canada embrace (1872) 
a total of 54 synods, 2157 ministers, 3727 
churches, and 450,000 communicants. The 
ecclesiastical power is here derived directly 
from the people ; but the ministers are re- 
sponsible not to the local church, but to the 
synods to which they respectively belong. 

Lycaonia. One of the provinces of Asia 
Minor. It had Galatia north, Pisidia south, 
Cappadocia east, and Phrygia west. It was 
formerly within the limits of Phrygia, but 
was made a separate province by Augustus. 
The district of Lycaonia extends from the 
ridges of Mount Taurus and the borders of 
Cilicia on the south, to the Cappadocian 
hills on the north. It is a bare and dreary 
region, unwatered by streams, though in 
parts liable to occasional inundations. Stra- 
bo mentions one place where water was even 
sold for money. The Xycaonians seem to 
have had a language, or rather a dialect, of 
their own, but we have no traces of it re- 
maining. The best authorities speak of it 
merely as a corrupt Greek. The people were 
a fierce and warlike race, never fully sub- 
dued by the Persians, and conquered rather 
than amalgamated by the Greeks. The chief 
city of Lycaonia was Iconium, now called 
Konyeh ; and others of importance were La- 
odicca, Derbe, Lystra, and Antiochiana. 

Lycia, a province of Asia Minor, in the 



Bee Ckeeds. 



south-west, having Pamphylfe on the east, 
Caria on the west, Phrygia on the north, 
and the sea on the south. Its two chief 
towns, Patara and Myra, were both, though 
on different occasions, visited by Paul. The 
people were early given to sea-faring ; and 
having also a fertile soil, they attained to 
considerable wealth and prosperity. Many 
architectural remains of the district and 
some coins have been recovered and illus- 
trated. The people maintained long their 
independence ; they successfully resisted 
Crcesus of Lydia, and, under the Persian 
rule, were allowed to retain their own kings 
as satraps. Even to the time of the Emper- 
or Claudius, Lycia contrived to secure for it- 
self the privileges of a free state ; but thence- 
forth it was reduced to the ordinary condi- 
tion of a Roman province, and shared in the 
general fortunes of that part of the empire. 
[Acts xxi., 1 ; xxvii., 5.] 

Lydda, a town which, under the name of 
Lod, occurs in a few passages of the O. T., 
and appears to have been either entirely or 
in great part built by the Benjamites.^ How 
members of that tribe should have got pos- 
session of it is unknown, for it lay at some 
distance from their proper territory, and was 
within the confines of Ephraim — being about 
nine miles east of Joppa, and on the road to 
Jerusalem. Though it never comes into no- 
tice in connection with the more stirring 
events of O. T. history, yet mention is occa- 
sionally made of it in the Apocrypha and Jo- 
sephus. It had attained to some importance 
under Vespasian, and is described by Jose- 
phus as a village not inferior in size to a 
city. The miracle wrought by Peter^ great- 
ly aided the cause of Christianity in the 
neighborhood, and a church of some impor- 
tance sprang up in the place. Lydda be- 
came the seat of a bishop, of whom mention 
is often made in the ecclesiastical annals. 
Its grand ecclesiastical distinction consisted 
in its having been probably the birth-place 
of the renowned St. George, and certainly 
the i)lace of his sepulture. A magnificent 
church, of uncertain date, was there erected 
in his honor. At the present day Lydda, or 
Ludd, is only a considerable village, having 
nothing to distinguish it but the ruins of the 
Church of St. George, and the fine gardens 
and orchards by which it is surrounded. 

Lydia, a woman of Thyatira, who, at the 
time of Paul's first visit to Macedonia, was 
resident in Philippi, as a seller of purple, i.e., 
probably of purple-dyed cloth. She became 
a convert to the faith preached by the apos- 
tle, and received him into her house, herself 
the first member of a church which soon 
sprung into great vigor, and w^as distin- 
guished for its hearty and devoted zeal in 
the cause of the Gospel. See Thyatira; 
Philippi. [Acts xvi., 14-40.] 

1 1 Chron. viii.. 12 ; Ezra ii., 33 ; Neh. xi., 35.-2 Acts 
ix., 32, 35. 



LYSIUS, CLAUDIUS, 



573 



MACCABEES (BOOKS OF) 



Lysius, Claudius, a military officer, prob- 
ably a Greek, as he obtained bis Roman citi- 
zensbip by purchase. He was in command 
at Jerusalem as tribune when Paul was 
seized by the Jews ; he rescued him, and af- 
terward sent him with a strong guard to the 
procurator Felix at Csesarea. [Acts xxi., 
31-40; xxii. ; xxiii.] 

Lystra, a city of Lycaonia, though by 



some reckoned to other provinces. Here 
was performed the miraculous cure which 
induced the people to believe that Paul was 
Mercury, and Barnabas Jupiter. Timothy 
was probably a native of Lystra. It seems 
to have been situated at the foot of the 
mountain-mass Karadagh, to the south of 
Icouium ; but the exact site is unknown. 
[Acts xiv., 6, 8-11, 21 ; xvi., 1, 2 j 2 Tim. iii., 11. ] 



M. 



Maacah (depression). The name is some- 
times spelled Maachah, and in one case, prob- 
ably by the transcriber's error, Micaiah is sub- 
stituted for it.^ It is used as the name of a 
kingdom, and also as the name of several 
persons, both male and female. The most 
important of the personages was : 

1. The daughter, or more probably grand- 
daughter, of Absalom,^ named after his moth- 
er.^ She appears to have inherited the beau- 
ty and peculiar power of fascination which 
Jewish tradition attributes to her great- 
grandmother, to her grandfather Absalom, 
and to her mother Tamar. She married Ee- 
hoboam, who loved her " above all his wives 
and concubines." When her son Abijah 
was chosen, probably through her influence, 
above all his brothers, as successor to his 
father's throne, she filled the office of queen- 
mother, and her influence continued through 
bis reign, to be at last broken under the 
reign of her grandson Asa (q. v.). It was 
under her influence that the idolatrous and 
licentious rites of Astarte and Moloch gain- 
ed their strongest foothold in Judah, that the 
valley of Hinnom received its dreadful asso- 
ciation of sacrificial fires, and the royal gar- 
dens of Tophet that character which clings 
to the name even to the present day. It 
was not till she was removed from office by 
Asa, that any eflectual reformation of relig- 
ion was achieved. See Asa ; Absalom. 
[1 Kings XV., 1, 2, 9-13 ; 2 Chron. xi., 20-22.] 

2. A small kingdom near Palestine, the 
exact position of which is not defined, but 
which is believed to have been north of 
Geshur and west of Mount Hermon, not far 
from the source of the River Jordan. Its 
inhabitants are known as Maacathi, or Maa- 
chathites. They joined with the Ammonites 
in one campaign against David. [Dent, iii., 
14 ; Josh, xii., 5 ; 2 Sam. x., 6-8.] 

Maccabees (Books of). There are five 
apocryphal books entitled Maccabees. All 
of them, though they difler most widely in 
character, in date, and worth, possess points 
of interest which make them a fruitful field 
for study. But only two of these were in- 
cluded in the early current Latin versions 
of the Bible, and thence passed into the Yul- 



1 2 Chron. xiii., 2.— ^ Abishalom, 1 Kiugs xv., 2, read 
Absalom, 2 Chron. xi., 21.— ^ 2 Sam. iii., 3. 



gate, and were received as canonical by the 
Council of Trent, and retained among the 
Apocrypha by the Reformed churches. It is 
therefore necessary only to speak here of the 
first and second books of Maccabees. They 
contain a history of the Maccabsean family, 
who, after freeing their country from the 
Syrian tyranny, governed it for about 126 
years — b. c. 161-35. 

The first book of Maccabees contains a 
history of the struggle from B.C. 168 to 135, 
as led by three brothers, who in succes- 
sion carried on, with varying fortunes, the 
work begun by their father, Mattathias, of 
rousing and guiding their countrymen, the 
Jews, to throw off the tyranny of Greece. 
Each of the three divisions, iuto which the 
main portion of the book thus naturally 
falls, is stamped with an individual charac- 
ter derived from its special hero. While the 
grandeur and unity of the subject invests 
the book with an almost epic beauty, it 
never loses the character of history. The 
great marks of trustworthiness are every- 
where conspicuous. Victory, and failure, 
and despondency are, on the whole, chroni- 
cled with the same candor. So far as the 
circumstances admit, the general accuracy 
of the book is established by the evidence 
of other authorities ; but for a considerable 
period it is the single source of our informa- 
tion. Indeed, it has little need of external 
testimony to its worth. Its whole character 
bears adequate witness to its essential truth- 
fulness. There are, however, some points in 
which the writer appears to have been im- 
perfectly informed, especially in the history 
of foreign nations; and some, again, in which 
he has been supposed to have magnified the 
difficulties and successes of his countrymen. 
Much has been written as to the sources 
from which the narrative was derived, but 
there does not seem to be evidence sufficient 
to indicate them with any certainty. Kthe 
writer was not himself engaged in the war 
of independence, he must have been familiar 
with those who were ; and whatever were 
the sources of different parts of the book, 
and in whatever way written — oral and per- 
sonal information were combined in its struc- 
ture — the writer made the materials which 
he used truly his own ; and the minute ex- 



MACCABEES (BOOKS OF) 



574 



MACEDONIA 



actness of the geographical details carries 
the conyiction that the whole finally rests 
upon the evidence of eye-witnesses. The 
language of the book does not present any 
striking peculiarities. Both in diction and 
structure^ it is generally simple and unaf- 
fected. In a religious aspect, it is more re- 
markable negatively than positively. The 
historical instinct of the writer confines him 
to the bare recital of facts ; and were it not 
for the words of others which he records, it 
might seem that the true theocratic aspect 
of national life had been lost. Not only does 
he relate no miracle, such as occurs in Second 
Maccabees, but he does not even refer the 
triumphant successes of the Jews to divine 
interposition. From other writers it ap- 
pears that, in this successful struggle for in- 
dependence, the Messianic hopes of the Jews 
were raised to the highest pitch, but the 
hoj)e or belief occupies no prominent place 
in the book ; and, like the book of Esther, 
its great merit is, that it is throughout in- 
spired by the faith to which it gives no defi- 
nite expression, and shows, in deed, rather 
than in word, both the action of Providence 
and a sustaining trust in his power. The 
testimony of antiquity leaves no doubt but 
that the book was first written in Hebrew. 

The history in the second book of the 
Maccabees begins some years earlier than 
the first book. For the few events noticed 
during the earlier years it is the chief au- 
thority ; during the remainder of the time 
the narrative goes over the same ground as 
First Maccabees, but with very considerable 
differences. Two letters, supposed to be ad- 
dressed by the Palestinian to the Alexan- 
drine Jews, and a sketch of the author's 
plan, which proceeds without any percepti- 
ble break from the close of the second letter, 
form the first two chapters. The remainder 
is based on "the five books of Jason of Gy- 
rene," of whom nothing but this mention is 
known. The characteristics of the style 
and language are essentially Alexandrine; 
and though the Alexandrine style may have 
prevailed in Cyrenaica, the form of the allu- 
sion to Jason shows clearly that the com- 
piler was not his fellow-countryman. But 
all attempts to determine more exactly who 
the compiler was are mere groundless guesses, 
without even the semblance of plausibility. 
Mr. Westcott, in the absence of any sufficient 
internal evidence to fix the date, conjectures 
that the original work of Jason was written 
not later than B.C. 100, and the epitome half 
a century later. The style of the book is 
extremely uneven. At times it is elaborate- 
ly ornate ; and again, it is so rude and bro- 
ken as to seem more like notes for an epit- 
ome than a finished composition ; but it no- 
where attains to the simple energy and pa- 
thos of the first book. Historically, the sec- 
ond book is not so trustworthy as the first. 
Some of the statements are obviously incor- 



rect, and seem to have arisen from an erro- 
neous interpretation and embellishment of 
the original source. Yet the errors appear 
to be those of one who interprets history to 
support his cause, rather than of one who 
falsifies its substance. The groundwork of 
facts is true, but the dress in which the facts 
are presented is due, in part at least, to the 
narrator. The most interesting feature in 
Second Maccabees is its marked religious 
character, by which it is clearly distinguish- 
ed from the first book. "The manifesta- 
tions made from heaven on behalf of those 
who were zealous to behave manfully in de- 
fense of Judaism" form the staple of the 
book. The doctrine of Providence is car- 
ried out in a most minute parallelism of 
great crimes and their punishment. The 
same idea is presented in the contrasted re- 
lations of Israel and the heathen to the di- 
vine power. The former is " God's people," 
" God's portion," who are chastised in love ; 
the latter are left unpunished till the full 
measure of their sins ends in destruction. 
Indeed the book is to be regarded as a series 
of special incidents illustrating the provi- 
dential interference of God in behalf of his 
people. The books form the most important 
connecting link between the O. T. and the N. 
T. history. Although they are not received 
by the Protestant Church as canonical, their 
historical value is highly esteemed by Chris- 
tian scholars. 

Macedonia, an important kingdom of an- 
cient Greece, and subsequently a Roman 
province. At the accession of Alexander 
the Great, the kingdom was bounded on the 
north by Mcesia and Illyricum, on the south 
by Thessaly and Epirus, and on the east and 
west, respectively, by Thrace and the ^giau 
Sea, aud by Epirus and the Adriatic. The 
country may be described as an undulating 
plain, into which run the spurs of several 
ridges of mountains, and surrounded on 
three sides by the mountains themselves. 
Among the most distinguished of these are 
Athos and Olympus. Its ancient capital 
was Pella, the birthplace of Alexander; oth- 
er important cities were Philippi, Thessalo- 
nica, Amphipolis, Apollonia, and Berea. The 
soil is fertile, and the climate healthy and 
temperate, though considered more severe 
than that of the more southerly parts of 
Greece. The ancient Macedonians were a 
hardy and warlike people, and their military 
system was considered very perfect. The 
civilization of Athens reached them but 
slowly, • and they never, even under Alexan- 
der, attained to an equaMty with the more 
favored parts of Greece. 

To the Biblical student Macedonia is in- 
teresting chiefly as the site of Paul's success- 
ful labors. Following the guidance of the 
Spirit of God, he went thither during his 
second missionary tour. The churches at 
Thessalouica and Philippi were among the 



MACHPELAH 



575 



MAGDALA 



results of his missionary labors there ; and, 
from Paul's references to tliem in subsequent 
epistles, we are assured that the Gospel found 
a readier entrance and a warmer welcome 
among the hardy Macedonians than among 
the more cultured Athenians, and was more 
generously supported and carried out in 
subsequent contributions than among the 
wealtliier Corinthians. [Comp. Acts xvii., 
10-12, with 16, 32 ; 1 Thess. i., 5, with 1 Cor. 
iii., 1 ; and Eom. xv., 26 ; Phil, iv., 10, 15, with 
1 Cor. ix., 7-14 ; xvi., 1 ; 2 Cor. ix.] 

Machpelah (portion, or double cave), a field 
in Hebron containing a cave which Abraham 
bought, for a sepulchre, from Ephron the 
Hittite. The purchase was made in a cere- 
monious manner, exactly conformable with 
modern Syrian customs. This burial-place 
of the patriarchs was a rock, with a double 
cave, standing amidst a grove of olives or 
ilexes upon the slope of the table-land where 
the first encampment was made. Here Abra- 
ham and Sarah, Isaac and Rebekah, Jacob 
and Leah, were buried.^ There is no ques- 
tion that it still exists, inclosed within a very 
ancient structure, perhaps of Jewish work- 
manship, called El-harum, and covered by 
what was originally a Byzantine church, 
but is now a Mohammedan mosque. As the 
fourth most sacred place in the world to the 
Mohammedans, this mosque has always been 
jealously closed against admission, and no 
European, except by stealth, is known to 
have set foot within the sacred precincts, 
until the visit of the Prince of Wales to 
Palestine in 1862. The prince and a very 
few others, among whom was Dean Stanley, 
through much dexterity and persistence, 
gained an entrance. From Dean Stanley's 
interesting report of that visit we condense 
the following account : 

The tombs, or rather cenotaphs, which are 
placed upon the floor of the mosque over the 
actual sepulchres of the patriarchs, are in- 
closed each within a separate shrine. On 
the right of the inner portico, before en- 
tering the main building, is the shrine of 
Abraham, and on the left that of Sarah, 
each closed with silver gates. The shrines 
of Sarah, Rebekah, and Leah, they were re- 
quested not to enter, since they were the 
tombs of women. The shrine of Abraham 
contains in its marble-cased chamber a cof- 
fin-like structure, about six feet high, built 
up of plastered stone or marble, and hung 
with three carpets of green embroidered with 
gold. Within the mosque are also the tombs 
of Isaac and Rebekah, in chapels with win- 
dows in the walls, which are closed with 
grated iron gates. The shrines of Jacob and 
Leah are in recesses corresponding to those 
of Abraham and Sarah, but opposite the en- 
trance of the mosque in a separate cloister. 
The general structure of Jacob's tomb resem- 
bles that of Abraham. The position of these 



Gen. xxiii. ; xxv., 9, 10 ; xlis., 29-32 ; 1., 12, 13. 



monuments corresponds remarkably with the 
Bible narrative, and precludes the idea of a 
fancifiil distribution of them by the Moham- 
medans ; for the prominence given to Isaac 
is, contrary to their prejudice, in favor of 
Ishmael, and Leah occupies the place where 
we should expect to find the more favored 
Rachel. Besides these six shrines, in a sep- 
arate chamber reached by an opening through 
the wall, is the shrine of Joseph, in accord- 
ance with the tradition of the country, that 
Joseph, though first buried at Shechem, was 
afterward brought to Hebron. To the cave 
itself there was no access. The only indica- 
tion of it was a small circular hole, about 
eight inches across, at the corner of the shrine 
of Abraham, the upper part built of strong 
masonry, but the lower part of the natural 
rock. This cavity appeared to open into a 
dark space beneath, which the guardians of 
the mosque believe to extend under the whole 
platform, and which can hardly be any thing 
else than the sacred cavern of Machpelah, in 
which one at least of the patriarchal dead 
and the embalmed body of Joseph may pos- 
sibly still repose intact. This aperture has 
been left, that the sacred air of the sepulchre 
may escape into the mosque, and that through 
it a lamp may be let down to burn over the 
grave. 

Madonna, an Italian word, signifying My 
Lady, and especially applied to the Virgin 
Mary. The earliest Christian art did not 
attempt any representation of the mother of 
Christ ; such representations first make their 
appearance after the fifth century, when the 
Virgin was declared to be the mother of God. 
At first the lineaments of the Virgin's coun- 
tenance were copied from the older pictures 
of Christ, according to the tradition which 
declared that the Saviour resembled his moth- 
er. A chronological arrangement of the pic- 
tures of the Virgin would exhibit in a remark- 
able manner the development of the Roman 
Catholic doctrine on this subject. Formerly 
the child was always the prominent feature 
in the picture, and it is only in comparative- 
ly modern times that the Virgin was repre- 
sented without the child. 

Magdala, the name of a town, or region, 
to which our Lord and his disciples came, 
after the second miracle of the loaves and 
fishes.^ In the corresponding passage in 
Mark's gospel, Dalmanutha is substituted 
for it.'^ That there was a Magdala within 
the range of our Lord's ministrations, may 
confidently be inferred from the epithet 
given to one of the Marys — tihe Magdalene. 
The modern representative of Magdala is 
generally supposed to be the poor village of 
el-Mejdel, on the border of the Lake of Gali- 
lee, a little more than an hour's ride north 
of Tiberias. It has a miserable appearance, 
and there are no ancient ruins ; but it is in 
the immediate neighborhood of a beautiful 



Matt. XV., 33.-2 Mark viii., 10. 



MAGI 



576 



MAGI 



plain, and a mountain tliat rises not less 
Thau three or four hundred feet high. See 
Dalmais^utha. 

Magi is originally a Persian, or Median, 
word (magh, or mogh), but was, at a later pe- 
riod, naturalized among the Greeks and Ko- 
mans. It occurs but twice in the Hebrew 
text of the O. T., and then only incidental- 
ly. In Jer. xxxix., 3, 13, there is mentioned, 
among the Chaldean officers sent by Nebu- 
chadnezzar to Jerusalem, one with the name 
or title of Rab-mag, which may be rendered 
the prince magus, the chief of the magi. Ac- 
cording to Herodotus, the Magi were a tribe 
of the Medes who professed to iuterpret 
dreams, aud had the official charge of sacred 
rites. They were, in short, the learued and 
priestly class in Persia ; aud haviug, as was 
supposed, the skill of deriviug from books 
and the observations of the stars a super- 
natural iusight iuto comiug events, they 
came to be possessed of great influence, and 
never failed to be consulted on all great oc- 
casions. They were divided into three or- 
ders — disciples, masters, aud complete mas- 
ters, had three classes of temples, and were 
distinguished by a peculiar dress, or insignia, 
a girdle, a sacred cup, and a buudle of twigs 
held together by a band. It was a princi- 
pal part of the education of the mouarch to 
be instructed in the lore of the Magi, aud, 
next to his wives and eunuchs, they had the 
nearest access to his person. The doctrines 
of the Magi, which were taught to very few, 
and those highly favored personages, besides 
the monarch, were called the law of the 
Medes and Persians, and embraced all the 
sacred customs, precepts, and usages which 
concerned, not only the worship of the deity, 
but the whole private life of every woiship- 
er of Ormuzd. From a comparison of sever- 
al passages of this law, it appears probable 
that the Magi composed the council of the 
king's judges, of which mention is made as 
early as the time of Cambyses.^ Nor does it i 
appear to have been otherwise with the Ma- 
gians in the comparatively late Parthian dy- 
nasty, which from B. c. 256 began to gain the 
ascendency in Western Asia. Greatly as the 
Greek infiueuce had prevailed throughout 
the East after the time of Alexander the 
Great, it had not in the least changed the 
relation of the Magian party to the reigning 
power, or diminished its importance. The 
Magi continued to be priests and prophets 
of the nation, as well as the advisers of the 
king. But at the same time the old Zend 
religion, the religion of light and fire, fell 
more aud more into the background, and the 
idolatrous worship of Greece aud Western 
Asia took its place. As a natural conse- 
quence, the astrological and magical ele- 
ments, in the ordinary sense of the term, 
which from the first had a certain place in 
Magiauism, became more fully develoj^ed; 
» Esther i., 13. 



and on the ground of assumed converse with 
the gods, and superior insight into the hid- 
den agencies of nature, the character and in- 
fluence of the party increasingly degenerated 
into those of the enchanter and wizard. In 
Egypt and Babylon, wonder-workers of this 
description had existed from an early peri- 
od in the service of the prevailing idolatry ; 
though this was less evident in Egypt, ^^ here 
the priestly caste, a distinct guild, had its 
recognized connection with the State alike 
in its civil and its religious capacity. But 
in Persia, so long as the purer and more 
ancient form of religion prevailed, the Ma- 
gian priesthood preserved a moral and intel- 
lectual elevation inconsistent with the arts 
of imposture so common at a later period. 
Polytheism, however, continued to exert its 
demoralizing infiueuce, and by the Christian 
era the term Magus had become synonymous 
with enchanter, and a by-word for the worst 
form of imposture. This is the predomi- 
nant meaning of the word as it appears in 
the N. T. The noun and the verb derived 
from it are used by St. Luke in describing 
the impostor, who is therefore known dis- 
tinctively as Simon Magus. Another of the 
same class, Bar-jesus, is described as having, 
in his cognomen Elymas, a title which was 
equivalent to Magus.^ It is quite conceiva- 
ble, however, that in the proper regions of 
Magiauism there may still have been mem- 
bers of the party who were comparatively 
free from the deteriorating influences to 
which it was exposed, and who discovered 
an affinity for the better, rather than the 
worse, elements of the system with wliich 
they were associated — wise men who, in the 
quiet study of their ancient books, might 
readily attain to sound views of the divine 
government over the world, and a higher re- 
gard for the good and true among men, than 
was consistent with their taking part in the 
arts and wiles of the vulgar tribe of magi- 
cians — men who really searched after divine 
knowledge, and were disposed to hail indi- 
cations of light from whatever quarter they 
might come. Such, certainly, were the Magi 
who, at the commencement of the Gospel 
era, startled Jerusalem with their appear- 
ance f " wise men from the East," as they are 
not inaptly, if not quite correctly, designated 
in our English Bible ; sages, no doubt, pre- 
pared by a special providence for the mo- 
mentous era that had arrived in the w orld's 
history, and informed and guided by a wis- 
dom higher than human. Their very ap- 
pearance at such a time, and for such a pur- 
pose, was a proof that the Gentile world, in 
certain of its more favored localities, had a 
measure of preparation for the coming of 
Christ. The precise locality from which 
they came can not be certainly known, and 
is of no great moment ; it must have been 
somewhere in the eastern parts of Chaldea, 
i Acts viii., 9 ; xiii., S. See Magician.— ^ Matt. ii. 



MAGIC, MAGICIANS 



577 



MAGISTRATES 



or in the higher districts beyond. By the 
wonderful star in the East, distinct and 
strange enough to attract the eyes of prac- 
ticed astronomers, they were led to Jerusa- 
lem, and from Jerusalem to the manger at 
Bethlehem.^ Apart from the influence of 
this visit on the earthly life of Jesus — for, 
humanly speaking, it nearly cost him his life, 
and compelled his flight, while yet an infant, 
into Egypt — it has to the Christian scholar a 
greater interest as a fulfillment of an ancient 
prophecy,^ and itself a prophecy of the uni- 
versality of that religion which has drawn to 
Christ worshipers alike from the Gentile and 
the Jewish world. There is no credence to 
he placed in the tradition which represents 
the Magi as three kings, though it assumes 
to give their names as Caspar, Melchior, and 
Belthazar, and to assign them a place among 
the objects of Christian reverence and of 
honor as the patron saints of travelers. 
Among other relics supplied to meet the de- 
mauds of the market which the devotion of 
Helena had created, the supposed bodies of 
the Magi were discovered somewhere in the 
East, were brought to Constantinople, were 
thence transferred to Milan, and were, in 
1162, finally deposited in the Cathedral of 
Cologne, where the shrine of the Three Kings 
is still shown, as the greatest of its many 
treasures. 

Magic, Magicians. Magic was an art of 
deeper significance and power than astrology 
or divination, from both of which it must be 
carefully distinguished. While they were 
exercised merely to discover future events, 
it was supposed that by magic future events 
might be influenced. The word magic is 
derived from the Greek magian, i. e., one of 
the Magi, and modern Oriental scholars de- 
rive this from megh or mogli, which in the 
ancient Persian language signifies a priest. 
The Magi (q. v.) appear to have been a sac- 
erdotal body, especially addicted to the study 
of natural philosophy, and are more usually 
known by the title of "wise men." They 
became very early confounded with all nat- 
ural philosophers, and especially with those 
who had, or pretended to have, the power 
of overruling the ordinary course of nature. 
Hence the meaning of the term magic as 
given above. 

Magic was practiced among various na- 
tions of antiquity. It may be found in the 
astrology (q. v.) of old Chaldea, which en- 
deavored not merely to forecast destiny by 
observing the heavens, but to fi^x it by sacri- 
fice and incantation that should react upon 
the stars. There was a magic element in the 
Persian religion of Zoroaster, and in the ther- 
apeutics as well as the religion of Egypt. 
The Egyptian priests had a double office, the 
practice of the worship of the gods, and the 
pursuit of that which in Egypt was called 
wisdom. The first belonged to the so-called 



1 See Stak in the Ea.st.— 2 Isa. ix., 3. 
37 



prophets of Egypt, the second to the holy 
scribes, who were the learned men of the na- 
tion, the wise men of the Pentateuch. These 
wise men were applied to for aid in all things 
which lay beyond the common knowledge. 
They accompanied the physician to the sick- 
bed, and from a book and astrological signs 
determined whether recovery was possible. 
To them belonged divination (q. v.) and the 
interpretation of dreams ; and, in times of 
pestilence, they resorted to magic arts to 
avert the disease. These were the men whose 
knowledge of the arcana of nature, and whose 
dexterity in the practice of their art, enabled 
them, to a certain extent, to equal, or at least 
to simulate, the miracles of Moses.^ By the 
Mosaic law all practices of this kind were 
forbidden, as connected with idolatry; yet 
in every period there were among the Israel- 
ites individuals who were addicted to mag- 
ical arts, and in all ages Jewish astrologers, 
Jewish magicians, and Jewish necromancers 
were regarded as especially skillful. Laban 
was in the habit of consulting the images, or 
teraphim (q. v.), which Rachel succeeded in 
carrying away. Balaam seems to have been 
a pretender to skill in magic.^ Sorcerers 
and magicians are mentioned by Josephus as 
abounding in his time, and exerting a great 
influence over the people. The Jews called 
them masters of the ineffable name of God, 
by the pronunciation of which wonders could 
be accomplished. It was by the knowledge 
of this name, they contend, that Solomon, 
whom they regard as the most accomplished 
magician of all time, did his wonderful works; 
and they allege that this was the secret by 
which our Saviour performed his miracles 
while on earth. The Greeks and Romans 
performed secret rites, for the purpose of 
subordinating to their will the inferior gods, 
or demons, whom they regarded as having 
the same passions and subject to the same 
influences as men. And the art was call- 
ed white or black, as good or malicious 
spirits were invoked. Pythagoras and oth- 
er Greek philosophers made it a subject 
of study. Ephesus was particularly fa- 
mous for the number and skill of its magi- 
cians, and so celebrated for magic that amu- 
lets (q. v.), inscribed with strange characters 
and worn upon the person received the name 
of Ephesian letters. On the same principle 
were formed the magical Abracadabra of 
the Basilidians. The early Christians re- 
garded the practice of magical arts as sin- 
ful ; and no sooner did any one who had ac- 
quired a knowledge of these mysteries em- 
brace Christianity, than he burned the books 
on magic which he happened to possess. 
This happened especially at E^ihesus when 
Paul preached in that city.^ 

Magistrates. The magistrates referred 



1 Exod. vii. ; viii. ; ix. See Plagues of Egypt.— 
2 Geu. xxxL, 19-35 ; Numb, xxii. ; xxiii.— ^ Acts xix., 
19. 



MAGNIFICAT 



578 



MALLOWS 



to in Acts xvi., 20, were the military rulers, 
or praetors. Pbilippi was a Roman colony, 
and it is probable that the officers of the 
army exercised both civil and military func- 
tions. The word in the O. T. signifies, gen- 
erally, a public civil officer vested with au- 
thority which was different in different eras 
and localities. [Deut. i., 16, 17 ; Judg. xviii., 
27 ; Ezra vii., 25 ; Acts xvi., 20.] 

Magnificat, a musical composition in the 
evening service of the R. C. Church, and 
also of the Lutheran and English churches. 
The words are taken from Luke i., 46-55, 
containing the " Song of the Virgin Mary," 
which in the Vulgate begins with Magnificat. 
In the Romish Church the music of Palestri- 
na is still used, nothing of modern composi- 
tion being considered so grand. In the En- 
glish Church the hymn is said after the First 
Lesson at evening prayer, unless the Nine- 
tieth Psalm, called Cantate Domino, is used. 

Magog (region of Gog), a tribe of the sons 
of Japheth. Nothing more is said of Magog 
in the historical books of Scripture, but we 
can gather some notion of the greatness of 
the people intended, from the magnificent 
descriptions of Ezekiel, and the symbolical 
references in the Revelation of John. The 
statement of Josephus that the descendants 
of Magog were the Scythians is generally 
accepted as true. The Scythians, according 
to their own traditions, lived first in Asia, 
near the River Araxes ; afterward they pos- 
sessed the whole country to the ocean and 
the Lake Meeotis, and the rest of the plain to 
the River Tanais. Herodotus relates their 
descent upon Media and Egypt. They were 
surprised and cut off at a feast by Cyaxares. 
From their intermixture with the Medes, the 
Sarmatians appear to have arisen, and from 
them the Russians. The reference in the 
book of Revelation is undoubtedly symbolic- 
al, not to any particular nation, but to those 
nations which should in the last days come 
up to Jerusalem against the Messiah. Gog 
originally designated a prince of Magog,^ but 
in the book of Revelation seems to have been 
used as the designation of a nation. [Gen. 
x., 2; 1 Cliron. i., 5; Ezek. xxxviii., 2, 14; 
xxxix., 2, 6; Rev. xx., 8, 9.] 

Mahanaim (tivo lands), the name given 
by Jacob to a place on the Jabbok where 
two troops, or companies, of angels appeared 
to him. In time there came to be a town 
there of some magnitude and strength. 
There Ishbosbeth, the son of Saul, set up 
his kingdom, after the disastrous conflict on 
Mount Gilboa, and there, apparently, he was 
murdered. There also David, when fleeing 
from the conspiracy of Absalom, found a rest- 
ing-place within the defenses of a walled and 
fortified city, nor did he qnit it till some time 
after the news reached him of the overthrow 
and death of Absalom. So completely has it 
perished, that the exact site is a matter of 
1 Ezek. zxsviii., 2. 



uncertainty. [Josh, xiii., 26, 30; xxi., 39; 
2 Sam. ii., 8, 9; xvii., 24.] 

Makkedah (place of shepherds), a city in 
the low country of Judah, to which Joshua 
pursued the Amorites after the victory be- 
fore Gibeon. It was in the cave of Makke- 
dah, near the town, that the confederate 
chiefs were hidden, and from which they 
were taken and executed by Joshua on the 
afternoon of that memorable day which " was 
like no day before or after it." Leaving the 
bodies of Adoni-zedek and his companions 
swinging from the trees, the indomitable 
warrior within an hour or two storms the 
town, forces the walls, and puts to the sword 
the king and all the inhabitants. Then, as 
the sun is setting — the first sun since the de- 
parture from Gilgal — the tragedy is termi- 
nated by cutting down the five bodies from 
the trees, and entombing them in their for- 
mer hiding-place — the cave — which is then 
so blocked up as never more to serve as a 
refuge for friend or foe of Israel. The tak- 
ing of Makkedah was the first in that series 
of sieges and destructions by which the 'great 
captain possessed himself of the main points 
of defense throughout this portion of the 
country. The catalogue of the cities of Ju- 
dah in Joshua xv., 41, places it in the mari- 
time plain, but its site is uncertain. [Josh. 
X., 10, 16-28.] 

Malachi (messenger) is the last of all the 
Hebrew prophets ; but we are left in pro- 
found ignorance respecting his personal his- 
tory, and can only judge of the circumstances 
of his times from what is contained in his 
book. According to the tradition of the syn- 
agogue, he lived after the prophets Haggai 
and Zechariah, and was contemporary with 
Nehemiah. This statement is fully borne out 
by the affinity of the book written by the 
prophet with that written by the patriot. 
In all probability, Malachi flourished about 
the year B.C. 420. His book is composed of 
a series of spirited castigations, in which the 
persons accused are introduced as repelling 
the charges, but thereby only affording oc- 
casion for a fuller exposure, and a more se- 
vere reproof of their conduct. Both priests 
and people are unsparingly reprimanded; 
and while they are threatened with divine 
judgments, encouragement is held out to 
such as walked in the fear of the Lord. His 
predictions respecting John the Baptist, the 
Messiah, and the destruction of the Jewish 
polity, are clear and unequivocal. Consid- 
ering the late age in which he lived, the lan- 
guage of Malachi is pure ; his style possesses 
much in common with the old prophets, but 
is distinguished more by its animation than 
by its rhythm or grandeur. 

Mallows. The word so translated in Job 
XXX., 4, appears to be the sea-pnrslain. It 
is likened to the rhamnus (a white bramble), 
but has no thorns. Its leaf is similar to 
that of the olive, but wider. It grows near 



MAI^IMON 



579 



MAN 




Jew's Mallow {Corchorus olitorius). 

the sea-coast, aud about hedges, aud the 
tops of it are eaten when young. It is, how- 
ever, collected for food only by the poor. 

Mammon. The Syrian term for riches; 
not, as has been often imagined, of any idol 
deity formally acknowledged among the Syr- 
ians, for no evidence exists of this. By our 
Lord, however, it was used in a personified 
manner, as a power that might actually re- 
ceive men's homage, nmch as we sometimes 
speak of gold. [Matt, vi., 24 ; Luke xvi., 9.] 

Manure. Originally the name of an Amo- 
rite chief, but applied at a later date to some 
of his possessions, and so finally affixed to a 
place not far from Hebron. Robinson thinks 
the latter the more probable locality ; and 
lie is disposed to identify it with the hill Er 




Traditionary Site of Abraham's Cemetery. 

Eameh, where there are considerable re- 
mains of dwellings, which he supposes to 
have been built upon the spot in later times, 
on account of its reputed sacredness. [Gen. 
xiv., 13, 24 ; xviii., 1 ; xxxv., 27.] 

Man. There are five religious questions 



concerning man, the discussion, or at least 
the statement of which, seems properly to 
belong to such a work as this. They are : 

I. What is the antiquity of the human race ? 

II. What is the origiu of the human race ? III. 
What is the origin of each individual soul ? 
Is it a special divine creation ? IV. What is 
the nature of man ? — i. e., does he differ from 
other animals, and, if so, how ? V. What is 
his character as a moral beiug, and what the 
cause of his moral degeneracy? The first 
two of these questions are scientific rather 
than religious, and yet have important bear- 
ings on religious questions. We shall discuss 
them all, though necessarily very briefly, in 
the foregoing order. 

I. Antiquity of Man. — If we accept the 
Scriptural narrative, as affording not only a 
correct account of the creation of man, but 
also a correct history and chronology of the 
race, it had not existed upon the earth at the 
time of Christ for a period exceeding, at the 
utmost estimate, six thousand years. It is 
true that scholars are not altogether agreed 
in interpreting Scriptural genealogies, or in 
fixing the chronology; but the utmost dif- 
ference which any reasonable interpretation 
of the Bible would allow would be about two 
thousand years.^ Latterly, however, a sci- 
entific hypothesis has arisen, to the effect 
that man has existed in some form on the 
earth for many thousand years. Sir Charles 
Lyell, for example, considers that the human 
race has existed for at least 100,000 years. 
The grounds on which this opinion are based 
are four : geologic, historic, linguistic, and eth- 
nologic. — 1. Geologic. It is conceded that no 
remains of man have been found amounting 
to a geological demonstration of any thing 
like so remote an age, but remains believed 
to indicate human skill have been discover- 
ed, which are thought to point in this direc- 
tion. Such are the discovery of a bed of 
flints in the valley of Somme, in France, 
whose form is such as to lead geologists to 
think that they have been fashioned by hu- 
man hands ; the discovery of remains of pot- 
tery, stone implements iii mounds of shells 
on the coast of Denmark, and at various 
points in this country ; and the discovery 
of human remains and human implements, 
combined with those of prehistoric species 
in certain caves. Concerning these geolog- 
ical evidences, it is enough to say that they 
are not as yet sufficient either in number, 
or in clearness of their testimony, to satisfy 
scientific men that the antiquity of man is 
any thing more than a doubtful hypothe- 
sis. It is questioned whether the flint-stones 
were really fashioned by human hands, and 
whether the other remains are truly prehis- 
toric. — 2. Historic. The historic arguments are 
derived in part from remains of civilization 
discovered both in Europe and in this coun- 
try, and in part from ancient monuments 
1 See CuEo>;oLOGY. 



MAN 



580 



MAN 



and records, especially Chinese, Hindoo, and 
Egyptian. There are discovered, for exam- 
ple, in South America and Mexico, the re- 
mains of what was evidently an ancient, 
and, in some respects, highly developed civ- 
ilization. There have been discovered be- 
neath the waters of some of the Swiss lakes 
remains of villages, indicating a knowledge 
of building, of boating, and of tools. Im- 
plements of stone, of bronze, and of iron 
have been found commingled, and the con- 
clusion has been deduced that each repre- 
sents a certain era in civilization, and calcu- 
lations have been made of the probable time 
which it would take for one of these forms of 
civilization to be evolved out of, and to sup- 
plant, the other. All these reasonings, how- 
ever, assume that man started in barbarism 
and ignorance, and that his progress in the 
remote past was no greater, or more rapid, 
than it has been in historic times. The 
whole eifect of such reasoning is destroyed 
if we believe that man started in a pure and 
holy state ; that he was at his creation en- 
dowed with a certain measure of knowledge, 
and from the very earliest age built cities, as 
Cain is represented as doing, and wrought 
in brass and iron, as Tubal-Cain is re^ire- 
sented as doing. If this were the case, as 
families and tribes separated, one would lose 
this knowledge and lapse into barbarism, 
another would retain it, while yet the third 
would improve upon it ; and thus we should 
have the three ages — the stone, the iron, 
and the bronze contemporaneous. As to the 
records of China, India, and Egypt, unless 
the hypothesis be accepted that the people 
of these lands gradually acquired their 
knowledge and civilization, there is noth- 
ing in their records to prove a greater age 
than that which the Biblical history pre- 
supposes. The earliest Egyptian dynasty 
can not be traced with any certainty far- 
ther back than 2700 B.C. All Indian dates 
earlier than 300 B.C. are confessedly uncer- 
tain, and we can not say that there is any 
authentic Chinese history prior to 2000 B.C. 
— 3. Linguistic. The third argument from lan- 
guage assumes that all language sprang 
from a common stock, and asserts that many 
ages would be required to perfect the changes 
and develop the literature and grammar of 
so many widely - different tongues, whose 
roots, nevertheless, indicate a common ori- 
gin. If it is conceded that the changes in 
language have never been greater or more 
rapid than we see them now to be, it must 
be confessed that this argument has great 
weight ; but if, on the other hand, the Bibli- 
cal account of the confusion and dispersion 
of tongues be accepted as true, then this en- 
tire argument falls to the ground.' — 4. Eth- 
nolocjic. The ethnological argument is based 
upon the assumption that all the human 
races sprang from one pair, and that COOO 



1 See ToNGUEa (Confusion of). 



I years are not sufficient to account for the va- 
riations of race which have taken place since 
the creation of man ; and this argument is 
strengthened by the fact that ancient Egyp- 
tian monuments represent the negro with 
all the peculiarities which still belong to 
him, so that we must carry back these 
changes to a comparatively remote period. 
In the present state of science, however, it 
is by no means certain that all races did 
spring from one pair ; and if that were the 
case, it is by no means clear how, or by what 
means, or how rapidly, the race changes were 
brought about. On the whole, an impartial 
survey of the scientific question, while it 
affords some indications of an antiquity of 
man greater than the Biblical chronology 
would indicate, still leaves the whole matter 
in a state of uncertainty so great that it can 
not be said that there is demonstrated auy 
inconsistency between what appears to be 
the Scriptural account of the origin of man 
and the scientific testimony to his antiquity. 
II. Origin. — The Biblical account of the 
origin of the human race is very clear. It 
is, that God created man in his own image, 
i. e., pure and holy, and endowed him with a 
moral and spiritual nature, but that by his 
own free. act man fell into sin; and that to 
this voluntary transgression is due the de- 
pravity and degradation of the race, from 
which it can be redeemed only by the power 
of God through Jesus Christ his Son.' This 
doctrine, that man was created originally in 
a pure and holy condition, has much in his- 
tory to support it. The myths and tradi- 
tions of nearly all races point to a golden 
age in the remote past. Their history shows 
quite as often a degeneracy as a progress in 
knowledge and virtue. Their most ancient 
records indicate a higher state of civilisation 
than their later ones. Thus in China itVan 
hardly be doubted that the age of Confucius 
marked a higher stage of national develop- 
ment than does the present. In India the 
earliest religious books are the simplest, 
purest, and best. The most ancient Egyp- 
tian monuments indicate a popular faith in 
one great and good God, afterward degener- 
ating into polytheism of the most degrading 
description. And this view, so far, at least, 
as it represents the origin of the human 
race as consisting in a distinct and divine 
creation, has been almost universally recog- 
nized in the scientific world until a very re- 
cent period. Within a few years Mr. Charles 
Darwin has startled the world with a new 
hypothesis, for the explanation not only of 
the origin of the various animal species, but 
also of the origin of man himself According 
to this hypothesis, all the various species of 
the animal creation have descended from one 
original type. That similarity of the organs 
which characterizes the most widely differ- 
ent species and links all together, is thus by 



1 See Adam. 



MAN 



581 



MAN 



him explained. The variations which have 
been produced are said to be owing to what 
Mr. Darwiu calls " natural selection." In 
the struggle for existence going on all over 
the world, he supposes that those animals 
most favorably endowed would be most 
likely to survive ; by the law of inheritance, 
they would naturally bestow their favorable 
endowments on their descendants ; and thus 
gradually changes whicli seem to be radical 
would be introduced. Thus, for example, 
in a country where vegetation was scarce, 
those animals possessing the longest neck, 
and therefore able to reach the tallest trees, 
would have the advantage over their less 
happilj^ endowed fellows. Gradually the 
short-necked animals would die out, aud the 
long-necked ones would take their place, 
and in this way, by this hypothesis, in the 
course of ages the giraffe would be devel- 
oped by the process of " natural selection." 
It is, according to Mr. Darwin, by the same 
process of -'natural selection" that man has 
been evolved from a less highly organized 
animal. In his own words : '' We thus learn 
that man is descended from a hairy quadru- 
ped, furnished with a tail and pointed ears, 
probably arboreal in its habits, aud an inhab- 
itant of the Old World. This creature, if its 
whole structure had beeu examined by a 
naturalist, would have been classed among 
the Quadrumana, as surely as would the 
common and still more ancient progenitor 
of the Old and New World monkeys. The 
Quadrumana, and all the higher mammals, 
are probably derived from an ancient mar- 
supial animal, and this through a long line 
of diversitied forms, either from some rep- 
tile-like, or some amphibian-like creature, 
and this, again, from some fish-like animal. 
In the dim obscurity of the past, we can see 
that the early progenitor of all the Vertebra- 
ta must have been an aquatic animal, pro- 
vided with branchiae, with the two sexes 
united in the same individual, and with the 
most important organs of the body (such 
as brain and heart) imperfectly developed. 
This animal seems to have been more like 
the larvae of our existing marine Ascidians 
than any known form." 

It is not necessary, nor have we room, to 
enter upon the discussion of this theory, or 
to state the arguments by which, on the one 
hand, its advocates support it, nor those, on 
the other, by which its opponents endeavor 
to overturn it. It is tolerably clear that, 
while it is not inconsistent with the doctrine 
of the immortality of the soul and the exist- 
ence of a personal God, it is in tiat contradic- 
tion of Christianity as a system ; since the 
one asserts that man was created pure and 
holy, fell by voluntary transgression, aud 
nmst be redeemed and restored by a divine 
Saviour; while the other asserts that he 
originally existed in a purely animal form 
of a low order, and has been developed by a 



gradual process to his present state, and 
needs — this would be the natural conclusion 
— only a longer time, and a continuation of 
the same process of development, to insure 
his perfection. It is enough to say here, 
that while thus Darwinism is apparently in 
direct conflict with Christianity, it has not 
secured the assent of purely scientific men. 
They are still engaged in discussing it, and 
in investigating the numerous phenomena 
which Mr. Darwin has, with great assiduity, 
collected in support of his theory. So far 
as any conclusion can be said to be reach- 
ed, it is expressed by Mr. George Mivart, Mr. 
Darwin's ablest critic, who asserts that, 
while '^ natural selection acts and must act, 
and that it plays in th« organic world a cer- 
tain, though secondary and subordinate part, 
yet it is utterly inadequate to explain the 
higher psychical phenomena of man, espe- 
cially his moral character; nor is it at all 
sufficient to account for the more important 
variations in the other animal species." Even 
if, however, it were proved that man's phys- 
ical structure was evolved, by a long and 
slow process, from other and lower animal 
forms, this would not account for his mental 
and moral nature. " No physiological rea- 
son," well says Dr. Browne, " can touch the 
question whether God did not, when the im- 
provement reached its right point, breathe 
into him a living soul, a spirit which goeth 
ux»ward Avhen bodily life ceases. This, at 
least, would have constituted Adam a new 
creature, and the fountain-head of a new 
race." 

III. Origin of the Individual. — The question 
of the origin of each individual soul has given 
rise to long and protracted theological dis- 
cussions, and is important on account of its 
bearing upon the doctrine of original sin, 
and the moral nature and responsibility of 
the race. The two theories are given un- 
der the title Creationism (q. v.). 

IV. Nature of Man. — How and how much 
man differs from other animals, is a question 
partly scientific and partly religious. That 
there is a broad and impassable gulf, that 
the one possesses a divine and immortal na- 
ture which the other knows nothing of, is 
not only the clear teaching of Scripture, but 
is also the general opinion of mankind. It 
is, indeed, denied only by two classes of 
thinkers, the materialists,^ who deny that 
there is any immortal or immaterial part in 
man, and the followers of Charles Darwin, 
who accept his conclusions — that ''the men- 
tal faculties of man aud the lower animals 
do not differ in kind, though immensely in 
degree." Anatomically, it is true that man 
does not differ widely from the apes ; but 
mentally and morally, the difference is very 
great. Yet the common statement that 
brutes possess instinct and man reason, is 
an obscure one, if i ndeed it means any thing. 

1 See Matekiamsm. 



MANASSEH 



582 



MANASSEH 



Those who employ it the most would per- 
haps experience the greatest difficulty in de- 
lining either term, or stating the exact dif- 
ference between them ; and the books are 
full of stories which seem to indicate a cer- 
tain power of reason, though usually of a 
low order, even in the brute creation. The 
two differences most marked are, first, that 
man alone possesses a truly moral and spir- 
itual nature ; he alone discerns abstract right 
and wrong, or recognizes the existence of a 
divine Being to wliom he owes allegiance ; 
and, second, he alone is capable of voluntary 
improvement. "Animals are born what they 
are intended to become. Man can become 
the artificer of his own rank in the scale of 
being by the peculiar gift of improving rea- 
son." The bee and the beaver, for exam- 
ple, never improve. There is no recognized 
development in their architecture like that 
which has marked the progressive develop- 
ment of architecture among men.^ 

V. Moral Nature of Man. — That man pos- 
sesses a moral nature, and that he is not 
only imperfectly developed, but also that he 
is actually guilty of violating the laws of 
his own being, is very evident both from the 
testimony of consciousness and of observa- 
tion. In truth, the sinfulness of the human 
race is one of those patent facts of life about 
which there is no room for dispute, and con- 
cerning which there is, practically, no differ- 
ence of opinion. The very existence of gov- 
ernment witli penal laws and penal insti- 
tutions is based upon the universal opinion 
that without them men would violate each 
other's rights, and upon the universal sen- 
timent that it is just and right to punish 
wrong-doing. So, also, the wide-spread influ- 
ence of priests in all ages and all religious 
attests liow wide-spread is the conscious- 
ness of guilt, and the sense of need of some 
method of securing divine pardon and peace 
with God. The fact of sin is denied only 
by the materialists aind fatalists, and by 
them only in theory. They, as well as oth- 
ers, assume it as a fact in their daily con- 
duct. But while the existence of a uni- 
versal corruption, or depravity, or sinful- 
ness — various terms are used to describe it 
— is not a matter of doubt, there have been 
endless discussions on the questions, what 
constitutes sin, and renders the individual 
really amenable to his own condemnation, 
and that of God and his fellow -men, and 
what is the origin of the universal sinful- 
ness which characterizes the human race. 
The first of these questions is discussed un- 
der Six and Depravity ; the second, under 
Original Sin. 

Manasseh (who makes to forget). 1. The 
elder son of Joseph, born in Egypt, of his 
wife Aseuath, before the predicted years of 
famine came. Very little is recorded of the 
personal history of Manasseh. When Ja- 



cob's death drew near, Joseph carried his 
two sons, Manasseh and Ephraim,then young 
men upward of twenty, to receive the bless- 
ing of their graudsire. Jacob's eye-sight was 
well-nigh gone ; but he guided his hands in 
such a way as to lay the right on Ephraim's, 
the left upon Manasseh's head, and, in spite 
of Joseph's remonstrance, while declaring 
that the seed of the two should multiply as 
the abundant fishes of the Nile, and that as 
Ids sons they should be the heads of two dis- 
tinct tribes in Israel, he foretold that Ephra- 
im should be greater than his elder brother 
Manasseh. The same prophecy is reiterated 
in the last words of Moses: "They are the 
ten thousands of Ephraim ; and they are the 
thousands of Manasseh."^ 

It is not very clear how many sons were 
born to Manasseh, but in the first census the 
tribe had multiplied to 32,200 : its place in 
the encampment was to the west of the tab- 
ernacle, and it followed on march the stand- 
ard of Ephraim, next to that tribe and before 
the kindred one of Benjamin. In the later 
census, just previous to entering Canaan, the 
Manassites were 52,700, considerably exceed- 
ing the Ephraimites. .This is reasonably 
accounted for by the supposition that the 
younger branches of the house of Joseph 
attached themselves sometimes to one and 
sometimes to another of the two great di- 
visions of their father's posterity.^ 

As the Israelites drew near the end of their 
wanderings, and when the districts east of 
the Jordan ruled over by Sihon and Og were 
subdued, and assigned to the tribes of Eeuben 
and Gad (q. v.), part of the tribe of Manasseh 
were joined with them. They seem to have 
been bold. Avarlike men, delighting in adven- 
ture, who attacked and conquered the diffi- 
cult country to the north, with the singular 
region of Argob. This, then, was the terri- 
tory of trans-Jordanic Manasseh. It extend- 
ed from Mahanaim northward, including half 
Gilead, and the kingdom of Bashan — a coun- 
try, for the most part, beautiful in its asj)ect, 
diversified by mountains, hills, and valleys, 
and fertile for the subsistence of those who 
were settled in it. Of the cities belonging 
to it, Golou, Ashtaroth, and Edrei are partic- 
ularly mentioned, of which the two former 
were made Levitical cities, Golan being also 
a city of refuge. 

The other half of the tribe crossed the 
Jordan, and had their inheritance (ten parts) 
in close proximity to that of Ephraim. It 
stretched across from the Jordan to the Med- 
iterranean, the southern frontier running 
from Asher (which some sujipose to be not 
the territory so called, but a town of Mich- 
methah, facing Shechem) to Entappuah, and 
so on by the Eiver Kanah to the great sea. 
South of this line the country was Ephra- 



1 See Spirit. 



1 Gen. xli., 50, 51 ; xlviii. ; Dent, xsiii., 17.— 2 Gen. 
1., 23; Numb, i., 34, 35; ii., lS-24*; xsvi., 34, 37; 1 Chron. 
vii., 14. 



IVIANASSEH 



583 



MANASSEH 




Map of the half-tribe of Manasseh— West. 



ira's ; north, it was Manasseli's. The north- 
ern frontier is not so well defined. It ap- 
pears to have been intermixed with Issachar 
and Asher, as if Manasseh had been pushed 
out beyond its proper limits ; for the cities 
mentioned as belonging to Manasseh, Beth- 
shean, Ibleam, Dor, Endor, and Megiddo are 
specially said to have been territorially situ- 
ated in Issachar and Asher. Perhaps the so- 
lution of the difficulty is to be found in the 
complaint that the descendants of Joseph 
made to Joshua, that they had not sufficient 
room, and his charge to them to extend 
themselves into the woodland and mountain 
country.^ 

Several eminent men arose out of Manas- 
seh, and there are many notable events re- 
corded in which the tribe took part. Gideon 
was a native of Western Manasseh, and Jair 
and Jephthah were Eastern Manassites. A 
considerable body of Manasseh, apparently 
discontented with Saul, joined David when 
he appeared in the ranks of the Philistine 
army shortly before the fatal field of Gilboa ; 
and he was soon re-enforced by more as he 
marchedtoZiklag — an opportune aid against 
the roving bands who had assaulted and plun- 
dered Ziklag. Manasseh submitted to Ish- 



1 Numb, xxxiii. ; Deut. iii., 13-15 ; Josh, xiii., 20-3] 
xvii., 1-lS ; XX., S ; xxi., 25-27 ; 1 Chrou. vi., 70, 71. 



bosheth ; but when that ill-fated prince had 
perished, and Abner, the pillar of his king- 
dom, was no more, then, with all Israel, mul- 
titudes of both the Eastern and Western Ma- 
nassites repaired to Hebron to make David 
king over the whole nation. In the happier 
times of the Hebrew monarchy, the traus- 
Jordanic Manassites, who were valiant men, 
" increased," we are told, " from Bashan unto 
Baal-hermon and Senir, and unto Mount Her- 
mon." David had officers there as well as 
in the western territory, and Solomon placed 
his commissaries in this eastern region. But 
they transgressed against the God of their 
fathers, and were carried away captive by 
the kings of Assyria. Some of the notices 
of the Western Manassites are more pleasing. 
Many of them left idolatrous Israel, and join- 
ed Asa of Judah in his efforts at reformation ; 
many of them humbled themselves, and ac- 
cepted Hezekiah's invitation to the Passover; 
they broke down the images also in their own 
territory, and showed themselves obedient in 
the days of Josiah. Men of other tribes were 
joined with them ; but in all the revivals we 
find the name of Manasseh. Still, there was 
no thorough and entire repentance, and the 
bulk of this tribe, as well as the rest of Isra- 
el, were carried captive into Assyria. 'After 
the Captivity it would seem that some of 



MANASSES (THE PRAYER OF) 584 



MANDRAKE 



them settled in Jerusalem. [ Judg. v., 14 ; vi- 
\ iii. ; ix., 1-6 ; x., 3-5 ; xi. ; xii. ; 1 Kings iv., 
13, 19 ; 2 Kings xviii., 11, 12 ; 1 Chron. v., 23- 
26 ; ix., 3 ; xii., 20, 21, 31, 37 ; xxvi., 32 ; xxvii., 
20, 21 ; 2 Chron. xv., 9 j xxx., 1, 11, 18 ; xxxi., 
1; xxxiv., 6, 9.] 

2. The wicked son and successor of godly 
Hezekiah, and the fourteenth king of Judah. 
He reigned fifty-five years — a longer reign 
than any other sovereign — B.C. 698-643. He 
was hut a hoy of twelve when he ascended 
the throne, and he seems at once to have 
rushed headlong into every excess of heathen 
wickedness. He revived idolatry in its worst 
forms. He even undertook the sacrifice of 
his own children,^ and the people followed 
his example.^ The worship of the heavenly 
bodies was restored.^ The name of Moloch 
became a common oath.* There was a suc- 
cession of small furnaces in the streets, for 
which the children gathered wood, and in 
which their parents baked cakes as offerings 
to Astarte.^ The roofs of the houses were 
converted into places of worship and in- 
cense-burning to the heathen gods.^ The 
Temple- vessels were consecrated to Baal.^ 
The altar in front of the Temple was dese- 
crated.® The ark itself was removed from 
the Holy of Holies.^ An attempt was made 
by faithful prophets to stem this current 
of heathenism and idolatry. It w^as met 
by a wholesale religious persecution of all 
the followers of Jehovah. A reign of ter- 
ror commenced against all who ventured 
to resist the reaction.^" Every day, ac- 
cording to Josephus, the fires of persecu- 
tion were fed with new prophetic victims. 
According to an ancient tradition, Isaiah 
(q. v.), now nearly ninety years old, was 
among the victims of this persecution. 
Retribution soon came. Judea was in- 
vaded by the Assyrian armies, the city 
taken, and Manasseh made prisoner and 
carried to Babylon. There his eyes were 
opened ; he humbled himself greatly be- 
fore the God of his fathers, and his prayer 
was heard. God brought him again to Je- 
rusalem, into his own kingdom." The re- 
turn of Manasseh was followed by a new 
policy. He attempted to repair the moral 
and spiritual ruin he had wrought, and in 
some measure was successful.^^ Notwith- 
standing his repentance, his name was held 
in abhorrence by the Jews, as one of the 
three kings (Ahaz and Jeroboam being the 
other two) who had no part in eternal life.^^ 
He was buried as Ahaz had been, not with 
the burial of a king, but in his own sepul- 
chre, in the garden of Uzza.^* [2 Kings xxi. ; 
2 Chron. xxxiii., 1-20.] 

Manasses (The Prayer of) is' a short 



apocryphal piece intended to express the 
penitent feelings which the king might have 
had while justly suffering for his sins. Such 
a prayer of humiliation is referred to in 
Chron. xxxiii., 189 ; but that it is not the 
genuine composition is evident from its hav- 
ing been written originally in the Greek, and 
not in the Hebrew. It was not accounted 
canonical by the early Church, and is even 
considered spurious by the Church of Rome, 
though it is found in the Codex Alexandrinus 
and in the Vulgate. 

Mandrake, a plant which was supposed 
to promote fecundity. It is clear that the 
plant intended blossomed in spring ; that the 
flowers had a strong scent ; that the fruit ri- 
pened in May, the time of wheat-harvest in 
Padan-aram ; that these mandrakes were not 
common, else Rachel would have had no rea- 
son for bargaining with Leah ; and, further, 
that they were found in Palestine. The Eu- 
ropean mandrake {Atropa mandragora) ap- 
pears to answer these conditions. The root 




1 2 Chron. xxxiii., 6.-2 Jer. vii., 31 — 3 jgi-. yiii., 2; 
xix., 13.— 4 Zeph. i., 5.-6 Jer. vii., 17, 18.- « Isa. Ixv., 3 ; 
Jer. xix., 13.— '^ 2 Kings xxiii., 4.— ^ 2 Chron. xxxiii., 16. 
—3 2 Chron. xxxv., 3.— i" 2 Kings xxi., 16.— ^ 2 Chron. 
xxxiii., 12, 13.— 12 2 Chrou. xxxiii., 14-17.-13 2 Kings 
xxiv., 4.-1'* Nothing is known of its location. 



Maudralie. 



is white, mostly forked, but straight and 
thick, having some resemblance to the hn- 
man form, about four feet long, unwhole- 
some, and of repulsive smell ; the leaves are 
of a lively green, oval, about one foot long, 
four to five inches broad, with an undulating 
border ; the flowers are small, whitish-green, 
bell-shaped, blossoming in spring, and exhal- 
ing a strong but fragrant odor ; the fruit is 
yellow, of the size of a small eg^, pleasant 
both to sight and smell, filled with seeds, and 
ripens in the month of May. It is freely eat- 
en by the natives, as wholesome, genial, and 
exhilarating, is believed to strengthen affec- 
tion, and is emi^loyed for the preparation of 



MANGER 



585 



MANUSCRIPTS 



love - philtres. Mandrakes still grow near 
Jerusalem, and in various parts of Syria. 
[Gen. XXX., 14-16 ; Sol. Song vii., 13.] 

Manger. By this word is probably to be 
understood one of those recesses described in 
the article Inn (q. v.). [Luke ii., 7, 12, 16.] 

Manicheans, a religious sect, founded by 
Mani in the third century, which, although 
it utterly disclaimed the title Christian, yet 
was reckoned among the heretical bodies of 
the Church. It was intended to blend the 
chief dogmas of Magism, as reformed by Zo- 
roaster, with certain Buddhistic views ; and 
to defend them, an allegorical and symbol- 
ical interpretation was given to the Bible, 
especially to the N. T. history. These views 
partook of the character of the more ancient 
Gnosticism,^ including the doctrine of two 
antagonistic principles, good and evil, or 
light and darkness, and a series of aeons, of 
whom the Holy Ghost was one. The Mani- 
cheans rejected the O. T., but retained cer- 
tain portions of the N. T., modified to suit 
their views. Manicheism is asserted to have 
been perpetuated in different sects down to 
the time of the Reformation ; but as, in the 
controversies of the Middle Ages, it was al- 
ways convenient to charge any party of real 
or pseudo- reformers with Manicheism, this 
assertion may be safely taken with consider- 
able allowance. 

Manna, the food with which the children 
of Israel were supplied in the wilderness. 
The most important account of it is given in 
Exod. xvi., 14-36. This food accompanied 
the whole nation on its journey for forty 
years, not ceasing till they got the new corn 
in the land of Canaan. It is not possible for 
any one who accepts the Scriptural narra- 
tive to doubt that this was a miraculous 
gift from God, but it does not follow from 
this that manna is not a natural product. 
In other words, God may have created the 
food simply for that exigency, and then 
withdrawn it from the earth, or he may 
have miraculously multiplied an article of 
food which already existed, and have so 
modified it, and so abundantly provided it, 
as to make it a sufficient substitute for 
bread during nearly half a century. The 
one act would be as much a miracle — as 
much, i. e., an evidence of divine power and 
love — as the other. There are, therefore, 
three theories in respect to this manna. 
One is, that it was not in any respect a 
product of nature, but a special creation for 
that special occasion. A second identifies 
it with an article still found in the peninsu- 
la of Sinai, and bearing the name of manna. 
This is an exudation of a species of tamarisk- 
tree. It lasts but about six weeks, has a 
sweet, honey -like taste, possesses certain 
medicinal qualities — the entire annual sup- 
ply does not exceed 600 or 800 pounds — and 
it is confined, of course, to the immediate vi- 



1 See Gnostics. 



cinity of the tamarisk-trees. If this were, 
so to speak, the basis of the manna of Scrip- 
ture, the article must have been miraculous- 
ly produced, since it was not found alone in 
the vicinity of the tamarisk-tree, and afforded 
bread, as the modern manna does not. There 
is also a lichen which grows on the mount- 
ains of Asia, which is supposed by some to 
be identical in nature with the ancient 
manna. These lichens are torn froni their 
native home by the winds, and carried vast 
distances in the clouds, where they grow 
by sucking up the moisture, finally falling, 
after their aerial journey is over, on the 
ground. The people gather these lichens 
and use them for food, supposing that they 
come direct from heaven. This rain of 
plants sometimes forms a layer five or six 
inches thick. It is possible that this was 
the manna of the O. T. ; but if so, God must 
have miraculously interfered, not only to 
multiply to a marvelous degree the sujjply, 
but also to prevent its falling on the Sab- 
bath, and to prevent it from being kept over- 
night, except for the Sabbath. Whatever 
theory, therefore, the reader adopts, the mir- 
acle equally remains as a witness of the di- 
vine presence, power, and love. That the 
manna had a spiritual and symbolical sig- 
nificance, Christ has mada clear by his ref- 
erences to it. [Exod. xvi., 14-36 ; Numb, 
xi., 7-9 ; Deut. viii., 3, 16 ; Josh, v., 12 ; Psa. 
Ixxviii., 24, 25 ; John vi., 31-35, 48-51, 58.] 

Manuscripts. Of course, prior to the fif- 
teenth century, all versions of the Scripture 
were preserved in manuscripts. The mak- 
ing of these copies, which were scattered all 
over Europe not only, but found their way 
into distant lands — Africa, Ethiopia, Syria, 
Persia, and even China — was chiefly the 
work of the monks, to whose laborious pens 
we are indebted for the preservation of the 
Scripture' through the darkness of the Mid- 
dle Ages. It is hardly necessary, either, to 
say that the original copies both of the Old 
and the New Testament have long since dis- 
appeared. The oldest manuscript is of the 
fourth century after Christ. The iDrevious 
ones were destroyed in the persecutions in- 
flicted on the early Church, or were worn out 
with use, their inestimable value to subse- 
quent ages not being comprehended. They 
were even but rarely quoted until after con- 
troversies arose in the Church, and they be- 
gan to be appealed to as authorities. The 
more important of them are preserved with 
the greatest care in the libraries of Europe. 
These Biblical manuscripts are, naturally, 
divided into the Greek and Hebrew, of which 
the former are the most numerous, and, of 
course, alone include the New Testament. 
The form of the letters varies in these. Some- 
times they are all capitals ; and manuscripts 
so written are called uncial. These, gener- 
ally speaking, are the oldest ; while cursive 



See Bible. 



MANUSCRIPTS 



586 



MANUSCRIPTS 



-^ 



TimK/MK/TnAG 

HNOIVO 

roc+TCAi«\«roc- 



NApTfH 



4 ^ 



HNnffltTOH-fM 



writing, in 
wliich the 
letters run 
on, being 
often join- 
ed, with no capi- 
tals except as in- 
itials, belongs to a 
later age. This 
appears to have 
come into use in 
sacred documents 
in the tenth centu- 
ry. Greek manu- 
scripts are in the 
square form ; and 
though, doubtless, 
rolls like the He- 
brew existed 



ONfTHnMiNAfXn 

nfjCTm-fN+ttAM 



been preserved. 
The most ancient 
manuscripts are 
without accents, 
spirits, or breath- 
ings, or any sep- 
aration of words; 
though by the be- 
ginning of the fifth 
^ century, and probably 

K^LL tu Cf^CJCftJ^ ^^-t<Oi^ earlier, a dot was used 
* '' J V' •^ ™ to divide sentences. 

t^ hrHX?® WJ-*^V''^0asrO4=>OA>rfrX«i The older manuscripts 
% V j"^ J^ ^"^^O^HO^ are generally defect- 

o^ TO sxr t-^rnr>? i-pHjj^99 * u cL^-Oi^^ujA^ ?'^^^ ^ ^^\^.^''^, ^^5- 

.0^ »^ >- > '^ r^ \^ ^ 90^ ^ mally contained the 

' b— 0^ K Irra^-' Irrt r^^C ^^OM gH. OAj • 1^ Ojrnj* ^^lole Bible, others the 

^^^ / g. g ^^ nr ^^ i^ iv ^^^ Testament, and 

K A H p O ^ O MM/^^^n^4jJ^ij^ ^ T^f^ • ^*^'^^^ ^°^y particular 
^ ^ . y --yww*''** ^ books or portions of it. 

• fcr^ri'Tfe^CtlCOeaot^C'rrb^'cf Ron sometimes the origi- 

"^ nal writing has been 

' almost or altogether 

obliterated, and other 

matter has been substituted. 

These manuscripts are called 

codices paUmpsesti or rescripti 

(palimpsest manuscripts), that 

,.^ _ , ^ ^ is, manuscripts rewritten. 

0lrs;T?0^l^6^<3Lp^CHTov0c^rf^-V*^3ociN When the text is accompanied 

m -« ^ 1 .^.iL_ "^ ___ '*■ -* -* by a version, the manuscripts 

_ double-tongued. These are gen- 
O^ erally Greek and Latin; and in 
a very old manuscript the Latin 
translation is likely to be that in 
use before the time of Jerome. 
The accompanying specimens of 
Greek manuscripts, from the 
/ ' ' " ■■ " ^ tenth to the fourteenth centurv, 
















are from originals noAV in the 
British Museum. Fig. 1 contains 
John i., 1, 2; Fig. 2, Acts xiii., 
18-20; Fig. 3, John i., 1-3; Fig. 
4, John i., i-4. These specimens. 



MARAH 



587 



MARIOLATRY 



and the accompanying statements, are from 
M'Clintock and Strong's '' Cyclopaedia," art. 
Manuscripts, which see, for a full list and 
description of manuscripts. 

Of these manuscripts now extant, the fol- 
lowing are the most important : The Codex 
Alexandrinus, now in the British Museum, re- 
ceives its name from the supposition that it 
was written at Alexandria. It still contains 
most of hoth the Old and New Testaments, 
and is supposed to have been written in the 
fifth century. The Codex Faticanus, in the 
Vatican Library at Rome, believed to have 
been written in Egypt, and containing, with 
the loss of some, portions of the Old and New 
Testaments, was probably written during the 
fourth century* The Codex Sinaiticus, dis- 
covered by Dr.Tischendorf in the convent on 
Mount Sinai, and obtained for the Imperial 
Library at St. Petersburg, contains the en- 
tire New Testament and portions of the Old, 
and is probably a product of the fourth cen- 
tury. The Codex Bezce, procured in 1562 from 
the monastery of Sfc. Ireuseus at Lyons, was 
written probably in the fifth or sixth centu- 
ry. The Codex Eplircemi now consists of por- 
tions of the Old and New Testaments, over 
which, the original writing having been par- 
tially erased, some works of Ephrsem, the Syr- 
ian monk, were written — a custom not un- 
common, owing to the scarcity of parchment 
in the Middle Ages, and is assigned by Tisch- 
endoi-f to the fifth century. These are but a 
few of the many manuscripts the collection 
and collation of which gives to modern schol- 
ars the text upon which they rely, in their 
studies of the Bible. They will afford the 
general reader a glimpse of what that crit- 
ical study is, while for further information 
he must be referred to larger works, such as 
Home's "Introduction to the Scriptures," 
and M'Clintock and Strong's " Cyclopaedia." 

Marah, a station in the wilderness. It is 
identified by most travelers with the mod- 
ern Ain Hawarah, a solitary spring of water 
which differs, at different times, in quality, 
but is generally bitter. It is three days' 
journey on the road from the Red Sea to 
Mount Sinai. These two circumstances have 
led to its identification. [Exod. xv., 22-26 ; 
Numb, xxxiii., 8, 9.] 

Marble. The Hebrew term so translated 
in the Bible is a generic one, signifying a 
white stone, and may include any fine and 
shiniug stones, as well as those which we 
understand by the term marble, which is not 
found in Palestine. Herod, however, em- 
j)loyed Parian marble in the Temple and 
elsewhere. Remains of marble columns still 
exist at Jerusalem. The variegated marbles 
of Shushan were doubtless procured in Per- 
sia itself. [1 Chron. xxix., 2; Esth. i., 6; 
Sol. Song v., 15 ; Rev. xviii., 12.] 

Mareshah, one of the cities of Judah, in 
the district of the Shefelah, or low country. 
It was one of the cities fortified and garri- 



soned by Rehoboam after the rupture with 
the northern kingdom, and was the scene of 
the important battle of Mareshah, between 
Asa and Zerah, B.C. 941.^ The exact site of 
the valley of Zephathah, where the battle 
took place, is not known. It is supposed, 
however, to be a broad valley, descending 
from Eleutheropolis in a north-westerly di- 
rection. Mareshah was the first walled town 
on the southern border, and no other lay be- 
tween it and Jerusalem. Asa marched hith- 
er to resist the Ethiopian king on the border. 
The latter retreated to the neighboring val- 
ley, that he might use his horses and chariots 
with effect, without entangling them among 
the narrow valleys leading to Jerusalem, and 
here the decisive conflict took place. It was 
also the birthplace of the prophet Eliezer. 
It was in ruins in the fourth century, and is 
supposed to be identical with a modern site 
known as Marash. [Josh, xv., 44 ; 2 Chron. 
xi., 8; xiv., 10; xx., 37; Mic.i., 15.] 

Mariolatry, the worship, or honor, paid to 
the Virgin Mary by the adherents of the Ro- 
man Catholic Church. Their writers distin- 
guish between the worship of adoration and 
that of honor ; and while they claim that the 
latter should be paid to saints, they disclaim 
paying true worship to any but God.^ High- 
est of all saints, however, they place the 
Virgin Mary, whom they claim to have been 
born without the taint of original sin ; and 
some of them even claim that she was with- 
out any taint of actual sin in her life. Most 
of the prayers addressed to her are for her 
intercession with her Son ; but there are many 
examples of prayers addressed to the Virgin 
for her own assistance, and there are numer- 
ous indications that in fact the worship paid 
to her is much higher than that which Ro- 
man Catholic theology, in theory, concedes 
to be right — the distinction between the two 
kinds of worship not being practically rec- 
ognized among the masses of the people, even 
if there be any philosophical basis for it. 
" Churches are built to her honor; her shrines 
are crowded with enthusiastic devotees ; her 
name is the first which the infant is taught 
to lisp, and to her is cast the last look of the 
dying ; the soldier fights under her banner, 
and the brigand plunders under her protec- 
tion." In Italy and Spain robbers wear a 
picture of Mary hung round their neck. If 
overtaken suddenly by death, they kiss the 
image and die in peace. A single incident 
may suffice to indicate the place awarded to 
the Virgin Mary by a certain class of Roman 
Catholic theologians — the vision of St. Ber- 
nard, recorded with approbation by St. Al- 
phonso di Liguori. St. Bernard is recorded 
as having in this vision seen two ladders ex- 
tending from earth to heaven. At the top 
of one ladder appeared Jesus Christ ; at the 
top of the other ladder appeared the Virgin 
Mary. While those who attempted to enter 



See Asa.— 2 See Image-worsuip. 



MARIOLATEY 



588 



MARK 



into heaven by the way of Christ's ladder 
fell constantly back and utterly failed, those, 
on the other hand, who tried to enter by the 
ladder of Mary, all succeeded, because she put 
forth her hands to assist and encourage them. 

It is not, therefore, surprising to find in 
the prescribed offices and ritual of the Ro- 
man Catholic Church not only prayers offer- 
ed to the Almighty in Mary's name, pleading 
her merits, and seeking a divine blessing 
through her mediation, advocacy, and inter- 
cession, but also prayers offered directly to 
herself, beseeching her to employ her inter- 
cession with the Eternal Father and with 
her Son in behalf of her petitioners, and 
prayers to her for her protection from all 
evils, spiritual and bodily, for her guidance 
and aid, and for the influences of her grace. 
In addition to all this, divine praises are 
ascribed to her, in pious acknowledgment of 
her attributes of power, wisdom, goodness, 
and mercy, and of her exalted state above 
all the sjiirits of life and glory in heaven, 
and for her share in the redemption of the 
world, and the benefits conferred by her on 
the individual worshiper. 

It is conceded by Roman Catholic writers 
that no trace of any actual worship of the 
Virgin Mary is found in the New Testa- 
ment, but they cite, in support of the prac- 
tice, Luke i., 28, 41, and John xix., 26. In 
the latter passage Christ commends his 
mother, at the time of the crucifixion, to 
John. " In these words," says a Roman Cath- 
olic Catechism,^ " our blessed Saviour, with 
his last breath, recommends all his followers, 
in the person of St. John, as her spiritual 
children, to his virgin mother ; and recom- 
mends her to them, to be honored and re- 
spected as their mother ; and indeed if he is 
pleased to raise us up to the high dignity 
of being children of his heavenly Father, 
and his own brethren, and co-heirs of his 
heavenly kingdom, without doubt his bless- 
ed mother must consider us as her spiritual 
children, and we have a just title to look 
upon her as our spiritual mother." This 
last expression fairly represents the senti- 
ments which pious and devoted Romanists 
entertain toward the Virgin Mary. To them 
she is a " spiritual mother." It was not un- 
til the end of the fourth century that it be- 
came customary to apply to Mary the appel- 
lation "Mother of God." Until this time, 
there is no trace of the worship of the Vir- 
gin. The first appearance of such worship 
was among a small sect of women who came 
from Thrace and settled in Arabia, and who, 
from cakes, or wafers, which tliey conse- 
crated to Mary, were called CoUyridians. 
But it was only after the heresy of Nesto- 
rins that the worship of Mary seems to have 
obtained its full development. His denial 
to her of the character of mother of God, 
and the solemn affirmation of that character 



"The Siucere Christiau," by Bishop Hay. 



by the Ecumenical Council of Ephesus — 
430 A.D. — had the effect at once of quicken- 
ing the devotion of the people, and drawing 
forth a more marked manifestation on the 
part of the Church of the belief which had 
been called in question. The fifth and sixth 
centuries, both in the East and in the West, 
exhibit clear evidence of the practice ; and 
the writers of each succeeding age till the 
Reformation speak, with gradually increas- 
ing enthusiasm, of the privileges of the Vir- 
gin Mary, and of the efficacy of her func- 
tions as a mediator with her Son. St. Ber- 
nard, and still more St. Bonaventura, car- 
ried this devotional enthusiasm to its great- 
est height ; and the popular feeling found a 
still more marked manifestation in the pub- 
lic worship of the Church. It probably 
reached its height in the proclamation by 
the present pope of the doctrine, as one of 
the tenets of the Church, of the Immaculate 
Conception (q. v.). The chief festivals of 
the Virgin common to the Eastern and West- 
ern churches are the Conception, the Nativi- 
ty, the Purification, the Annunciation, the 
Visitation, and the Assumption. The Rom- 
ish Church has several special festivals, with 
appropriate offices, all, however, of minor so- 
lemnity. 

Mark (prob. polite or shining), a disci- 
ple of Christ, and the author of the gos- 
pel which bears his name. He is also call- 
ed John, and "John whose surname was 
Mark."^ The few particulars gleaned re- 
specting him from Scripture are, that his 
mother's name was Mary,'-* and that she was 
sister of Barnabas,^ and dwelt in Jerusalem;* 
and that he was converted to Christianity by 
the apostle Peter f that he became the min- 
ister and companion of Paul and Barnabas 
in their first missionary journey,^ and was 
the cause of the variance and separation of 
these apostles on their second tour;'' Barna- 
bas wishing to take him again with them, 
but Paul refusing, because he had departed 
from them before the completion of the for- 
mer journey.® He then became the com- 
panion of Barnabas, in his journey to Cyprus.^ 
We find him, however, again with Paul,^''and 
subsequently with Peter.^^ From Scripture 
we know no more concerning him. But a 
uniform tradition of the ancient Christian 
writers represents him as the "interpreter 
of Peter," i. e., the secretary, or amanuensis, 
whose office it was to commit to writing 
the orally-delivered instructions and narra- 
tions of the apostle. Tradition brings him 
with Peter to Rome, and thence to Alexan- 
dria. He is said to have become first bish- 
op of the Church in the latter city, and to 
have suffered martyrdom there. All this, 
however, is exceedingly uncertain. 



1 Acts xii., 12. 25 : xv., 87, 39.-2 Acts xii., 12.— 3 Col. 
iv., 10.— 4 Acts xii., 12.— 6 1 Pet. v., 13.— « Acts xii., 25. 
—7 Acts XV., 37-40.— 8 Acts xiii., 13.— » Acts xv., 39.— 
10 Col. iv., 10.— 11 1 Pet. v., 13. 



MARK (GOSPEL OF) 



589 



MARONITES 



Mark (Gospel of). From the very ear- 
liest time this gospel has beeu known by the 
name which it now bears. It is unquestion- 
ably the work of Mark, whose surname was 
John ; its genuineness has never been called 
in question till very recently, and only by a 
class of German critics who call in question 
every historic statement. There is no rea- 
son to doubt that it was written in Greek, 
probably between the years 60 and 70 a.d. 
It was universally believed in the ancient 
Church that Mark's gospel was written un- 
der the influence of Peter. This belief was 
undoubtedly founded on fact ; though how far 
the influence extended it is impossible now 
to tell. There are, however, passages which 
indicate that Mark, who was not one of the 
twelve, derived his information from an eye- 
witness, and it is not unreasonable to con- 
jecture that we have in such cases substan- 
tially the narrative of the apostle Peter. Of 
all the gospels, that of Mark is the most 
graphic and dramatic in description. While 
the matters related are fewer than in either 
Matthew or Luke, in those narratives which 
are common to the three, the gospel of Mark 
is the most copious and rich in interesting 
details. While the student will find in Mat- 
thew more full reports of Christ's discourses, 
he will find in Mark more graphic pictures 
of the effects produced, and of the incidents 
which attended upon them. 

Maronites, the name of a people in Asi- 
atic Turkey who recognize the authority of 
the pope, and therefore form a part of the 
Eoman Catholic Church. They chiefly in- 
habit tbe mountainous district of Lebanon, 
from Tripolis to Tyre, but they are also found 
in several other places in Syria, and in the 
islands of Cyprus. Their chief seat is in the 
district of Kesrawan, which is inhabited al- 
most exclusively by Maronites, while every- 
where else they live with others. Authori- 
ties differ in estimating their numbers, some 
believing them to be 500,000, while others 
think them no more than 150,000. They 
were originally Syrians, and still use the old 
Syrian language in their worship, but their 
conversational language is the Arabic. They 
enjoy a kind of political independence, being 
governed by native sheiks, who only pay an 
annual tribute to the Ottoman sultan. The 
supreme government is in the hands of four 
chief sheiks, who are also their leaders in 
war. As they are accustomed to go armed, 
from 30,000 to 40,000 men are always ready 
to march. In 1841 a national war com- 
menced between them and their neighbors, 
the Druses (q. v.), with whom they had 
previously lived in peace, and the Maron- 
ites suffered greatly. In May, 1860, the war 
broke out with new and unprecedented fierce- 
ness, and a terrible massacre was its conse- 
quence. To prevent the return of similar 
atrocities, the European powers, at a confer- 
ence held in Paris, agreed, on August 3, upon 




Marouite Sheik aud his Wife. 

an intervention in Syria for the protection 
of the Christians. 

Most historians are of opinion that the 
Maronites were MonotJielites (q. v.) until 1182, 
when their patriarch, with several bishops, 
entered into a union with the Roman Cath- 
olic Church, which became permanent in 
1445. In 1584 Pope Gregory XIII. founded 
in Rome a Maronite college, from which they 
have since received most of their priests. 
The patriarch of the body is elected by the 
bishops, who must all be monks ; but he re- 
ceives his robe of investiture from Rome, 
in acknowledgment of the subjection of his 
Church to the Papal See. His jurisdiction 
extends over nine metropolitan sees, the oc- 
cupants of which, chosen by the peoj)le but 
consecrated by the patriarch, are called Me- 
trans, or Metropolitans. The x>atriarch has 
two vicars, or assistants, one of them con- 
nected with the temporal, the other with 
the spiritual aff'airs of the Church. He has 
also an agent at Rome, and three presidents 
at the principal monasteries, or colleges. 
The Maronite clergy, though connected with 
Rome, dissent from her regulations in regard 
to the celibacy of the priesthood, most of 
them being married men. On this point, 
accordingly, as well as in some other observ- 
ances, the pope has been obliged to make a 
compromise with them, and to allow such as 
have married before taking priests' orders to 
retain their wives. They are not, however, 
allowed to marry after having entered into 
the priesthood. The parish priests are elect- 
ed by the people, and ordained by the dioce- 
san bishops or the patriarch. They are not 
allowed to follow any secular profession. It 
is no part of their duty to preach, but simply 
to read the offices. The unmarried priests 
are not generally elected to the ministerial 
charge of parishes, but are usually connect- 
ed with convents, either as superiors or in 



MARRIAGE 



590 



MARRIAGE 



subordinate offices. The Maronites consider 
preaching to have been one of the peculiar 
offices of our Saviour, and a preacher is there- 
fore held in the highest respect. Before a 
priest can venture to undertake the respon- 
sible duty of preaching, he must have a writ- 
ten permission from the patriarch, or the 
bishop of the diocese. Occasionally permis- 
sion is given to laymen to officiate as preach- 
ers. Conveuts were formerly very numerous. 
In the district of Kesrawan alone there were 
more than 200 that were counted, with about 
20,000 members, all following the rule of St. 
Anthony ; but in consequence of the recent 
wars with the Druses, many convents have 
perished. The Maronites are an active, in- 
dustrious, people ; and amidst their rocky 
dwellings they carry forward their agricul- 
tural labors with such zeal and success, that 
ere long the prophecy bids fair to be fulfill- 
ed, " Lebanon shall be turned into a fruitful 
field." 

Marriage, The questions connected with 
marriage are partly of a civil, partly of a re- 
ligious character. Within the limits of our 
space we can but briefly indicate these ques- 
tions, and the teaching of Scripture concern- 
ing them. For convenience of reference, we 
shall consider them under three general heads : 
I. The Nature of Marriage — is it a civil or a 
religious Relation ? II. The proper Parties 
to a Marriage Relationship. III. Marriage 
Customs and Ceremonies. The right of dis- 
solution of the marriage tie is considered un- 
der the title of Divorce. 

I. Tlie Nature of Marriage — is it a civil or a 
religious Belaiionship f — No one, either Prot- 
estant or Roman Catholic, doubts that mar- 
riage is a divine institution. It was ordain- 
ed by God at the creation of man, and is re- 
peatedly ratified by him throughout the Bib- 
lical history, and is employed on more than 
one occasion as a symbol of the relation 
between himself and his Church.^ In this 
sense, then, all are agreed that marriage is a 
religious relationship, that it has the direct 
sanction of God. The question between the 
Protestants and the Roman Catholics in re- 
spect to marriage is a different one. It is, 
really, whether marriage should be under 
the control of the State, the rights and ob- 
ligations of the parties being determined by 
the civil authorities, or whether it should be 
under the control of the Church, their rights 
and obligations being determined by an ec- 
clesiastical hierarchy. The Roman Catholic 
Church maintains that the whole subject is 
under the control of the Church. It declares 
that the marriage ceremony is itself a sacra- 
ment ; that the presence and sanction of the 
Church, in the person of one of its priests, is 
essential to the marriage ; that the Church 
has the right and authority to declare who 
may marry and who may not, and, by special 



1 Gen. i., 27, 2=!; ii., lS-25; Isa. liv., 5; Jer. iii., 14; 
Mai. ii., 13-16 ; Matt, xix., 3-9; Mark x., 6-8. 



dispensation, to give permission to marry to 
those who are, by the general laws of the 
Church, disqualified for entering into this 
relation. The Protestant Churches, on the 
other hand, almost uniformly regard mar- 
riage as a civil contract, i. e., they maintain, 
not that it is not a divine institution, but 
that the laws and principles which regulate 
it, and determine the rights and duties of 
the parties to it, are to be adjusted by the 
civil authorities. In Protestant countries, 
therefore, while the presence of a clergyman 
is customary, it is not necessary to the valid- 
ity of the ceremony, which may be perform- 
ed either by a clergyman or by certain des- 
ignated civil authorities, or, in some coun- 
tries, as, for example, in the State of New 
York, by any person, or by the parties them- 
selves, without the intervention of any third 
person. Upon this question, of course, de- 
pends another, that of divorce. According 
to the Roman Catholic doctrine, a separation 
can be decreed only by the Church ; accord- 
ing to Protestant opinion, the right of di- 
vorce is determined by the civil authorities, 
and the separation must be decreed by the 
courts; though, of course, all Protestants 
agree in believing that the civil authorities 
should themselves fix upon principles to gov- 
ern all questions of separation, such as are 
in accordance with the Divine law and the 
Word of God. 

II. The proper Parties to a Marriage Rela- 
tionship. — The question who may marry has 
been greatly discussed, and has given rise to 
a wide divergence of opinion. The princi- 
pal laws of the ancient Hebrews on this sub- 
ject are to be found in Exod. xxxiv., 12, 16 ; 
Dent, vii., 2-4 ; Lev. xviii., 6-17 ; xx., 11, 12, 
14-21. How far these laws are still obligato- 
ry, is an uncertain and doubtful question. By 
universal consent among all Christians the 
laws prohibiting marriage with foreigners 
are regarded as having no applicability now 
to either Jew or Gentile ; on the other hand, 
it is also universally agreed that marriages 
are prohibited, if not by these statutes, then 
by the instincts of humanity, between near 
relatives. The prohibitions contained in 
Lev. xviii., 6-18, are by most Christian com- 
munities regarded as of perpetual obliga- 
tion. The question, however, is unsettled 
whether, under these prohibitions, a man 
may or may not marry his deceased's wife's 
sister. In England such a marriage is pro- 
hibited ; in this country it is permitted both 
by the law of the laud and the Christian 
sentiment of the public. 

A more serious problem is presented by 
the question whether a man may have more 
than one wife. We speak of it as a prob- 
lem, though in all Christian communities 
there is but one opinion on the subject, and 
the declarations of Christ appear to be very 
explicit. The only modern sect in Christen- 
dom which defends polygamy is the Mormon 



MARRIAGE 



591 



MARRIAGE 



sect, though it is still maintained in Moham- 
medan countries. Unquestionably it was 
God's original purpose that one man should 
have one wife/ In the early history of the 
world we find comparatively few cases of 
polygamy ; but afterward we find a plural- 
ity of wives. At first, it would seem, one or 
more concubines were taken in addition to 
the wife : but by degrees wives were multi- 
plied,'^ till polygamy reached, so far as Scrip- 
ture history informs us, its worst develop- 
ment in Solomon, who was imitated, though 
with somewhat greater moderation, by Ins 
descendants.^ That polygamy was allowed 
under the Jewish laws, does not indicate 
that it received divine approval. It must 
be remembered that God was not only the 



versal testimony of observers, they are the 
most chaste people upon the earth. The 
principle upon which the Jewish law pro- 
ceeded, in regulating and gradually putting 
an end to evils that could not be effectually 
stopped at once nor without a gradual proc- 
ess of education, is stated clearly by Christ 
in Matt, xix., 8. 

III. Marriage Customs and Ceremonies. — 
These have differed widely among different 
nations. For a full account of them, we must 
refer the reader to a little treatise entitled 
^' The Wedding-day in all Ages and Coun- 
tries" (Harper & Brothers, N.Y.), confining 
ourselves to a brief summary of the customs 
and ceremonies among the ancient Jews, as 
illustrated by the Biblical history. It would 




Marriage Procession of a Bride in Lebanon. 



God, but also the King and civil Ruler, of the 
Jewish nation, and that in the latter capac- 
ity he gave laws adapted to the condition of 
the people. Finding polygamy already in 
existence, and divorce allowed almost with- 
out any protection to the wife, he did not 
attempt at once to prohibit either vice ; but 
he so hedged about the marriage relation- 
ship as effectually to put a stop to both 
vices, so that at the time of Christ polyg- 
amy was absolutely unknown among the 
Jews ; and at the present time, by the uni- 



1 Gen. ii., 24; Matf, xix., 4, 5, 
xvi., 3; xxix., 23, 28; xxxvi., 
Siim. i,, 2; 2 Sam. iii., 2-5; v., 
Chron. xi., 21 ; xiii., 21. 



3 ; Mark x., 6-8,-2 Qen. 
2. 3; Judi?. viii., 30; 1 
13.— 3 1 Kings xi., 3 ; 2 



appear that parents generally selected wives 
for their children.^ When the proposal was 
made, the woman's family deliberated upon 
it, and it might be that her consent was 
asked; but it was of course expected that 
she would acquiesce in the determination of 
her seniors.^ If the advantages of rank or 
position were on the woman's side, the first 
motion might come from her parents.^ Some- 
times, too, we find a king providing a wife for 
a favorite or minister.* When a marriage 
was settled, presents were made accompa- 
nying the espousals. In certain cases, when 



^ Gen. xxiv. ; xxviii., 1, 2; xxxiv., 4; xxxviii., 6; 
Judges xiv., 1, 2.-2 Gen. xxiv., 50-58.— 3 1 Sara, xviii., 
17-21.— 4 Gen. xli., 45. 



MARRIAGE 



592 



MARTHA 



tlie intended husband was unable to give 
the customary presents, service of some kind 
was substituted/ But occasionally a father 
endowed his daughter.^ The espousal, or 
betrothing, was a formal agreement made 
with oaths by duly empowered parties on 
each side ; the bridegroom, however, not be- 
ing necessarily present, but represented by 
his friend. A woman after betrothment was 
considered actually a wife, so that her incon- 
tinence was punished as adultery;^ though 
it would seem, in later times, the full penalty 
of the law was not always exacted ; for Jo- 
seph, who had been led to suspect Mary, in- 
tended merely to divorce her in a quiet way.^ 
The woman still continued in her father's 
house until she was taken to her husband.^ 
This, so far as we read, was for no specified 
length of time ; though in later days it is 
said to have been a year for virgins, and a 
month for widows. 

The actual marriage, though probably ac- 
companied with blessings, and some ratifi- 
cation of the betrothment oaths, consisted 
mainly in the taking of the wife to her hus- 
band's house, with the accompanying feast. 
Both were sumptuously arrayed. The bride- 
groom placed a kind of tiara on his head, on 
which was a nuptial wreath or crown, and 
used delicate perfumes. The bride bathed 
and anointed herself, and was attired with a 
veil, the symbol of her subordination — prob- 
ably a large light robe enveloping the per- 
son. She also had a nuptial chaplet; her 
robes were white and fine, brocaded and cu- 
riously wrought, and she was decked with 
gems and jewelry f and thus, with her 
maiden companions, she expected the bride- 
groom. He on his part had " companions," 
or " children of the bride-chamber."^ At a 
fixed hour, often in the evening, they set out 
in procession to fetch the bride, either to 
the bridegroom's house, or some place where 
he had prepared the feast. Music, lights, 
and every demonstration of joy accompa- 
nied the train; friends joined them; and 
they sat down with gladness to the banquet, 
at which dresses of ceremony were some- 
times presented to the guests f the festival 
lasted for days, and was enlivened by vari- 
ous amusements. The husband was exempt 
from public duties for a year after his mar- 
riage.^ The punishment of adultery was 
death, and there were means of ascertaining 
incontinence before or after marriage ; but a 
husband bringing a false charge against his 
wife in the first case was amerced, and for- 
bidden ever to divorce her.^° 



1 Gen. xxix., 18-20, 27 ; 1 Sam. xviii,, 25 2T.— 2 Josh. 
XV., 10-19; Juds:. i., 12-15; 1 Kiugs ix., 16.— 3 Deut. 
xxii., 23, 24.-4 Matt, i., 18, 19.-6 jnd^. xiv., S.— 
6 Gen.xxiv.,65; Ruthiii.,3; Sol. Song iii., G, 11 ; Isa. 
xlix., 18 ; Ixi., 10 ; Ezek. xvi., 9 : xxiii., 40 ; Jer. ii., 32 ; 
Rev. xix., 8.— '' Matt, ix., 15; xxv., 1; Judg. xiv., 10, 
n. — 8 Gen. xxix., 22; Judg. xiv., 10; Psa. xiv., 15; 
Jer. vii., 34 ; xvi., 9 ; Matt, xxii., 2-11 ; xxv., 1, 3, 4, 7 ; 
John ii., 2. — » Deut. xx., 7; xxiv., 5. — i" Numb, v., 
12-31. 



For the right of the clergy to marry, see 
Celibacy. The principal passages relative 
to the reciprocal duties of husband and wife 
under the N. T. dispensation are Ephes. v., 
22-33 ; Col. iii., 18, 19 ; 1 Pet. iii., 1-7. 

Martha. The N. T. introduces us on sev- 
eral occasions to Martha, who, with her sis- 
ter Mary and her brother Lazarus, dwelt at 
Bethany. It seems probable, from the omis- 
sion of any reference to the parents, that 
both were dead. The indications are that 
the father, one Simon, was a leper, who had 
probably either died, or been banished un- 
der the law because of his leprosy.^ The 
family appear to have been one of wealth 
and social distinction ; owned their house ; 
had their faiaily tomb in their garden, as did 
the wealthier classes ; esteemed three hun- 
dred dollars' worth of ointment not too cost- 
ly a token of honor to pay to Jesus.^ Phar- 
isees in faith, they belonged to the more en- 
lightened and liberal of that party. They 
possessed many distinguished friends among 
that class in Jerusalem. But neither party 
friendships nor party prejudices were able 
to keep them from Christ. How and where 
they first learned of him we do not know. 
How far Lazarus accepted him does not ap- 
pear ; but the sisters openly enrolled them- 
selves among his disciples. Twice, at least, 
they made entertainments for him. During 
his last stay at Jerusalem, just before his 
crucifixion, when the Pharisees were plotting 
his destruction, and the city was not safe for 
him, they received him nightly to their house. 
And it is recorded, significantly, of them that 
''Jesus loved Martha, and her sister Mary 
and Lazarus." Apparently, Martha was the 
oldest of the three ; at least either from tliis 
circumstance, or from natural adaptation, she 
acted as the head of the household. The 
contrast between the two sisters is one of the 
most minute and beautiful bits of charac- 
ter-painting in the N. T., and the manner iii 
which that contrast shows itself in the three 
principal incidents of their joint lives is one 
of the coincidences which curiously illustrate 
the historic truthfulness of the sacred narra- 
tive. We first meet the sisters at Bethany. 
Jesus has come out to see them. Martha is 
full of anxiety to provide a feast worthy of 
him ; is " cumbered about much serving." 
Mary, careless about the external world, and 
forgetful even of Jesus's physical needs, sits 
at his feet wholly absorbed in listening to his 
words. We next meet them at the resurrec- 
tion of Lazarus, when Martha again, as soon 
as she hears that Jesus is coming, goes out to 
meet him, while Mary, in the stupor of her 
grief, " sat still in the house." On the third 



1 Com)). Matt, xxvi., 6; Mark xiv., 3, with John xii., 
1-7.-2 In John xii., 5, it is estimated as worth 300 
pence ; but a penny, i.e., n denarius, a day was the or- 
dinary wages of a laboring man. Allowing but a dol- 
lar a day as the wages of labor now, would fix the 
value of the box of biutmeut at the price meutioued 
in the text. 



MARTYR 



593 



MARY 



occasion Christ goes with his disciples to 
their house just before the crucifixion. The 
sisters malie a supper for him and his disci- 
ples. Martha serves the entertainment, but 
Mary shows her aifection by anointing the 
feet of Jesus with a pound of ointment of 
spilicnard, very costly, and wiping them 
Avith her hair. These circumstances show 
the contrast between the two sisters, which 
is especially brought out in the first incident, 
and made the occasion of a lesson which we 
think is often misunderstood. The contrast 
is not between worldliuess and piety, but 
between two types of piety. Both sisters 
were disciples of Christ. Both loved him, 
and were loved by him. At the very time 
when Christ apparently rebuked Martha, she 
was busy in serving, not herself, but him. 
The object of the lesson is rather to teach us 
that there is something higher than serving 
Christ, namely, the being served by him; 
that the life of contemplation is at least as 
important as that of busy, bustling activity ; 
that we can not aiford to forget our need of 
receiving Christ in our anxiety to do some- 
thing for him. To serve is well. But the 
love that simply receives Christ, that is ab- 
sorbed in him, that gazes, lost, up into his 
wondrous face, and listens to his words, is 
above all mere serving. Higher in his es- 
teem is the quiet of confiding, than the ac- 
tivity of self-reliance. Tliis is the lesson of 
Martha and Mary. Nothing is known of the 
sisters after the last supper at Bethany, re- 
corded in John xii., 1-7, aiid the parallel pas- 
sages in the other gospels. [Matt, xxvi., 6- 
13 ; Mark xiv., 3-19 ; Luke x., 38-42 ; John 
xi. ; xii., 1-9.] 

Martyr (witness), one who by his death 
bears witness to the truth. In this sense 
Stephen was the first martyr to Christian 
truth; but other martyrs to the truth of 
God's word are mentioned in O. T. history. 
The history of the Christian Church has, 
until a very recent period, been one con- 
tinuous history of martyrdom, the heathen 
persecuting the early Christian Church, and, 
later, the Roman Catholics outvieiug the pa- 
gans in the persecution of Protestants, and, 
finally, the various Protestant sects also car- 
rying on the work of persecution to a great- 
er or less degree as they obtained the power. 
Thus the history of martyrs and martyrdom 
would be, in truth, a history of the Christian 
Church. For it our readers must be referred 
to larger works. Martyrology is the title 
given to a catalogue, or list, of those who 
have suffered martyrdom for their Christian 
faith. Festivals of the martyrs, to commem- 
orate their sufierings, have been held from 
an early period in the Roman Church. 

Mary {rebellion). This name appears to 
be identical with Miriam, which appears in 
O. T. history. In the N. T. it is the title of 
several distinct and important persons. 

1. Mary the mother of JesuTs, generally 
38 



distinguished in ecclesiastical history as the 
Virgin Mary, though never so designated in 
the Bible. It is remarkable, considering the 
honor which was conferred upon her by God 
in choosing her to be the mother of Jesus, 
and the almost divine worship which has 
since been paid to her by so large a portion 
of Christendom, that the Bible itself tells us 
so little of her life and cliaracter. We are 
wholly ignorant of the name and occupation 
of Mary's parents. She was, like Joseph, of 
the tribe of Judah, and of the lineage of Da- 
vid,^ and was connected by marriage with 
Elizabeth,'-^ who was of the tribe of Levi, 
and of the lineage of Aaron. This is all that 
we know of her antecedents. Her betrothal 
to Joseph, and the circumstances connected 
with her becoming the mother of our Lord, 
are related in the article Jesus Christ. 
From the time at wliich our Lord's ministry 
is commenced, Mary is withdrawn almost 
wholly from sight. Four times only is the 
veil removed. These four occasions are, 1. 
The marriage at Cana of Galilee ;^ 2. The at- 
tempt which she and her brethren made to 
speak with him ;* 3. The crucifixion f 4. The 
days preceding the ascension.*' If to these 
we add two references to her, the first by 
her Nazarene fellow-citizens,'' the second by a 
woman in the multitude,^ we have specified 
every event known to us in her history. Of 
her life subsequent to our Lord's crucifixion 
we know nothing ; for the legends respecting 
her are so entirely untrustworthy that we do 
not think it worth while to repeat them here. 
They will be found in considerable detail in 
M'Clintock and Strong's "Cyclopaedia," ar- 
ticle Mary. Of her character, too, the Bible 
affords no estimate. It is clear that she did 
not occupy a place of prominence either in 
the councils or in the thought of the apos- 
tolic Church. It is equally clear that she 
was a woman of warm heart, ardent im- 
pulses, and resolute will. Her solitary jour- 
ney at the time of the annunciation, her en- 
deavor to get her son awaj^ from the crowd 
which tlironged him and bring him home to 
rest, and her resolute abiding by the cross 
to the very end, all indicate the warmth of 
her love and the resolution of her will.^ The 
thanksgiving psalm which she composed at 
the time when the angel announced the hon- 
or which God was about to confer upon her, 
as well as the humble spirit with which 
she received the announcement, show her to 
have been a devout, God-fearing woman, and 
one well acquainted with the spirit and the 
text of the Hebrew Scriptures. For a con- 
sideration of the doctrines of later times re- 
specting her, see Immaculate Conception; 
Mariolatry. 

2. Mary Magdalene, i. e., Mary of Magdala, 



1 Psa, cxxxii., 11 ; Lnke i., 32; Rom. i., 3.-2 Lnke 
i., 36.-3 John ii. — * Matt, xii., 46; Mark iii., 21, 31; 
Luke viii., 19. — s John xix., 25-27. — « Acts i., 14.— 
7 Matt, xiii., 54, 55; Mark vi„ 1-3. — « Luke xi., 2T.— 
9 Mark iii., 21, 31 ; Luke i., 39 ; John xix,, 25. 



MARY 



594 



MASS 



a town on the west shore of the Sea of Gali- 
lee, and probably her birthplace. She is 
described as a woman out of whom Jesus 
cast seven devils, and who believed in him 
and followed him. She was one of the wom- 
en who stood by his cross, and one of those 
who went, with sweet spices, to the sepul- 
chre. To her he first appeared after his res- 
urrection. In consequence of an unfounded 
notion identifying her with the woman men- 
tioned in Luke vii., 36-50, who anointed our 
Lord's feet with ointment and wiped them 
with the hair of her head, Mary Magdalene 
has been long and generally regarded as a 
woman whose early life had been very prof- 
ligate. Despite the fact that there is no hint 
whatever in the narratives of the evangelists 
to support this idea, it has passed both into 
art and literature ; and the Magdalenes, so 
frequent among works of art, represent her 
according to this prevalent opinion. The 
very name Magdalene has come to be ap- 
plied to women who have fallen from chasti- 
ty ; and institutions for their reception, when 
repentant, are known as Magdalene asylums. 
There is also in the Romish Church an order 
of nuns called Magdalens, dedicated to Mary 
Magdalene. It is composed principally of 
penitent courtesans, and their revenue, ac- 
cording to an order of Fo-pe Clement VIII., 
comes from the effects of women of that 
class, dying intestate. 

3. Mary, the mother of James and Joses, 
and wife of Cleophas, also called Alphseus 
(q. v.). She is thought by some critics to 
have been a sister of the Virgin Mary. 
Matthew, Mark, and John describe the 
women at the cross as follows : 



Matt.xxviii.,56. 




^lary Mag- 
dalene. 


Mary 
mother of 
James, etc. 


Mother of 
Zebedee's 
children. 


Mark XY., 40.... 




" 


" 


Salome. 


John XLS., 25.... 


Mary 

mother of 

Jesus. 


" 




The sister 
of Jesus 's 
mother. 



Some scholars are of the opinion that Mary, 
the wife of Cleophas, is the " sister of Jesus's 
mother," and that only three women are de- 
scribed by John as at the cross ; others iden- 
tify the "sister of Jesus's mother" with Sa- 
lome, the mother of Zebedee's children, and 
regard "Mary, the wife of Cleophas," as a 
fourth person. And this appears to us, for 
many reasons, the more probable opinion. 
Of this Mary nothing more is known than is 
contained in this reference and those in the 
account of her visit to the sepulchre in com- 
pany with Mary Magdalene, given in Matt, 
xxviii., and the parallel passages in Mark 
and Luke. 

4, Mary, the sister of Martha and Lazarus. 
She appears but three times in the N. T. his- 
tory, viz., at the time of the visit of our Lord 
to the house of Martha, recorded by Luke 
alone (x., 38-42) ; at the time of the resur- 
rection of Lazarus, recorded only by John 



(xi.) ; and at the supper given to Jesus and 
his disciples just before the crucifixion, which 
is recorded by three of the evangelists.^ See 
Martha ; Lazarus. 

5. There are two other persons of the 
name of Mary mentioned in the N. T. : Mary, 
the mother of John Mark, and sister of Bar- 
nabas,^ at whose house the disciples were 
assembled at the time of Peter's rescue from 
prison,^ and Mary, a Christian disciple at 
Rome.* 

Mass, the name given by the Roman Cath- 
olic Church to the celebration of the Lord's 
Supper. There is a radical difference in the 
Protestant and Roman Catholic views of thi§ 
service, which is even more important than 
that which exists between the forms of cer- 
emonial. The Protestants regard it essen- 
tially as a commemorative service, in which, 
however, the faithful do participate in a pe- 
culiar spiritual communion with Christ by 
faith in him. The Roman Catholics, on the 
other hand, regard it as a real, though un- 
bloody sacrifice, in which Christ is really and 
literally present, the bread and wine being 
converted into the literal body and blood of 
our Lord, in which he again becomes a sac- 
rifice for the sins of those who believe in him. 
It is their belief that only through this sac- 
rifice continually repeated can the sinner ac- 
ceptably approach the throne of God. They 
do not, however, as is sometimes supposed 
by Protestant writers, consider each mass a 
separate sacrifice : they regard the whole act 
— the crucifixion, and the ofi'ering, in all sub- 
sequent ages, of the body and blood of Christ 
in the bread and wine — as constituting one 
divine sacrament. Such a sacrament can, 
according to their theology, only be offered 
by a regularly ordained priest, and in the one 
Holy Catholic Church. All Protestant ob- 
servance of this rite, therefore, the Roman 
Catholics regard as wholly failing in the es- 
sentials of a true observance.^ The Mass is 
now, in general, denominated, according to 
the solemnity of the accompanying ceremo- 
nial, a Low Mass, a Chanted Mass, or a High 
Mass. In the first, a single priest simply 
reads the service, attended by one or more 
assistants. The second form differs only in 
this, that the service is chanted instead of 
being read by the priest. In the High Mass 
the service is chanted in part by the priest, 
in part by the deacon and sub-deacon, by 
whom, as well as by several ministers of in- 
ferior rank, the priest is assisted. In all 
these, however, the service as regards the 
form of prayer is the same. In the celebra- 
tion of mass, the priest wears peculiar vest- 
ments, five in number — two of lineu, called 
amice and alb, and three of silk or precious 
stuffs, called maniple, stole, and chasuble, the 



1 Matt, xxvi., 6-16 ; Mcark xiv,, 3-11 ; John xii., 2-S. 
—2 Col. iv., 10.— 3 Acts xii., 12.— * Rom. xvi., 6.— ^ See 
Communion ; CoNeuBSTANTtATioN ; Tbansubstantia- 
TiON ; Loed's Suppee. 



MATERIALISM 



595 



MATERIALISM 



alb being girt with a cincture of flaxen or 
silken cord. The color of these vestments 
varies according to circumstances, five col- 
ors being employed on different occasions 
— white, red, green, purple or violet, and 
black ; and they are often richly embroider- 
ed with silk or threads of the precious met- 
als, and occasionally with precious stones. 
The priest is not allowed to eat any thing 
on the day of Mass previous to its celebra- 
tion. The bread employed in the Mass is in 
the form of a thin, round, flat cake, called 
a wafer. It is termed the "Host," the term 
being derived from a Latin word signify- 
ing sacrifice. During the Mass this Host is 
taken from its repository on the altar by 
the priest, and elevated before all the con- 
gregation ; at the same moment a bell is 
rung to notify the congregation of the ele- 
vation of the Host, and all are then expect- 
ed to fall upon their knees and offer silent 
adoration. The same manifestation of rev- 
erence is demanded of the people whenever 
it is borne, as is frequently the case, in pro- 
cessions in the church or through the streets. 
This practice of adoring the Host is univer- 
sally believed by all Protestant writers to 
have been commenced about the eleventh or 
twelfth century. Masses are said for the 
dead as for the living. It is by the saying 
of masses that souls are supposed to be de- 
livered from purgatory, and the money be- 
stowed by friends for this service constitutes 
a large item in the income of the Church. 

Materialism. This term, though often 
used in modern philosophy, is rarely defined. 
In strictness of speech, the term is applicable 
only to that form of philosophy which denies 
that any thing has a real existence but mat- 
ter. According to this doctrine, the mind is 
not a reality ; and what we call thought and 
feeling are only physical forces, generated by 
or evolved from matter; the only differences 
in men are differences in brain and nervous 
tissue ; ideas are only physical impressions 
produced by physical causes on the nerves ; 
memory is only a result of the organic changes 
produced on the brain by several such im- 
pressions ; the will has no existence, and vo- 
lition is only a certain tendency of the nerves 
to react in a certain way in consequence of 
such impressions.^ This philosophy leads 
directly to the denial of the existence of a 
personal God and a repudiation of the free- 
dom of man, and, accordingly, to a practical 
denial of all moral responsibility. Crime is, 
according to this philosophy, only an unfor- 
tunate physical action, and virtue is only a 
physical action which is more fortunate in 
its results. The doctrine of materialism and 
its consequences are thus stated by an advo- 
cate of the system in a popular lecture on 
the subject :^ 

1 See Henry Mandley's "Body and Mind."— 2 Mr. B. 
F. Underwood, in a discourse reported in the Boston 
Investigator (infidel) for July 31, 1S71. 



"As materialists, we recognize the exist- 
ence of ourselves and an external world, 
the eternity of matter, the eternity of force, 
the existence of mind as a manifestation 
of force, the evolution of life from inorgan- 
ic matter and the development of complex 
from the simplest forms of life, the eternal 
existence of law as uniform sequences of mo- 
tion ; we believe in progress within certain 
limits, but not in unending progress. Thus 
it will be seen that our position is not wholly 
one of negation, as the representatives of 
theology are accustomed to say. We do not 
believe in a personal or intelligent God, of 
whose existence we have no satisfactory 
proof, but we acknowledge Nature, whose 
operations we behold. We think it useless 
to search for the ' Author of Nature,' but we 
believe that we all can profitably study the 
Order of Nature. We do not believe in cre- 
ation, but we do believe in development. 
We do not look to an unseen Being for help, 
but we recognize Science, to use an expres- 
sion of Holyoake, 'as the Providence of man.' 
We do not profess to love a Being we know 
nothing about, but we love our families, our 
friends, and our race. We do not worship 
what to us is a phantom, but we freely ren- 
der homage to genius and worth in humani- 
ty. We never thank an unknown something 
for our misfortunes, but we teach philosoph- 
ical resignation to the decrees of Nature 
when they can not be averted or avoided. 
We do not 'look for life where life may nev- 
er be,' but we enjoy existence here, and try 
to make the most of it. For theology we 
would substitute anthropology ; for religion, 
practical morality ; for prayer, self-reliance ; 
for piety, intellectual culture ; for churches, 
temples of science ; for love of God, love of 
man, and a tender regard for every thing that 
feels in common with us the consciousness 
of existence." 

The term materialism is also often applied 
to other systems which approach this one 
more or less nearly, or are supposed to do 
so. Modern science has established, as at 
least a probable truth, that all mental ac- 
tion involves some physical expenditure, 
and is carried on through physical organs ; 
that as men see through the eye and hear 
through the ear, so in imagining, feeling, 
reasoning, remembering, they employ in 
some way not very well understood the 
nervous system, and especially the brain. 
It is also well ascertained that a disease of 
the brain produces diseased mental action, 
and that a weak and feeble brain produces 
imperfect mental action. There are, accord- 
ingly, a large class of modern scientists who 
are devoted to a study of the organs of the 
mind as one of the ways of ascertaining the 
mental character, while others lay great 
stress upon the effects produced upon the 
mind by the condition of the organs. In 
fact the psychologists may be said to be di- 



MATTHEW 



596 



MATTHEW (GOSPEL OF) 



vided into two great schools, wMch, how- 
ever, blend together. One of these em- 
ploys chiefly, or exclusively, self-conscious- 
ness in its investigations, the other employs 
chiefly, or exclusively, an examination of 
the physical organs of the mind ; one lays 
chief stress on the moral influence at work 
upon the mind, the other considers chiefly 
the physical influence operating on the 
brain or nervous system. The latter class 
of philosophers are sometimes, though inac- 
curately, termed materialists. Thus, for ex- 
ample, Herbert Spencer is not infrequently 
termed a materialist because he maintains 
that mental growth is due wholly to the ef- 
fect produced upon the mind by the outer 
world, or, as he terms it, the " enviroument;" 
but it is very evident that it is only in a sec- 
ondary sense that the term can be applied 
to him, since his whole philosophy is based 
upon the assumption that there is both an 
inner and an outer world, entirely distinct, 
one of which is developed by the action and 
influence of the other. By the term mate- 
rialists, when properly used — which is not 
very often the case — the reader may under- 
stand one who denies the existence of any 
spiritual being ; but by the term material- 
istic, all those philosophies and forms of 
thought which tend to give prominence to 
the outer or physical world in contrast with 
the inner, or the spiritual. 

Matthew (prob. a gift of Jehovah). The 
•apostle Matthew was the son of Alphseus,^ 
but probably not the Alphseus who w as the 
father of James the Less.^ The name Alphse- 
us is a common one in Jewish records, and 
there is nothing to indicate that Matthew 
and James w^ere brothers. His calling, from 
being a publican to be one of the twelve, is 
narrated by all three evangelists. By Mark 
and Luke he is called Levi, in his own gospel 
Matthew. Such change of name, after becom- 
ing a follower of the Lord, was by no means 
uncommon ; and the appearance of the apos- 
tolic, not the original, name in the gospel pro- 
ceeding from himself, is what we might ex- 
pect. Of Matthew's history subsequent to 
his call to the apostleship we know almost 
nothing. We learn from Acts i., 13, that he 
was one of those who, after the ascension of 
our Lord, assembled in the '' upper room at 
Jerusalem." Tradition makes him continue 
in that city fifteen years preaching to his 
fellow-countrymen. Afterward he is said to 
have gone to other lands for the same pur- 
pose, but the accounts vary so much that lit- 
tle reliance can be placed on any of them. 
According to the oldest and most trustwor- 
thy authorities, he died a natural death. 

Matthew (Gospel of). The testimony 
of antiquity is uuanimous that the Gospel 
of Matthew was written by the apostle 
whose name it bears. Internal evidence 
confirms this opinion. There is really no 



1 Mark ii., 14.— 2 Matt, x., 3. 



ground to question it. And although it is 
true that modern skepticism has endeavored 
to throw some doubt upon its authorship, 
we do not think that the doubts are suffi- 
ciently well-grounded, or have secured suffi- 
cient regard from intelligent Christian schol- 
ars who have investigated the subject, to 
make it worth while to enter upon the dis- 
cussion here. Its authenticity is undoubt- 
edly as well established as that of any book 
of the Bible. It is not so certain, however, 
that we possess this gospel in its original 
form. The testimony of the early Church 
is unanimous that Matthew wrote originally 
in the Hebrew language ; and some confir- 
mation is lent to this opinion by the fact 
that there are indications that he wrote his 
gospel with special reference to exerting his 
influence upon the Jews, and from the state- 
ment of at least one of the fathers that he 
belonged to the Jewish party in the Chris- 
tian Church. On the other hand, doubt is 
thrown over this opinion, both by an exami- 
nation of the statements of the fathers and 
by a consideration of peculiar forms of lan- 
guage employed in the gospel itself. The 
question is unsettled, the best scholars not 
agreeing in their judgment concerning it. 
If there was a Hebrew original, it disappear- 
ed at a very early age. The Greek gospel 
which we now possess was, it is almost cer- 
tain, written in Matthew's lifetime, and it is 
not at all improbable that he wrote the gos- 
pel in both the Greek and Hebrew languages. 
There are no data for determining with ac- 
curacy the exact time when it was written. 
The testimony of the early Church, howev- 
er, is unanimous that it was the first written 
of the gospels ; and this is confirmed indi- 
rectly by the fact that in all copies of the 
N. T., and in all translations, this gospel has 
been placed first. It was probably composed 
about the middle of the first century. The 
characteristics of this gospel are such as one 
might expect from the writer. He was a 
publican, or tax-gatherer, by profession, and 
was thus trained to orderly and methodical 
habits of thought. His gospel thus partakes 
of the character of a treatise. He writes 
with very little reference to chronological 
order. He often gathers into one place 
teachings of our Lord uttered at different 
times ; thus it is very doubtful whether the 
parables recorded in Matt. xiii. formed, as 
they appear to do, a continuous discourse. 
On the other hand, he seems to perceive bet- 
ter than any other of the evangelists the ex- 
ternal order of thought in Christ's discourses, 
and accordingly affords the best reports of 
his longer public addresses. Thus it is that 
we find in Matthew by far the fullest ac- 
counts of the Sermon on the Mount, the 
apostolic commission, the discourse on blas- 
phemy against the Holy Ghost, that on the 
duties of the disciples to forgive one anoth- 
er, and the whole series of invectives against 



MATTHIAS 



597 



MEASURES 



the Pharisees, and the parables prophetic of 
the destruction of the Jewish nation. [Matt, 
v.-vii. ; X.; xii. ; xiii. ; xxi.-xxv.] 

Matthias {gift of Jehovah), one of our 
Lord's disciples, possibly of the number of 
the seventy, who was chosen by lot to be an 
apostle in the place of Judas Iscariot. No 
other particulars of his history are known. 
Various traditions describe him as preach- 
ing in Ethiopia or in Colchis, and being 
there martyred; or, according to another 
account, as preaching in Judea, and being 
stoned by the Jews. [Acts i., 23-26.] 

Mattock. This word occurs in the En- 
glish Bible as the translation for three dif- 
ferent Hebrew words. It appears to indi- 
cate an agricultural instrument, perhaps the 




Ancieuc iiJgyptian Hoes. 

tool used in Arabia for loosening the ground, 
and answering generally to our mattock, or 
grubbing- axe — that is, a single-headed pick- 
axe. Our illustration of the ancient Egyp- 
tian hoe probably answers to the Jewish 
mattock. 

Meals. The meals of the early Hebrews 
were not so exactly distinguished by special 
names as are ours, and the terms render- 
ed "dine" and "dinner" in our Bible are, 
in reality, general expressions which might 
more correctly be rendered " eat" and "por- 
tion of food." There is some uncertainty as 
to the hours at which the meals were taken. 
What was generally understood by the an- 
cients as the dinner corresponded more near- 
ly to the lunch of present times among the 
more fashionable portion of society — being 
the meal that was usually taken about noon. 
The supper, or evening meal, was undoubt- 
edly the chief meal among the later Greeks 
and Romans, as it was also among the peo- 
ple generally of the Old World. Coming 
after the labors of the day were over, it 
could be taken more leisurely, and was bet- 
ter suited for convivial entertainments. In 
the simple language of Scripture, the even- 



ing meal is usually designated supper, even 
if it were, as on formal occasions it commonly 
was, the important meal of the day. As to 
time, it was the supper, though in other re- 
spects it was more like a dinner. In regard 
to the general customs as to posture and 
diet in the meals of the ancients, see under 
Banquets and Food. 

Means of Grace. As ordinarily used, 
this term signifies those spiritual exercises 
which, rightly employed, tend to promote 
the growth of grace in the heart. They are 
such as hearing the Gospel, reading the 
Scriptures, self - examination, meditation, 
prayer, praise. Christian conversation, and 
the sacraments. These are termed means 
of grace, by way of indicating that the exer- 
cises possess no efficacy in themselves, but 
are efficacious only when employed by us in 
the right spirit, and sanctified to us by the 
Spirit of God. In a broader sense, all the 
experiences of life and providences of God 
may be made means of grace. 

Measures. Measures may in general be 
divided into two great classes : measures of 
length, and measures of capacity. The for- 
mer, again, are divided into two kinds : 
measures for the purpose of determining the 
size of objects, and measures of distance. 
In this article we shall give our readers, 
briefly, the results of scholastic research into 
the measures of the Bible, only premising 
that the subject is one of considerable diffi- 
culty, and our figures are necessarily only 
approximations, since, in the first place, the 
primitive measures were themselves far from 
possessing the mathematical definiteness and 
accuracy of modern times, and, in the sec- 
ond, our means of ascertaining what the He- 
brew terms represent are not always ade- 
quate. 

I. Measures of Size. — Measures of size have 
been universally derived from the human 
body : in Western nations, from the foot ; 
among the Hebrews, from the hand. This 
foundation of measurement accordingly 
gives us the " digit," or finger-breadth,^ the 
"palm," or hand -breadth,^ and the span, 
i. e., the full stretch between the tips of the 
thumb and the little finger.^ Finally, we 
have the "cubit," derived from the Latin 
word cuMtum, i. e., elbow, because this was 
taken as the point of departure in this meas- 
ure. But there appear to have been three 
standard cubits, one from the elbow to the 
wrist, one from the elbow to the knuckles, 
and one from the elbow to the outstretch- 
ed middle finger. It is not always easy 
to tell which is the standard employed in 
the Bible, nor is it known with certainty 
which was the Mosaic cubit. Four cubits, 
or thereabout, made a fathom, six a reed, 
and ten a measuring-line. The very fact 



1 Jer. lii., 21.— 2 Exod. xxv., 25; 1 Kings vii., 26; 2 
Chron. iv., 5.-3 Exod. xxviii., 16 ; 1 Sam. xvii., 4; Isa. 
x].,12; Ezek. xliii., 13. 



MEASUEES 



598 



MEASUEES 



that the standard of measurement is the 
human hand, itself of course uncertain, and 
the uncertainty concerning the cubit, affords 
sufficient evidence of the futility of all at- 
tempts to translate the mixed measurements 
of the Hebrews into the mathematical meas- 
urements of modern times. If, however, the 
reader bears in mind that the following is 
only an approximate table, it will serve to 
interpret to him, with as much accuracy as 
is practicable, the Biblical measures of size, 
reduced to English measure : 



dicates approximately these measures of dis- 
tance. 

For estimating area, and especially land, 
there is no evidence that the Jews used any 
special system of square measures, but they 
were content to express the length and 
breadth of the surface to be measured by 
the cubit or by the reed.^ The term " acre " 
in our version, in 1 Sam. xiv., 14, and in Isa. 
v., 10, is used to translate a word signifying 
yolce, and indicates a measure of laud such as 
a yoke of oxen could plow in a day. 



A disit . 






Feet. 




1 

7 
10 
14 
145 


Inches. 
0-912 


4 1 A Dalm 


3 '648 


12 1 


3| A 


span 


10 "944 


24 1 


6| 


2| A cubit 


9-888 


96 1 


24! 


8 1 4 i A fathom 


3-552 


144 1 


36 1 


12 1 6 1 . 1-5 1 Ezekiel's reed 


11-328 


192 1 


48 1 


16 1 8 1 2 1 1-3 1 An Arabian pole 


T'104 


1920 1 


480 1 


160 1 80 1 20 1 13-3 1 10 1 A schcenus, or measuring-line 


11-04 



II. Of Measures of Distance. — The smallest 
is the "pace," and the largest the "day's 
journey ;" besides which, a little way, or "a 
little piece of ground," seems to denote some 
definite measure,^ which is supposed to be 
about equal to a mile and a half of English 
measure. The pace,^ whether it be single, 
like our pace, or double, like the Latin ^assMS, 
is defined by nature within certain limits, 
its usual length being about thirty inches 
for the former, and five feet for the latter. 
There is some reason to suppose that even 
before the Eoman measurement of the roads 
of Palestine, the Jews had a mile of 1000 
double paces, which is alluded to in Matt, v., 
41. The " day's journey" was, however, the 
most usual method of calculating distances 
in traveling,^ though but one instance of it 
occurs in the N. T.* The distance indicated 
by it was naturally fluctuating, according 
to the circumstances of the traveler or of the 
country through which he passed. Among 
the Jews it was ordinarily thirty miles ; but 
when they traveled in companies, only ten 
miles. The "Sabbath-day's journey" was 
2000 cubits.^ It is referred to only in the 
N. T., and arose from a rabbinical restriction 
which probably did not exist in olden times.^ 
In the N. T. times the Jews used, to some ex- 
tent, the Greek and Roman measurements of 
distance. The " stadium," or, as it is called 
in our version, the " furlong," was 600 Greek 
feet, or the eighth part of a Eoman mile, as 
the furlong is of ours.'' The table below in- 

Biblical Measures of Distance. P^ Equivaleutsf ' 

Pace 2ifeet. 

Furlong 60G feet. 

Mile about our mile. 

Day's journey 30 miles. 

Sabbath-day's journey six-tenths of a mile. 



1 Gen. XXXV., 16 ; xlviii., 7 ; 2 Kings v., 19.— 2 2 Sam. 
vi., 13.— 3 Gen. XXX., 36; xxxi.,28; Exod. iii., 18; v., 
3; Numb, x., 33; xi., 31 : xxxiii., 8; Deut. i., 2; 1 
Kin2:B xix., 4; 2 Kings iii., 9.—* Luke ii., 44.— ^ See 
Sa.bija.th.— 8 2 Kings iv., 23.— 7 Luke xxiv., 13 ; John 
vi.,19; xi.,18; Kev. xiv.,20; xxi., 16. 



III. Measures of Capacity. — The measures 
of capacity for liquids were: the "log,"^ the 
name originally signifying a "basin;" the 
"hin," a name of Egyptian origin, frequently 
noticed in the Bible f the " bath," the name 
meaning measured, the largest of the liquid 
measures.^ With regard to the relative val- 
ue of these measures we learn nothing from 
the Bible, but we gather from Josephus that 
the bath contained six hins, and from the 
Eabbinists that the hin contained twelve 
logs. The relative values, therefore, stand 
thus: 

Hebrew Liquid Measures^ 



Log, 


Hin. 


Bath. 


12 


72 


6 1 



The dry measure contained the following 
denominations: the "cab," mentioned only 
in 2 Kings vi., 25, the name meaning, literal- 
ly, hollow, or concave; the " omer," mention- 
ed only in Exod. xvi., 16-36, the tenth part 
of an ephah, whence, in our version, "tenth 
deal;"^ the " seah," or "measure," this being 
the etymological meaning of the term, and 
appropriately applied to it, inasmuch as it 
was the ordinary measure for household pur- 
poses ;'^ the "ei)liah," a word of Egyptian ori- 
gin, and of frequent recurrence in the Bible f 
the "lethec,"or "half-homer," literally mean- 
ing ivliat is poured out; it occurs only in Hosea 
iii., 2; the "homer," meaning heap,^also term- 
ed "cor," from the circular vessel in which it 
was measured.^ The following table shows 
the relative values : 



1 Numb. XXXV., 4, 5; Ezek. xl., 27; xlii., 20; xliii., 
17; xlv., 2; xlviii., 20; Kev. xxi., 16.— 2 Lev. xiv., 10. 
—3 Exod. xxix., 40 ; xxx., 24 ; Numb, xv., 4, 7, 9 ; Ezek. 
iv., 11.— 4 1 Kings vii., 26, 38; 2 Chron. ii., 10; Ezra 
vii., 22; Isa. v., 10. — ^ Comp. Exod. xvi., 36; Lev. 
xiv., 10; xxiii., 13; Numb, xv., 4.— " Gen. xviii., 6; 1 
Sam. XX.V., 18 ; 2 Kings vii., 1, 16 ; Matt, xiii., 33 ; Luke 
xiii., 21.—'' Exod. xvi., 36 ; Lev. v., 11 ; vi., 20 ; Numb, 
v., 15; xxviii.,5: Judg. vi., 19; Ruth ii., 17; 1 Sam. i., 
24; xvii., 17; Ezek. xlv., 11, 13; xlvi., 5, 7, 11, 14.— 
8 Lev. xxvii., 16 ; Numb, xi., 32 ; Isa. v., 10 ; Ezek. xlv., 
13.— 9 Ezek. xlv., 14. 



MEAT-OFFERING 



599 



MEDIA 



The Hebrew Dry Measures. 



Cab. 

If 1 Omer. 


Seah. 


6 1 3i 


18 1 10 


3 1 Ephah. 


180 1 100 


30 1 10 1 Homer. 



The bath and the ephah, as appears from 
Ezek. xlv., 11, were of the same value; there- 
fore the absolute values of both the liquid 
and solid measures form the subject of a sin- 
gle inquiry. The Scriptures afford no ade- 
quate data for such an inquiry. We are 
dependent for our information on Josephus 
and the Rabbinical writers, and they do not 
agree. The following table shows their re- 
spective estimates : 





Josephus. 


Rabbinists. 


Gallons. 


Bush. 


Gallons. 


Bush. 


Homer, or cor 

Ephah, or bath 

Seah 


86-696 

S-6696 

2-8898 

1-4449 

•8669 

•4816 

-1204 


lOi 


44.286 
4-4286 
1-4762 
•7381 
•4428 
•240 
•0615 


5f 1 


Hin 




Cab 







In the N. T. we have the " firkin," referred 
to in John ii., 6, variously estimated to con- 
tain from sixty to one hundred and ten gal- 
lons ; the " measure," referred to in Rev. vi., 
6, about equivalent to our quart; the "bush- 
el,"^ about equivalent to our peck ; and the 
"measure" of Luke xvi., 6, about the same 
as a bath, or ephah. 

Meat-oflfering. The Hebrew word min- 
chdh signifies, originally, a gift of any kind, 
and appears to be used generally of a gift 
from an inferior to a superior, whether God 
or man. In no instance in our Bible does 
the word meat appear to be used in the 
sense which it now almost exclusively bears 
of animal food. The only exceptions to this 
are Gen. xvii., 4 sq., " savory meat," and xlv., 
23. The ceremonial of the meat-offering is 
described in Lev. ii., and vi., 14-23. It was 
to be composed of fine flour, seasoned with 
salt, and mixed with oil and frankincense, 
but without leaven, and was generally ac- 
companied by a drink-offering of wine. A 
portion of it, including all the frankincense, 
was to be burned on the altar as " a memo- 
rial ;" the rest belonged to the priest. The 
meat-offerings offered by the priests them- 
selves were to be wholly burned. The mean- 
ing of the meat-offering appears to be exact- 
ly expressed in the words of David.^ It in- 
volves neither of the main ideas of sacrifice 
— the atonement for sin and self-dedication 
to God — but takes them for granted, and is 
based on them. Accordingly, the meat-of- 
fering properly so called seems always to 
have been a subsidiary offering. It was in- 
troduced by the sin-offering, which repre- 
sented the one idea, and formed an append- 
age to the burnt-oftering, which represented 



* Matt, v., 15 ; Luke xi., 



1 Chrou. xxix., 10-14. 



the other. The unbloody offerings, which 
were offered alone, did not properly belong 
to the regular meat-offering, but were usual- 
ly substitutes for other ofierings. See Food ; 
Sacrifice; Offering. [Comp. Lev. v., 11 ; 
Numb, v., 15.] 

Medeba (ivaters of quiet), a place or dis- 
trict east of the Jordan, the frontier of the 
territory of Reuben. It would seem that it 
originally belonged to Moab, but was after- 
ward held by the Amorites. In later times 
it was recovered by the Moabites. Ruins of 
it exist, still called Mddeha, on a rocky hill 
near Heshbon. [Numb, xxi., 30 ; Josh, xiii., 
9, 16 ; 1 Chron. xix., 7 ; Isa. xv., 2.] 

Media, a large region in Asia, lying be- 
tween Persia, Armenia, and Assyria. It was 
separated from Persia on the south by a des- 
ert, On the west the boundary was the 
mountains of Zagros, and the chain proceed- 
ing thence to Ararat. The River Araxes 
limited it northward, while on the east it 
reached to the desert, the Caspian gates, 
and the mountains south of the sea. In 
length it might be, from north to south, 550 
miles, and in breadth from 250 to 300. It 
comprised, according to Rawlinson, the mod- 
ern provinces of Irak Ajemi, Persian Kurdis- 
tan, part of Luristan, Azerbijan, and perhaps 
Talish and Ghilan. Anciently Media was 
divided into Media Magna and Media Atro- 
patene. The former was mountainous and 
fertile in the west, rocky and bare toward 
the east. It included the Nissean plains, fa- 
mous for a breed of horses, and correspond- 
ed to Irak Ajemi, with parts of Kurdistan 
and Luristan. Media Atropatene, which had 
its name from a satrap, Atropates, who es- 
tablished himself as monarch there when 
Alexander overthrew the Persian Empire, 
corresponded to Azerbijan, and perhaps Ta- 
lish and Ghilan. It is a high tract, fertile 
and well-watered. In each of the two divis- 
ions of Media was a chief city, called Ecba- 
tana, mentioned in Scripture as Acmetha 
(q. v.). Another principal town was Rages, 
or Raga. 

The Medes are supposed to be descended 
from Madai, of the sous of Japheth.^ Over 
their early history much obscurity hangs. 
Perhaps in very ancient times they were 
powerful, and they are said to have con- 
quered Babylon. Later, however, they ap- 
pear in a subordinate position, though not 
perhaps actually incorporated with the As- 
syrian Empire, yet oppressed and plundered 
by the Assyrians, who planted military ool- 
onies among them. Herodotus represents 
them as revolting early, and ultimately tak- 
ing Nineveh, and establishing an extensive 
monarchy. But the cuneiform records of 
Sargon, Sennacherib, and Esar-haddon clear- 
ly show that the Median kingdom did not 
commence so early as Herodotus imagined. 
These three princes, whose reigns cover the 
1 Gen. X., 2. 



MEDIA 



600 



MEDIA 



space extending from B.C. 720 to B.C. 660, all 
carried their arms deep into Media, and found 
it, not under the dominion of a single pow- 
erful monarch, but under the rule of a vast 
number of petty chieftains. It can not have 
been till near the middle of the seventh cen- 
tury before Christ that the Median kingdom 
was consolidated, and became formidable to 
its neighbors. 

The Medes, aided by the Babylonians, took 
Nineveh and conquered Assyria, B.C. 625. 
The conquerors divided the spoil between 
them, and Cyaxares, the Median king, reign- 
ed over a vast expanse of country — Assyria, 
Persia, Media, Armenia, and other countries, 
from the Halys to the Caspian gates, and 
from the Caspian and Black seas to the Per- 
sian Gulf. 

This Median empire was, in extent and 
fertility of territory, equal, if not superior, 
to the Assyrian (q. v.). It stretched from 
Khages and the Carmanian Desert on the 
east to the Eiver Halys upon the west — a 
distance of above twenty degrees, or about 
1300 miles. From north to south it was 
comparatively narrow, being confined be- 
tween the Black Sea, the Caucasus, and the 
Caspian, on the one side, and the Euphrates 
and Persian Gulf on the other. Its greatest 
width, which was toward the east, was about 
nine, and its least, which was toward the 
west, was about four degrees. Its area was 
probably not much short of 500,000 square 
miles — as great as that of modern Persia. 
Thus it was as large as Great Britain, France, 
Spain, and Portugal put together. But this 
dominion did not last long. The Median 
Empire, like the Assyrian, was a congeries 
of kingdoms, each ruled by its own native 
prince. It was weak, chiefly from its want 
of organization ; and this weakness was in- 
creased by a corruption of manners, which 
caused the Medes speedily to decline in en- 
ergy and warlike spirit. The Persian prince, 
Cyrus, choosing a time when the veterans 
of Cyaxares were almost all in their graves, 
and when the Babylonian throne was occu- 
pied by a king unfriendly to Media, made a 
sudden, unexpected, and well-timed revolt. 
Astyages, the unwarlike and luxurious son 
of Cyaxares, was no match for the ambition 
and ability of Cyrus, who may at first have 
aspired to do no more than establish the in- 
dependence of his own country. But when 
the opportunity ofiered of a transfer of the 
empire itself, he seized it promptly, rapidly 
repeating two blows, and allowing his enemy 
no time to recover, until, in a great battle 
near Pasargadse, he routed the Median army, 
captured Astyages, and the insignia of Me- 
dian royalty, which he assumed, amidst the 
acclamations of his army, as "■ King of Media 
and Persia." The substitution of Persia for 
Media as the ruling power in Western Asia 
was easily effected. 

The two nations were closely akin ; they 



had the same Aryan, or Iranic, origin, the 
same early traditions, the same language, 
nearly the same religion, and ultimately the 
same manners and customs, dress, and gen- 
eral mode of life. Medes were advanced to 
stations of high honor and importance under 
Cyrus and his successors. The original re- 
ligion of the Medes must undoubtedly have 
been that simple creed which is placed be- 
fore us in the earlier portions of the Zenda- 
vesta. Its peculiar characteristic was Dual- 
ism — the belief in the existence of two oppo- 
site principles of good and evil, nearly if not 
quite on a par with one another. Ormazd 
and Ahriman were both self-caused and self- 
existent, both indestructible, both potent to 
work their will. Besides Ormazd, the Ary- 
ans worshiped the sun and moon, under the 
names of Mithra and Homa ; and they be- 
lieved in the existence of numerous spirits, 
of genii, some good, some bad, the subjects 
and ministers respectively of the two powers 
of good and evil. Their migration brought 
them into contact with the fire-worshipers 
of Armenia and Mount Zagros, among whom 
Magism had been established from a remote 
antiquity. The result was either a combina- 
tion of the two religions, or, in some cases, an 
actual conversion of the conquerors to the 
faith and worship of the conquered. So far 
as can be gathered from the scanty materials 
in our possession, the latter was the case with 

the Medes. The customs of the Medes 

nearly resembled those of their neighbors, 
the Armenians and the Persians; but they 
were regarded as the inventors, their neigh- 
bors as the copyists. They were brave and 
warlike, excellent riders, and remarkably 
skillful with the bow. The flowing robe, 
so well known from the Persepolitan sculp- 
tures, was their native dress, and was certain- 
ly among the points for which the Persians 
were indebted to them. The references to 
the Medes in the canonical Scriptures are 
not very numerous, but they are striking. 
We first hear of certain " cities of the Medes," 
in which the captive Israelites were placed 
by '^ the king of Assyria " on the destruction 
of Samaria, B.C. 721.^ Soon afterward Isaiah 
prophesies the part which the Medes shall 
take in the destruction of Babylon f which 
is again still more distinctly declared by Jer- 
emiah,^ who sufiiciently indicates the inde- 
pendence of Media in his day.* Daniel re- 
lates the fact of the Medo-Persic conquest,^ 
giving an account of the reign of Darius the 
Mede, who appears to have been made vice- 
roy by Cyrus. In Ezra we have a mention 
of Achmetha (Ecbatana), "the palace in the 
province of the Medes," where the decree of 
Cyrus was found® — a notice which accords 
with the known facts that the Median capi- 
tal was the seat of government under Cyrus, 



1 2 Kings xvii., 6; xviiL, 11.— 2 Isa. xiii., 17; xxi., 2. 
—3 Jer. li., 11. 2S.— 4 Jer. xxv., 25.— ^ Dau. v., 2S, 31.— 
« Ezra vi., 2-5. 



MEDIATOR 



601 



MEDICINE 



but a royal residence only, and not the seat 
of government under Darius Hystaspis. Fi- 
nally, in Esther, the high rank of Media un- 
der the Persian kings, yet at the same time 
its subordinate position, are marked by the 
frequent combination of the two names in 
phrases of honor, the precedency being in 
every case assigned to the Persians. In the 
Apocrypha the Medes occupy a more promi- 
nent place. The chief scene of one whole 
book (Tobit) is Media ; and, in another (Ju- 
dith), a striking part of the narrative be- 
longs to the same country. The mention of 
Ehages in both books as a Median town and 
region of importance is geographically cor- 
rect, and it is historically true that Phraortes 
was overthrown in the Rhagian district. 

Mediator. This word is used in our N. T. 
to translate a Greek word signifying one who 
is, literally, a go-hetween. The doctrine of the 
mediatorship of Jesus Christ, then, as stated 
in 1 Tim. ii., 5, is that there is One between 
the infinite and invisible Father and man, 
even the Lord Jesus Christ, by whom alone 
we have access to the Father. He is rep- 
resented, therefore, in Scripture, as the one 
by whom God made the worlds, as the one 
through whom the divine government is car- 
ried on, as the intercessor with the Father 
for man, as the interpreter, or revealer, of 
the Father to man, and, finally, as the great 
sacrifice and the great high-priest by and 
through whose atonement it is alone possible 
for sinful man to become at one with a holy 
God. See Christology ; Atonement. 

Medicine. At an early period of the 
world some medical and surgical skill was 
attained ; for, even among savage nations, 
the curing of hurts ranks next to provision 
of food, clothing, and shelter. From this 
arises in time the treatment of sickness and 
the recognition of states of disease; these 
mark a nascent civilization. According to 
the most ancient testimonies, sacred and 
secular, Egypt was foremost among the na- 
tions in this most humane of purely physical 
studies. Every elaborate Egyptian mummy 
involved a process of anatomy, and Egypt 
was the earliest home of medical and other 
skill for the region of the Mediterranean ba- 
sin. In Egypt, however, medicine was a 
mere art or profession, and we have no trace 
of any philosophical or rational system of 
Egyptian origin. Of the science of medicine, 
the Asclepiadae of Greece were the true orig- 
inators. Yet, compared with the wild coun- 
tries around them, the Egyptians must have 
seemed far advanced. Supposed representa- 
tions of their early surgery are found on some 
of the monuments of Beni-Hassan. The no- 
tice in Exod. i., 15, of midwifery, and of wom- 
en as its practitioners, may be verified from 
the sculptures. Flint knives, used in em- 
balming, have been recovered, and those who 
have assisted at the opening of a mummy 
have noticed that the teeth exhibited a den- 



tistry not inferior in execution to the work 
of the best modern experts. This confirms 
the statement of Herodotus that every part 
of the body was studied by a distinct prac- 
titioner. Pliny asserts that the Egyptians 
claimed the invention of the healing art, and 
thinks that they were subject to many dis- 
eases. Their "many medicines" are men- 
tioned in Jer. xlvi., 11. Athothmes II., king 
of the country, is said to have written on the 
subject of anatomy. The various recipes 
known to have been beneficial were record- 
ed-, with their peculiar cases, in the memoirs 
of physic, inscribed among the laws, and de- 
posited in the principal temples of the place. 
The reputation of its practitioners in histor- 
ical times was such that both Cyrus and Da- 
rius sent to Egypt for physicians or surgeons. 
The physicians had salaries from the public 
treasury, and always treated according to 
established precedents, from which they de- 
viated at their peril in case of a fatal termi- 
nation. If, however, the patient died under 
accredited treatment, no blame was attached. 
In later times the Ptolemies themselves prac- 
ticed dissection, and at a period when Jew- 
ish intercourse with Egypt was complete 
and reciprocal, there existed in Alexandria 
a great zeal for anatomical study. The fact 
that princes and heroes were its practition- 
ers, shows the esteem in which medicine was 
held in the Homeric and pre-Homeric period. 
Among the Jews the practice of physic was 
not a privilege of the priesthood. Any one 
might practice it, and this privilege must 
have kept it pure. There was not even a 
Scriptural bar to its practice by resident 
aliens. It has sometimes been imagined 
that the Hebrew prophets were the physi- 
cians of their times. This notion has arisen 
from miraculous cures occasionally perform- 
ed by them. But as well might it be said 
that the apostles were the physicians of their 
day because they received power from the 
Lord to heal, and because people in conse- 
quence resorted to them. The priests were 
commissioned to examine persons suspected 
of leprosy, and to pronounce them, according 
to certain symptoms, leprous or clean ;^ but 
it does not appear that they treated them 
medically, or had the power of cure. At the 
same time the greater leisure of the Levites 
and their other advantages would make them, 
as a rule, the students of the nation, in all 
science, and their constant residence in cities 
would give them the opportunity of a wide 
field of observation. The priests themselves 
were subject to special diseases. Minister- 
ing barefoot, they were subject to colds and 
kindred disorders ; therefore, in later times a 
medical officer was always attached to the 
establishment of the Temple. The peaceful 
reign of Solomon, especially with renewed 
Egyptian intercourse, must have opened new 
facilities for the study of medicine. Solomon 



1 Lev. xiii. ; xiv. 



MEDICINE 



602 



MEDICINE 



himself seems to have included in his favor- 
ite natural history some knowledge of the 
medicinal uses of the objects of his study. 
His works show him conversant with the 
idea of remedial treatment, and one passage 
indicates considerable knowledge of anato- 
my/ The statement in 2 Chron. xvi., 12, that 
King Asa " sought not to Jehovah hut to the 
physicians," would suggest the idea that 
even a rivalry of actual worship, based on 
some medical fancies, had been set up. 

The captivity at Babylon brought the Jews 
into contact with a new sphere of thought, 
though we know too little of the precise 
state of medicine in Babylon, Susa, and the 
" cities of the Medes," to determine the di- 
rection in which the impulse so derived 
Avould have led the exiles. The book of 
Ecclesiasticus, by the repeated mention of 
physicians and kindred terms which it con- 
tains, shows the increased regard given to 
the distinct study of medicine ; a showing 
which would be expected from it as belong- 
ing probably to the period of the Ptolemies. 
Eank and honor are said in it to be the por- 
tion of the physician, and his office to be 
from the Lord. This recognition of merit, 
coui)led with its repeated allusions to sick- 
ness, have caused some to suppose that the 
author of the book was himself a physician. 
Luke, " the beloved physician," shows in his 
Gospel evidence of being conversant with 
the healing art as known in his day. It 
was probably not inferior to that commonly 
in demand among educated Asiatic Greeks, 
and must have been, as regards its basis, 
Greek, and not Jewish. 

It is not easy to enumerate the various 
diseases known in Scripture. The question 
of identity between any ancient malady 
known by description, and any modern one 
known by experience, is often doubtful. 
Some diseases, just as some plants and some 
animals, will exist almost anywhere ; others 
can only be produced within narrow limits 
depending on the conditions of climate, hab- 
its, and the like. Eruptive diseases of the 
acute kind are more prevalent, and run their 
course more rapidly, in the East than in 
colder climes. Disease of various kinds was 
commonly regarded by the Jews as a divine 
infliction, or denounced as a penalty for trans- 
gression. " The evil diseases of Egypt " are 
especially so characterized ; so are the eme- 
rods of the Philistines, and the severe epidem- 
ic dysentery of Jehoram. So also the sudden 
deaths of Er, Onan, the Egyptian first-born, 
Nabal, Bathsheba's son, and Jeroboam's are 
ascribed to the action of Jehovah immedi- 
ately, or through a prophet. Pestilence at- 
tends His path, and is innoxious to those 
whom he shelters.^ It is by Jeremiah, Eze- 



1 Prov. xvii., 22; xx., 30; xxix., 1; Eccles. iii., 3.— 
2 Exod. xii., 29; 1 Sam. v., G; xxv., .3S ; 2 Sam. xii,, 
15-18; 1 Kintrs xiv., T-IT ; 2 Chron. xxi., 15, 19; Psa. 
xci. 3-10 ; Hab. iii., 5. 



kiel, and Amos associated with the sword 
and famine. The sicknesses of the widow's 
son of Zarephath, of Ahaziah, and of Benha- 
dad, the leprosy of Uzziah and the boil of 
Hezekiah, are also noticed as diseases sent 
by Jehovah, or in which he interposed. In 
2 Sam. iii., 29, disease is invoked as a curse, 
and in Solomon's prayer — 1 Kings viii., 37 — 
anticipated as a chastisement. In Job ii., 
7 ; Luke xiii., 11, 16, satanic agency appears 
as procuring disease. 

Diseases are also mentioned as ordinary 
calamities. Among those named in the O. 
T. are ophthalmia, which is perhaps more 
common in Syria and Egypt than anywhere 
else in the world, especially in the fig sea- 
son, the juice of the newly-ripe fruit having 
the power of giving it. It may occasion 
partial or total blindness.^ The eye-salve 
mentioned in Rev. iii., 18, was a remedy com- 
mon to Orientals, Greeks, and Eomans. Sev- 
eral diseases are mentioned, the names of 
which are derived from various words, sig- 
nifying to hum or to he Jiot. The "burning 
boil " is merely marked by the notion of an 
effect resembling that of fire, like our " car- 
buncle."^ The diseases rendered "scab" 
and "scurvy" in Lev. xxi., 20; xxii., 22; 
Dent, xxviii., 27, may be almost any skin dis- 
ease. Some of these may be said to approach 
the type of leprosy. The " botch of Egypt" — 
mentioned in Dent, xxviii., 27 — is supposed 
by some to be the plague, by others to be 
the disease which now i^asses under the 
name of leprosy (q. v.). The same word is 
used to express the " boil " of Hezekiah. In 
Deut. xxviii., 65, it is possible that a palpita- 
tion of the heart is intended to be spoken of. 
In Matt, xvii., 15 (comp. Luke ix., 38, 39), we 
have an apparent case of epilepsy. The ex- 
pression in Exod. ix., 10, a "boil" flourishing, 
or ebullient with blains, may perhaps be a 
disease analogous to erysipelas. The " with- 
ered hand" of Jeroboam, in 1 Kings xiii., 4-6, 
and of the man mentioned in Matt, xii., 10- 
13 (comp. Luke vi., 10), is such an effect as is 
known to follow from the obliteration of the 
main artery of any member, or from paraly- 
sis of the principal nerve, either through dis- 
ease or through injury. The case of the 
widow's son restored by Elisha^ was proba- 
bly one of sun-stroke. The disease which at- 
tacked Asa " in his feet " in his old age,^ and 
became exceeding great, may have been ei- 
ther swelling or gout. The disease of Neb- 
uchadnezzar^ may be viewed as a species of 
the melancholy known as lycanthropia. Per- 
sons so affected wander like wolves in sep- 
ulchres by night, and imitate the howling 
of a wolf or a dog. The mental malady of 
Saul seems to have had its origin in his sin. 
Music, which soothed him for a while, has 
entered largely into the milder modern treat- 

1 Gen. xxix., 17.— 2 Lev. xiii., 23 ; xxvi., 16; Deut. 
xxviii., 22.-3 2 Kings iv., 18-37.— * 1 Kings xv., 23; 2 
Cliron. xvi., 12.— ^ Dan. iv., 33. 



MEGIDDO 



603 



MELCHIZEDEK 



ment of lunacy. The palsy meets ns in the 
N. T. only, and in features too familiar to 
need special remark. Gangrene, or mortifi- 
cation in its various forms, is a totally dif- 
ferent disorder from the *' canker" of 2 Tim. 
ii., 17. Both gangrene and cancer were com- 
mon in all the countries familiar to the Scrip- 
tural writers, and neither differs from the 
modern disease of the same name. 

Great care for the preservation of health 
and strength is found to mark the Mosaic 
system, in the regulations concerning diet, 
the "divers washings," and the pollution 
imputed to a corpse — nay, even in circum- 
cision itself. These served not only the cer- 
emonial purpose of imparting self-conscious- 
ness to the Hebrew, and keeping him dis- 
tinct from alien admixture, but had a sani- 
tary aspect of rare wisdom, when we regard 
the country, the climate, and the age. 

There is scarcely a notice of any surgical 
instruments or apparatus in the Bible. The 
"roller to bind" of Ezekiel xxx., 21, was 
probably like that still used for broken 
limbs. The remedies used were unguents, 
salves, and balsams, poultices or plasters, 
infusions of oil and wine, perhaps the appli- 
cation of leaves ; also mineral baths. The 
common bath has always been among the 
most favorite of external remedies. Honey 
seems to have been employed as an internal 
medicine. There were also more question- 
able modes of treatment. Amulets, charms, 
invocations, and the like, were resorted to, 
the belief in which is common in the East to 
the present day, nor quite extinct in other 
countries.^ It was also customary to conse- 
crate the image of the affliction either in its 
cause or its effect, as in the golden emerods 
and golden mice of 1 Sam. vi., 4, 8 ; and 
these may be compared with the setting up 
in the wilderness of the brazen serpent, 
which served as a remedy for the bites of the 
fiery serpents. 

Megiddo, a city which lay on the south- 
western border of the great plain of Esdrae- 
lon, just where it begins to rise toward the 
low range of wooded hills which connect 
Carmel with the mountains of Samaria. The 
neighborhood has always been a noted bat- 
tle-field. It was one of the places which 
Solomon fortified, and the region round was 
one of his commissariat districts. Hither 
Ahaziah, king of Judah, fled ; and it was 
here that Josiah was mortally wounded by 
Pharaoh-necho. The modern name of Me- 
giddo is el-Lejjiin, derived, it would seem, from 
Leggio, the Eoman name of the place, which 
occupied the site of the ancient city. It is 
well situated, with an abundant supply of 
water, amidst rich pastures. [ Judg. v., 19 ; 
1 Kings ix., 15; 2 Kings ix., 27; xxiii., 29, 
30 ; 2 Chron. xxxv., 22 ; Josh, xvii., 11 ; 1 
Chron.vii., 29.] 



1 Jer. viii., 22 ; li., 8 ; 2 Kings xx., T; Ezek. xlvii.," 12 ; 
Luke X., 34. 



Melchite Church, a name applied to the 
Greek Catholic Church, or to those Roman- 
ists in Asia who were attached to the rites 
and ceremonies of the Greek Church. The 
American missionaries estimate the total 
number of Melchites at between 30,000 and 
40,000 souls, having twelve bishops and one 
hundred and eighty priests. This commu- 
nity probably origmated in the labors of the 
Jesuits at Aleppo, in the seventeenth cen- 
tury, who, percei^dng the unwillingness of 
their converts to conform to the Latin 
Church, persuaded the pope to sanction a 
compromise, whereby the Melchite Church 
should acknowledge the authority of Rome, 
but adhere to the liturgical rites and cere- 
monies of the Eastern Church. In all their 
churches in Syria they conduct divine serv- 
ice in the Arabic, which is the vernacular 
tongue. They receive the communion in 
both kinds, and use unleavened bread in the 
Lord's Supper. Their priests are permitted 
to marry before ordination ; but their bish- 
ops must remain unmarried. No restriction 
is put upon the laity in the use of the sacred 
Scriptures. The adherents of the Melchite 
Church are chiefly found at Aleppo and Da- 
mascus, particularly at the latter town, 
where the patriarch resides. 

Melchizedek {Mng of righteousness), a re- 
markable contemporary of Abraham, whose 
name was beyond question significant of his 
personal character. The little that we are 
told of him shows him to be one who knew 
and worshiped the true God, and honored 
those who had a similar faith. He was king 
of Salem. Opinion generally, and we think 
justly, identifies this place with Jerusalem 
(q. v.). He was also "priest of the most 
high God," and it is to be remarked that he 
is the first who is called by this title. Ac- 
cording to the argument of Hebrews v., 1-4, 
and the teaching of Psalm ex., 3, he was call- 
ed to this office by God himself. The brief 
narrative of Moses places Melchizedek before 
us as priest in a higher sense than the patri- 
archs, or even the Levitical priesthood. His 
priestly office had a character of universali- 
ty which belonged to none other of the age. 
Nor did it descend to any succeeding priest. 
Bearing a title which Jews in after ages 
would recognize as designating their own 
sovereign, bearing gifts which recall to Chris- 
tians the Lord's Supper, this Canaanite cross- 
es for a moment the path of Abraham, and 
is unhesitatingly recognized as a person of 
higher spiritual rank than the friend of 
God. Disappearing as suddenly as he came, 
he is lost to the sacred writings for a thou- 
sand years. The faith of early ages ven- 
tured to invest his person with superstitious 
awe. Jewish tradition pronounces him a 
survivor of the Flood, and identifies him 
with the patriarch Shem. The notice in 
Genesis would rather lead to the inference 
that he was of one blood with the children 



MELITA 



604 



MEMPHIS 



of Ham, among whom he lived, chief of a 
settled Canaanitish tribe. The noteworthy 
fact to be gleaned from this passing notice 
of him is that God revealed himself even 
then to the Gentiles as well as to the Jews ; 
that as Balaam was a prophet, so Melchize- 
dek was a priest among the corrupt heathen ; 
and that not self-appointed, but specially 
established and recognized as such by God. 
According to Hebrews the relation between 
Melchizedek and Christ as type and anti- 
type is in the following particulars: Each 
was a priest, not of the tribe of Levi ; su- 
perior to Abraham; whose beginning and 
end are unknown ; and each was not only a 
priest, but also a king of righteousness and 
peace. The " order " of Melchizedek in Psa. 
ex., 4, is explained as meaning "manner," 
i. e., likeness in official dignity. 

Melita, the name given, in Acts xxviii., 
1, to the island on which Paul was ship- 




wrecked. While there has been some dif- 
ference of opinion among scholars, by the 
general consent of most of those who have 
investigated the matter, Melita is identified 
with the modern Malta. The reasons for 
this opinion are indicated in the article 
Paul. The principal objection to this hy- 
pothesis is, first, that the inhabitants of 
Malta were not barbarians, as implied in 
verse 4, to which it is replied that the term 
barbarian was used by the Jewish writers 
to distinguish Gentiles from Jews ; second, 
that there are no vipers in Malta, as implied 
in verse 3, to which it is replied that Malta, 
though now denuded of wood, and so with- 
out vipers, was anciently well wooded ; third, 
that the disorder of the father of Publius 
belongs to a different locality than so dry 
and rocky a locality as Malta, to which it is 
replied that in fact the disease is not uncom- 
mon there ; fourth, that it is hardly possible 
that the sailors should not know the land', 
as is asserted in chap, xxvii., 39, to which it 
is replied, they did not land in the harbor, 
but on a part of the coast which would be 
strange even to navigators familiar with 
the island. The St. Paul's Bay which is 
pointed out as the scene of the shipwreck 
answers exactly to the description given in 
Acts. The depth of the water is the same ; 
there is a rocky coast which would have 
produced the breakers ; there, is a bottom 
which would hold the anchor against al- 
most any storm; and there is just such a 
creek as that described, as affording them 
an opportunity to beach the ship in safety. 
For a further discussion of the locality, the 
reader is referred to Conybeare and How- 
son's " Life and Epistles of St. Paul," and to 
the authorities there referred to. 

Melon. The Israelites are said to have 
murmured for the melons which they had 
been used to eat in Egypt. These were 
most likely the water-melons, which grow 
abundantly in the Levant and in Egypt. 
They also abound in the neighborhood of 
Em Khalid, to the north of Jaffa, whence 
vast quantities are taken by boat to Beirut, 
and other towns along the coast. [Numb. 
xi.,5.] 

Memphis. This very ancient and cele- 
brated city, the capital of Lower Egypt, is 
generally regarded as the Noph mentioned 
in Isa. xix., 13; Jer. ii., 16; xlvi., 14, 19; 
Ezek. xxx., 13, 16 ; and the Hebrew 3foph, 
translated Memphis in Hosea ix., 6. It lay 
just at the northern end of the narrow hill- 
valley on the left or western bank of the 
river. The building of the city belongs to 
the earliest periods of authentic history, and 
is associated by tradition with a stupendous 
work of art which has permanently changed 
the course of the hill and the face of the 
Delta. Before the time of its founder, 
Menes L, king of Egypt, the river, emerging 
from the upper valley, bent westward to- 



MEMPHIS 



605 



MENDICANT ORDERS 



ward the hills of the Libyan Desert, and 
the flood was largely absorbed iu its sands, 
or wasted in stagnant morasses; and it is 
even conjectured that the whole Delta was 
an uninhabitable marsh. Menes, by bank- 
ing up the river at the bend which it forms 
a hundred furlongs south of Memphis, and 
thus forcing it into a new course which he 
dug for it between the two lines of hills, 
laid the ancient channel dry. In this tract, 
rescued from the river, he built Memphis. 
The dike began twelve miles south of the 
city, and deflected the main channel of the 
river two miles to the eastward. Upon the 
rise of the Nile, a canal conducted its wa- 
ters westward through the old channel, thus 
irrigating the plain beyond the city in that 
direction, while ^n inundation from that 
side was guarded against by a large artifi- 
cial lake north and west of the town. Thus, 
like New Orleans, protected by its levee 
from the freshets of the Mississippi, and drain- 
ed by Lake Pontchartrain, Memphis was cre- 
ated upon a marsh reclaimed by the dike of 
Menes, and drained by his artificial lake. 

In the time of its prosperity, Memphis 
must have been a noble city, nineteen miles 
in circumference. Among its noticeable 
buildings were the famous temples of Petah, 
corresponding to the classical Vulcau, Apis, 
Isis, of which myriad-named divinity it was 
the reputed burial-place, and Serapis. In 
this temple of Serapis, or Serapeium, were 
kept the sacred cubit and other symbols 
nsed in measuring the rise of the Nile. The 
Necropolis adjacent to Memphis was on a 
scale of grandeur corresponding with the 
city itself, whose royal magnificence is at- 
tested by the groups of pyramids that mark 
the burial-places of her lines of kings. 
These pyramids gave to Memphis its hiero- 
glyphic name of the "city of the pyramids," 
and the pre-eminence implied in its name as 
" the haven of the blessed." It long held 
its place as a capital, and for centuries a 
Memphitic dynasty .ruled over all Egypt. 
In the midst of its prosperity, its overthrow 
was distinctly predicted by Isaiah and Jer- 
emiah, the latter of whom proiihesied half 
a century before the invasion of Egypt by 
Cambyses, about B.C. 525. Herodotus in- 
forms us that Cambyses, enraged at the op- 
position he encountered at Memphis, commit- 
ted upon the city many outrages, from which 
it never recovered. The rise of Alexandria 
hastened its decline. The Caliph conquer- 
ors, in A.D. 638, founded Fost^t — old Cairo — 
upon the opposite bank of the Nile, a few 
miles north of Memphis, and brought mate- 
rials from the old city to build their new 
capital. At length so complete was the ruin 
of Memphis, that for a long time its very site 
was lost. Recent explorations have brought 
to light many of its antiquities, and there 
is hardly a point in the topography or histo- 
ry of the city which remains in obscurity. 



The dikes and canals of Menes still form the 
basis of the system of irrigation for Lower 
Egypt. An insignificant village occupies 
nearly the centre of the ancient capital, but 
" the images have ceased out of Noph," and 
it is " desolate, without an inhabitant."^ 

Menahem (comforter), the son of Gadi, 
and sixteenth king of Israel. He obtained 
the throne by slaying the usurper Shallum, 
and reigned ten years, B.C. 772-761. Among 
the acts of cruelty which marked his reign, 
his atrocious treatment of the citizens of 
Tii^hsah^ occupies a conspicuous place. The 
most remarkable event in his reign was the 
first appearance of a hostile force of Assyri- 
ans under Pul, on the north-east frontier of 
Israel. Menahem warded off this danger by 
a timely gift of 1000 talents of silver ; and 
in order to raise this sum, he exacted fifty 
shekels of silver fiom all "the mighty men 
of wealth."^ This is said to be the first in- 
stance of a tax payable in money raised in 
Israel. Menahem appears to have steadily 
adhered to the idolatrous Avorship establish- 
ed by Jeroboam. The contemporary proph- 
ets, Hosea and Amos, have drawn a melan- 
choly picture of the demoralized condition 
and ungodliness which prevailed in Israel at 
this time. Menahem himself died iu i^eace, 
and was succeeded by his son Pekahiah. 
[2 Kings XV., 14-22.] 

Mendicant Orders. In the beginning of 
the thirteenth century, two men, in different 
places, about the same time conceived the 
idea of founding a new religious society on 
an entirely novel principle, which was, that 
all the members should subsist wholly upon 
alms. To establish this kind of communism, 
Francis of Assissi organized an institution of 
mendicant friars in Italy under the name of 
Franciscans (q. v.); and a short time after- 
ward, Dominic, a native of Castile, in Spain, 
formed another fraternity of the same kind 
in the south of France, which received the 
name of Dominicans (q. v.). These societies 
rapidly obtained extensive popularity. To 
extend their influence still more widely, they 
adopted the plan of admitting the laity to a 
connection with their society, under the name 
of Tertiar-es, such persons being bound by no 
monastic vow, but simply pledged to pro- 
mote as far as possible the interests of the 
order to which they had become attached, 
while they themselves were living in the 
world, and engaged in their ordinary occu- 
pations. In the middle of the thirteenth 
century there was almost no place, certainly 
no province, in which the Dominicans and 
Franciscans had not their Tertiares, and thus 
the mendicants exceeded in influence all oth- 
er monks. The high estimation in which 
the new orders were held led to the increase 
of their numbers to such an enormous ex- 
tent that all Europe swarmed with begging 



1 Ezek. XXX., 13 ; Jer. xlvi., 19.— * 2 Kings xv., 16.-- 

2 Kings XV., 20. 



MENDICANT ORDERS 



606 



MENI 



monks, and tliey became a burden, not only 
to the people, but to the Church itself. It 
soon appeared to be absolutely necessary to 
check the enormous growth of these monas- 
tic establishments. Their progress, both in 
numbers and influence, was not only rapid, 
but for a time wholly unimpeded. They 
threatened to overthrow the established con- 
stitution of the Church, and the fimdamental 
rules of the universities. The University of 
Paris at length set itself to resist the unrea- 
sonable encroachments of the mendicants, 
and a controversy ensued, the cause of the 
mendicants being supported by some of their 
most distinguished men, such as Bonaventu- 
ra, Albertus Magnus, and Thomas Aquinas. 
The monks prevailed, and the contest on the 
subject of the mendicant friars passed away, 
but the University of Paris maintained the 
same spirit of freedom which had long char- 
acterized its learned men. Abuses of the 
most flagrant kind sprung up among the 
mendicants, which attracted the notice even 
of their warmest admirers and friends. Pope 
Gregory X., accordingly, in 1272 decreed the 
suppression of all the religious orders which 
had sprung up since the days of Innocent III., 
and thus the multitude of mendicants was 
reduced within narrow limits, including only 
the Dominicans, the Franciscans, the Carmelites, 
and the hermits of St. Augustine, or Augus- 
tinian monks. Amidst all the corruptions, 
however, which were gradually introduced 
into the mendicant orders, the main idea on 
which they were founded, that of evangel- 
ical poverty, became so predominant in its 
influence, that multitudes of people refused 
to receive the sacrament at any other hands 
than those of the mendicants. Thus the or- 
dinary priests were completely superseded ; 
and for three centuries the two chief orders 
professing the vow of poverty, the Domini- 
cans and Franciscans, exercised almost abso- 
lute control both in Church and State, filled 
the most distinguished offices ecclesiastical 
and civil, taught in the universities and 
churches with undisputed authority, and 
advanced the interests of the Papal govern- 
ment with the utmost zeal and success. 

Notwithstanding the prestige which thus 
attached to the mendicant monks, we find 
them denounced as successors of the Phari- 
sees described in the gospels, who, under a 
show of holiness, concealed all manner of 
wickedness. They were accused of putting 
on an appearance of severity of life, chastity, 
humility, holy simplicity, but in secret aban- 
doning themselves to the choicest pleasures, 
and to a dainty variety of luxurious enjoy- 
ments. The beggarly friars, who were over- 
running every country of Europe in the thir- 
teenth century, found their way even into 
England, where they spread with alarming 
rapidity. Their progress was resisted, though 
with little success, by the University of Ox- 
ford and the parish priests, who saw their 



rights encroached upon by the spiritual la- 
bors of these monks ; and one of the first 
symptoms of the reforming spirit which dis- 
played itself in England was this hostility 
to the begging monks. From the first, Wyc- 
lifle was their avowed enemy ; and they, on 
the other hand, were the most zealous and 
the most influential organs of the Romish 
hierarchy. 

Both the Lollards in England and the 
Hussites in Bohemia found the mendicants 
to be their bitterest and most violent oppo- 
nents. These monks themselves, however, 
in turn, were viewed with the utmost suspi- 
cion and dislike, not only by the bishops and 
priests, but even by the pontiffs. This was 
more particularly the case with the Domini- 
cans and Franciscans. Thstmore rigid of the 
latter order, who were commonly called Fra- 
tricelli, revolted from the pope and the Rom- 
ish Church, bringing down upon themselves 
the thunders of the Vatican and the persecu- 
tion of several pontiffs. In the fifteenth cen- 
tury the two leading sects of the mendicants 
abounded in every part of Europe, and by 
their arrogance and impudence, their super- 
stition and cruelty, they alienated the minds 
of the people generally from them. They 
held the highest offices in the Church, were 
confessors in the courts of all the kings and 
princes of Europe, filled the principal chairs 
in the universities and schools ; and yet, by 
their persecution of the learned and the good, 
by the promotion of their own interests at 
the expense of others, by their pride, inso- 
lence, and disgraceful conduct, these very 
mendicant orders, which had once occupied 
a high place in the estimation both of the 
Church and the world, were mainly instru- 
mental in driving multitudes from the Rom- 
ish Church, and impelling them to demand 
the reformation of a corrupt and degraded 
hierarchy. 

From the very first institution of their so- 
cieties, the mendicant orders had carried on 
an unceasing warfare among themselves and 
with other monastic institutions, particular- 
ly the Jesuits. No sooner had the Domini- 
cans and Franciscans been deprived of their 
respective founders bj- death, than the most 
unseemly rivalry and contention commenced 
between them for precedence, which contin- 
ued for centuries. Rome has had no worse 
enemies than the mendicant orders, although 
history clearly shows that multitudes of these 
friars are found begging in every Roman Cath- 
olic country, and claiming a character for 
sanctity, founded on their rags and seeming 
wretchedness. Travelers in Romish coun- 
tries generally, but more especially in Italy, 
are eloquent in their denunciations of these 
indolent, useless monks, who devote them- 
selves to a life of mean and sordid depend- 
ence upon the industrious portion of the 
community. 

Meni {fate, fortune, possibly the planet 



MENNONITES 



607 



MERAB 



Venus). This has been supposed to be the 
name of an idol worshiped, together with 
Gad, by the Jews in Babylonia. And it 
would seem that there was an idol of nearly 
the same name which the Arabian tribes be- 
tween Mecca and Medina adored under the 
figure of a stone. [Isa. Ixv., 11.] 

Mennonites, a sect of Anabaptists (q. v.) 
which originated in Holland in the sixteenth 
century, under Menno Simonis, who was 
born in 1505, in Friesland, was educated for 
the Church, and was ordained in his twen- 
ty-fourth year as a Romish priest. In 1536 
he resigned his priestly office, renounced all 
connection with the Church of Rome, and 
became an accepted leader of that portion 
of the Anabaptists who repudiated the ex- 
travagances of the more visionary portion 
of that body. He devoted his life to the 
building of his Church and the preaching of 
the Reformed faith, planting Anabaptist 
churches in Friesland, Holland, and Ger- 
many. He died in 1561, after twenty-live 
years of evangelical labor. The faith of his 
followers is evangelical ; they practice only 
adult baptism ; they maintain the doctrine 
of non-resistance ; their churches are in gov- 
ernment substantially Congregational; they 
generally maintain feet -washing as prac- 
ticed by Christ, as an ordinance of perpetual 
obligation. The Mennonites in America are 
confined chiefly to certain districts in Penn- 
sylvania, though they also exist in Mary- 
laud, Ohio, New York, Indiana, and the Can- 
adas. Their church officers are chosen by a 
combination of election and lot, according to 
the method pursued in selecting a successor 
to Judas Iscariot, as described in Acts i., 15- 
26. As no official statistics of the denomi- 
nation are published, it is impossible to give 
their numbers with any accuracy. They are 
estimated in the Uuited States from 125,000 
to 150,000. They are divided into parties, 
or sects, the chief of which are the Old Men- 
nonites and the Reformed Mennonites. At 
the present writing (1873) a considerable 
emigratioQ of this people is going on from 
Russia to the United States in consequence 
of the Russian law enacted in 1871 obliging 
all to bear arms regardless of their religious 
convictions. 

Mephibosheth (extermination of idols), the 
name of two members of Saul's family. 1. 
Saul's son by Rizpah, the daughter of Aiah, 
his concubine.-^ He and his brother Armoni 
were among the seven visitors who were 
surrendered by David to the Gibeonites, and 
by them put to death, as a sacrifice to avert 
a famine from which the land was suffering.^ 

2. The son of Jonathan, grandson of Saul. 
His life seems to have been, from beginning 
to end, one of trial and discomfort. The 
name of his mother is unknown. When his 
father and grandfather were slain on Gilboa, 
he was an infant but five years old. He 



1 2 Sam. xxi., 8.— ^ 2 Sara, xxi., 8, 9. See Kizpah. 



was then living under the charge of his 
nurse, probably at Gibeah, the regular resi- 
dence of Saul. The tidings that the army 
was destroyed, the king and his sous slain, 
and that the Philistines were sweeping all 
before them, reached the royal household. 
The nurse fled, carrying the child on her 
shoulder. But, in her panic and hurry, she 
stumbled, and Mephibosheth was precipi- 
tated to the ground with such force as to de- 
prive him for life of the use of both feet.^ 
After the accident which thus imbittered 
his whole existence, Mephibosheth was car- 
ried, with the rest of his family, beyond the 
Jordan to the mountains of Gilead, where 
he found a refuge in the house of Machir,^ a 
powerful Gadite or Manassite sheik at Lo- 
debar. By Machir he was brought up, there 
he married, and there he was living at a 
later period, when David, having completed 
the subjugation of the adversaries of Israel 
on every side, heard of his existence from 
Ziba, formerly a slave of the royal family. 
David invited Mephibosheth to Jerusalem, 
and there treated him and his son Micha 
with the greatest kindness. From this time 
forward he resided at Jerusalem. Of Mephi- 
bosheth's behavior during the rebellion of 
Absalom we possess two accounts — his own, 
and that of Ziba.^ They are naturally at 
variance with each other. In consequence 
of the story of Ziba, he was rewarded by the 
possessions of his master. Mephibosheth's 
story — which, however, he had not the op- 
portunity of telling until several days later, 
when he met David returning to his king- 
dom at the western bank of Jordan — was 
very different from Ziba's. That David did 
not disbelieve it, is shown by his revoking 
the judgment he had previously given, 
though he did not entirely reverse his de- 
cision, but allowed Ziba to retain possession 
of half the lands of Mephibosheth.* 

The narrative itself seems to contain in- 
dications that Mephibosheth was really in- 
nocent, his own words expressing his entire 
satisfaction at the safety of the king, even 
though at the loss of all his own property.* 
There is no account given of his death. In 
Chronicles, where his genealogy is given, he 
is called Merib-baal.^ [2 Sam. iv., 4 ; ix. ; 
xvi., 1-5 ; xix., 24-30 ; xxi., 7.] 

Merab (inc^^ease), the eldest daughter of 
King Saul, betrothed to David, but subse- 
quently married to Adriel. By him she had 
five sons, who were subsequently delivered 
by David to the Gibeonites, and by them 
put to death.'' According to the Hebrew 
text, they were the five sons of Michal, 
whom she bore to Adriel. But Michal was 
married, not to Adriel but to David, and had 
no children.^ Either Michal is here a tran- 



1 2 Sam. iv., 4.-2 2 Sam. ix., 4.-3 2 Sam. xvi., 1^ ; 
xix., 24-30— 4 2 Sam. xix., 29.—* 2 Sam. xix., 30.— 
6 1 Chron. viii., 34.— ' 2 Sam. xxi., 8, 9. See Kizpah. 
—8 2 Sam. vi., 23. 



MERAEITES 



608 



MEROM 



scriber's error for Merab, or else the Jewish, 
tradition is correct, that Merab died leaving 
her children in Michal's care, who, after her 
separation from David, brought them up for 
her sister. This hypothesis has been ac- 
cepted by the translators, and is embodied 
by them in our English version. [1 Sam. 
xviii., 17-21.] 

Merarites, a family of Levi, descendants 
of his son Merari. When the census was 
taken in the wilderness, the number of their 
males above a month old was 6200 ; of those 
between thirty and iifty, 3200. • They were 
divided into two great families, the Mahlites 
and the Mushites, and they were to pitch on 
the north side of the tabernacle. To this 
family was intrusted the care of the boards, 
bars, pillars of the tabernacle, and their ap- 
purtenances, with the pillars, sockets, pins, 
and cords of the surrounding court. When 
Israel entered Canaan, twelve cities in the 
territories of Reuben, Gad, and Zebulun were 
allotted to the sons of Merari. There are 
notices of them in later times in 1 Chron. 
vi., 44-47 ; xxiv., 26-30 ; xxv., 3 ; xxvi., 10, 
11 ; 2 Chron. xxix., 12 ; xxxiv., 12 ; Ezra viii., 
18, 19. [Numb, xxvi., 57 ; iii., 34 ; iv., 44 ; 
iii., 33-37 ; iv., 29-33 ; vii., 8 ; Josh, xxi., 7, 
34-39 ; 1 Chron. vi., 63, 77-81.] 

Mercurius, or Mercury, a celebrated god 
of antiquity. No less than five of this name 
are mentioned by Cicero. The most cele- 
brated was the son of Jupiter and Maia. He 
was the messenger of the gods, and of Jupi- 
ter in particular ; he was the patron of trav- 
elers and shepherds ; he conducted the souls 
of the dead into the infernal regions; he 
presided over orators, and declaimers, and 
merchants ; and he was also the god of 
thieves, pickpockets, and all dishonest per- 
sons. He was regarded as the god of elo- 
quence, and as light, rapid, and quick in his 
movements. Barnabas was taken for Jupi- 
ter, and Paul for Mercurius, by the inhabit- 
ants of Lysia. The conjecture of Chrysos- 
tom is, that Barnabas was a large, athletic 
man, and was hence taken for Jupiter ; and 
that Paul was small in person, and was 
hence supposed to be Mercury. The fact 
that the latter was the chief speaker added 
force to this conclusion. [Acts xiv., 12.] 

Mercy. In common language, mercy and j 
grace are not infrequently confounded. They 
are, however, quite distinct. Mercy, as a feel- 
ing, is that habit of mind which leads one to 
feel pity and compassion for a wrong-doer 
rather than resentment, and, as an act, it is 
the exercise of forgiveness toward those who 
are deserving of punishment. Grace is the 
exercise of good-will toward those who have 
not merited it ; mercy is the exercise of good- 
will toward those who have merited anger 
and punishment. It is in this sense of pity 
or compassion as a feeling, and forgiveness 
and good-will as an act, or rather a habit, 
toward the sinner, that the term mercy is 



always used in the Bible. It may almost be 
said to be characteristic of the religion of 
the Bible, that it teaches that God is a God 
not only of grace but of mercy, and that it 
appeals rather to the love which his mercy 
should awaken in every heart, than to fear 
of his resentment, as a motive for Christian 
conduct. The heathen religions none of 
them represented their gods as possessing 
mercy, and none of them inculcated it as a 
human virtue ; and the rationalism which 
rejects Christianity and endeavors to substi- 
tute the religion of nature, asserts that man 
is under an inexorable system of law, and 
denies that God is merciful, or that there is 
or can be any forgiveness of sins or remission 
of penalty. See Forgive^s^ess. 

M6iibah (strife). 1. A place in the desert 
of Zin where a fountain of water issued from 
the rock, called Massah, because the people 
tempted the Lord, and Meribah, because they 
strove with Moses. ^ 

2. The name is also given to Kadesh, or a 
place near Kadesh, in the desert of Zin, 
where, many years after, water was miracu- 
lously produced. It was on this last occa- 
sion that Moses and Aaron were guilty of 
the fault for which they were excluded from 
Canaan. To distinguish the two, the last is 
generally called the water, or waters, of 
Meribah. [Numb, xx., 13, 24 ; xxvii., 14 ; 
Dent, xxxii., 51 ; xxxiii., 8 ; Psa. Ixxxi., 7 ; 
cvi., 32 ; Ezek. xlvi., 19 ; xlviii., 28.] 

Merodach-baladan {M&rodacli has given a 
son), a king of Babylon who sent ambassa- 
dors to Hezekiah after his sickfiess, to in- 
quire of the wonder that had been wrought, 
the shadow receding on the dial (q. v.). In 
2 Kings XX., 12, the name is Berodach - bala- 
dan. He reigned, from 721 B.C., for twelve 
years, and then was dethroned and banished 
by Sargon. In about seven years he re-ob- 
tained power, and reigned for six months, 
but was dethroned a second time by Sennach- 
erib. [2 Chron. xxxii., 31 ; Isa. xxxix., 1.] 

Merom {height), the name of a lake through 
which the Jordan runs in the higher part of 
its course. It was by the waters of Merom 
that Joshua encountered and crushed the 
confederacy of the northern tribes of Ca- 
naan. The lake is not again mentioned in 
Scripture ; but we know that many events 
of importance, such as the victory of Abra- 
ham, the seizing of Laish by the Danites, 
and the death of Slieba at Joab's demand, 
must have occurred in its neighborhood. 
The lake itself is about four and a half miles 
long, and three and a half broad across the 
north end ; but it runs to a point southward, 
where the Jordan leaves it. The plain and 
marsh above are about ten miles square. 
Dr. Thomson describes the Hftleh, both plain 
and lake, as of unrivaled beauty, but solitary, 
and the access to the water somewhat diffi- 
cult. [Josh, xi., 5, 7.] 

1 Exod. xvii.,7. 



MESHA 



609 



METHODISTS 



Mesha (deliverance), a king of Moab, who, 
having been tributary to Israel, rebelled af- 
ter the death of Ahab. He was attacked and 
besieged by Jehoram, in alliance with Je- 
hoshaphat. He offered his own son as a sac- 
rifice, and the besiegers, fearing to have in- 
curred the anger of God by giving occasion 
to a human sacrifice, retreated to their own 
country. [2 Kings iii., 4-27.] 

Meshech (possession), a son of Japheth. 
His descendants were the Moschi, a Colchian 
people, whose territory extended along the 
south-eastern shores of the Bhick Sea. Me- 
shech and Tubal are frequently mentioned 
together, forming a part of the great Scyth- 
ian dominion. They may be considered as 
representing the whole region of Northern 
Armenia from the sources of the Tigris and 
the Euphrates to the Black Sea. They are 
described as trading in the Tyrian markets 
with copper and slaves. [Gen. x., 2 ; 1 Chron. 
i., .5; Ezek.xxxii.,26; xxxviii.,2, 3; xxxix.,1.] 

Mesopotamia (in tlie midst of rivers), a 
country deriving its name from its position 
between the great rivers Euphrates and Ti- 
gris. In its largest extent it must be con- 
sidered as comprehending the region from 
31° to 38° 20' north latitude, and from 39° 20' 
to 47° 30' east longitude — about 700 miles in 
length, but of a very variable breadth from 
20 to 240 or 250. From its being so nearly 
surrounded by rivers, it is now called by the 
Arabs Al-Jezirah, the island. In the upper 
part it is mountainous ; but the rest of the 
country is a great plain, intersected about 
the centre by the Sinjar hills, a chain run- 
ning east and west. Above this range the 
plain is elevated, and in spring is covered 
with verdure, though parched in summer ; 
while among the hills the land is cultivated 
and fertile, and supports a considerable pop- 
ulation. The southern plain is alluvial, lit- 
tle above the level of the rivers, by which it 
is frequently overflowed. It might, how- 
ever, be easily drained and made again, by 
human labor, the garden it once was. The 
ruins of great cities scattered over the sur- 
face testify to the vastness of the ancient 
population. The Greek name Mesopotamia 
does not appear to have been given to this 
country till after the Macedonian conquest. 

It is the north-western part of the region 
just described which is supposed to be the 
Mesopotamia of Scripture, a rich and pleas- 
ant country, extending as far southward as 
the river Khabour — the land where Abra- 
ham's kindred dwelt, where was the district 
of Padan-aram and the city of Haran ; the 
country from which Balaam came; whose 
king, Chushan-rishathaim, oppressed Israel, 
and from whence troops were hired to op- 
pose David. This country became afterward 
part of the Assyrian and then of the Babylo- 
nian empire. It was subject to the Persian 
kings; conquered by Alexander, was subse- 
quently ruled by the Syrian monarchs, and 
39 



in later times was alternately under Eoman 
and Parthian sway, till ultimately relinquish- 
ed to the Parthian or Persian rule. Of the 
most noted cities in Mesopotamia there may 
be mentioned Orfa, Harran, Nisibin, and Di- 
arbekr, believed to be the ancient Ur, Haran, 
Nisibis, and Amida.^ 

Some have questioned wheth^er this Meso- 
potamia is the land so called in our version 
of the O. T., and would identify the country 
designated by the Hebrew word so transla- 
ted — Aram Naliaraim, "Aram of the Two Riv- 
ers" — with the plain of Damascus, on the 
ground that the journey of seven days taken 
by Laban between Haran and Gilead, though 
suitable for the trip from Damascus to Gil- 
ead, seems too short a time for a journey of 
350 miles from the Euphrates.^ But this 
view does not find general acceptance with 
Biblical scholars. See article Haran, in 
Smith's " Bib. Diet.," Am. ed. 

Messiah, a Hebrew word, meaning the 
A7winted One, fopnd in the O. T. only in Dan- 
iel,' in the N. T. only in John.* The Greek 
rendering of the w^ord is Clirist, which ^ee. 

Metheg-ammah. "And David took Me- 
theg-ammah out of the hands of the Philis- 
tines."^ No place of this name anywhere 
else occurs in Scripture, as connected either 
with Israel or with the Philistines; and the 
corresponding passage in 1 Chron. xviii., 1, 
simply saj's that *' David smote the Philis- 
tines, and subdued them, and took Gath and 
her towns" (HebrcAv, daughters) " out of the 
hands of the Philistines." Regarding the pas- 
sage in Chronicles as explanatory of that in 
Samuel, Gesenius, Maurer, and others, trans- 
late the latter, "And David took the bridle 
of the metropolis out of the hand of the Phi- 
listines " — understanding by the metropolis, 
or mother city, Gath, which David subdued, 
and of which, as ruler, he held the reins of 
government. 

Methodists, a name given to a large body 
of Christians, followers of John Wesley. The 
denomination dates from the beginning of 
the eighteenth century. It exists in sever- 
al distinct church organizations; the most 
important of which are that known in En- 
gland as the Wesleyan Methodists, or some- 
times as the Methodists, Old Connection, and 
that known in this country as the Method- 
ist Episcopal Church. In this article we 
shall treat briefly : I. Of the Origin and His- 
tory of Methodism ; II. Of the Doctrines and 
Worship of Methodism; III. Of the Organiza- 
tion of the Parent Body; TV. Of the Statistics 
of Methodism. 

I. Origin and History. — John "Wesley, the 
founder of Methodism, was born in Lincoln- 
shire, England, in 1703, his father being the 
rector of that parish. He was destined by 
his father for the Church, and studied at Ox- 



1 Gen. xxiv., 10 ; xxix., 4 ; Deut. xxiii., 4 ; Juda:. iii., 
8-10 ; 1 Chron. xix., 6.-2 Gen. xxxi., 22, 23.-3 Dan. 
ix., 25, 26.—* John i., 41 ; iv,, 25.—* 2 Sam. viii., 1. 



METHODISTS 



610 



METHODISTS 



ford. He here exhibited that earnestness of 
religious spiiit which characterized his whole 
future life, and associated with his brother 
Charles and with some others, among whom 
were James Hervey and George Whitefield, 
in study and in the performance of religious 
exercises. They received from their assidui- 
ty and their methodical habits the nickname 
of Methodists, which, originally applied in 
derision, has been accepted and made an 
honorable title in the history of the Chris- 
tian Church. After his father's death, in 
1735, John Wesley, with his brother Charles, 
came to Georgia, to undertake missionary 
work in the colony then just founded by 
Governor Oglethorpe. Here he was distin- 
guished by his High-church principles, was 
an extreme ritualist, maintained confession 
and penance, mingled wine with water at 
the sacraments, urged the maintenance of a 
weekly administration of the Lord's Supper, 
rigidly excluded all dissenters from it, and 
received Eomanists. At the same time he 
attended with regularity the meetings of 
the Moravians, with whose religious earnest- 
ness and spirit of self-sacrifice he heartily 
sympathized, and from whom he derived 
much instruction and some of the princi- 
ples of the Church organization subsequent- 
ly formed. And it is certain that his own 
spiritual earnestness, and habit of seeking 
and depending on the light of the Spirit 
of God, was intensified by the influence of 
their example and fellowship. In 1738 he 
went to England, where he associated more 
and more with the Moravians, making a 
visit to their settlements at Herrnhut, Ger- 
many, to become better acquainted with 
them, and deriving from their ministry and 
Christian fellowship so much spiritual de- 
velopment that he attributed his conversion 
(which he dates as late as May, 1738) to 
the influence of a Moravian meeting. While 
thus he was unconsciously being prepared 
for the work of a reformer, the general cor- 
ruption of society and decadence of piety 
were creating a sense of need, which is itself 
the best preparation for reform. There was 
no religion except for the higher classes, and 
little that took any strong hold on them. 
The poor no longer had a gospel preached 
to them. The simple doctrine of the Ref- 
ormation, justification by a living faith in a 
living Lord, was no longer proclaimed from 
the pulpits. " There was," says an eloquent 
writer in the "North British Review," " no 
freshness in the past, and no promise in the 
future. The Puritans were buried, and the 
Methodists were not born. The philosopher 
of the age was Bolingbroke, the moralist 
was Addison, the minstrel was Pope, and the 
preacher was Atterbury. The world had 
the idle, discontented look of the morning 
after a wine-mad holiday ; and like rocket- 
sticks and the singed paper from last night's 
squibs, the spent jokes of Charles and Roch- 



ester lay all about, and people yawned to 
look at them." Mr. Wesley found his ear- 
nest preaching of the simple Gospel unac- 
ceptable to the ecclesiastics of the age. He 
commenced to preach in the open fields. 
This ministry, into which he was at first re- 
luctantly forced, grew in importance. He 
and Whitefield found their preaching at- 
tended by immense congregations of men 
and women who never attended church serv- 
ice. At the same time this very success 
widened the gulf between him and the Es- 
tablished Church. He gradually separated, 
too, from the Moravians, on points of doc- 
trine; societies began to spring up under 
his ministry, meeting-houses were built and 
class-meetings were organized. He did not 
formally separate from the Church of En- 
gland, nor definitely form the plan of a 
distinct church organization. Lay preach- 
ers were, however, selected to aid in the 
ministry of the word. They were not un- 
frequently more zealous than discreet, more 
pious than cultivated, and brought disrepute 
upon the movement among the higher class- 
es, but they added to its increasing force 
among the illiterate. Even so liberal and 
broad-minded a man as Sydney Smith call- 
ed these lay preachers of primitive Method- 
ism a " nest of consecrated cobblers ;" and 
their rude, though powerful, eloquence " the 
drunken declamations of Methodism." But 
they shook the nation from its centre to its 
circumference, and produced an awakening 
among the ignorant and unlettered which 
has no parallel in history, and the influence 
of which has remained to this day in the 
steady upward progress of the poorer class- 
es in Great Britain. 

In 1774 the leaders of this new movement 
were invited by the Wesleys to meet in Lon- 
don in their first Conference. Only six per- 
sons were present, five of whom were clergy 
of the Established Church. But the germ 
of the future organization of the Methodist 
Church was here planted ; the irregular itin- 
erant preaching was reduced to a system; 
the country was divided into circuits, each 
with its ovm superintendent ; provision was 
made for an annual meeting of the Confer- 
ence, and for the regular support of the cler- 
gy. Still Mr. Wesley retained his connec- 
tion with the Established Church, and the 
Lord's Supper continued to be received only 
in the parish church. But though Mr. Wes- 
ley desired to retain the movement as one 
within the Church of England, its character 
and growth were such as to render this im- ' 
possible ; nor did he refuse, when Providence 
seemed clearly to indicate his duty, to fol- 
low the Divine guidance. In 1784 he se- 
cured a legal organization of the confer- 
ence, and in the same year, in connection 
with other ministers, ordained Dr. Coke as su- 
perintendent of the Methodist society which 
had meanwhile grown up in America. 



METHODISTS 



611 



METHODISTS 



At Mr. Wesley's death (1791) the Method- 
ist society had spread over Great Britain, 
the Continent of Europe, the United States 
of America, and the West Indies, and num- 
bered 80,000 members. They were not as 
yet organized into a distinct denomination, 
except in the United States, but this took 
place in 1795, when it was decided that the 
Methodist ministers should administer the 
sacraments as well as preach, wliile at the 
same time the principles of its organiza- 
tion were more definitely fixed. To trace 
the subsequent history of Methodism, and of 
the secessions which gave rise to the various 
minor Methodist sects, would take us beyond 
our limits ; and for such fuller information 
the reader must be referred to M'Clintock 
and Strong's '^ Cyclopseclia." It should, how- 
ever, be added, that Methodism may properly 
be said to have sprung up in America con- 
temporaneously with its origin in Great Brit- 
ian. Methodist preachers from the begin- 
ning of the movement traveled through the 
colonies, and found everywhere attentive 
and receptive congregations. The first con- 
ference was held in Philadelphia, in July, 
1773, but the proper organization of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church may perhaps 
be said to date from 1784, when Dr. Coke 
was ordained as superintendent of the Amer- 
ican Church, and sent over by Mr. Wesley 
to perfect its organization. In 1847 the 
Methodist Episcopal Church of America was 
separated on the slavery question, and still 
exists in two independent bodies, as the 
Methodist EjnscojMl Church, and the Methodist 
Episcopal Church, South. There is no differ- 
ence between them, either in theological 
doctrines or in their form of organization. 

II. Doctrines and Worship. — Early in the 
history of Methodism a friendly separation 
took place between Mr. Whitefield and Mr. 
Wesley. The former maintained Calvinistic 
doctrines, the latter an Arminian theology. 
The great body of the Methodists embrace, 
in this respect, the theological opinions of 
Mx. Wesley, though there are what are term- 
ed the Calvinistic Methodists. On the fun- 
damental points, such as the Divinity of 
Jesus Christ, his atoning sacrifice for sin, the 
inspiration and authenticity of the Scrip- 
tures, the future life as a state of rewards 
and punishments, the Methodists hold views 
in nowise differing from those held in com- 
mon by all Evangelical Protestants. So far 
as their views are peculiar to themselves, 
they are thus embodied by John Wesley : 

" The justification whereof our articles and homilies 
speak means present forgiveness, pardon of sins, and 
consequently acceptance with God. I believe the con- 
dition of this is faith ; I mean, not only that without 
faith we can not be justified, but also that as soon as 
any one has true faith, in that moment he is justified. 
Good works follow this faith, but can not go before it ; 
much less can sanctification, which implies a continu- 
ous course of good works springing from holiness of 
heart. 

"Repentance must go before faith, and fruits meet 
for it, if there be opportunity. By repentance I mean 



conviction of sin, producing real desires and sincere 
resolutions of amendment ; and by ' fruits meet for re- 
pentance 'I mean forgiving our brother, ceasing from 
evil and doing good, using the ordinances of God, and, 
in general, obeying him according to the measure of 
grace which we have received. But these I can not 
as yet term good works, because they do not spring 
from faith and the love of God. 

"By salvation I mean, not barely deliverance from 
hell, or going to heaven, but a present deliverance 
from sin, a restoration of the soul to its primitive 
health, its original purity after the image of God, in 
righteousness and true holiness, injustice, mercy, and 
truth. This implies all holy and heavenly tempers, 
and, by consequence, all holiness of conversation. 

"Faith is the sole condition of this salvation. With- 
out faith we can not thus be saved ; for we can not 
rightly serve God unless we love him, and we can not 
love him unless we know him ; neither can we know 
him unless by faith. 

" Faith, in general, is a divine supernatural evidence, 
or conviction, of things not seen ; that is, of things past, 
future, or spiritual. Justifying faith implies not only 
a divine evidence, or conviction, that God was in Christ 
reconciling the world unto himself, but a sure trust 
and confidence that Christ died for my sins, that he 
loved me and gave himself for me ; and the moment a 
penitent sinner believes this, God pardons and ab- 
solves him ; and as soon as his pardon, or justification, 
is witnessed to him by the Holy Ghost, he is saved. 
He loves God and all mankind ; he has the mind that 
was in Christ, and power to walk as he also walked. 
From that time (unless he makes shipwreck of the 
faith) salvation gradually increases in his soul. 

"The Author of faith and salvation is God alone. 
He is the sole Giver of every good gift, and the sole 
Author of every good work. There is no more of 
power than of merit in man ; but as all the merit is in 
the Son of God, in what he has done and suflfered for 
us, so all power is in the Spirit of God, and therefore 
every man, in order to believe unto salvation, must 
receive the Holy Ghost. This is essentially necessary 
to every Christian, in order to faith, peace, joy, and 
love. Whoever has these fruits of the Spii'it can not 
but know and feel that God has wrought them in his 
heart."! 

In England the Wesleyan Methodists use 
more or less of the English liturgy. In this 
country their public services do not differ 
in form from those of other non-liturgical 
churches, except in being more free. The 
laity at times express their approval of sen- 
timents uttered by the preacher by ejacula- 
tions, such as "Praise God," "Amen," "Hal- 
lelujah," and the like ; though this custom 
is more common in the prayer-meeting than 
in the more formal services of the Church, 
and is especially characteristic of times of 
revival. The Methodists are accn stomed also 
to hold protracted meetings, embracing re- 
ligious services every evening, and some- 
times also through the day, for several weeks 
at a time. They are accustomed on such 
occasions to set apart certain seats near the 
altar or pulpit, to which they invite those 
who desire the prayers of the Church. The 
communion is administered substantially as 
in the Episcopal Church, the communicants 
kneeling before the altar and partaking of 
the elements there. 

III. Organization: Wesleyan Methodists. — 
Wesley subdivided the Methodist societies 
into Classes, each class containing about a 
dozen persons, under the superintendence of 
a class-leader. His duties are partly relig- 
ious, and partly financial. He has to see 
each person in his class once a week, to in- 



1 Life and Times of John Wesley, by L. Tyei-man, 
vol. i., pp. 52, 53. 



METHODISTS 



612 



METHODISTS 



quire how their souls prosper, and to encour- 
age, comfort, or censure, as the case may re- 
quire ; to collect the voluntary contributions 
of his class, and pay them over to the stew- 
ards of the society ; and to give the ministers 
all necessary information regarding the spir- 
itual and bodily condition of those under his 
leadership. 

These Class-meetings may be regarded as 
the unit of the Methodist organization, and 
their effect is to bring every member of the 
Church into intimate communion with a por- 
tion at least of the Church, and to acquaint 
the pastor with the spiritual and physical 
wants of all his parishioners. We have al- 
ready explained how it happened, historic- 
ally, that the cliurches are united in circuits. 
To each circuit two, three, or four ministers 
are appointed, one of wliom is styled the 
'^ superintendent." Every quarter the class- 
es are visited by the ministers, who make it 
a point to converse personally with every 
member; at the termination of which pro- 
ceeding a circuit-meeting is held, composed 
of ministers, stewards, leaders of classes, lay 
preachers, etc- The stewards (who are ta- 
ken from the societies) deliver their collec- 
tions to a circuit steward, and the financial 
business of the body is here publicly settled. 
At this quarterly meeting candidates for the 
office of the ministry are proposed by the 
president, and the nomination is approved 
or rejected by the members. Still larger 
associations are the Districts, composed of 
from ten to twenty circuits, the ministers 
of which meet once a year, under the presi- 
dency of one of their luimber, for ecclesias- 
tical purposes. The highest ecclesiastical 
court is the Conference. It meets annually 
in one or other of the principal towns in 
England, and is attended by from three to 
five hundred ministers. At this time min- 
isters are admitted and ordained, cases of 
discipline are examined, the ministers are 
appointed to the circuits in which they are 
to labor during the following year, each of 
the Connectional institutions and societies 
l^asses under review, officers and committees 
are appointed, and all business is transacted 
that relates to the general interests of this 
branch of the Church of Christ. 

The organization of the Methodist Episco- 
pal Church of America is patterned on that 
of the Wesley an Methodists of E ngland. The 
president of the district is known as the 
Presiding Elder. The churches also possess 
bishops, who are not, however, allotted dis- 
tinct dioceses, but possess concurrent juris- 
diction over the whole Church.^ Lay dele- 
gates are now also admitted to the Confer- 
ence, which in England is a purely clerical 
body. The Methodist Episcopal Church car- 
ries on the work of Domestic and Foreign 
Missions through a missionary society, which 
is under the control of the Conference, and 



1 See Bisuor. 



also maintains a publishing house, known 
as the Methodist Book Concern, which is 
also under the same control. There are also 
a number of Methodist bodies, which differ 
more or less widely from the original or 
parent body, some of them, as the Reformed 
Methodist Church in America, being congrega- 
tional in the principles of their government. 
We give statistics below ; but for fuller in- 
formation in respect to their history and or- 
ganizatiou must refer the reader to M'Clin- 
tock and Strong's '' Cyclopaedia." 

V. Statistics : British Church. — The statis- 
tics of English Methodism we take from the 
Introduction to Tyerman's " Life of Wes- 
ley ;" those of the American Church, from 
its latest published reports. 

The '' Methodist," or parent " Conference," 
employs in Great Britain and Ireland 1782 
regular ministers. Besides these, there were 
in 1864, in England onl^^, 11,804 lay preach- 
ers, preaching 8754 sermons every Sabbath- 
day, lu the same year the number of 
preaching places in England only was 6718, 
and the number of sermons preached week- 
ly, by ministers aud lay preachers combined, 
Y^as 13,852. The number of church mem- 
bers in Great Britain and Ireland is 365,285, 
with 21,223 on trial ; and, calculating that 
the hearers are three times as numerous as 
the church members, there are considerably 
more than a million persons in the United 
Kingdom who are attendants upon the re- 
ligious services of the parent Conference. 
During the ten years from 1859 to 1868 in- 
clusive, there was raised for the support 
of the foreign missions of the Connection 
£1,408,235. 

These missions are carried on in Ireland, 
France, Switzerland, Germany, Italy, Gibral- 
tar, India, Ceylon, China, South and West 
Africa, the West Indies, Canada, Eastern 
British America, Australia, and Polynesia. 
In these distant places the committee hav- 
ing the management of the missions employ 
3798 paid agents, including 994 who are reg- 
ularly ordained, and are wholly engaged in 
the work of the Christian ministry. Be- 
sides these there are about 20,000 agents of 
the Society, such as lay preachers, etc., who 
are renderiug important service gratuitous- 
ly ; while the number of church members is 
154,187, and the number of attendants upon 
religious services is more than half a mill- 
ion. Besides 174,721 children in the mission 
schools, the parent Connection has in Great 
Britain 698 day schools, efficiently conduct- 
ed by 1532 certificated, assistant, and pupil 
teachers, and containing 119,070 scholars; 
also 5328 Sunday-schools, containing 601,801 
scholars, taught by 103,441 persons, who ren- 
der their services gratuitously. The total 
number of publications printed and issued 
by the English Book Committee only, dur- 
ing the year ending June, 1866, was four 
1 millions one hundred and twenty-two thou- 



METHODISTS 



613 



METHODISTS 



sand eight hundred, of which nearly two 
millions were periodicals, and more than a 
quarter of a million were hymn-books. 

TJie Welsh Calvinistic Methodists. — The so- 
cieties of this section of Methodists were 
founded by Howell Harris, an early friend 
and companion of Wesley and Whitefield, 
and principally exist in Wales. At the cen- 
sus of 1851 they had 828 chapels, capable of 
accommodating about 212,000 persons, and 
which had cost nearly a million sterling. In 
1853 they had 207 ministers, 234 lay preach- 
ers, and 58,577 church members. 

The Countess of Huntingdon'' s Connection. — 
In 1748 Whitefield became the chaplain of 
the Countess of Huntingdon, \^ ho by his ad- 
vice assumed a kind of leadership over his 
followers, erected chapels^ engaged ministers 
or laymen to officiate in them, and afterward 
founded a college at Trevecca, in Wales, 
for the education of Calvinistic preachers. 
At her death the college was transferred 
to Cheshunt, and there it still exists. Al- 
though the name '^ Connection " continues 
to be used, the Congregational polity is prac- 
tically adopted ; and of late years several of 
the congregations have become, in name as 
well as virtually, Congregational churches. 
The number of chapels mentioned in the 
census of 1851 as belonging to this connec- 
tion was 209, containing accommodation for 
38,727 persons, and the attendance about 
20,000. 

The Methodist Xew Connection was formed 
in the year 1797, the principal, if not the 
only, difference between it and the parent 
bocly being the diflerent degrees of power 
allowed in each communion to the laity. At 
the Conference of 1869 the New Connection 
had, at home and abroad, 260 ministers and 
35,706 church members. 

The Band-room Methodists had their origin 
in Manchester, in 1806. Their chief leaders 
were John and E. Broadhurst, Holland Hoole, 
Nathaniel Williamson, and Thomas Painter. 
They are now called the '' United Free Gospel 
Churches." They hold annual Conferences, 
have 59 churches, chiefly in Lancaster and 
Yorkshire, and differ from the parent Con- 
nection, not in doctrines, but in having no 
j)aid ministers. 

The Primitive Methodists sprang up in Staf- 
fordshire, in 1810. The doctrines they teach 
are precisely similar to those of the original 
Connection. At the Conference of 1868 they 
liad, at home and abroad, 943 ministers, about 
14,000 lay preachers, nearly 10,000 class-lead- 
ers, 3360 Connectional chapels, 2963 rented 
chapels and rooms for religious worship, 
3282 Sunday-schools, above 40,000 Sunday- 
school teachers, 258,857 Sunday-school schol- 
ars, and 161,229 church members. 

The Bible Christians, sometimes called Bry- 
anites, were founded by William O'Bryan, 
a Wesleyan local preacher, in Cornwall, in 
1815. They principally exist in Cornwall 



and the west of England, but also have mis- 
sion stations in the Channel Islands, the Uni- 
ted States, Canada, Prince Edward's Island, 
and Australia. Like the parent connections, 
they have class -meetings, circuits, district 
meetings, and a conference. They have 
about 700 chapels, and 300 other preaching- 
places, 254 ministers, 1759 lay preachers, 
44,221 Sunday-school scholars, 8913 Sunday- 
school teachers, and 26,241 full and accred- 
ited church members. 

Tlie Primitive Methodists in Ireland seceded 
from the parent body in 1817, and formed 
themselves into a separate connection, the 
only difference between them and their for- 
mer friends being, that their ministers were 
not allowed to administer baptism and the 
Lord's Supper, but were to leave their socie- 
ties at perfect liberty to partake of those 
sacraments in the churches to which they 
respectively belonged. In 1861 they had, in 
Ireland, 61 circuits, 85 ministers, and 14,247 
members of the society. 

The United Methodist Free Churches are an 
amalgamation of three different secessions 
from the Original Connection : l^the Protest- 
ant Methodists ; 2, the Methodist Wesleyau 
Association ; and, 3, the Reformers. These 
amalgamated bodies had, in 1869, 312 minis- 
ters, 3445 lay preachers, 1228 chapels, 152,315 
Sunday-school scholars, and 68^062 church 
members. 

TJie Wesleyan Reform Union consists of those 
reformers of 1849 who refused to amalgamate 
with the United Methodist Free Churches. 
In 1868 the Union had 20 ministers, 580 class- 
j leaders, 18,475 Sunday-school scholars, and 
9393 church members. 

The above comprise all the Methodist bod- 
ies now existing in Great Britain. Some 
others have occasionally sprung up, such as 
the Tent Methodists, the Independent Methodists, 
etc. ; but they are now either extinct, or in- 
corporated with other churches. Not reck- 
oning the Band-room Methodists, nor the 
Countess of Huntingdon's Connection, and 
making a moderate estimate of the Sunday- 
school scholars belonging to the Welsh Cal- 
vinistic Methodists, and to the Primitive 
Methodists in Ireland, we arrive at the fol- 
lowing results : 

Americajst Churches. — The Metliodist 
Episcopal Church in the United States ex- 
ists, as we have already stated, in two 
bodies, as the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
and the Methodist Episcopal Church, South. 
They are substantially identical in doctrine 
and discipline; the division having taken 
place in 1845, in consequence of certain ec- 
clesiastical proceedings against Dr. Andrew, 
one of the bishops of the Church, and a cit- 
izen of Georgia, who had married a lady pos- 
sessing slaves, and who, on that account, was 
directed by the Conference to desist from 
Episcopal functions. The following tabular 
statement embodies the most important sta- 



METHODISTS 



614 



MICAH 



tistics of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
both North and South : 



Methodist Episcopal Church. 

Annual Conferences 

Bishops 

Traveling Preachers , 

Local Preachers 



72 

13 

9,193 

11,404 

Members in full connection 1,173,099 

Members on probation 194,035 

Number of churches 13,373 

Value of church edifices, $52,614,591 

Number of Sunday-schools 16,712 

Sunday-school Teachers 189,413 

Sunday-school Scholars 1,221,393 

Methodist Episcopal Church (tlouth). 

Annual Conferences 30 

Bishops 8 

Traveling Preacher? 2646 

Superannuated Preachers 187 

Local Preachers 4753 

White members 540,820 

Colored members 19,686 

Indian members — 3,149 

In addition to the Methodist Episcopal 
Church, North and South, and the African 
Methodist Episcopal Church (q. v.), Method- 
ists in the United States exist in the follow- 
ing church organizations : 

Tlie African Methodist Episcopal Zion ChurcJi 
is composed entirely of colored Methodists. 
It originated in the secession, in 1820, of the 
Zion congregation of African Methodists, in 
the city of New York, from the Methodist 
Episcopal Church. Its doctrines are the 
same as those of the Methodist Episcopal 
Church. The highest functionaries of the 
Cliurch are general superintendents, who are 
elected to their office every four years, by the 
suffrage of the members of the General Con- 
ference, which meets every four years, and 
is composed of all the traveling ministers of 
the connection. It reports, in 1872, 6 bishops, 
817 itinerant preachers, 1420 local preachers, 
and a membership of 192,000. 

The Evangelical Methodist Association took 
its rise in the year 1800, in the eastern part 
of Pennyslvania, under the labors of one Ja- 
cob Allbright, being largely composed of Ger- 
mans. Its adherents are sometimes, though 
inaccurately, termed German Methodists. In 
doctrine it does not materially differ from 
that of the Methodist Episcopal Church, 
which it also resembles in discipline, gov- 
ernment, and methods of worship. It re- 
ports for 1872 475 itinerant preachers, 367 
local preachers, and 57,226 members. 

The Methodist Protestant Church was formed 
in 1830, by a secession from the Methodist 
Episcopal Church. The primary causes of 
dissatisfaction were the episcopate and or- 
ganization of the conferences. It holds the 
same doctrinal views as the parent body, and 
differs from it in rejecting episcopacy, and in 
providing for lay rei)resentation in its annu- 
al conference, which has since been provided 
for in the Methodist Episcopal Church. It 
does not differ materially in other respects 
from the parent body. It has a board of for- 
eign and domestic missions ; book concerns 
at Baltimore, Maryland, and Springfield, 



Ohio ; seven colleges, two other literary in- 
stitutions, and four weekly periodicals. It 
contained in 1872 423 preachers, and 72,000 
members. 

The Methodist ( Wesley an) Connection of Amer- 
ica was organized in 1843, by seceders from 
the Methodist Episcopal Church in New En- 
gland, on questions growing out of the dis- 
sensions respecting slavery and intemper- 
ance. The religious doctrines of this body 
are substantially the same as those of the 
Methodist Episcopal Church, but their rules 
forbid fellowship with slave-holders and 
slave -dealers, and with all who manufac- 
ture, buy, sell, or use intoxicating liquors. 
The government is substantially Congrega- 
tional, though the churches are connected 
in a conference composed of both lay and 
clerical delegates, and possessed of certain 
defined ecclesiastical powers. 

There are also some other minor Methodist 
denominations; but they do not materially 
differ either in doctrine or discipline from 
the Methodist Episcopal Church. 

Methuselah (a missile), the son of Enoch, 
in the line of Seth, and the father of the La- 
mech who begat Noah. His name is chiefly 
remarkable as that of the person who attain- 
ed to the greatest age on record, having 
lived lived 969 years. According to the He- 
brew chronology, he died in the year of the 
Flood. 

Metropolitan, the bishop who presides 
over the other bishops of a province. In 
the Eomish Church it is used as synonymous 
with an archbishop. In England, the arch- 
bishops of Canterbury and York are both 
metropolitans. In the Greek Church it is 
applied only to a bishop whose see is a civil 
metropolis. This, it is probable, was the ear- 
liest use of the word, those bishops being ex- 
clusively so termed who presided over the 
principal town of a district or province. 
The title was not in use before the Council 
of Nice, in the fourth century. To these 
metropolitans was conceded the superintend- 
ence over all ecclesiastical affairs of the prov- 
ince to which their metropolis belonged. It 
is not improbable that the power of the met- 
ropolitans would have become excessive had 
it not been checked by the rise of the patri- 
archal system, which gave to the metropoli- 
tans a subordinate place, 

Mioah {tvho like Jehovah?), 1. A man of 
Mount Ephraim who set up images in his 
house, and hired a wandering Levite to be 
his priest. All were stolen from him by a 
troop of lawless Danites. This transaction 
must have occurred in early times, as there 
is reason to believe that the Levite was no 
distant descendant of Moses. [ Judg. xvii. ; 
xviii.] 

2, A prophet. He was a native of Mo- 
resheth, which some take to be the same as 
Mareshah :^ but it is rather the town called 



I Mic. i., 15. 



MICHAEL 



615 



MICHAL 



Moresheth-gath/ which was situated west 
of Jerusalem, not far from the border of the 
country of the Philistines. Micah flourish- 
ed during the reigns of Jotham, Ahaz, and 
Hezekiah,^ B.C. 757-699. There is also a pos- 
itive statement to his having prophesied in 
the days of Hezekiah.^ He must, therefore, 
have been contemporary with Isaiah and 
Hosea, and should not be confounded with 
Micaiah, son of Imlah,* who flourished up- 
ward of a hundred years before the reign of 
Jotham. Some place the period of his min- 
istry in the time of Manasseh, but the unre- 
strained license given to idolatry in the reign 
of Ahaz will sufficiently account for the nu- 
merous gross and crying evils for which Mi- 
cah reproves the Jews, without having re- 
course to the atrocities perpetrated in that 
of Manasseh. The prophecies of Micah are 
directed partly against Judah, and partly 
against Israel ; but by far the greater num- 
ber are of the former description. He pre- 
dicts the destruction of the kingdom of Is- 
rael, and of Samaria, its capital ; the desola- 
tion of Jerusalem by the Chaldeans, and the 
consequent cax)tivity of the Jews ; the res- 
toration of the Jewish state ; the successes 
of the Maccabees, and the advent and reign 
of the Messiah. He also administers reproof 
to different ranks and conditions of men, and 
furnishes some striking rei>resentations of 
the divine character. His style is concise, 
perspicuous, nervous, vehement, and ener- 
getic, and in many instances equals that of 
Isaiah in boldness and sublimity. He is 
rich and beautiful in the varied use of trop- 
ical language, preserves a pure and classical 
diction, is regular in the formation of his 
parallelisms; and exhibits a roundness in 
the construction of his periods which is not 
surpassed by his more celebrated contempo- 
rary. Both in administering threatenings 
and communicating promises, he evinces 
great tenderness, and shows that his mind 
was deeply aftectedby the subjects of which 
he treats. In his appeals, he is lofty and 
energetic. His description of the character 
of Jehovah is unrivaled by any contained 
elsewhere in the Scripture.^ Several proph- 
ecies in Micah and Isaiah are remarkably 
parallel with each other; and there is fre- 
quently an identity of expression which can 
only be accounted for on the ground of their 
being contemporaneous writers, who were 
not strangers to each other's prophecies, and 
their having, in a great measure, had the 
same subjects for the themes of their min- 
istry. 

Michael, an archangel referred to in the 
O. T. only in Daniel. In the N. T., in Jude 
and Revelation, as Gabriel represents the 
ministration of the angels toward man, so 
Michael is the leader of their strife, in God's 

1 Mic. i., 14.— 2 Mic. i., 1.— ^ Jer. xxvi., 18.— * 1 Kings 
xxii., 8. The name, however, is the same.— ^ Mic. vii,, 
S-20. 



name and his strength, against the power of 
Satan. In the O. T., therefore, he is the 
guardian of the Jewish people in their an- 
tagonism to godless power and heathenism. 
In the N. T. he fights in heaven against the 
dragon — ^' that old serpent called the Devil 
and Satan, which deceiveth tlie whole world f^ 
and so takes part in that struggle, which is 
the work of the Church on earth. [Dan. x., 
13, 21 ; xii., 1 ; Jude 9 ; Rev. xii., 7.] 

Michal {wlio like God f), the younger of 
Saul's two daughters. The king had pro- 
posed to bestow on David his eldest daugh- 
ter Merab (q. v.) ; but, before the marriage 
could be arranged, an unexpected tui-n was 
given to the matter by the behavior of Mi- 
chal, who fell violently in love with the 
young hero. The marriage with her elder 
sister was at once put aside. Saul eagerly 
caught at the opportunity which the change 
afforded htm of exposing his rival to the risk 
of death. The price fixed on Michal's hand 
was no less than the slaughter of a hundred 
Philistines. David, by a brilliant feat, 
doubled the tale of victims, and Michal be- 
came his wife. The sincerity of her affec- 
tion was soon put to the proof. Saul deter- 
mined on the death of David, whose con- 
tinued successes had aroused his jealousy, 
and he sent a band of armed men to assassi- 
nate him. They encircled the whole house, 
yelling like a pack of Eastern dogs.^ Michal 
was equal to the emergency. She let her 
husband down over the wall, put the image 
of the household god in his bed,'^ covered its 
head with a net of goat's hair, a common 
protection from gnats, and when the king's 
officers entered the house to arrest David, 
she reported him as sick. Saul's impatient 
revenge could not wait. He ordered his en- 
emy, sick or well, to be brought to him to 
be slain by his own hand, and, when the de- 
vice Avas discovered, was only restrained 
from avenging himself on his daughter by 
her story that her husband had compelled 
her co-operation by threatening to kill her. 
Completely to dissever the only link which 
bound him to the house of Jesse, Saul com- 
pelled Michal to marry Phaltiel, of whom we 
know nothing more than that he was the 
son of Laish of Gallim, and loved his wife 
with devoted affection.^ Fourteen years 
elapsed before David saw her again ; but not 
all his intermediate adventures nor his new 
wives could drive from his mind the bride 
of his youth. The fiirst condition he insist- 
ed upon, in his treaty with Abner after the 
death of Saul, was that Michal should be re- 
turned to him. But those fourteen years 
had altered both him and her ; the old love 
could never be made to recover its lost 
bloom ; she had inherited something of her 
father's hot and hasty temper ; and her bitter 
taunt, on the occasion of his joining as a dan- 



1 Psa. lix.— 2 See Teeapuim.— 3 1 Sam. xxv., 44; 2 
Sam. iii.,15, 16. 



MICHMASH 



616 



MILETUS 



cer in the procession wliicli accompanied the 
ark from Kirjath-jearim to Jerusalem, pro- 
voked from David the indignant reply which 
put an end to all intercourse between them. 
In 2 Sam. xxi., 8, her name appears as the 
mother of five of the grandchildren of Saul. 
But it is probahly more correct to substitute 
Merab for Michal in this place.^ Josephus 
intimates that she returned to Phaltiel — a 
statement which is not, however, credible. 
[1 Sam. xix., 12-17 ; xxv., 44 ; 2 Sam. iii., 13- 
16 ; vi., 16, 20-23 ; 1 Chron. xv., 29.] 

Michmash {hidden), called also Michmas,^ 
a town known to us almost solely by its 
connection with the war of Saul and Jona- 
than (q. V.) with the Philistines. It has 
been identified with the modern Muldemas, a 
village about seven miles north of Jerusa- 
lem, on the northern edge of the great Wady 
Suweinet, which forms the main pass of 
communication between the central high- 
lands on which the village stands aud the 
Jordan Valley at Jericho. Immediately fa- 
cing MuMemas, on the opposite side of the 
ravine, is the modern representative of Geba 
(q. V.) ; and behind this, again, are Eamah 
and Gibeah — all memorable names in the 
struggle which has immortalized Michmash. 
Bethel is about four miles north of Mich- 
mash, and the interval is filled up by the 
heights known in Scripture as Mount Beth- 
el.^ Immediately below the village the 
great wady spreads out to a considerable 
width — perhaps half a mile ; and its bed is 
broken up into an intricate mass of hum- 
mocks and mounds, some two of which, be- 
fore the torrents of 3000 winters had reduced 
and rounded their forms, were probably the 
two "teeth of rock" — the Bozezand Senehof 
Jonathan's adventure. See Jonathan. [1 
Sam. xiii. ; xiv.] 

Midian (strife), one of the sons of Abra- 
ham by Keturah. He had five sons; but 
little can be ascertained respecting them. 
Midian must soon have multiplied into a 
tribe or nation, as in the lifetime of Jacob 
we find Midianite merchants conducting car- 
avans through Palestine into Egypt. These 
probably lived to the east of the Jordan, 
near to the Moabitish territory ; for a defeat 
of Midian by one of the early Edomitish 
kings is said to have been " in the field of 
Moab ;" and they afterward acted in conjunc- 
tion with the Moabites against Israel. They 
seem to have been an agricultural and no- 
madic people, and to have occupied a portion 
of Arabia Petrsea near to Egypt ; for Moses 
fled into Midian, and married there the daugh- 
ter of Jethro, their priest, or prince, whose 
flocks he tended. [Gen. xxv., 2, 4; xxxvi., 
35; xxxvii., 28, 36; Exod. ii., 15-22; iii., 1; 
xviii., 1-6, 27; 1 Kings xi., 17, 18.] 

The Midianites joined with Moab in in- 
viting Balaam to curse the tribes of Israel ; 



1 See, however, Meraij.— ^ Ezra ii., 27.-3 1 Sam. 
xiii., 2. 



and though that project failed, they were 
more successful in alluring the Israelites into 
debauchery and idol- worship. For this a 
fearful vengeance was exacted from Midian. 
They were governed, it would seem, by sev- 
eral chiefs, and were apparently under some 
sort of vassalage to the Amoritish king Sihon, 
into whose country their settlements extend- 
ed. In later times, in conjunction with the 
Amalekites, they overran Palestine, pene- 
trating to the Philistine plain with their 
cattle and tents, as if to establish themselves 
there. Seven years they prevailed against 
Israel, till Gideon so entirely defeated them, 
in a victory long after referred to by Hebrew 
writers, that we read little more of them in 
the sacred history. They were a wealthy 
and commercial people, and, like the neigh- 
boring Moabites, worshiped Baal-peor. They 
were probably, in after-times, comprehended 
under the general name of Arabians. [Numb. 
xxv. ; xxxi. ; Josh, xiii.', 21 ; Judg. vi. ; vii. ; 
viii. ; Psa. Ixxxiii., 9 ; Isa. ix., 4 ; Ix., 6.] 

Migdol (tower, castle), the name of one or 
two places on the frontier of Egypt. A Mig- 
dol is mentioned in the account of the Exo- 
dus, the site of which was evidently near the 
arm of the Red Sea. A town of the same 
name, but probably another place, is spoken 
of by Jeremiah and Ezekiel. The latter 
prophet mentions it as a boundary -town, ev- 
idently on the eastern border, corresponding 
to Syeue (q. v.), on the southern. In the 
prophecy of Jeremiah the Jews in Egypt are 
spoken of as dwelling at Migdol, which, it is 
evident, was an important town. The Itiner- 
ary of Antoninus mentions a Magdolo twelve 
Roman miles to the southward of Pelusium, 
on the route from the Serapeum to that town ; 
most probably the Migdol of Jeremiah and 
Ezekiel. Its position on the route to Pales- 
tine would make it both strategically impor- 
tant and populous. Further traces of Mig- 
dol are found in Egyptian writings and 
charts, which mention a Miktal as one of the 
stations of one of the Pharaohs on his return 
from Asia to Egypt. [Exod. xiv., 2 ; Numb, 
xxxiii., 7, 8 ; Jer. xliv., 1 ; xlvi., 14 ; Ezek. 
xxix., 10; XXX., 6.] 

Miletus, a city of Asia Minor, twenty or 
thirty nules to the south of Ephesus. It was 
the old capital of Ionia, had four havens, and 
was the mother of many colonies. Thales, 
Anaximander, and other eminent men were 
natives of this place, which had an evil rep- 
utation for licentiousness and luxury. It 
was to Miletus that St. Paul, when hastening 
to Jerusalem, summoned the elders of Ephe- 
sus, that he might give them a solemn charge. 
The remains of this city were probably ab- 
sorbed in the swamp formed bj^ the silting 
up of the Mseander ; but there are ruins still 
visible of the magnificent temple of Apollo, 
and an insignificant village, Palat, or Palat- 
sha, stands near the site of the ancient city. 
[Acts XX., 15-17.] 



MILK 



617 



MILL 



- Milk. The proper equivalent to this word 
in Hebrew is chdlah, which denotes milk in a 
sweet and fresh condition. Milk in a sour, 
or in a coagulated state, went by the name 
cJiemah, in our Bible translated ''butter " 
(q. v.). From the earliest times milk has 
always formed an important article of diet 
among the people of the East, especially 
among such as follow pastoral occupations ; 
and they have been accustomed to derive it 
from sheep and goats, and even from camels, 
fully as much as from cows. The proportion 
which fresh milk held in the dietary of the 
Hebrews must not, however, be measured by 
the comparative frequency with which the 
word occurs in the Scripture ; because in the 
greater number of examples it is emx)loyed 
tiguratively, and in many instances it is used 
as a general term for all or any of the prej)- 
arations from it. In its figurative sense, the 
word occurs as the sign of abundance, and "a 
land flowing with milk aud honey " is a com- 
mon expression for a land of great natural fer- 
tility. Sometimes, however, abundance of 
milk or butter, which implies a state of pas- 
turage rather than of vine aud corn cultiva- 
tion, is employed to indicate comparative des- 
olation, or thinness of inhabitants.^ More 
specifically, since milk is the peculiar food of 
infants, it is used to signify elementary truths, 
and, because of its simplicity, is also taken to 
denote unadulterated doctrine; and with ref- 
erence to the generous aid to be given in the 
latter days to the true people of God by the 
world, the projjhet says, '' Thou shalt suck the 
mil»5: of the Gentiles, and shalt also suck the 
breast of kings."^ 

Mill. From the earliest times in which 
man used bread for food he must have had 
some instrument for crushiug grain. The 
most primitive method was probably that of 
bruising between stones or pounding in a mor- 
tar (q. v.). From these arose in time a bet- 
ter contrivance for grinding — the mill ; and 
mills and mortars are mentioned together in 
the account of the preparation of the manna 
for food.^ The mills spoken of in Scripture 
probably differed but little from the hand- 
mills that are at this day seen almost every- 
where in Western Asia. They consist of 
two circular stones, eighteen inches or two 
feet in diameter, fitting carefully one upon 
the other. The upper one has in it a hole 
through which the grain is introduced, and 
a wooden handle by which it is turned. 
It was probably such an upper stone, the 
rider, with which the woman of Thebes 
crushed Abimelech's head.* The lower, or 
nether, millstone is often fixed in the ground 
or floor, and a cloth is commonly laid to re- 
ceive the meal as it issues from between the 
stones. In the absence of public mills and 



1 Gen. xlix., 12 ; Exnd. iii., 8 ; Numb, xvi., 13 ; Deut. 
vi., 3 ; Isa. vii., 15, 22 : Ezek. xxv., 4 : Joel iii., 18.— 2 Isa. 
Ix., 1 6 ; 1 Cor. iii., 2 ; Heb. v., 12 ; 1 Pet. ii., 2.-3 Numb. 
xi., 8.— 4 Judg. ix.,53. 



professional bakers, the grinding corn and 
baking bread was done by each household 
for its own particular use. Like other do- 
mestic labors, grinding was thrown upon 
the women, or, as it was severe and monot- 
onous labor, upon slaves, such as captives in 
war. Yet even in this latter case there seems 
to have been a tendency to commit the work 




Eastern Hand-mill. 

of the mill to females. Hence the degrading 
punishment which Job, on the supposition 
of his guilt, imprecates upon himself in the 
person of his wife ; and hence the degrada- 
tion in the doom of Babylon — a doom which 
she had previously inflicted upon the young 
men of Judah." In grinding, two women sat 
facing each other ; grasping the handle of 
the upper stone, one pushed it half round, 
and then the other seized the handle. Or, 
as this would be slow work, and would give 




\1 



a spasmodic motion to the stone, both re- 
tained their hold, and pulled to or pushed 
from, as men do with the whip or cross-cut 
saw, while the one whose right hand was 
disengaged poured in the grain as it was 
wanted. The incessant daily noise of the 
grinding came to be inseparably associated 
with the very existence of the family. The 
ceasing of this sound was the sign of utter 
desolation.^ And it was on account of the 
indispensable necessity of keeping the mill 
at Avork so long as the family itself contin- 
ued to exist that the law was laid down 
in Deut. xxiv., 6 : "No man shall take the 
nether or the upper millstone to pledge ; for 
he taketh a man's life to pledge." Larger 
mills would naturally be invented with a 
view to the economy of labor, and, to drive 
these, animal strength would be certainly 
employed. In the larger Egyptian mills of 
to-day the horse is so employed, and through- 
out the East both asses and mules have been 



1 Matt, xxiv., 41 ; Judg. xvi., 21 ; Job xxxi., 10, 11; 
Isa.xlvii.,2; Exod. xi., 5.— 2 Eccles. xii., 4 ; Jer. xxv., 
10 ; Rev. xviii., 22. 



MILLENAEIANS 



618 



MILLEEITES 



alike, in classical and Jewish, authorities, as- 
sociated with this operation. It was prob- 
ably the millstone of a mill of this kind 
driven by an ass which is alluded to in Matt, 
xviii., 6. 

Millenarians (mille, one thousand, and 
anno, a year), those who believe that Christ 
will reign a thousand years with the faithful 
on the earth. This reign and emj)ire is term- 
ed the millennium, and is supposed to be 
taught in Rev. xx., 2-5. The belief is gen- 
erally held by the Christian Church, though 
widely different views are entertained re- 
garding its interpretation. 

The two leading theories under which, 
these views are ranged are — 1. the Pre- 
milleuarian ; and, 2. the Post-millenarian. 

1. The Pre-millenarian holds that Christ 
will establish a personal reign upon the earth 
of one thousand years, literal or prophetic ; 
that the government of the world will be 
purely theocratic ; that at his coming the 
wicked inhabitants of the earth will be cut 
off — the first resurrection take place, in which 
the righteous dead will be raised, and, with 
the righteous living at the time of the Ad- 
vent, remain with Christ on the earth ; that 
universal peace will prevail, the groans of 
creation cease, disease and suffering be re- 
moved, death be unknown, and the people 
constituting the great nation of God live in 
uninterrupted happiness ; that at the expi- 
ration of the one thousand years the second 
Eesurrection will occur, the wicked be raised, 
the judgment take place, and the adjust- 
ment of God's empire be finally and for- 
ever made. The theory further holds that 
tkis second Advent of Christ will be person- 
al, visible, unannounced, and unexpected; 
that it will soon take place; that it will 
find the world increased in wickedness ; that 
Christ's words inLuke xvii., 26-30, respecting 
the condition of the world in the days of Noah 
and Lot, have a literal application to his own 
second Advent ; that, so far from the world's 
being converted before his coming, he is 
gathering from out of the world a people 
unto himself, and that this separation will 
continue until the final issue. There are 
various opinions concerning the events which 
will precede the second Advent. The leading 
features are, however, that the Jews will re- 
turn to Palestine, Mohammedanism be over- 
thrown, and the Papacy be destroyed. In 
support of this doctrine, many passages from 
the Old and New Testaments are brought 
forward, embracing proj^hecies, promises, af- 
firmations, and exhortations. It is claimed 
that the doctrine is frequently employed to 
urge duties, alarm fears, awaken hopes, and 
induce a constant fitness for the approach- 
ing event. These views may be traced to 
the earliest historj'^ of the Church, and were 
advocated by the fathers up to the fourth 
century. They then declined, till the Ref- 
ormation gave them a new impulse ; since 



which time they have prevailed through the 
entire Church to a large extent. Among 
prominent men who have written in sup- 
port of Pre-millenarianism, embracing its 
general aspects, are Archbishop Usher, Bish- 
op Newton, Sir Isaac Newton, Bishop New- 
combe, Charuock, Benson, Toplady, Horsley, 
Candlish, Chalmers, Bonar, Robert Hall, Mel- 
ville, M'Cheyne, Bengel, Dean Alford, Gaus- 
sen, Bertram, Barclay, Lowrie, M'llvaine, 
Tyng, President Hopkins, Lord Duffield, 
Breckinridge, Seiss, Ramsey, Demarest, Shim- 
eal, Gordon, and many others, divines and 
laymen, in the European and American 
Church. The doctrine is not to be con- 
founded with that of the Millerites (q.v.)? 
and holds no sympathy with it. 

2. The Post-millenarian theory holds that 
the period of Christ's reign is prior to his ad- 
vent; that it is to be a spiritual, not a person- 
al kingdom ; that it wall be brought about 
by the acknowledged agencies of the Gos- 
pel; that through evangelical efforts, and 
by extending Christian intelligence, the 
world is gradually to be reformed and con- 
verted, Christianity universally accepted, 
and the nations live under Christian rule, 
and in Christian brotherhood; that wars 
will cease, wickedness yield to puritj^, and 
thus the earth be prepared for the advent of 
Christ its king ; that, finally, the Lord will 
appear, the two resurrections immediately 
take place, to be followed by the judgment, 
the punishment of the wicked, and the eter- 
nal blessedness of the righteous. Home la- 
bor and missionary efforts are directed un- 
der this inspiration, and the final issue look- 
ed for at a far-distant day. 

The first interpret the prophecies concern- 
ing Christ's advent and kingdom literally, 
the second symbolically and spiritually; 
both claim the support of the Scriptui'es 
and ancient authority, and equal stimulus 
for evangelical work. 

Millerites, a sect so named from their 
founder, William Miller ; they are also term- 
ed, from their doctrines, Second Adventists. 
William Miller was born in Massachusetts, 
in 1781, and died in New York, in 1849. He 
never received a theological education ; but 
in 1833 he began to lecture on the prophe- 
cies, announcing the second coming of Christ 
and the destruction of the world in 1843. 
His earnestness and evident sincerity at- 
tracted many foUow^ers. He traveled from 
place to place preaching his doctrines, and 
with so great success that his followers 
numbered at one time from 30,000 to 50,000, 
and embraced disciples not only in the 
United States, but also in British America 
and Great Britain. Probably a much larger 
number were attracted to his preaching, and 
interested in it, and became partial converts 
to the doctrine of an immediate coming of 
Christ. But the failure of his predictions, 
though it has not dissipated completely the 



MILLET 



619 



MIRACLE-PLAYS 



faith of the sect, brought its doctrines into 
disrepute, and compelled a modification of 
the interpretation of the jjrophecies. At the 
present time, the sect, though it still exists, 
and publishes a weekly newspaper, and holds 
occasional camp-meetings, numbers but very 
few adherents. See Mlllenarians. 

Millet. The word so rendered in Ezek. 
iv., 9, is derived from a root signifying, in 
Arabic, to smoke. There can be no doubt 
that by it is meant some species of millet, of 
which several kinds are cultivated in Italy, 
Syria, and Egypt. Among these is the In- 
dian millet — sorghum — which is a beautiful 
grass, more nearly allied to the sugar-cane 
than to the true cereals. This and the com- 
mon millet, which is plentiful, are used part- 
ly as green fodder and partlj^ for the grain, 
which is of a dark smoky color, and of which 
bread, pottage, etc., are made. 

Mine, Mining. That there was ancient- 
ly a considerable knowledge of the modes of 
procuring metals from the earth, is sufficient- 
ly clear from Job xxviii., 1-11. It is equally 
clear that the nations with which the He- 
brews came continually in contact were fa- 
miliar with mining operations. Traces of 
ancient mines and mining are still found, 
and the monuments and ancient histories 
exhibit the life of the miners of that age. 
The miners worked almost naked, under- 
ground, depending for light upon a candle 
fastened to their heads, breaking the metal 
from the rock with picks, and sometimes by 
the application of tire, pounding up the oar 
in mortars with a pestle, and separating the 
metal from the oar by means of water. In 
a word, the mining operations of to-day are 
copied from those of ancient times, the im- 
provements being rather in matters of detail 
than in the essential principles of the art. 
How far mining was known to or practiced 
by the Hebrews is, however, very uncertain. 



See, for different metals, under their respect- 
ive titles. 

Minister, one who acts in subordination 
to another. It is employed in the O. T. in 
this general sense. In the N. T. it is used in 
a general way to designate those that serve 
in the Church, sometimes indicating a sub- 
ordinate official, and sometimes the apostles 
and other preachers, and even Christ himself. 
In modern language the term minister is used 
to signify an ordained clergyman, and minis- 
try to signify his office. See Clergy. [Exod. 
xxiv., 13 ; 1 Kings x., 5 ; Luke i., 2 ; iv., 20 ; 
Acts xiii., 5 ; Heb. viii., 2.] 

Mint, a well-known herb much used in 
domestic economy. The Jews are said to 
have scattered it, on account of its pleasant 
smell, on the floors of their houses and syn- 
agogues. Any one who is acquainted with 
our own spear-mint, or peppermint, will have 
a notion sufficiently exact of the sweet-scent- 
ed herb which grew in Hebrew gardens. See 
Anise. [Matt, xxiii., 23 ; Luke xi., 42.] 

Miracle-plays, a species of religious drama 
performed during the Middle Ages. They 
are also termed mysteries, perhaps from the 
ancient Greek mysteries (q. v.) and moralities. 
Strictly speaking, the miracle -plays were 
founded on ecclesiastical legends, the mys- 
teries on Biblical subjects, while the moral- 
ities were allegorical. But this distinction 
in nomenclature is not very accurately ob- 
served. These plays were originally design- 
ed as a means of instructing the people, and 
were performed in tlie churches, the clergy 
and choristers being the chief performers. 
They rapidly degenerated, however, into a 
species of scandalously irreverent buffoonery. 
From being employed as a means of instruc- 
tion, they were converted into a means of 
amusement ; from being enacted by the cler- 
gy in the churches, they came to be perform- 
ed by strolling and vagabond players on tem- 




Pharisees. Ano;el Gabrit 

Characters in ancient Christmas-plays. 



MIRACLE-PLAYS 



620 



MIRACLE-PLAYS 




MIRACLE-PLAYS 



621 



MIRACLES 



porary aud i)ortable stages constructed on 
wheels. The lengths to which these per- 
formances were carried surpasses credence. 
No subject was deemed too sacred to be 
chosen as a theme, no subject too holy to be 
represented. Heaven was depicted, in which 
the Father was seen surrounded by his holy 
angels. Hell was portrayed by a dark aud 
yawning cavern, from which issued hideous 
bowlings as of tormented souls, but whence 
also, with a curious inconsistency, came the 
jesters and buffoons of the sacred drama. 
Not only were all the Scripture characters 
freely introduced, but angels, archangels, Lu- 
cifer, Satan, Beelzebub, Belial, and even the 
three persons of the Holy Trinity. Some of 
these dramas lasted for a number of days, one 
of them covering the whole period of time 
from the creation of the Avorld to the last 
judgment. When at length the efforts of 
the clergy succeeded in putting a check to 
mysteries and miracle-plays, they were fol- 
lowed by the moralities, in which virtue, 
vice, death, sin, etc., were allegorically rep- 
resented. These, which were very popular 
in England during the reigns of Henry VII. 
aud VIII., were the immediate precursors of 
the regular drama. 

While they were still permitted, mysteries 
and miracle-plays were equally popular in 
France, Germany, Spain, Italy, and England, 
though the forms were somewhat different 
in these different nations. In France, a cel- 
ebrated fraternity, called the Confrere de la 
Passion, obtained a monopoly for the per- 
formance of mysteries and miracle - plays, 
which they enacted on a scale that in those 
days appeared grand, though nothing could 
preserve such scenes from an appearance of 
grotesqueness to the modern mind. In the 
Alpine districts of Germany, miracle-plays 
were composed and acted by the peasants, 
and, in their union of simplicity with high- 
wrought feeling, were most characteristic of 
a people in whom the religious and dramatic 
element are both so largely developed. In 
England they continued to be occasionally 
performed in the times of James I. and 
Charles I.; and it is well known that the 
first sketch of Milton's ''Paradise Lost" was 
a sacred drama, where the opening speech 
was Satan's address to the sun. A degen- 
erate relic of the miracle-play may yet be 
traced in some remote districts of England, 
where the story of St. George, the Dragon, 
and Beelzebub is rudely represented by the 
jjeasantry. One exception was made to the 
general suppression, when throughout Ger- 
many the religious and civil authorities com- 
bined to prohibit the performance of these 
plays, which had become mixed with so much 
of evil. In 1633, the villagers of Oberammer- 
gau, in the Bavarian highlands, on the ces- 
sation of a plague which desolated the sur- 
rounding couutry, had vowed to perform ev- 
ery tenth year the Passion of our Saviour 



out of gratitude, and as a means of religious 
instruction, a vow which has ever since been 
regularly observed. The pleading of a dep- 
utation of peasants with Max-Joseph of Ba- 
varia saved their mystery from the general 
condemnation, on the condition that every 
thing that could offend good taste should be 
expunged. It was then and afterward some- 
what remodeled, and is perhaps the only 
mystery, or miracle-play, which has survived 
to the present day. The last x>erformance 
took place in 1870. The inhabitants of this 
secluded village, long noted for their skill in 
carving in wood and ivory, have a rare union 
of artistic cultivation with perfect simplici- 
ty. Their familiarity with sacred subjects 
is even beyond what is usual in the Alpine 
part of Germany, and the spectacle seems 
still to be looked on with feelings much like 
those with which it was originally conceived. 
What would elsewhere appear impious, is to 
the Alpine peasants devout and edifying. 
The person ator of Christ considers his part 
an act of religious worship ; he and the other 
principal performers are said to be selected 
for their holy life, and consecrated to their 
work with prayer. The players, about five 
hundred in number, are exclusively the vil- 
lagers, who, though they have no artistic in- 
struction except from the parish priest, act 
their parts with no little dramatic power 
aud a delicate appreciation of character. 
The N. T. narrative is strictly adhered to, 
the only legendary addition to it being the 
St. Veronica handkerchief. The acts alter- 
nate with tableaux from the O. T. and choral 
odes. Many thousands of the peasantry are 
attracted by the spectacle from all parts of 
the Tyrol and Bavaria, among whom the 
same earnest and devout demeanor prevails 
as among the performers. 

Miracles. A great deal of the discussion 
which has taken place respecting miracles 
has grown out of the fact that different 
writers have used the term in different 
senses. The differences have perhaps been 
greater in the definition of the word than in 
the opinions respecting the thing itself. Our 
first question, then, is. What is a miracle? A 
miracle being defined, we shall next consid- 
er. What are the arguments for miracles? 
and, thirdly. What is the argument from 
miracles ? Incidentally, we shall compare 
the miracles of the Bible with those of a 
later age, and observe the difference between 
them, and indicate the reason why the Prot- 
estant Church, accepting the miracles of the 
Old and New Testaments, rejects alike those 
of the Roman Catholic Church in the Mid- 
dle Ages and those of so-called Spiritualism. 

I. What is a Miracle f — In answering this 
question, we shall not go to the dictionary, 
or the books of theology. There is, in fact, 
no agreement among them. We shall go 
instead directly to the Bible. We shall not 
find there any theological definition of a 



MIRACLES 



trjv 



MIRACLES 



miracle. But Tve shall liud in the laugunge 
employed, ami iu the thiug speeitied. mare- 
rials for forming oue. Iu other words, our 
questiou is uot. What is a miracle detiued to 
be? hut. "What is the nature of those events 
which ate described iu the Bible as mira- 
cles? 

There are four terms chiedy employed iu 
the Bible iu desiguariug the events which we 
are accustomed to desiguate as miracles — 
••wondei's." ••sigus." ••powers." and ••works." 
A Biblical miracle, then, must combine the 
characteristics of these four descriptive terms. 
It must be a wonder, a sign, a power, i. t\. 
the evidence of a power, and a work. It is 
a •• wonder." i. t\. it is something out of the 
ordiuary course of natm-e. something to ex- 
cite attention and compel investigation. To 
a marvelous degree the mii-acles of the Bi- 
ble have accomplished this. They have, 
from the days of Christ to the present day. 
compelled an amoim^t of consideration and 
discussion which the teachings of Christ 
alone could uot have elicited, and so have 
served to compel the world to attend also to 
the moral and spiritual instructions which 
accompany them. It is. iu the second place, 
a •• sign." /.(".. a token and evidence of the 
near presence and peculiar power of God. 
It is not every wonder which is a miracle, 
but only such as by their nature compel the 
mind to recognize iu them an evidence of di- 
vine power. This fact is necessary to be 
borne in mind in compariug the miracles of 
the Bible with those of other eras. The Bi- 
ble miracles are also ••powers" and '• works." 
/. €., works of such, a character as carry with 
them the evidence of divine power. We 
may. then, combine these four words and say 
that every Biblical miracle is a iconder. i. e.. 
an event calculated to produce wonder and 
compel inquiry iu the human mind, employ- 
ed as a sign. i. e.. in attestation of some di- 
vine truth or diviue authority, its nature 
being such as to lead irresistibly to the con- 
clusion that it is the icorl- of a great poirer. 
greater than human, and other than that 
which ordinarily operates through nature. 

In ^-iew of this definition, two remarks are 
to be made before we pass to consider either 
the evidences for or those from the miracles. 

(a.) Ute miracle is not necessarily a violation 
of the laics of nature. It is often so termed 
by skeptical writers. A large part of the 
common arguments against miracles are 
founded on the supposed impossibility of 
any infraction of nature's laws. It is said 
that all science shows nature to be inviola- 
ble : shows that all her laws and operations 
are so linked together, that a violation of 
oue would necessarily throw the whole sys- 
tem into disorder. It is said that our expe- 
rience of nature's uuiformity is such, that 
no testimony can countervail it: that, in oth- 
er words, human evidence is more likely to 
be wronsr. than nature out of her course. It 



is said that God himself is absolute and 
uuchaugeable : and to suppose that he has 
made certain laws Ibr the goverument of his 
univei-se. and then has in special instances 
interfered and set them aside in order to ac- 
complish his work, is to attribute to him ig- 
, norance and lack of foresight: is to suppose 
that he has been an imskillful workman, 
and needs to readjust the mechanism which 
; he has made, because it was in some re- 
spects imperfect. Such arguments carry no 
inconsiderable weight against any doctrine 
; of miracles which involves a violation, or 
even direct suspension of the laws of na- 
; ture. But it is evideut. if our statement of 
I the Bible phraseology be correct, that it 
does not affect in the slightest degree the 
credibility of the Biblical miracles. Even 
if science and experience satisfied us that 
God never does interfere to set aside the laws 
of nature, and never has done so. it does not 
follow that he may not interfere to use them 
in a higher and grander way than man can 
ever do. A use of natiu-e may be as great a 
wonder, and as great a sign of divine power, 
j as a violence of nature. ]Miracles are iu- 
\ deed supernatural, i. e.. above nature. But 
they are uot contra-natural, i. e.. against na- 
j ture. 

On the contrary, the mh'acles of the Bible 
! appear to be. for the most part, in accord- 
i auce with natural law. though of a charac- 
; ter such as demonstrates a wisdom and pow- 
, er far superior to man's employment of nat- 
lu-al law. The progress of the Israelites 
from Egypt to Canaan was marked by a suc- 
, cession of miracles of the most extraordina- 
j ry kind. It is impossible to read the histo- 
: ry of that period, in their national life, and 
; not feel that every step of their way gave 
some new evidence of the presence of a divine 
guardian and giiide. But the most remark- 
able miracles of that miraculous period in 
, their history were not violations of the law 
' of nature. Their passage of the Eed Sea^ was 
miraculous, but it was accomplished by a di- 
vine and superuatm-al employment of natu- 
ral means. '"And the Lord caused the sea 
to go back ly a strong east wind all that night, 
and made the sea dry land, and the waters 
I were divided."' Manna (q. t.) falls in the 
Arabian desert from heaven to the present 
day : and the people gather it. and believe 
that the Lord has sent it. They are right ; 
though how and whence he brings it to 
, them science has now disclosed. The mir- 
acle of the manna lay in the miraculous 
' amount sufficient for the supply of so great 
a host. Xature was not violated, nor her 
laws set aside. Only in a wondrous way 
her powers were employed : a way so won- 
drous and so beneficent that the dullest 
mind could not but recog-nize in it the hand 
of God. One of the most miraculous events 
recorded iu the 0. T. is the destruction of 
1 See ExoDCS. 



MIRACLES 



C23 



MIRACLES 



Sodom and Gomorrah : but it "was accom- 
plished not by a violation, but by an em- 
ployment, of natural Invr, as Dr. Eobinson, in 
his •'•' Biblical Researches," has very clearly 
shown/ Something of the same character 
belongs to the X. T. miracles. We know far 
less concerning the laws of the human frame 
than concerning those of the outer world. 
But we know that in many cases Christ em- 
jiloyed means. He commanded the x>^ra- 
lytic to stretch forth his withered hand: he 
put clay and spittle on the eyes of the blind 
man ; he touched the eyes of others : he de- 
clared in one case that virtue had gone out 
of him — as though some subtle, mysterious 
X>ower passed from him to the object of his 
compassion. We know too little of the na- 
ture of the human body, and of the jjossible 
effect of one organization ui>on another, to 
say that these miracles were in accordance 
with a natural law, but we also know too 
little to assert that any of them violated 
natural law. We only know, and that is 
enough, that they demonstrate the exist- 
ence in Christ of a power more than hu- 
man ; know that it is not in the jKjwer of 
any man, not himself endowed with divine 
X»owers from on high, to heal the jjaralytic 
by a command, or the blind by a touch. 

Take, for examjde, the grandest of aU the ' 
miracles of either the 0. T. or the X. T. — ' 
the resurrection of Lazarus from the dead. 
That resurrection was not. could not, be due ' 
to natural causes. It was no case of syn- 
cope : it was no case of fraud.^ And one 
who had lain four days in the grave — ^long 
enough to warrant the belief that corruj)- 
tion had already set in — could not be re- : 
s-tored to life by any natural and ordinary 
means. But neither was his resurrection a 
violation of the laws of nature. On the con- 
trary, all Christians believe in a universal 
resurrection. They believe that the hour is 
coming '-'when the dead shall hear the voice 
of the Son of God : and they that hear shall 
live.'' They believe that this universal res- 
urrection will take jdace in accordance with 
some universal x>rovision of divine grace. 
i. e.. some general law not now understood. ' 
Christ did, in Lazarus's case, but antedate 
this grand event. He did not violate law : 
he understood and u-sed it before the hour 
of its general operation. . 

A miracle does not, then, necessarily in- 
volve a violation of the laws of nature, 
though it is perhaps too much to say that it 
is a divine use of the laws of nature. We 
do not know enough about either the nature 
of the miracle, or of natural law. to say 
which it is. It is enough to know that any 
wonder which is of itself of such a nature, 
and accompanies such religious teaching as 
to constitute a divine attestation of some 
truth, or some person charged with a divine 
commission, is accounted a miracle in the Bi- 



See CixrES of ths Pl^es. 



S-e LaZa-:' 



ble, which draws no nice distinction between 
nature and the supernatural, and makes no 
attempt to define with philosophical accura- 
cy the miraculous events which it de»cril>es 
so fully and with such care. It should be 
added that, while the skeptics have generally 
accejited Hume's definition of the miracle as 
"a violation of a law of nature,*' because it 
affords an easy object of attack, the Church 
has never accej^ted it. It is true that .some 
Christian writers have adopted it. But a» 
early as the beginning of the fifth century, 
it was distinctly and emjjhatically rej^udi- 
ated by Augustine, who may be regarded 
fairly as not only an oithodox teacher, but 
as, in some sense, the father, in the Church 
of the orthodox creed., and who ASTote : '"'We 
are wont to say that all miracles and won- 
ders are contrary to nature : but they are 
not. For how can that which occurs by the 
will of God be contrary to nature, when the 
will of God itself constitutes the nature of 
every thing that exists ? The miracle, con- 
sequently, does not take i>lace contrary to 
universal nature, but contrary only to na- 
ture 80 far as it is kriown to us." 

(b.) A true miracle is always a sign, i. e., al- 
ways in attestation of some dicine truth, or teaeh- 
er. While miracles are attacked directly 
on the one side by those who deny that there 
is or can be any thing sujjematural, they 
are indirectly attacked on the other by thos-e 
who ranltiiAy pseudo-miTSLfAts to such an ex- 
tent as to bring the real ones into disreimte. 
Men ask the question why it is that we ac- 
cept the miracles of the 0. T. and the S. T., 
and reject those of the heathen religions, 
those of the Church of the medigeval ages, 
those of modem Spiritualism. Why do one 
class of wonders find ready credence, while 
the others are instantly, and without exami- 
nation, rejected ? The reason is, that these 
^>*eMc?o-wonders are seen at once to belong 
in a different category from those of tbe Bi- 
ble. They lack one of the chief character- 
istics of the Biblical miracles — that which 
gives them their hold ujjon the mind and 
heart of the Christian world. 

For neither the Bible nor the Christian 
Church recognizes e^'try wonder as a mira- 
cle. It is not even enough that the work 
wrought apjiears to indicate the existence 
of some suj>ematural jjower. The Istaelites 
were distinctly and rei>eatedly warned in 
the O. T. that they were not to be led by 
any wonders, or supernatural signs, to de- 
part from the worship of the true God. The 
danger of this was accounted so considera- 
ble, that Ofod gave them a S7>ecial statute 
to the effect that, if a XJroi»het or dreamer 
gave a sign or wonder which afterward 
came to fiass, as his indorsement for teach- 
ing them to go after other gods, not only 
they were not to follow him, but they were 
to i»ut him to death.^ So the magicians are 
1 Dent, xiii., l-o. 



MIRACLES 



624 



MIRACLES 



represented as working at first the same 
portents as Moses and Aaron. It is imma- 
terial, in this connection, to inquire whether 
they really did accomplish the wonders at- 
tributed to them by diabolical agency, or 
only appeared to do so. In either case, their 
work was, to those who witnessed it, a won- 
der, and apparently the work of a supernat- 
ural power ; but it was not a sign of divine 
truth or divine authority, because it accom- 
panied no such, inculcations of truth and 
duty — the worship of the one true God, and 
the liberty of the human race — as did the 
otherwise somewhat similar miracles of Mo- 
ses and Aaron. So, in the N. T., Christ speaks 
of the Pharisees casting out devils, and ap- 
parently recognizes their power so to do, 
without, however, in any degree intimating 
that they wrought miracles in so doing. 
Mere wonders are not, then, evidences of di- 
vine authority. But when they accompany 
revelations of truth and duty which com- 
mend themselves to the heart and conscience 
of mankind, when they are thus signs or at- 
testations of truth, which is also attested by 
the moral sense, then, and only then, are 
they, properly speaking, miracles. In other 
words, to the attestation of a divine truth, 
or mission, two things are necessary. First, 
we must be convinced that the truth pre- 
sented is of a character such as justifies the 
presumption that it comes of God. It must 
be pure, boly, beneficent, needful. Then 
the wonder which, accompanies and attests 
it must be of such a character as to consti- 
tute a sign of divine approval and indorse- 
ment. When these two characteristics con- 
cur, then, and tlien only, do we have a Bibli- 
cal miracle. 

Now, neither the so-called miracles of 
heathenism, of the Middle Ages, or of mod- 
ern Spiritualism, are of this character. The 
miracles of the O. T. confirmed the revela- 
tions therein made of the justice and the 
power of God ; those of the N. T., its bright- 
er revelation of his redeeming love. The 
spurious miracles of other dates and lands 
confirm nothing. They are, for the most 
part, meaningless. 

The story of the Deluge is preserved alike 
in Hebrew history and in the legends of oth- 
er nations. In the Hebrew history God di- 
rects Noah, while as yet there is no external 
sign of coming danger, to prepare for the 
flood. Noah follows the divine instructions, 
and is saved. In the Hindoo tradition Manu 
is represented as warned by a fish to build a 
ship, which is towed by the fish across the 
flood of waters, and ultimately landed on a 
mount. One is a miracle, because it teaches 
a lesson of trust in God, and attests his wis- 
dom, power, and greatness. The other at- 
tests nothing, and teaches nothing. It is a 
mere prodigy, like the wonder-tales of our 
childhood. 

Among the most notable of the modern 



miracles of the Papacy is that of the lique- 
faction of the blood of St. Januarius. The 
image of this saint is preserved in a churcb 
at Naples. Something which, the priest as- 
sures us is his blood is kept with care in a 
little phial. On the day consecrated to this 
saint this phial of blood is brought in by the 
priests and held before the bust of the saint. 
Prayer, incense, music, then follow. The 
people then cry out to the saint aloud in 
tones of entreaty, and even of despair. At 
length, according to the reports, which for 
our purpose we may assume to be true, the 
clotted blood in the vase is seen gradually to 
dissolve or liquefy. Bells are rung, and pro- 
cessions are formed in honor of the miracle, 
and the scene ends with general rejoicing. 
This may be a wonder, but it certainly is not 
a sign. It attests nothing, confirms nothing, 
accompanies and sanctions no truth, renders 
no man better or happier. The fundamental 
character of a miracle is wanting. The same 
may be said of the wonders wrought by the 
spiritualistic mediums. However wonderful 
they may appear to be, they attest nothing ; 
they accompany no disclosures of beneficent 
and needful truth ; there is nothing in them 
to make the individual or the race happier, 
or wiser, or better.^ In their very nature 
they are entirely different from the plagues 
of Egypt, by which God attested to the king 
and priests of Pharaoh that lie was God above 
all gods ; equally different from the works of 
mercy wrought by Jesus Christ, by which, in 
healing the sick and raising the dead, he at- 
tested that divine love and power which, re- 
deems the whole race from the curse of sin 
and death. The miracles of the Bible are 
never mere prodigies. They are works of 
justice or of mercy, never wrought for mere 
exhibition, always to accomplish some end 
which only a miracle could accomplish. 
Indeed Christ uniformly refused to work 
miracles for the mere purpose of exhibiting 
his power or gratifying the curiosity of the 
people. But the miracles of the heathen 
world, the mediseval Church, and modern 
Spiritualism, are only wonders; they signify 
nothing. They are wrought avowedly and 
professedly only to excite wonder. They 
are not miracles, because they are not signs. 
Witbthis explanation of the general charac- 
ter of Biblical miracles, we are to consider, 

II. The Argument for the Biblical Miracles. — 
There is a certain class of x^hilosophers who 
deny that any evidence whatever can suffice 
to prove the existence of a miracle. They 
base this opinion, first, upon what Ave have 
seen to be an erroneous definition of the mir- 
acle, as an event contrary to the laws of na- 
ture; and, second, upon an assumption, which 
is by no means true, that a violation of the 
laws of nature is inconceivable. 

In respect to this latter position, we have 
only to say that it is thoroughly and radical- 
' See Spirituai^ism. 



MIRACLES 



625 



MIRACLES 



ly unscientific. It is the business of science 
not to determine by a priori reasoning what 
the facts of life ought to be, but to ascertain 
by observation and testimony what the facts 
of life actually are, and then to classify and 
assort them, and, as far as possible, to ascer- 
tain their proximate causes. It is true that 
observation and testimony may be at fault ; 
it is true that, when they bear witness to 
extraordinary facts, their witness must be 
clear and unimpeachable ; but such testimony 
can not be refuted by any philosophical as- 
sumption that a miracle is an impossibility. 
Christians do not deny that the miracles of 
the Bible are of a nature to require an unu- 
sual amount of testimony, and testimony of 
an unusual character to authenticate them. 
But they assert that this testimony exists, 
and that, at all events, it is the duty of every 
impartial and fair-minded man to examine 
that testimony, without any previous deter- 
mination to reject the conclusions to which 
a fair consideration of its weight and char- 
acter would naturally lead him. 

A second class of skeptical writers assert, 
not that a miracle is inconceivable, but that 
it is contrary to all experience, and therefore 
to be rejected, inasmuch as the general ex- 
perience of mankind concerning the uniform- 
ity of the laws of nature is too strong to be 
counterbalanced by any testimony of wit- 
nesses to particular events, however cogent 
that testimony may appear to be. This, 
which was substantially the position of Mr. 
Hume, assumes that miracles contradict the 
universal experience of mankind, which is a 
part of the very question at issue. For the 
Christian declares that they accord with the 
experience of past ages ; and that nothing 
wanting in our present experience to con- 
firm them militates against their credibil- 
ity, since it is clear that many facts which 
contradict the experience of a particular in- 
dividual or age are accepted without hesita- 
tion on the testimony of others. Thus one 
who had lived always in a tropical climate 
would not be justified in refusing, on compe- 
tent testimony, to believe in the freezing of 
water because its solidification was contrary 
to his experience. One who had for years 
watched the growth of a century-plant would 
not be justified in refusing to believe that it 
ever blossomed because no blossoms had come 
upon it during his lifetime. 

A third class of writers neither deny the 
possibility of the miracles, nor the possibili- 
ty of adequately authenticating them ; but 
they assert that, in point of fact, the evi- 
dence is not sufficient to sustain them. They 
say that the progress of science has disclosed 
to us the occult causes of many phenome- 
na hitherto supposed to be supernatural — 
eclipses, earthquakes, thunder-storms, and 
similar events ; that it has led to a general 
disbelief in fairies, witches, and evil spirits ; 
that it has indicated more and mqre the uni- 
40 



formity of nature ; and that this progress 
has been so marked that it is reasonable to 
assume that, if the miracles of the Bible 
could be subjected to the scrutiny of mod- 
ern investigation, they would be shown to 
be natural phenomena. This is the posi- 
tion, on the whole, most common in the 
skeptical world to-day. That miracles are 
inconceivable, is a position founded, at the 
best, on a false definition of miracles as a 
violation of the laws of nature, and unscien- 
tific and untenable, even if that definition 
were true. That they are so contrary to 
the experience of mankind that they can 
not be authenticated, is equally untenable ; 
since it assumes either that our experience 
covers all knowledge and all phenomena — 
an assumption evidently false — or that they 
are contrary to the experience of other ages 
of the world, which assumes the very point 
in question. The credibility of the Biblical 
miracles, then, is to be determined as the 
credibility of any other events recorded in 
history. We have therefore concerning them 
only two questions to ask: 1. Did the events 
narrated really occur ? 2. How may we ac- 
count for these events ? 

1. In respect to the first question, we may 
here assume that we now have the narra- 
tive of the sacred writers substantially as 
they were penned by them, since the authen- 
ticity of these narratives has been sufficient- 
ly discussed elsewhere.^ Assuming this, have 
we sufficient evidence to warrant our be- 
lieving that the events which they record 
occurred as they are recorded ? Four con- 
siderations have conspired to lead the great 
mass of mankind who have inquired into 
this subject to answer in the affirmative. 

Their honesty it is impossible to doubt. 
Their lives, their sufferings in attestation of 
the truths to which they witnessed, and the 
purity of the doctrines which they preach- 
ed, combine to take them out of the cate- 
gory of deceivers. They testified to their 
sincerity by their martyrdom in a great ma- 
jority of cases. They had every opportuni- 
ty to investigate. The miracles which they 
have recorded were all performed in the 
presence of disinterested witnesses, many of 
them before the most violent and implacable 
foes, nearly all of them in public, in the 
light of day, without preparation, and with- 
out mechanism. 

The phenomena themselves were such as 
admitted of no doubt, and required no scien- 
tific scrutiny. They were of such a charac- 
ter that the testimony of plain and unlet- 
tered men is just as conclusive as that of 
experts. There was no room to question 
whether Jesus fed the four thousand at the 
Sea of Galilee or not, whether he healed the 
leper by a touch or whether the disease re- 
mained, whether the blind man by the gates 
of Jericho was really blind, and whether Laz- 



1 See Bible, and articles there referred to. 



MIRACLES 



626 



MIRACLES 



arus was really dead. Still less was there 
any room to doubt whether Israel escaped 
across the Red Sea by a miracle or by a 
natural ford. If we have the narrative of 
the writer, and he was an eye-witness, it 
is impossible to question the nature of 
the phenomenon unless we deny his verac- 
ity.^ 

In the case of the N. T., these miracles 
were recorded not by superstitious and cred- 
ulous persons, but by men whom Christ con- 
tinually reproached for their unbelief. They 
never comprehended Christ while he lived ; 
they had no anticipation of his resurrection 
after his death ; their final faith was wrought 
in them by the most convincing proofs, and 
despite incredulity which nothing but invin- 
cible evidence could overcome.^ 

Their testimony was not called in ques- 
tion till long after their death. Neither the 
Pharisees nor the early heathen denied or 
doubted the events recorded. They sought 
other explanations of the phenomena whose 
existence they could not deny. The Phari- 
sees attributed them to evil spirits, the Jew- 
ish rabbis to the possession by Christ of the 
incommunicable name,^ the heathen writers 
to magic. It was not till the third century 
after Christ's death that the credibility of 
the narratives and the supernatural char- 
acter of the events recorded was doubted 
by the most bitter opponents of Christian- 
ity. 

In all these four respects, the reader will 
observe a marked contrast between the Bib- 
lical miracles and those of the Papacy and 
of modern Spiritualism. The Roman Cath- 
olic priest builds his supremacy upon the 
miracles of his Church, and the traveling 
medium makes his wonders a source of profit 
to himself. The prodigies of both priest and 
medium are performed under circumstances 
which forbid investigation. They are of a 
character which provokes doubt, and often 
ridicule, by their insignificance. They uni- 
formly require preparation, generally some 
special mechanism; and there has never 
been a time when the pseudo-miracles of the 
Roman Catholic Church have not been ques- 
tioned by honest and fearless men in the 
communion of that Church, and openly and 
publicly repudiated by sober and impartial 
witnesses without it ; while the great mass 
of those who have seen or read of the mod- 
ern spiritual miracles, unhesitatingly at- 
tribute them to other than supernatural 
causes. 

2. It remains, then, only to ask, How are 
the phenomena recorded in the Bible, and 
generally regarded as miraculous, to be ac- 
counted for ? Granted that the narratives 
are credible and authentic, that the Biblical 



1 See Lazarus.— 2 Mark ix., 32; xvi., 10, 11, 13, 14; 
Luke ii., 50 ; ix., 45 ; xxiv., 11, 12, 25-28, 38, 39, 44 ; John 
viii., 27; X., 6; xx., 3-10, 11-18, 24-29. Compare art. 
on Resueeection.— 3 See Magic. 



; events actually occurred as narrated, can 
philosophy account for them by any other 
hypothesis than that of Nicodemus, " No man 
can do these miracles that thou doest, except 
God be with him." Attempts have been 
made to explain these miracles, in whole or 
in part, upon natural principles, to show 
that they are not of a supernatural charac- 
ter. This attempt especially characterizes 
a certain class of critics on the N. T. Thus 
Dr. Schenkel, in his " Character of Jesus," 
supposes that the leper was probably sub- 
stantially cured when he came to Jesus ; at- 
tributes the healing of the centurion's serv- 
ant, whom he confounds with the noble- 
man's son, to " extraordinary mental excite- 
ment," the cure of the demoniacs to the 
"pure power of his (Christ's) Spirit," and 
the healing of the woman of an issue of 
blood to " the excitement of religious feel- 
ing." Even more extraordinary is the sug- 
gestion that the water was magnetized 
which the guests took for wine, and that the 
five thousand, being spiritually satisfied by 
Christ's truth, found thereafter sufficient food 
in such supplies as they possessed, which 
seems to be intimated as an explanation 
even by Lange. 

This theory breaks down so utterly and 
hopelessly, in respect to the miracles of the 
O. T., that no serious attempt has been made 
to apply it to them. It is equally certain 
that the account of Christ's miracles of mer- 
cy can not be explained by reference to any 
processes of nature with which we are ac- 
quainted. It is true that Jesus sometimes, 
though rarely, employed some of the simple 
remedies of his day, as did his disciples after 
him. Clay mixed with saliva was a popular 
salve. The Pool of Siloam was supposed to 
possess healing virtues. Anointing with oil 
was a remedy in frequent use. The touch 
of the hand is even now sometimes employ- 
ed in what is popularly known as animal 
magnetism; a form of remedy which, howev- 
er it has fallen into the hands of charlatans, 
science can no longer wholly ignore. It is 
true, also, that some disorders are so far sub- 
ject to the will of the patient that they are 
curable by a strong moral influence acting 
upon the system through the mind and brain. 
Such is the case with hysteria, some forms 
of paralysis, and, more rarely, with epilepsy. 
Lunacy, in its milder aspects and earlier 
stages, can often be temporarily calmed, 
though rarely, if ever, radically cured, by a 
mere word of command. But such is not 
the case with the diseases which Christ for 
the most part treated — deep-seated mania, 
malarious fever, chronic paralysis, congeni- 
tal epilepsy, long-continued ophthalmia, or 
leprosy in any of its forms. Twice, at 
least, he healed by a word patients whom he 
had never seen, and who were at a distance 
from him ; and on three occasions he restored 
even the dead to life. It is in vain to at- 



MIRACLES 



627 



MIRIAM 



tempt to attribute such works to any natu- 
ral laws with, which we are acquainted.^ 

Still less satisfactory is the attempt to 
harmonize belief in these narratives with 
disbelief in the supernatural by classing 
them with the works of the thaumaturgist. 
Jesus in no respect resembled the necro- 
mancers of his day. He muttered no incan- 
tations; he prescribed no charms or amu- 
lets ; he never shrouded his cures in any of 
those mysteries which belong to the arts of 
the necromancer ; he did not even employ 
the prayer which constituted the power of 
the ancient prophets, and subsequently of 
his disciples. He cured in his own name in 
open day, before all the people, by a word, 
a touch, a command f using no instrument 
like the rod of Moses or the mantle of Elijah; 
never laboring in seeming uncertainty, as 
the prophet whose prayer was three times 
repeated ere the breath came back to the 
widow's son ; never failing ; never declining 
a case as too difficult for his word ; never, on 
the other hand, essaying it to satisfy public 
curiosity, gratify the love of the marvelous, 
or make good his Messianic claims. 

The argument for the miracles may then 
be briefly stated as follows : It is our duty, 
as calm and impartial investigators, to in- 
quire what are the facts and phenomena of 
life and history as attested by sufficient tes- 
timony, and to explain them as best we can. 
We have no right to assume that certain 
phenomena can not have occurred because 
our present knowledge is inadequate to ex- 
plain them. Among the phenomena thus 
attested are those which we term miracu- 
lous. Criticism adequately demonstrates 
that we have the testimony of eye-witnesses 
to these events as they recorded it. A con- 
sideration of their honesty, their opportuni- 
ties for investigation, their native skepti- 
cism, and the universal credence given to 
their testimony by their contemporaries, sat- 
isfies us that the events occurred as they 
narrated them. And a careful analysis of 
those events demonstrates that they can not 
be explained by reference to any natural laws 
with which we are acquainted, but must be 
accepted as divine won (?ers, i. e., M;orA;s wrought 
by a divine poiver, as signs of divinely reveal- 
ed truth and divinely commissioned teach- 
ers. 

III. The Argument from Miracles need not 
be elaborated. — The question in our times is 
not what conclusion shall we draw from 
miracles, but what conclusion shall we ac- 
cept respecting them. If we assume that 
Moses disclosed a system of trnth and duty 
so pure as that contained in the Ten Com- 
mandments, and, in attestation of his faith 
in it, surrendered all the honors and emolu- 



1 Matt, viii., 5-17, 28-34; ix., 2T-30; xvii., 14-21; 
Mark i., 29-31; v., 1-20; vi., 13; ix., 14-29; Luke iv., 
33^0 ; vii., 1-10, 11-16, 21 ; viii., 26-39 ; ix., 3T-42 ; xiii., 
11-17; John iv., 46^54; ix., 6, 7; xi., 6.-2 Matt, viii., 
3 ; Mark ii., 2-5 ; ix., 25 ; iii., 5 ; John v., 8. 



ments of Pharaoh's court for a life of incred- 
ible toil and privation in the wilderness, 
and that his declaration, that in so doing he 
acted under the immediate guidance of the 
Spirit of God, received attestation in works 
which could have been wrought only by the 
omnipotence of God, it is impossible to call 
in question his divine commission, and, in so 
far, his divine authority. If we assume that 
Jesus Christ came to earth claiming to be 
the Son of God, and the Way, the Truth, and 
the Life to every one who trusts in him ; that 
in attestation of his sincerity he walked the 
earth a man of sorrows and acquainted with 
grief, and finally gave himself a sacrifice to 
the passions and prejudices of his age, as well 
as for the sins of all ages and all nations; 
and that his claim was attested by works of 
mercy which only power given from God 
could perform, the conclusion is equally ir- 
resistible that he was what he claimed to 
be, truly the Son of God. In other words, 
though neither Judaism nor Christianity, 
as a system of truth and duty, depends upon 
the miracles, the miracles, if accepted, prove 
those systems to possess a divine authority, 
and give the sanction of God himself to the 
revelations which they contain and the pre- 
cepts which they inculcate. They take both 
systems out of the category of common phi- 
losophies, and render them divine in author- 
ity as in origin. Those that deny the mira- 
cles may yet accord a certain meed of honor 
to Christianity as an admirable compend of 
ethics. Only those who accept the miracles 
as evidences of the divine presence and pow- 
er can take the Bible as their all-sufficient 
authority, and Jesus Christ as their Lord 
and their God. 

Miriam {rebellion), the sister of Moses and 
Aaron, and the eldest of the three children 
of Amram and Jochebed. It was she, very 
probably, who was set to watch Moses while 
exposed on the Nile. The independent and 
high position given by her superiority of age 
she never lost. "The sister of Aaron" is 
her Biblical distinction. She is the first 
personage in that household to whom the 
prophetic gifts are directly ascribed. "Mir- 
iam the prophetess" is her acknowledged 
title. The prophetic power showed itself in 
her under the same form as that which it 
assumed in the days of Samuel and David — 
poetry, accompanied with music and pro- 
cessions. After the passage of the Red Sea, 
she led the women of Israel in that respon- 
sive song in which the glorious deliverance 
was celebrated. " The next occasion on 
which she is mentioned presents a dark con- 
trast to that earlier day of joy. The arrival 
of Moses's wife in the camp seems to have 
created in her an unseemly dread of losing 
her influence and position, and led her to 
unite with Aaron in jealous murmuring 
against Moses. For this the proud prophet- 
ess was smitten with the loathsome Egyp- 



MISERERE 



628 



MISSIONS 



tian leprosy. How grand was her position 
and how heavy the blow, is implied in the 
cry of anguish which goes up from both her 
brothers, and is not less evident in the silent 
grief of the nation. This stroke, and its re- 
moval, which took place at Hazeroth, form 
the last public event of Miriam's life. She 
died toward the close of the wanderings at 
Kadesh, and was buried there. Her tomb 
was shown near Petra in the days of Je- 
rome. According to Josephus, she was mar- 
ried to the famous Hur, and, through him, 
was grandmother of the architect Bezaleel. 
[Exod. ii., 4 sq. ; xv., 20, 22 ; Numb. xii. ; 
Deut. xxiv., 9 ; Numb, xx., 1.] 

Miserere (have mercy), the first word in 
the Latin version of the Fifty-first Psalm, 
and hence the name by which that psalm is 
known in the Roman Catholic ritual. It 
occurs frequently in the services of that 
Church, especially during Holy Week ; and 
as chanted by the pope's choir in the Sis- 
tine Chapel at Rome, constitutes one of the 
most striking and impressive chants in the 
entire range of sacred music. 

Missa, a name anciently given to the di- 
vine service in the Christian Church. It 
was divided into two parts, the missa catechu- 
menorum, or first part of the religious service, 
designed especially for catechumens (q. v.) ; 
and the missa fidelium, the after-service, which 
was particularly intended for the faithful, or 
believers, neither catechumens nor any oth- 
er persons being permitted to be present, not 
even as spectators. Various derivations of 
the word are given and urged respectively by 
those who seek to prove that the name was 
applied to every part of divine worship with- 
out reference to the eucharist, and those 
who employ it in the Roman Catholic sense 
only to denote the " office of consecrating 
bread and wine into the body and blood of 
Christ, and offering that as an expiatory 
sacrifice for the quick and the dead." The 
use of the word has been dropped by almost 
all except the latter class. See Mass. 

Missal, the Romish mass-book, containing 
the masses which are appointed to be said 
on particular days. It is derived from the 
word missa (q. v.). The missal, which was 
formed in the eleventh or twelfth century, 
consisted of a collection, for the convenience 
of the priest, of the several liturgical books 
formerly in use in the religious services. In 
1570, Pius V. issued an edict commanding 
that the missal, which he had caused to be 
revised, should be used throughout the 
whole Catholic Church; and, with the ex- 
ception of a few verbal alterations intro- 
duced by Clement VIII. and Urban VIII., 
and the addition of some new masses, the 
edition of Pius V. continues in use down to 
the present day. 

Missions. It is not the object of the 
present article to treat of the mission work 
of the early Christian Church, by which Eu- 



rope, and so large a portion of Western Asia 
and Northern Africa, were converted to 
Christianity. That would occupy too much 
space, and is the province of ecclesiastical 
history. Modern missions form the bulk of 
the aggressive work of the Roman Catholic 
and of the Protestant Church. None of the 
other churches of Christendom have shown 
any appreciable interest in extending their 
faith, certainly not so much as Mohammed- 
anism does at the present time in Africa 
and Central Asia. The only progress which 
any of them has made of late is that of the 
Greek Church, which has extended its do- 
main mainly by the extension of the power 
of the Russian Government, and the occu- 
pation of territory by Russian soldiers and 
traders. During the past year or two we 
hear something of efforts by Greek mission- 
aries to extend Christianity in Mongolia, but 
these attempts are but few and feeble. Nei- 
ther can we, in this article, discuss that ex- 
ceedingly important department called Do- 
mestic Missions. By these, which have oc- 
cupied the main strength and absorbed the 
main contributions of the Church, its teach- 
ings have been given to the ignorant and vi- 
cious within the limits of Christian lands, 
and colonists have been followed to their set- 
tlements in foreign countries. The main 
conquests which Christendom has made, em- 
bracing nearly all of North and South Amer- 
ica, as well as Australia and South Africa, 
have been by the Domestic Missions which 
have followed up colonization. The natives 
in these countries have made up but an un- 
important element in the Christianized poi>- 
ulation. 

Modern Missions may be said to have had 
their origin in the brain and heart of Igna- 
tius Loyola, the founder of the order of the 
Jesuits. It was his object to establish an or- 
der, not of mendicants, nor of pietists, but of 
propagandists. His great disciple, Francis 
Xavier, was the first whom he sent out to 
convert the heathen. In such words as 
these Loyola announced to him his appoint- 
ment: "By higher counsels than those of our 
short-sighted judgments, Francis, for we can 
not penetrate the designs of God, you, and 
not Bobadilla, are destined to the mission of 
the Indies. It is not the single province of 
Palestine, which we were seeking, that God 
gives you, but the Indies, a whole world of 
people and nations. This is the soil which 
God intrusts to your cultivation ; this is the 
field which he opens to your labors." Xavier 
landed at Goa on the 6th of May, 1542. His 
own marvelous energy and zeal, and the ex- 
ceptional position which he occupied as a pi- 
oneer, have made him by far the most nota- 
ble missionary since the days of St. Paul. 
His life is an honor to the Church Universal. 
His zeal and that of his followers were fol- 
lowed by such apparent though transient 
success, that it seemed as if India, China, and 



MISSIONS 



629 



MISSIONS 



Japan were almost immediately to be con- 
verted to Christianity. This was the most 
glorious period of Romanism. Protestant- 
ism had ceased to extend its domain in Eu- 
rope. Spain and Portugal were the vigorous 
colonizing powers, and South America and 
North America were divided into bishoprics 
of Rome, while the coasts of Africa as well as 
of India were crowded with Portuguese set- 
tlements. In 1621 the Congregatio de Propa- 
ganda Fide (the Congregation for the Propa- 
gation of the Faith)^ was founded at Rome, 
as a permanent committee to have the con- 
trol of missions inpartihiis infidelium (among 
unbelievers). It consists of thirteen cardi- 
nals and four other members, and settles all 
such questions as that about the worship of 
ancestors in China, and the caste question 
in India, which divides the Jesuit from the 
Franciscan and Dominican Missioners, and 
was giving so much trouble to the pope at 
the time of the establishment of the Propa- 
ganda. This committee has entire charge 
of all missions, but does not collect money 
for them. Urban VII. established at Rome 
what is called the Propaganda College, which 
is richly endowed, and educates candidates 
for the mission work from all nationalities. 
The Church of Rome has no missionary so- 
cieties quite analogous to those of Protest- 
ants. The Society for the Propagation of 
the Faith has its centre in Lyons, and pre- 
vious to the war of 1870 raised about a mill- 
ion dollars annually for the support of mis- 
sions. Besides this, there are the Leopoldine 
Society of Vienna and the Society of the 
Holy Childhood in France. These bodies 
simply collect money in small weekly con- 
> tributions, and disburse them in aid of mis- 
sions as they please, but have no control 
whatever over the missions, and send out no 
missioners. 

The work which Xavier, De Nobili, and 
Ricci began in India, China, and Japan, was 
taken up by his successors with such energy 
and skill, that, before a hundred years had 
elapsed, the priests were the trusted counsel- 
ors of rajahs and emperors, and it seemed as 
if those countries were just ready to make 
Christianity their exclusive religion. At 
the same time, Abyssinia and large tracts of 
Western Africa were in an equally hopeful 
state. But during the last century the over- 
throw of the Portuguese and of the French 
power in India, the quarrels over the allow- 
ance of Brahmanical rites, and entangle- 
ments with the ruling i)otentates, who 
charged the Romanists with political de- 
signs, combined with a flagging of mission- 
ary zeal in the decaying states of Spain and 
Portugal, caused a sad falling off in Catholic 
missions. During the past fifty years new 
interest has been excited in them, and the 
great losses, amounting almost to total ex- 
tinction in Africa and Japan, are being re- 



i See CONGEEGATION. 



covered. In India, China, and Tangiers, 
the Catholic far outnumber the Protestant 
converts. 

The Moravians were the first body of Prot- 
estants to organize a system of missions to the 
heathen. In 1733 two of their number went 
to Greenland, and were followed by many re- 
cruits. In 1771 a company of fourteen persons, 
after several previous abortive attempts, set- 
tled in Labrador ; and the Moravian Mission- 
ary Society, established two years before in 
England, has not failed to send a mission- 
ary ship every year since to Labrador, and 
not one vessel has ever suffered a disaster. 
The Society for the Propagation of the Gos- 
pel had been founded yet earlier, in 1701, but 
its energies were devoted mainly to labors 
among English colonists. John Wesley's 
work in Georgia was under the commission 
of this society. It has all the English bish- 
ops among its directors, and is High-church. 
To the English Baptists, and especially to 
William Carey, is due the revival of interest 
in missions in England. In 1793, after hav- 
ing long endeavored to arouse an interest in 
missions, he was sent out to India by the 
Baptist Missionary Society, organized for 
the purpose. The London Missionary So- 
ciety (undenominational) was organized in 
1795, by Rowland Hill and others, and the 
next year a company of twenty-nine mis- 
sionaries were sent to the South Sea Isl- 
ands. The Church Missionary Society 
(Church of England), organized in 1800, the 
Wesleyan Society about the same time, and 
the London Society was left to the Inde- 
pendents. 

In 1810 the American Board of Commis- 
sioners for Foreign Missions was organized 
in this country, to provide the support of 
I four young men in Andover Theological 
Seminary, who felt called to the work of 
: missions. One of these, Adoniram Judson, 
: on his way to India, found reason to adopt 
Baptist views, and, on the receipt of the 
; news, a Baptist missionary society was or- 
! ganized in Boston for his support, which is 
j now known as the American Baptist Mis- 
sionary Union. The Old-school Presbyteri- 
ans in 1837 withdrew their missions from 
the care of the Board, and twenty years later 
the Dutch Reformed brethren withdrew, 
j taking with them the missions at Amoy and 
Arcot. On the reunion of the Old and New 
School Presbyterians in 1870, the latter body 
also withdrew from the Board, taking with 
j them the Syrian and Nestorian missions, a 
small mission (the Gaboon) in West Africa, 
and one to the Seneca Indians in New York 
State, and left the old society to the exclusive 
care of the Congregationalists. The Ameri- 
can Methodists for a long time confined their 
mission zeal mainly to home extension, al- 
though vigorous missions are now maintain- 
ed by their society in Cbina and India. 
We propose to give a survey of the condi- 



MISSIONS 



630 



MISSIONS 



tion of foreign missions, mainly the Protest- 
ant, in the world. We pass by Europe, in- 
cluding various missions to the Catholics of 
Spain and Italy, and the Bax)tist and Meth- 
odist missions to the Protestants of Scandi- 
navia and Germany. 

Asia. — Beginning with the north-western 
corner of Asia, at the European city of Con- 
stantinople, which may be called the Gate 
of Asia, and is more Asiatic than European, 
we find a mixed population, consisting of 
Mohammedans and nominal Christians of 
the American, Greek, and Eoman churches. 
Missions to the iuhabitants of Turkey had 
their precursors in the occupation of Malta, 
in 1811, by the London Missionary Society, 
and, a little later, by the Church Missionary 
Society ; and in 1822 by the American Board. 
In this connection may be mentioned some 
early attempts to introduce Protestant Chris- 
tianity into Corfu and other Ionian Islands. 
The American Board and the American Epis- 
copalians entered Athens very early, though 
the latter confined itself almost exclusively 
to education ; and the former was displaced 
by the American and Foreign Christian Un- 
ion soon after the death of Dr. King. The 
missionaries in Athens are now nearly all 
native Greeks, who were educated and mar- 
ried in America. One of tbem has lately 
connected himself with the American Bap- 
tist Mission. They conduct a weekly news- 
paper, but their converts are very few. Con- 
stantinople is the centre for operations in 
Turkey. Here the missionaries of several 
societies are gathered for the literary labors 
connected with the people of Turkey, except 
that the Arabic-speaking people have their 
mission centre at Beirut, in Syria. The Mo- 
hammedans are still almost inaccessible, 
and even yet it is at the risk of life that 
one of that religion abjures it. The Greek 
Christians are not very friendly, and the 
missions of the American Board and of the 
American Methodists among the Bulgarian 
Christians of European Turkey have not 
borne much fruit. Indeed, it is only in 
1850 that this field was first occupied. The 
main success of the American Board has 
been among the Armenian Christians of 
Central and Eastern Asia Minor, and its sta- 
tions and converts are more numerous than 
those of all others combined. In 1871 this 
Board had 45 missionaries and 4055 Church 
members in Turkey, with a registered Prot- 
estant j)opulation of 20,000— a number large 
enough to require that they should be recog- 
nized by the Turkish Government, and rep- 
resented before the Porte by a "head" of 
their community, like the other churches. 
The churches in Constantinople and its im- 
mediate vicinity are comparatively few and 
feeble, but the centres of missionary effort 
and success are Marash, Aintab, and Har- 
poot. In each of these three cities there are 
two larore churches of about two hundred 



members each, and there are from twenty to a 
hundred out-stations in the country around. 
The influence of the Protestant missions 
have been felt to a considerable extent by 
the Armenian and Greek churches, especial- 
ly in quickening the interest in education, 
and, to some extent, in revising the spiritu- 
al explanation of the forms of their ritual. 
The growth of the Protestant community 
has been so very rapid during the past twen- 
ty years, especially in Eastern Turkey, as to 
warrant the hope that within a score or two 
of years American missionaries may with- 
draw from the field, leaving it entirely in 
the hands of the native church. There is 
now hardly a single large town in Asia Minor 
but is occupied as a mission station. 

Syria was very early occupied as a mis- 
sion field by the American Board, and a 
large number of very able men have been 
connected with that mission. One great 
monument of their labor is the translation 
of the Bible into Arabic, by Dr. Smith and 
Dr. Van Dyck. At Beirut is the head-quar- 
ters of this mission, and, it may be added, 
the literary head-quarters of all missions to 
Arabic-speaking people. A well-appointed 
Arabic printing -press is among the chief 
agencies employed. This mission was trans- 
ferred, in 1870, to the American Presbyterian 
Board. The energies of this mission have 
been more confined to education and trans- 
lation than has been the case in some other 
missi6ns, although there are between three 
and four hundi'ed church members connect- 
ed with it. 

A large number of other societies have 
scattering stations in various parts of the 
Turkish Empire, and especially in Palestine. 
Among these may be mentioned the Ameri- 
can United Presbyterians, in Damascus ; the 
Kirk of Scotland, in Constantinople, SmjT- 
na, and Beirut ; the Church Missionary Soci- 
ety, in Constantinople, Jerusalem, and Naz- 
areth ; several Palestine societies in Jerusa- 
lem, Joppa, etc. ; a society for converting the 
Jews in Constantinople and Palestine; and 
yet other societies, some of which, like the 
Kaiserwerth Deaconesses, and the Lebanon 
School Union, give their efforts mainly to 
instruction. 

An outgrowth from, and a powerful auxil- 
iary to, missions in the empire are the large 
institutions of learning which have been es- 
tablished. Besides the elementary and the 
theological schools directly connected with 
the missions, the independent colleges at 
Constantinople and Beirut deserve especial 
mention. The former (Robert College) was 
founded by the liberality of Christopher R. 
Robert, a merchant of New York, and oc- 
cupies the finest site along the Bosphorus. 
That at Beirut is called the Syrian Protest- 
ant College, and has an excellent school of 
medicine attached to it. 

The discovery that there still existed in 



MISSIONS 



631 



MISSIONS 




1. Am. Board (Cong.) ; 2, Am. Presb. M. S. ; 3. Am. United Presb. M. S. ; 4. Am. Eef. Presb. M. S. ; 5. Am. 
Southern Presb. M. S. ; 6. Am. Meth. Epis. M. S. ; 7. Am, Prot. Epis. M. S. ; 8. Am. Bapt. M. S. ; 9. Eng. 
Church M. S. ; 10. Scotch Estab. Ch. M. S. ; 11. Scotch Free Ch. M. S. ; 12. Irish Presb. M. S.; 13. Bishop 
: Gobot's M. ; 14. Jerusalem Verein ; 15. Kaiserswerth Deaconesses ; 16. Independent Missions. 



MISSIONS 



632 



MISSIONS 



the nortli-westerii portion of Persia a rem- 
nant of the old Nestorian Church induced 
the American Board to commence a mission 
there in 1833. The policy was for many 
years continued of attempting no separate 
church organization, but of endeavoring to 
infuse Christian life into that which already 
existed. The Bible was translated into the 
modern Syriac, schools and seminaries or- 
ganized, and a wide influence exerted. The 
number of this people is limited, only about 
30,000 living in the plain of Oroomiah, and 
120,000 Syriac - speaking Christians in the 
Koordish mountains and the Tigris valley. 
Oroomiah has been the centre of the mission, 
and till within a few years its labors have 
been almost entirely confined to the region 
about it. The past ten years, however, have 
witnessed a considerable advance in the 
mountain districts. On January 1, 1871, the 
Nestorian Mission was transferred to the 
American Presbyterian Board. There are 
connected with it five American missiona- 
ries, with their wives, who, with the native 
laborers, have a population of about 15,000 
people over five years old, who recognize 
them as their spiritual teachers. There are 
about seventy more or less regular congre- 
gations, which are united in three confer- 
ences. The seventy -two schools contain 
1000 scholars, besides twenty -five each in 
the male and the female seminaries. There 
is but a single other society — the English 
Church Missionary Society — which has en- 
tered Persia. One of its missionaries has 
been laboring for several years in Hamadan 
and Teheran, but the society declines to en- 
large its work there. It is probable that 
the entire country will be left to depend on 
American Christians for its evangelization. 
Passing by Arabia, the major portion of 
Persia, Afghanistan, and Beloochistan, which 
are purely Mohammedan (with the excep- 
tion of resident Jews), and which have never 
been approached by Protestant missionaries, 
we come to the chief field in the world of 
missionary enterprise — that included within 
the British Indian Empire. We have already 
referred to the first introduction of mission- 
aries to India in 1793. Since that time near- 
ly every missionary society in the world has 
enterecl the field ; and so dense is the popu- 
lation, that there is room for them all to 
work without interference. Among those 
which have labored with the most success 
are, of the British societies, the Baptist, Lon- 
don, Church, Propagation of the Gospel, and 
Wesley an ; of the Continental societies, Goss- 
ner's, the Hermannsburg, and the Leipsic and 
Basle societies ; and from America, the Amer- 
ican Board, the Presbyterian, Methodist Epis- 
copal, Baptist, and Reformed Boards of Mis- 
sions. The Brahmanical religion, dividing 
the population into castes, which date from 
the conquest of the peninsula by an Aryan 
race^ has given a pride of birth and race to 



the higher castes which has been very unfa- 
vorable to their reception of Christianity. 
But the same cause has rendered the lowest 
castes, which have no rank to be proud of, 
and who are also of a race that seems to re- 
ceive religious influences readily, more access- 
ible to the Gospel. The great successes are 
almost entirely among these non- Aryan, abo- 
riginal tribes, such as the Kols, Santhals, and 
Shanars, of Tinnevelly and Travancore. 

Passing along the coast from the Persian 
Gulf, the first considerable mission station 
that we reach is Bombay, first occupied by 
the American Board in 1812. The Mahrat- 
tas, who inhabit this district, are of an Ary- 
an stock, although the Bheels, and others of 
a lower caste, are aboriginal. In the city of 
Bombay itself the success has been but lim- 
ited; but around Ahmednuggur, a city of 
30,000 inhabitants, about one hundred miles 
inland, quite a number of churches have been 
organized, and the entire Mahratta mission 
of the Board has 630 communicants. 

Passing southward by Goa, famous in the 
history of Roman Catholic missions, and also 
numerous stations of Protestant societies 
which can boast no great success, we reach 
the Canarese Mission of the Basle Society, 
which has Mangalore for its chief station, 
and extends nearly one hundred and fifty 
miles along the coast, mainly to the south of 
Mangalore. They have about fifty stations 
and out -stations, and nearly 2000 church 
members. 

The extreme southern portion of India, 
however — that included within 8° and 10° 
north latitude — has been the great harvest- 
field of Indian missions. The western and 
central portion, including Northern Travan- 
core and Tinnevelly, is occupied by the En- 
glish Church Missionary Society ; Southern 
Travancore by the London Missionary Soci- 
ety ; and the Madura province, on the east 
coast, by the American Board. Of these, 
the latter has about 1500 communicants, the 
London Missionary Society about 3000, and 
the Church Missionary Society 3000 in Trav- 
ancore and 6000 in Tinnevelly. The entire 
Protestant population of this Tamil district 
is about 75,000. 

South-east of Cape Comorin, and scarce 
fifty miles from the main -land, is Ceylon. 
The American Board and the English Church 
Missionary Society occupy a few islets to 
the north of Ceylon, and the former society 
claims 538 members. The latter society, 
with the English Wesley ans and Baptists, 
have flourishing missions on the main island 
of Ceylon, especially along the south-west 
coast, and about 2000 communicants. There 
are almost no remains of the 200,000 natives 
who professed the Protestant faith in the 
early part of the last century, when the 
Dutch held the island. 

North of the district of Madura, as we as- 
cend the east coast of India, lies Carvatie 



MISSIONS 



633 



MISSIONS 



Its southern district, Tanjore, is the seat 
of the oldest mission in India, that of the 
Danish Society, which occupied the city 
of Lanquebar in the middle of the last cen- 
tury, that city being then held by Den- 
mark. At present this district is occupied 
by the Leipsic Lutheran Society, the En- 
glish Propagation Society, and by the En- 
glish Wesleyaus. 

The large city of Madras, yet farther north, 
is the centre of missionary operations by six 



the religious and literary influences of their 
Aryan conquerors than the Tamul tribes of 
Tinnevelly and Travancore. The Telugu 
population is very accessible to earnest mis- 
sionary effort, as is illustrated by the re- 
markable success of the American Baptists 
since 1868, among the low-caste tribes west 
of Nellore and Ongole. Though this mission 
was but very lately established, it baptized 
over a thousand converts in 1869, most of 
them in the vicinity of the little lake of 




1. Am. Board (Cong.) ;'2. Am. Presb. M. S. ; 3. Am. Bapt. M. U. ; 4. Am Meth. Epis. M. S. ; 5. Am. United 
Presb. M. S. ; 6. Am. Free Bapt. M. S. ; 7. Am. Luth. M. S. ; 8. Am. Ref. (Dutch) M. S. ; 9. Am. Miss. Assoc. 
10. Eng. Soc. Prop. Gospel ; 11. Eng. London M. S. ; 12. Eng. Chm-ch M. S. ; 13. Eng. Bapt. M. S. ; 14. Eng 
Wesleyan M. S. ; 15. Eng. Presb. M. S. ; 16. Scotch Estab. Ch. M. S, ; 17. Scotch United Presb. M. S. 
IS. Scotch Free Ch. M. S. ; 19. Irish Presb. Ch. M. S. ; 20. Welsh Calv. Meth. M. S. ; 21. Leipsic M. S. 
22. Basle M. S. ; 23. Hermannsbiirg M. S. ; 24. Gossner's M. S. ; 25. Danish M. S.; 26. Moravian M. S. 
27. Rhine M. S. ; 28. Dutch Zeudiug M. S. 



or seven Protestant societies. As in the case 
of most large commercial cities, however, 
few of them have any great success. 

About eighty miles north of Madras we 
reach the city of Nellore, which introduces 
us to the Telugu population of India. They 
are of the aboriginal Dravidian stock of In- 
dia, but have been much more permeated by 



Cumburn (Cummum of Grundemann's At- 
las), fifty miles west of Ongole. They have 
(in 1872) nearly 6000 attendants connected 
with their congregations. A similar success 
attends all the other societies laboring in 
the neighboring fields, including the Her- 
mannsburg Mission to the south of that of 
the Baptists, the London and Propagation 



MISSIONS 



634 



MISSIONS 



societies to tlie west, and the American Lu- 
therans to the north, the latter of which has 
about 1000 church members around Guntur. 
Yet farther to the north-east, along the coast, 
we reach Masulipatam (latitude 16° N.), 
which is the head station of the work of the 
Church Missionary Society's labor for the 
Telugus. A little in the interior are Viziga- 
patam, occupied with several out-stations by 
the London Missionary Society. 

The district of Orissa, extending north- 
eastward of the Telugu territory for about 
two hundred miles, is occupied by the Gen- 
eral Baptists of England, who report about 
500 communicants. 

Bengal, which extends along the southern 
bank of the Ganges, and includes Calcutta, 
is one of the most densely peopled districts 
of India, and takes the lead in mental prog- 
ress. Protestant missions were introduced 
here, by Carey and Marshman, near the end 
of the last century, though the opposition of 
the East India Company drove them away 
for a season. Calcutta has been the centre 
of European learning, and the educated Hin- 
doos have been so far influenced thereby as 
to be rapidly forsaking their ancestral wor- 
ship. A large number of those who are not 
inclined to accept Christianity have connect- 
ed themselves with the Brahmo Somaj, a 
purely theistical body, which unites to the 
deism familiar in Europe and America the 
sense and confession of sin which is charac- 
teristic of Christianity. In the portions of 
Bengal distant from the coast are large bod- 
ies of aboriginal tribes. Such are the Kols 
of Chota Nagpur, among whom Gossner's 
German Mission had about 10,000 adherents, 
until, in 1870, a dissension among the mis- 
sionaries led to the withdrawal of a large 
number, who joined the Anglican Church 
under the Bishop of Calcutta. In a kindred 
j)opulation about Balasur and Midnapur, the 
American Free-will Baptists have 200 com- 
municants. The English Baptists occupy 
the delta of the Ganges in considerable force, 
and there is hardly an English or Scotch so- 
ciety but has its representatives in some part 
of Bengal. 

Along the upper waters of the Ganges and 
the Jumna lie what are called the north- 
western provinces. In these regions, which 
are inhabited by Hindoos and Mohammed- 
ans, with comparatively few of the aborig- 
inal tribes, missions have been introduced 
comparatively lately, and with comparative- 
ly inconspicuous success. The American 
Presbyterians occupy Mynpurie, Futteghur, 
Saharanpur, and Allahabad, where they have 
several hundred adherents, and where they 
had scarcely fifty ten years previously. The 
American Methodists have 11B7 communi- 
cants in Bareilly, Lucknow, and Moradabad, 
and a Christian community of over 3000, all 
gathered since the great rebellion closed. 
The London Society has 406 adherents about 



Benares; and the Scotch Presbyterian, the 
Church Missionary Society, and others, have 
missions organized since the rebellion. 

The Punjaub lies in the extreme north of 
British India, on the head waters of the In- 
dus, and has scarcely been more than enter- 
ed by missions. The Presbyterians have the 
largest missions, although the United Pres- 
byterians of this country, and the Baptist 
and Church missionary societies of England, 
have entered the field, and the latter has 
just organized a theological seminary at La- 
hore. . 

Closely connected with these Indian mis- 
sions are the American Baptist missions in 
Burmah, along the valley of the Irrawady 
Eiver, and extending from Rangoon and 
Bassein as far as Prome. This mission, start- 
ed by Dr. Judson, is one of the most remark- 
able and successful in the world. It labors 
among the Karens, another aboriginal peo- 
ple; and, as in India proper, the attempts 
to evangelize the ruling classes of Burmans 
have been comparatively unsuccessful. Oth- 
er Karen tribes, farther eastward, inhabiting 
the region of Tennasserim and Tenuga, have 
afforded thousands of converts, and the mis- 
sions are constantly extending farther into 
the interior, among the Shans and Red Ka- 
rens, and among the mountains about the 
Salwen River. The Baptists have in Bur- 
mah about 18,000 communicants, and 50,000 
or more adherents, and about 6000 children 
in schools. 

Rev. William Butler, D.D., gives, in " The 
Land of the Veda," a summary of mission 
work in India and Burmah; according to 
which, in 1872, there are 58 missions, 628 sta- 
tions, and probably 3000 out-stations, in this 
territory, occupied by 551 male and 317 fe- 
male foreign missionaries. There are 406 
native pastors, and 7480 native teachers and 
other helpers. The number of communi- 
cants is 70,857, which represent a communi- 
ty of 273,478 nominal Christians. 

The statistics of Roman Catholic missions 
in the same territory it is impossible to gath- 
er. The Roman Catholic Bishop of Madras, 
in 1869, estimated the entire number of na- 
tive Romanists at 760,723, under 734 priests, 
besides 124,000, with 128 priests, under the 
almost schismatic Archbishop of Goa. But 
Georg6 Smith, one of the highest authorities 
on India statistics, regards these figures as 
exaggerated, and sets down the entire num- 
ber as not over 700,000. 

The Rhenish Society occupies several sta- 
tions in Sumatra ; half a dozen Dutch or- 
ganizations have within a few years under- 
taken actively the evangelization of Java ; 
in Borneo the Society for the Propagation 
of the Gospel has a bishop, and about 2000 
adherents, at Sarawak; Avhile the Rhenish 
Society has several stations lately establish- 
ed on the south-east coast among the Dyaks. 
Among the Celebes and Moluccas the Dutch 



MISSIONS 



635 



MISSIONS 



Societies have several stations, as also the 
Gossuer Mission. 

Next to India, the most extensive field for 
mission labor at present is the populous em- 
pires of China and Japan. The former was 
closed to the access of foreigners till the 
peace of Nankin, in 1842, and the latter till 
■within the last ten years. Indeed, it was 
not till 1872 that the decree requiring every 



within a very few years, begun to extend 
from the coast to the interior along the 
course of the Yangtze River, contrasting, in 
this respect, with the Roman Catholic mis- 
sions, which, established in times of tolera- 
tion and government favor over two centu- 
ries ago, have never lost their hold on their 
converts, and still have their priests and 
bishops in the extreme west of the empire, 




FISK & RUSSELL, 1 



1. Am, Board (Cong.) ; 2. Am. Presb. M. S. ; 3. Am. United Presb. M, S. ; 4. Am. Sonthern Presb. M. S. ; 
5. Am. Meth. Ep. M. S. : 6. Am. Southern Meth. M. S. ; 7. Am. Eef. (Dutch) M. S. ; 8. Am. Bapt. M. U. ; 
9. Am. Southern Bapt. M. S. ; 10. Am. Seventh Day Bapt. M. S.; 11. Am. Prot. Ep. M. S. ; 12. Eng. London 
M. S. ; 13. Eng. Church M. S. ; 14. Eng. Wesleyan M. S. ; 15. Eng. Bapt. M. S. ; 16. Eng. Presb. M. S. ; 
IT. Eng. United Meth. M. S. ; IS. Eng. Meth. New Con. M. S. ; 19. Eng. China Inland M. S. ; 20. Scotch 
United Presb. M. S. ; 21. Irish Presb. M. S. ; 22. Basle M. S. ; 23. Rhine M. S. ; 24. Berlin M. S. 



Japanese to trample upon the cross was abol- 
ished, and the first native Church was or- 
ganized. Japan is occupied almost entire- 
ly by American missionaries, especially by 
the American, the Dutch Reformed, and the 
Presbyterian Boards. The missionaries hold 
a place of honor in the institutions of learn- 
ing established by the Government. 

In China Protestant missions have only, 



who adopt the native style of dress and life, 
and are thus better able to escape notice. 

In the city and immediate neighborhood 
of Canton, in the southern coast province of 
Kwangtung, eight societies are at work, and 
have nearly 800 communicants. The Berlin 
Society leads with over 200, followed by the 
London, the American Southern Baptist, and 
the Rhenish societies. The island and city 



MISSIONS 



636 



MISSIONS 



of Hongkong, at the mouth of the Canton 
River, is the seat of four societies, having 
over 400 communicants, of which 300 are 
connected with the Basle Society. As we 
pass north-eastward along the coast, we 
reach Swatow, where there are about 300 
communicants, about equally divided be- 
tween the English Presbyterians and the 
American Baptist missions. 

Amoy, a little farther northward, is the 
seat of three very flourishing missions : the 
American Reformed (Dutch), the London, 
and the English Presbyterian. They have 
each between 400 and 500 church members. 
Yet farther north, at Fuh-chau, is one of the 
most promising Chinese missions — that of 
the American Methodists — who have within 
a very few years received nearly a thousand 
converts, mainly among a rural population 
sonft fifty miles in the interior. The En- 
glish Church Missionary Society is at work 
here also with considerable, and the Ameri- 
can Board with a moderate, success. 

A little farther north are Ningpo and 
Hangchau, on nearly the same latitude. In 
these two cities and the intermediate coun- 
try the American Presbyterians have nearly 
500 church members, and the American Bap- 
tists and the English Church missionary so- 
cieties each half as many more. Hankau, 
directly west, and 800 miles up the Yang- 
tze River, is the most inland Protestant sta- 
tion, and has 250 communicants, mainly con- 
nected with the London Society's mission. 
The cities of Shanghai and Suchau are also 
on the same latitude, and north of Ningpo 
and Hangchau. They are occupied rather 
vigorously by the London society, and rath- 
er feebly by free American societies. 

The northern portion of China, and espe- 
cially the capital, Peking, were entered by 
Protestant missions only in 1861. It is too 
early yet to look for many conspicuous re- 
sults ; and the population is said to be of a 
less vigorous and hopeful race, and less ready 
to give thought to religious subjects. The 
prejudices here have been bitterer than else- 
where, culminating in the massacre of Ti- 
entsin. At Tengchau the American Presby- 
terians and the Southern Baptists have each 
about 75 communicants; at Chifuh the 
American Presbyterians and the Southern 
Baptists have each about 50 ; in the region 
of Tientsin the New Connection Methodists 
of England have 150 ; and in Peking the 
London Society has nearly 150, and the 
American Board a third as many. The Im- 
perial College of Peking has for its president 
an American clergyman, in warm sympathy 
with mission labor. The entire number of 
communicants in China, in 1872, was reck- 
oned at 7000, beside 1446 catechumens under 
special instruction or on probation. 

The Roman Catholic missionaries have 
been very active in China during the pres- 
ent century. A fine cathedral has been built 



in Peking ; and in Ching-tsing-su, the former 
cajiital, after the treaty of 1845, the imperial 
palace was wrested from the emperor and 
converted into a seminary. Amidst much 
persecution, and not a few martyrdoms, the 
Church received very many accessions, espe- 
cially in the extreme interior provinces ; and 
in the single province of Kweichau 200,000 
baptisms were reported in the space of three 
years. There are twenty vicariates-general 
in China, corresponding generally to the 
provinces, and presided over by as many 
bishops; and from the very general state- 
ment of statistics which are made, we may 
conclude that between 300,000 and 400,000 
adherents are claimed. 

Africa. — The United Brethren suspend- 
ed their mission in Egypt one hundred years 
ago, and the English Church Missionary So- 
ciety has given up its mission, which was 
begun in 1826, and was confined to schools 
in Cairo. The United Presbyterians of 
America are now almost alone in Egypt, 
with the exception of Miss Whately's large 
school in Cairo, and the Kaiserwerth Dea- 
conesses in Alexandria. The United Pres- 
byterians have ten missionaries, male and 
female, who labor mainly among the 150,000 
Copts. Their most interesting station is 
Siut, or Osiut, in Upper Egypt, where there 
is a promising state of inquiry and many 
intelligent converts. They have 200 com- 
municants, 14 schools, 600 scholars, and 22 
theological students. The German Pilgrim 
Mission has been transferred to the United 
Presbyterians. It was planned to plant 
twelve missions along the Nile, named after 
the twelve apostles. 

The English Church Missionary Society 
had laborers in Abyssinia, under the charge 
of Bishop Gobat, from 1829 to 1838, when 
they were expelled, through Roman Catholic 
influence with the king. The Pilgrim Mis- 
sion, which was started in 1854, was broken 
up by King Theodore ; and the Swedish mis- 
sionaries were driven away in 1869. We 
are not aware that any Protestant mission- 
aries are now at work in this country, al- 
though the pilgrim stations of Khartum and 
Matamma are near the northern border. 
The Roman Catholics entered Abyssinia in 
the sixteenth century, and soon gained such 
power that from 1626 to 1632 theirs was the 
state religion. Their power was greatly po- 
litical, and a change of dynasty destroyed it. 
Now they claim 8000 adherents, and 14 na- 
tive priests, under five French missionaries. 

From Abyssinia we pass down the coast 
over 2000 miles, leaving Madagascar on the 
left, to South Africa, before we meet any fur- 
ther missions of consequence. The Portu- 
guese have a Catholic population of some 
20,000 in Mozambique ; and the Oxford and 
the Church Missionary societies of England 
have feeble stations, of which we hear next 
to nothing. 



MISSIONS 



637 



MISSIONS 



Madagascar is an island about 1000 miles 
long, and averaging over 200 in width. It 
is a little larger than France, and a little 
smaller than the territory comprised by the 
New England States, New York, and Ohio, 
and has a population . of nearly 5,000,000. 
We have no space to give a history of the 
familiar and marvelous history of the suc- 
cess of the London Missionary Society's la- 
bors here. Since the conversion of the 
queen, the province of Imerina, in which the 
capital, Antananarivo, is situated, has in a 
mass accepted Christianity, and missions are 
rapidly extending, especially in the Betsi- 
leo territory, to the south. Within three 
years the adherents increased from 36,000 
to 300,000. An active missionary spirit 
seems to animate the people. Still two- 
thirds of the islanders are heathen, and have 
never been visited by the missionaries. The 
Church Missionary Society is laboring on 
the coast, and the Quakers in the interior, 
in cordial co-operation with the London So- 
ciety. The Norwegian Missionary Society 
has recently sent Bishop Schrender, with 
seven missionaries, who have been assigned 
places of labor in harmony with the previ- 
ous laborers. The English Propagation So- 
ciety has a small mission at Tamatave, on 
the eastern coast, and its efforts to secure a 
bishop, and its ritualism, have afforded the 
only conflict of Christian workers which has 
occurred to obstruct the work. It is to be 
hoped that ere long Madagascar will be an 
active centre for missions to the neighbor- 
ing coast of Africa. The Roman Catholics 
have a few missionaries in the island, but 
have thus far had very little success. 

Turning to South Africa, we are embar- 
rassed by the richness of detail, so far as the 
number of societies laboring in this field and 
the multitude of their stations is concerned. 
A number of circumstances have combined 
to concentrate religious labor in the terri- 
tory. It is mainly south of the line of the 
tropics, blessed with a fertile territory, has 
long been under the control of either the 
Dutch or the English government, and has 
attracted an immense number of settlers 
from Europe ; so that a Christian colony has 
ever been absorbing more and more of the 
heathen territory and population. But it 
must be said inbehalf of missions that Chris- 
tian labor has for years kept far in advance 
of the European population, or of the sway 
of the colonial government. The whole ter- 
ritory, for a thousand miles north of the 
Cape of Good Hope, is either Protestant, or 
is everywhere dotted with the missions of 
about twenty Protestant societies. The ad- 
vance is very marked since Dr. Livingstone 
started on his first journey. Places and 
tribes which he visited as an explorer are 
now familiar names in missionary period- 
icals. The number of converts we can not 
give. The London Society reported, over 



a year ago, 5866 church members, 31,197 ad- 
herents, and 2800 scholars — all among the 
natives. The Wesleyans reported 11,500 in 
full membership, and 2400 probationers. 
The American Board is the only society from 
this country that has occupied this field, and 
its mission to the Zulus near the coast is a 
successful one, with 500 members. 

For 1500 miles north of 22° south latitude 
there is not a Protestant mission, although 
we pass one or two Catholic stations, espe- 
cially that of St. Paulo de Loanda, in Congo, 
where there is something of a Portuguese 
population, and where there are Capnchin 
and Benedictine monks. The fine churches 
and monasteries for which the town was 
celebrated two hundred years ago are now 
in ruins. The Catholic faith, which was 
once professed by a large part of the ne- 
groes, is utterly extinct ; and the mission 
inaugurated under Father Poussot in 1865 
has scarce attempted more than to minister 
to the Portuguese and French in the trading 
factories in Congo. 

Just on the equator the American Presby- 
terians hold the Gaboon mission, lately de- 
livered to them by the American Board; 
and forty miles farther north the island of 
Corisco. Gaboon has been exceedingly un- 
healthy, and the converts very few. The 
Corisco mission has a station on the main- 
land, and counts about fifty members. Just 
at the angle where the Afi'ican coast begins 
to trend directly west is the district of Cam- 
eroons. Old Calabar, and the Niger River. 
In Cameroons the English Baptists have five 
missionaries and 117 members. In Old Cal- 
abar the United Presbyterians of Scotland 
have seven missionaries and five stations. 
The Niger River is under the charge of Bishop 
Crowther (colored), of the English Church 
Missionary Society. He seems to have had 
considerable success since the mission was 
organized in 1857 ; and he had under him, 
in 1871, eight native clergymen, and proba- 
bly 200 communicants. 

A little farther west we come to Yoruba 
and Dahomey. The Roman Catholics have 
stations at Lagos, Whydah, and Porto Novo, 
at each of which places they have from 45 
to 150 children under instruction. The 
Church Missionary Society has been at work 
in Yoruba since 1843, and has about 1500 
communicants and 1400 scholars. In 1867 
the heathens drove the Christians out of 
Abeokuta, a city of 100,000 inhabitants, 
seventy-five miles in the interior, destroyed 
the church building, and attempted to ex- 
tirpate Christianity. Scarce a year passed 
before a change of dynasty allowed the 
Christians to rebuild; and on January 3, 
1869, before any European missionary had 
returned to them, they had rebuilt the 
church, and the native pastors gathered a 
congregation of 1050, and administered the 
sacrament to 300 communicants. Since then 



MISSIONS 



638 



MISSIONS 



the work has been healthy and is branch- 
ing out in every direction, though foreign 
missionaries are still excluded. At Lagos 
the Wesley ans have 500 members, and per- 
haps 200 in Abeokuta. Along the coast of 
Dahomey theWesleyans have several out- 
stations, though we think the Eoman Cath- 
olics are more numerous there. 

Along the Gold Coast, which is all under 
British or Dutch protection, the Wesleyau, 
Basle, and North German societies have sta- 
tions. TheWesleyan main stations are at 
Cape Coast and Jamestown ; and they have 
scores of out-stations in the interior, with 
1600 members. The Basle Society has over 



the missions of the latter society, and kept 
them till the war. We are informed that in 
1868 there was not a self-supporting church 
nor a free school in the colony. For this rea- 
son the New York branch broke off from the 
Colonization Society. Within a few years a 
renewed effort has been made to supply the 
religious and educational wants of this peo- 
ple. The Baptists re-occupied the field in 
1868, and seem encouraged. They baptized 
153 tbe succeeding year, half of them Con- 
goes. The Methodists have maintained their 
mission there for nearly forty years, gener- 
ally at an annual expense of about $30,000. 
Their churches have, till within a year or 





Sechelis Towii„ ^-l^c^ v|,>« , 

^ i Pretoria^ VSi^tP ^^^ -".^/^/u. -o. 



"^ A- I Pretoria' 



^P- ^< 






y' ■■;;,# GreV^Town 







Lucia B. 
i-maritzburg 3,4.7,11, 

Port Natal 1,3,4, 



Queens 






CAgulhas 



^4 



^^beti, 



SOUTH 

Town 

^''^^ AFRICA 



^>5, 



b. 



ISK IRUSSELL.N 



1. Am. Board (Cong.) ; 2. Ens?. Church M. S. ; 3. En£?. Soc. Prop. Gospel ; 4. Ensr. Wesleyan M. S. ; 5. Eng. 
London M. S. : 6. Eng. Moravian M. S. ; T. Scotch Free Church M. S.; 8. Scotch United Presl:>. M. S. ; 9. Ber- 
lin M. S. : 10. RhineM.S.; 11. Hermanusburg M. S.; 12. French Evan. M.S.; 13. Norwegian M. S. ; 14. Hol- 
land Kef. of Natal M. S. 



1000 in its communities, and the North Ger- 
man Society a few more. 

Liberia is mainly a colony of American 
negroes, settled along the coast, and scarcely 
extending ten miles inland. There is an 
American population, reckoned from 19,000 
to 25,000, and perhaps 700,000 of aborigines, 
occupying half the coast and the region a 
little inland. Missions by the Basle Society 
were discontinued in 1831, by the American 
Board in 1844, and by the American Baptist 
Union in 1856. The Southern Baptists took 



two, raised nothing for the support of their 
ministers, being as backward in this respect 
as the Baptists, who lately report that not 
one of eighteen churches in the territory was 
doing any thing to support its pastor. They 
had seventeen ministers, and they had sev- 
enteen in 1836. The most powerful revival 
ever known in Liberia was enjoyed in 1870, 
and religious interests are now more hope- 
ful. The Episcopalians, also, have several 
stations, and around Cape Palmas are labor- 
ins amonff the heathen tribes with success. 



MISSIONS 



639 



MISSIONS 



A little farther to the north-west are the 
Sherborough and Mendi missions, of the 
American Missionary Association. They are 
very feeble, and have perhaps fifty members. 
The English Chnrch Missionary Society has 
a school on Sherborough Island, and is es- 
tablishing several out-stations. 

Sierra Leone is a peninsula about twenty- 
five miles long and ten wide, with a popula- 
tion, in 1860, of 41,624 souls, including 250 
whites. Most of these are Christians, and 
divided between the Anglican and the Meth- 
odist churches ; though over 2000 belong to 
the Lady Huntington Connection, nearly 
2000 are Mohammedans, and perhaps 100 are 
Catholics. The Church Missionary Society 
reported in 1871 about 700 native communi- 
cants, 624 scholars, and 9 ordained natives. 
It is now sending out its preachers into the 
heathen country beyond British protection, 
and already in the Bullom country, in the 
south, 162 converts are reported. The Wes- 
leyans are more numerous, and report 4952 
members. 

Different parts of the coast of Gambia are 
under French, Portuguese, or English pro- 
tection. In the English territory the Wes- 
leyans have over 3000 in attendance on their 
worship, and 658 members. The cholera 
swept off several thousand inhabitants last 
year, but the churches are recovering their 
strength. The population in the principal 
city, Bathurst, is Christianized, and the city 
presents quite a European appearance. The 
Paris Evangelical Society has a mission in 
the French territory. The Roman Catho- 
lics have a mission at Bathurst, and farther 
north, at Cape Verde and St. Louis, with a 
population, mainly foreign, of some thou- 
sauds. 

Passing by Sahara and Morocco, we close 
our survey of Africa with Algiers. The 
whole north of Africa is Mohammedan, and 
practically closed against missions. Algeria 
contains a population of 2,000,000, of whom 
134,000 are French Catholics or infidels. The 
Jesuits, and a dozen other Catholic orders, 
have establishments and missions there, but 
we believe entirely devoted to the European 
residents. There is a small Protestant pop- 
ulation, and we presume the French Protest- 
ant societies have not neglected it. Our re- 
view of Africa would not be complete with- 
out referring to the wave of the Mohammed- 
an population which is constantly sweep- 
ing southward, and spreading its religion by 
conquest and persuasion. Heathenism is 
everywhere giving way, and before many 
years Protestantism from the south and Mo- 
hammedanism from the north will meet and 
battle for the victory. Protestantism has 
by far the advantage of Romari,ism. It has 
secured Madagascar, which will soon be en- 
tirely converted ; and in South Africa it is 
sweeping every thing before it. Large tracts 
on the western coast are entirely Protestant, 



while we find scarcely any corresponding 
Catholic success. The French and Portu- 
guese settlers, with their descendants, in Al- 
geria, Mozambique, Loanda, and Senegal, 
make up the most of their numbers. The 
problem of the conversion of heathen Africa 
to a pure Christianity is practically settled ; 
but the problem how to subdue Mohammed- 
an Africa has not yet been touched. 

Polynesia. — Nowhere has greater success 
crowned the labors of Protestant mission- 
aries than in Polynesia. Passing by Aus- 
tralia and New Guinea, the al^rigines of 
which are very degraded, and have hardly 
been approached by missions, we can already 
claim the remaining islands as nearly all 
converted to Christianity. The Maories of 
New Zealand had nearly all embraced Chris- 
tianity, but the war against the English set- 
tlers in 1869 nearly broke up for a while the 
stations of the Wesleyan and Church Mis- 
sionary societies. Paganism may be said to 
be nearly extinct. In the New Hebrides 
the Reformed Presbyterians of Scotland have 
gained controlling success ; the London Mis- 
sionary Society in the Loyalty Islands ; the 
English Wesley ans in Feejee, where they have 
over 100,000 native adherents. Samoa is oc- 
cupied by the Wesleyans, who have 1000 
communicants, and the London Society, 
which has 5000. Tahiti, one of the Society 
Islands, was occupied by the London Socie- 
ty in 1797 ; and heathenism was abolished in 
1814. The Sandwich Islands were evangel- 
ized by the missionaries of the American 
Board, and the Marquesas Islands are rapidly 
being Christianized by the labors of a Sand- 
wich Islands Missionary Society. 

America. — The Catholic countries of 
North and South America are the field of 
a few missions. The American and Foreign 
Christian Union for a time conducted a very 
successful mission in the city of Mexico and 
its vicinity, which included about seventy 
congregations, besides sustaining a success- 
ful station at Monterey. The same society 
occupies several stations in Chili. They 
have lately turned over their work in Mex- 
ico in part to the American Board, and in 
Chili to the Presbyterians. The Methodists 
and the Episcopalians are also carrying on a 
work in Mexico ; the history of Mr. Riley's 
labors in the city of Mexico, which are now 
conducted under the auspices of the Episco- 
palians, but were for a time ecclesiastically 
independent, is something phenomenal in the 
history of missions. The American Presby- 
terian Boa^ reports 21 communicants in 
Colombia, and 340 in Brazil. The Amer- 
ican Board have occupied the great city of 
Guadalajara on the west, and are meeting 
with much encouragement. 

In Labrador the Moravians have a suc- 
cessful, though very difficult, mission. It is 
said that the missions of the same body of 
Christians in Greenland had converted all 



MISSIONS 



640 



MISSIONS 



the natives to Christianity. Their mission 
to the negroes of Guiana has brought several 
thousand into their churches. 

The action of the United States Govern- 
ment, in requesting the different religious 
bodies to nominate Indian agents, has, by 
virtually distributing the care of the Indian 
tribes among them, done much to increase 
the interest felt in their evangelization ; and 
there are now but few tribes within our bor- 
ders which are not nominally Christian, the 
exceptions being the most savage in the ex- 



treme West. English Christians are not en- 
tirely neglecting those in British America, 
and the Church Missionary Society reports 
1452 communicants in the Manitoba, Sas- 
katchawan, and Mackenzie districts. The 
Roman Catholics early entered this field, and 
not a few tribes are under their instruction. 
The following statistics of the Protestant 
missionary societies of the world are taken 
from Dr. William Butler's "Land of the 
Veda," p. 531, and are generally based on 
the reports of 1871. 



FOREIGN MISSIONARY STATISTICS OF THE PROTESTANT CHURCH THROUGHOUT 

THE WORLD. 



Estab- 
lished 



1810 
1814 
1819 
1821 
1832 
1882 
1833 
1837 
1842 
1844 
1845 
1845 
1845 
1846 
1853 

1859 



1701 
1792 
1795 
1800 
1816 
1S17 
1824 
1840 
1840 
1843 
1844 
1844 
1847 
1858 
1860 

1860 

1866 



1732 
1797 
1816 
1822 
1828 
1833 
1833 
1836 
1836 
1842 
1850 
1852 
1860 



American Societies. 

American Board 

Baptist Missionary Union 

Methodist Episcopal Church 

Protestant Episcopal Board 

Reformed Church 

Presbyterian Church 

Free-will Baptist 

Evangelical Lutheran Mis. Society 

Seventh-day Baptist 

Reformed Presbyterian Church.. 

Baptist Free Missions,. 

Southern Baptist Board 

Methodist Episc. Church, South. . 
American Missionary Association 

United Brethren Church 

Southern Presbyterian Church. . . 

United Presbyterian Church 

Nova Scotia Presbyterian Church 

British Societies. 

Gospel Propagation Society 

Baptist Missionary Society 

London Missionary Society 

Church of England Society 

General Baptist Society 

Wesleyan Missionary Society 

Church of ScotlanQ 

Irish Presbyterian Church 

Welsh Calvinistic Methodist 

Free Church of Scotland 

English Presbyterian Church.... 

S. A. Missionary Society 

United Presbyterian Church 

Chris. Vernacular Education Soc* 

Moslem Missionary Society 

Primitive Methodist Society 

United Methodist Free Church . . 

Methodist New Connection 

Assam and Cachar Miss. Society. 
China Inland Mission 

Continental Societies. 

Moravian Missionary Society 

Netherland Missionary Society.. 

Basle Evangelical Mission 

Paris Evangelical Society 

Rhenish Missionary Society 

Berlin Missionary Society 

Berlin Evangelical Mission 

Leipsic Evangelical Lutheran — 

North German 

Norwegian 

Berlin Union for China 

Hermansburgh Society 

Danish Missionary Society •. 

Utrecht Missionary Society 

American Societies 

British Societies 

Continental Societies 

Total Foreign Missions 



Foreign 
Missionaries. 



Male. Female. 



131 

49 

53 

28 

17 

129 

6 

5 

3 

2 

4 

12 

2 

16 

2 

10 

16 

5 



70 

53 

156 

203 

5 

543 

11 

11 



156 
20 
71 
21 
56 
35 
16 
15 
11 
19 

2 
44 

2 
10 



180 



16 

19 

131 

7 



50 

51 

156 

223 

6 

554 

11 



50 



10 



62 



Preachers 
and Cat- 
eehists. 



428 

865 

169 

20 

46 

171 

18 

3 



700 

221 

2,726 

1,845 

18 

1,978 

6 

8 

14 

110 

44 

7 

34 

5 

5 

'"io 

12 

1 
3 



15 
46 
103 
19 
21 
9 



Total 
Chris- 
tian La- 
borers. 



739 

974 

275 

64 

82 

431 

31 

13 

3 

5 

16 

43 

8 

35 

3 

27 

38 

10 



820 

325 

2,998 

2,048 

29 

3,075 

28 

19 

18 

153 

61 

21 

124 

5 



320 
66 

236 
40 

146 
44 

101 
73 
11 



Native 
Church 
Members 



23,718 

26,480 

5,182 

706 

1,123 

3,700 

212 



2,416 

301 

70 

550 



351 
1,000 



8,497 

6,491 

50,763 

18,766 

563 

68,531 

218 

130 

211 

1,906 

1,000 



5,740 



65 
5,044 

284 



119 



20,742 



3,478 

1,368 

4,656 

1,851 

4,700 

9,290 

42 

114 

200 



Native 
Christian 
Commu- 
nity. 



77,091 

105,920 

15,500 

4,000 

38,000 

12,000 

630 

80 



8,000 

301 

70 

1,623 



1,337 
1,000 



24,000 

11,467 

389,906 

84,912 

563 

250,170 

218 

130 

836 

3,542 

2,002 



6,400 



410 

5,850 

284 



119 



69,123 



5,300 

1,368 

4,656 

4,434 

15,000 

5,119 

42 

114 

200 



Total 

Scholars, 

both 

Sexes. 



14,410 
7,397 
4,078 
1,485 
2,341 

10,059 

1,078 

355 



2,673 



329 



2,113 
1,500 



8,019 

4,551 

50,671 

36,718 

1,523 

140,397 

2,800 

1,300 

714 

9,752 

800 



6,903 
4,650 



93 
1,241 



15,822 

13,037 

3,218 

900 

3,752 

1,500 

1,400 

1,684 

94 

150 

304 



60 



Summary. 



Income of 

Society 
in 1871. 



$461,058 
217,510 
224,198 
112,837 

71,123 
378,803 

11,389 



8,458 
10,000 
27,254 



27,424 

2,201 

27,296 

48,345 

6,000 



532,175 

164,400 

536,760 

823,585 

30,056 

445,000 

49,065 

25,395 

26,460 

131,317 

40,297 

43,520 

42,760 

45,529 



11,730 

14,425 

10,075 

2,420 



490 

1,197 

478 


544 

1,169 

365 


1,773 

7,747 
366 


2,797 
9,910 

1,217 


65,889 
168,328 
46,445 


III 


47,850 

270,414 

41,925 


2,165 


2,078 


9,886 


13,924 


280,662 


1,151,721 


360,189 



107,005 
40,000 

156,468 
40,829 
59,565 
49,459 
22,500 
49,500 
20,395 
19,500 
3,000 
37,735 
7,500 

195,000 



$1,633,891 

2,975,869 

622.956 



$5,232,716 



Issues 250 diflfereut publications, in 14 languages, for Christian education. 



MITRE 



641 



MOAB 



Mitre, an ornament, or covering, for the 
head, worn by the ancient Jewish high-priest. 
Josephus describes it as a bonnet without a 
crown, which covered only about the middle 
of the head. It was made of linen, and 
wrapped in folds round the head like a tur- 
ban. The mitre was peculiar to the high- 
priest, though the bonnets of the other 
priests somewhat resembled it in form. The 
difference between the two was that the bon- 
net came lower down upon the forehead than 
the mitre, which did not cover the forehead 
at all, and was flatter than the bonnet, but 
much broader, consisting of more numerous 
folds, and to some extent resembling a half 
sphere. 

A mitre is also mentioned by various Chris- 
tian writers of antiquity as a head-dress worn 
by bishops or certain abbots, being a sort of 
turban, or cap, cleft at the top. Eusebius 
and Jerome allege that the apostle John wore 
a mitre, and Epiphanius declares the same 
concerning James, first bishop of Jerusalem. 
Bingham, however, is of opinion that such a 
head-dress was worn by the apostles, not as 
Christian bishops, but as Jewish priests of 
the order of Aaron. The most ancient mitres 
were very low and simple, being not more 
than from three to six inches in elevation, 
and they thus continued till the end of the 
thirteenth century. In the fourteenth cen- 
tury they gradually increased in height to a 
foot or more, and became more superbly en- 
riched. The two horns of the mitre are gen- 
erally taken to be an allusion to the cloven 
tongues as of fire, which rested on each of 
the apostles on the Day of Pentecost. Mi- 
tres, although worn in some of the Lutheran 
churches (as in Sweden), have fallen into 
utter desuetude in England, even at coro- 
nations. They were worn, however, at the 
coronations of Edward VI. and Queen Eliza- 
beth. The pope wears four different mitres, 
which are more or less richly adorned, ac- 
cording to the festivals on which they are 
worn. 

Mitylene, the capital of the ancient isl- 
and of Lesbos, in the ^gean Sea. It was 
situated on the south - east side of the isl- 
and, and was celebrated equally for the 
beauty of its situation and of its buildings. 
The Romans conferred the privilege of citi- 
zenship on its natives. St. Paul touched 
here on his third missionary voyage, and re- 
mained for a night ; but we have no evi- 
dence that he preached here, and only a 
probability that he landed at all. [Acts 
XX., 14.] 

Mizraim (bulwarks). Mizraim first oc- 
curs in the account of the Hamites in Gen. 
X.* It seems to be merely the name of a 
country; and like Cush, and perhaps Ham, 
geographically represents a centre whence 
colonies went forth in the remotest period 
of post-diluvian history. The Philistines 



Comp. 1 Chron. i., 8. 
41 



were originally settled in the land of Miz- 
raim, and there is reason to suppose the 
same of the Lehabim or Lubim (q. v.), which 
are supposed to be identical with the Lib- 
yans. See Egypt ; Ham. 

Moab (seed of the father), the son of Lot by 
his eldest daughter.^ From the neighbor- 
hood of Zoar the children of this patriarch 
must have extended — Ammon to the more 
distant north-east country, previously in- 
habited by the Zuzim, or Zamzummim, Moal> 
to the districts nearer to the Dead Sea,. 
These were possessed by the Emim, a gigau- 
tic people, a branch, probably, of the Re- 
phaim ; but the Moabites were sucees&ful in 
expelling them, and occupied at first the up- 
lands east of the Dead Sea and the Jordan as 
far as the mountains of Gilead^together with 
the lowlands between, their own hills and 
the river, the modern Belka and Kerek. This 
considerable region, comprised three divis- 
ions — the " country/' or " field," of Moab to 
the south of the Arnon; the "land" of Moab, 
the open country opposite Jericho to the 
Gileadite hills; and the "plains," or, mwe- 
properly, the dry arid district about the^ Jor^ 
dan.^ But the Moabites were not left in 
peaceable possession of all this region.. They 
were, in their turn, dispossessed by the-Amo- 
rites, coming probably from the west of the- 
Jordan ; and this conquest had b«eu. achieved 
not long before the arrival of the Israelites. 
in the neighborhood ; for Sihon^ whjom> they 
found in possession, was the king who had' 
so extended the Amorite territory.. It is nO' 
wonder that^ after such losses, Moab dread.- 
ed the approach of the Israelites, lest fur^ 
ther calamities should desolat&th^ir nation.* 
Their country was now confined to the 
southern part of the high table-Iaaid on the 
east of the Dead Sea. It was bounded on 
the north hj the Arnon, and probably on the 
south by the " brook of the willows," now 
Wady el-Ahsi. But it wa& eompa«t^ and 
readily defensible. There were but two or 
three steep passes through th& cliffs which 
overhang the sea, and the hills which swept 
round on the south and east were not easily 
penetrated. It was well watered, with val- 
lej^s and wide plains among, its hills } it was 
fruitful, and its downs afforded abundant 
pasture. Ar, or Rabbath-moab*;. was the me^ 
tropolis ; and Kir, or Kir-haraseth, was one 
of the strongest fortresses.^ 

There was long-continued jealous and hos- 
tile feeling between Moab and Israel. The 
tribes, indeed, were warned, in their jour- 
ney toward Canaan, not to interfere with 
the Moabites, or appropriate any part of 
their territory, and they marched round 
through the country to the east ; but Balak, 
the Moabite king, either did not understand. 



1 Gen. xix., 37.-2 See Deut. i., 5; ii., 9, 10; Numb, 
xxii., 1 ; Ruth i., 1, 2, 6. — 3 Nami). xxi., 26-30 ; xxii., 
3, 4.—* See, for boundaries and physical characteris- 
tics, Numb, xxi., 13; Judg. xi., 18"; 2 Kings lii., 4; 
Kuthi.,1; Isa. xvi., 8, 10. 



MOAB 



642 



MOABITE STONE 



or did not trust this peaceful purpose. He 
therefore, in couj unction with the Midian- 
ites, hired Balaam to curse them. Hence 
the prohibition against admitting a Moah- 
ite into the congregation of the Lord to the 
tenth generation. The curses demanded 
were changed into blessings ; but the Moab- 
ites were more successful in debauching the 
Israelites, and bringing a heavy retribution 
upon them for the idolatry and immorality 
into which they had enticed them.^ After 
the settlement in Palestine, Moab, in con- 
junction with Ammon and Amalek, subject- 
ed the southern tribes of Israel, and perhaps 
also part of the trans-Jordanic territory. 
Ehud, however, delivered them, after a serv- 
itude of eighteen years.^ During the rest 
of the period of the Judges we hear little of 
Moab, save that the country Avas a refuge 
for the family of Elimelech during a famine 
in Israel, and that the Moabitish Euth was 
introduced into that line from which David 
was descended. The relations between the 
two peoples were afterward more compli- 
cated. Saul fought against Moab ; but Da- 
vid confided his parents to the Moabitish 
king while he was in hold during Saul's per- 
secution of him ; and we subsequently find 
one of his heroes a Moabite ; yet after he 
was established on the throne he invaded 
and subdued Moab. No reason is assigned 
for this change of policy, and the coujectures 
which have been hazarded are baseless.^ 
The Moabites seem still to have retained 
their own king, as a vassal of the Hebrew 
crown 5 after the disruption, they were at- 



feated, and we find them making incursions 
in the reign of Joash into the kingdom of Is- 
rael ; but we may reasonably suppose them to 
have been subdued by Jeroboam II. After 
the captivity of the trans-Jordanic tribes, 
the Moabites must have occupied a good 
deal of their territory, and were probably 
then in possession of all they had formerly 
lost to the Amorites. They joined the Chal- 
deans against Jehoiakim, but encouraged 
Zedekiah against Nebuchadnezzar. They 
rejoiced at the fall of Judah, having per- 
haps made terms with the victors, but were 
themselves, about five years after the de- 
struction of Jerusalem, subdued by the King 
of Babylon. They are mentioned after the 
return from captivity, but they seem to have 
been subsequently absorbed by the Arabians.^ 

The form of government was probably 
monarchical, the chiefs possessing also con- 
siderable influence, the religion idolatrous, 
Baal-peor and Chemosh being their deities.^ 

The desolation of Moab was predicted by 
several of the. prophets, and the fulfillment is 
to be seen in the present state of the country.^ 

Moabite Stone (The), a large stone found 
at'Diban, the ancient Dibon, covered with an 
inscription in the Moabitish language. The 
discovery of this stone has excited so wide- 
ly extended an interest, because it does not 
merely confirm or illustrate the narrative of 
the Second Book of Kiugs, but adds to our 
knowledge. The inscription appears to be 
the contemporaneous record, from the Moab- 
ite point of view, of the rebellion of that 
King Mesha who, after a struggle whose du- 




The Moabite Stone. 



tached to the northern kingdom, but on the 
death of Ahab they rebelled, and Jehoram 
was unable to reconquer the country. The 
Moabites and Ammonites had previously at- 
tacked Jehoshaphat, but were entirely de- 



1 Numb, xxii., 2-6 ; xxv., 1-5 ; Deut. ii., 9.-2 JnAs. 
iii., 12-30. — 3 Ruth i., 1 ; iv., 10-22 ; 1 Sam. xiv., 4T ; 
xxii., 3, 4 ; 2 Sam. viii., "2 ; 1 Chron. xi., 40. 



ration is uncertain, and which is first noticed 
in 2 Kings i., 1, by the sacred historian, was 
finally overcome by the combined armies of 
Judah and Israel. It begins by setting forth 



1 2 Kings i., 1 ; iii., 4, 5-2T ; xiii., 20, 21 ; Isa. xv., 2, 
4; xvi., 8; Jer. xlviii., 2, 22, 23,— 2 Numb, xxy., 1-3 ; 1 



Kings xi.. 



lisa.xv. ; xvi. 



XXV., 10-12 ; Jer. xxv. 



15-21 ; xlviii. ; Amos ii., 1-3 ; Zeph. ii., 8-11. 



MOHAMMEDANISM 



643 



MOHAMMEDANISM 



his name and titles, and briefly recounts Ms 
successful effort to throw off the yoke of the 
King of Israel ; then follows a list of bloody 
battles fought, of towns wrested from the 
enemy, and of spoil and captives fallen into 
his hands. For these conquests he returns sol- 
emn thanks to Chemosh, his god — the abom- 
ination of Moab' — and glories, with a relig- 
ious fervor that sounds strangely to our ears, 
in having despoiled the sanctuary of Jehovah. 
The inscription concludes by setting forth 
the names of the towns rebuilt or fortified 
by the Moabite king, of altars raised to Che- 
mosh, of wells and cisterns dug, and other 
peaceful works accomplished. This portion 
of the record is a most valuable addition to 
our knowledge of sacred geography ; for the 
names as given on the Moabite Stone, en- 
graved by one who knew them in his daily 
life, are in nearly every case absolutely iden- 
tical with those found in the Bible itself, and 
testify to the wonderful integrity with which 
the Scriptures have been preserved.^ 

Mohammedanism, the religion founded 
by Mohammed. It is variously estimated to 
embrace from 130,000,000 to 150,000,000 of 
adherents, chiefly in Turkey, Africa, and Per- 
sia, and parts of India. 

I. History. — Mohammed was born about 
the year 570 a.d., at Mecca. He early form- 
ed the habit of retiring to a cave about three 
miles from his native city, where he spent 
a month in solitude, meditation, and prayer. 
It was not, however, until he was forty years 
of age that he professed to receive the divine 
d irection, through the angel Gabriel, to preach 
the true religion, nor was his preaching ac- 
companied with any considerable success for 
the first ten years of his ministry. He then 
began to unite his converts in a military or- 
ganization, and it grew rapidly. Crowds 
flocked to his camp, some drawn, doubtless, 
by a genuine religious fanaticism, others by a 
hope of plunder. He accepted both the Old 
and the New Testaments, and claimed to be 
the Holy Comforter whom Christ had prom- 
ised. He denounced the idolatry of the age, 
and declared himself coming to punish unbe- 
lievers in the true religion. After an event- 
ful career, he eventually, in 630 a.d., enter- 
ed Mecca in triumph, received the keys of 
the city, and was acknowledged by the peo- 
ple as their prince and prophet. The whole 
of Arabia was soon after conquered, nor was 
the progress of his arms stayed by his death, 
Avhich occurred 632 a.d., in the 63d year of his 
age.^ Persia and Northern Africa were com- 
pelled to submit to this new power, which, 
advancing along the southern shore of the 
Mediterranean, crossed it at the western end, 
and gained a foothold even in Spain. Later, 
it penetrated Europe along the northern shore 
of the Mediterranean as far as Constantino- 
ple, which fell into the hands of Mohammed 



1 1 Kings xi., 7.-2 "Desert of the Exodus," p. 410. 
— ' Some authorities say the 65th. 



II. in 1453 A.D. During the whole of the 
fifteenth century the battle between Chris- 
tianity and Mohammedanism was a fierce 
one, nor was it till the beginniug of the sub- 
sequent century that the waning of the 
power of this new religion relieved Christian 
Europe from the terror in which it had held 
the Church and the people for over a century. 
At about the same time the Mohammedans 
were expelled from Spain by Ferdinand V. 
Since that time Mohammedanism has been 
at a stand-still, except in some parts of India, 
where it has recently received a new impetus, 
and where it has threatened to become a far 
more serious opponent to Christian civiliza- 
tion than either Brahmanism or Buddhism. 

II. Doctrines. — The religion of Mohammed 
or of Islam (i. e., obedience to God) is divided 
into two parts, faith and practice. The faith 
of Mohammedanism includes some of the 
cardinal points of the Jewish and Christian 
religions. It embraces belief in one person- 
al God, immutable, omniscient, omnipotent, 
all-merciful, and eternal, and belief in a host 
of angels or ministering spirits, of various 
degrees of rank, and intrusted with the per- 
formance of various duties. One angel, 
named Azarel, answers to the Satan of the 
Scriptures ; two guardian angels keep watch 
upon each mortal, recording every word and 
action, and are replaced every day by two 
new ones. Some resemblance to the angelic 
system of the Bible is to be found in the Ko- 
ran, but angelology occupies a far more im- 
portant place in Mohammedanism than in 
Christianity. The Mohammedans believe 
in the resurrection of the dead and the final 
judgment ; the intermediate state of true 
believers is one of blissful tranquillity near 
the tomb where the bodies are laid; the 
final day of judgment is to be preceded by 
various signs and portents. The judgment- 
day itself is pictorially described ; in an im- 
mense balance the good and evil deeds of 
every life will be weighed against each oth- 
er ; after which every one must pass tiie or- 
deal of the bridge Al-Sirat (q. v.). Heaven 
and hell are both described with great de- 
tail, and both with sensuous imagery. It 
is not, however, right to conclude, as many 
have done, that the heaven of the Mussul- 
man is one only of sensuous delights, since 
many of the Mohammedan expounders re- 
gard the language of the Koran in describ- 
ing both the rewards and the inmishments 
of the future as symbolical in its character, 
as the language of the Bible on the same 
subjects is regarded by most Christian schol- 
ars. The Mohammedans are also profound 
believers in Predestination, Mohammed him- 
self having inculcated the doctrine that ev- 
ery event, and the destiny of every individ- 
ual, is predetermined by a fatalistic decree 
frcyn which there is no escape, and of which 
there can be no modification. The Moham- 
medans accept Jesus Christ as one of the 



MOLE 



644 



MONACHISM 



most distingnished of the prophets, though 
they deny his divine character, and totally 
repudiate the doctrine of the Trinity, which 
they regard as inconsistent with the unity 
of the godhead. Their sacred book is the 
Koran (q. v.). The religious practices of 
the Mohammedans constitute a system of 
the most elaborate and rigid ceremonialism. 
A system of ablutions is prescribed, some- 
what similar to the washings (q. v.) prac- 
ticed among the Pharisees. Prayer is to be 
performed tive times every day, at appointed 
hours, accompanied with certain postures; 
and the least departure from the prescribed 
form or the appointed posture vitiates the 
whole prayer. Friday is the Mohammedan's 
Sabbath ; and there are then usually a ser- 
mon and public prayers in the mosque. 
Almsgiving and fasting are required by law, 
and every true believer is required to make 
one pilgrimage to Mecca in the course of his 
life, either personally or by a substitute. 

Mole. There seems to be no possibility 
of deciding what creature is signified by the 
Hebrew word so translated, since in Lev. xi., 
18, it occurs as one of the unclean birds that 
might not be eaten (translated " swan" in our 
version), while in another place it is enumer- 
ated among the unclean creeping things. We 
may conjecture that the same word might 
be used to designate two distinct animals : 
it is rather a strange coincidence in corrobo- 
ration of this theory, that our word mole sig- 
nifies three distinct objects — an animal, a cu- 
taneous growth, and a bank of earth. If En- 
glish were a dead language like the Hebrew, 
the translator of an English book would feel 
extremely perplexed at finding the word mole 
used in such widely different senses. A dif- 
ferent Hebrew word is used in Isaiah ii., 20 : 
" In that day a man shall cast his idols of 
silver, and his idols of gold, which they 
made each one for himself to worship, to the 
moles and to the bats." It is possible that 
the word is used for any of the small bur- 
rowing animals which frequent desolate 
places, perhaps with special reference to the 
mole-rat of Palestine. This animal, in gen- 
eral appearance, bears some resemblance to 
the European mole, but is much larger and 
quite different in its habits. The mole-rat 
is fond of deserted ruins and burial-places, 
and is most active in the night ; so that it 
would naturally be associated with the bat 
in the prophetic narrative. 

Molech {a king). The godMolech — call- 
ed also Moloch, and sometimes in the O. T. 
Milcom, Melcam, and Malcham — was the tu- 
telary deity of the Ammonites, to whom hu- 
man sacrifices are alleged to have been offer- 
ed.^ Molech, which signifies in Hebrew a 
king, is thought to have represented the sun, 
or the destructive element of fire, which 



» Lev. xviii., 21; xx., 2-5; 1 Kino:s xi., 5, 7, 33; 2 
Kings xxiii., 10, 13; Jer. xxxii., 35; xlix., 1,3; Amos 
v., 26 ; Acts vii., 43. 



seems to have been worshiped under differ- 
ent symbols, and with most inhuman rites, 
by all the Canaanite, Syrian, and Arab tribes. 
He was worshiped under the form of a calf, 
or ox. His image was hollow, and was pro- 
vided with seven receptacles, in which were 
deposited the different offerings of the wor- 
shipers. Into the first was put an offering 
of fine flour, into the second an offering of 
turtle-doves, into the third a sheep, into the 
fourth a ram, into the fifth a calf, into the 
sixth an ox, and into the seventh a child. 
To this idol the Hebrews sacrificed children 
in the valley of Hinnom, which was also call- 
ed Tophet.^ It has been questioned whether 
the children were actually burned, or only 
made to pass through the fire for a purifica- 
tion. But that they were really destroyed 
may be gathered from several passages of 
Scripture ; some of which, however, indicate 
that the children were not burned alive, but 
first put to death, and afterward their bodies 
burned.^ Another peculiarity in the wor- 
ship of Molech, termed the taking up of the 
tabernacle^ of Molech, was practiced by car- 
rying in procession images of the deity in 
shrines or arks, in imitation of the practice 
follow^ed by the Israelites of carrying the 
tabernacle of Moses in their journeyings 
through the wilderness. Molech, " the king," 
was the lord and master of the Ammonites ; 
their country was his possession, as Moab 
was the heritage of Chemosh ; the princes 
of the land were the princes of Malcham. 
His priests were men of rank, taking prece- 
dence of the princes, and, like those of other 
idols, were called by O. T. writers^ Chema- 
rim. Molech has been identified with Sat- 
urn ; and points of resemblance have been 
noted in the descriptions of their worship. 
But perhaps it may be more just to regard 
this idol as one of the forms of Baal, the sun- 
god, to whom in Carthage and Numidia chil- 
dren were immolated. 

Monachism. The origin of the monastic 
spirit has been attributed to early Chris- 
tians, but it must be traced to a much ear- 
lier date. It is not improbable, indeed, that 
the previous existence of the Essenes (q. v.) 
suggested the establishment of monastic in- 
stitutions where Christianity had not en- 
tirely dissevered itself from the principles 
and the practice of Judaism. The earliest 
manifestation of this spirit in the Christian 
Church was in the seclusion of single indi- 
viduals. Gradually these individuals, al- 
though living apart, began to assume a uni- 
form mode of life, and, instead of practicing 
mere privations and denials, the recluses 
seemed to vie with each other in the extent 
to which they could carry their ingenuity 
in devising new modes of self-torture, and 
their powers of endurance in submitting to 



1 Isa. XXX., 33. See Hell.— 2 Psa. cvi., 37, 38; Jer. 
vii., 31 ; Ezek. xvi., 20, 21 ; xxiii., 37.-3 Acts vii., 43.— 
4 Zeph. i., 4. 



MONACHISM 



645 



MONACHISM 



them. To subsist on tlie coarsest and most 
unwholesome diet — to abstain from food 
and sleep till nature was almost wholly ex- 
hausted — to repose uncovered on the bare 
and humid ground — to live in nakedness, in 
filth, and suffering — to shun all intercourse 
even with the nearest relatives and connec- 
tions — was not enough. The body must 
be bruised and wounded, and every means 
taken to inflict upon the whole nature the 
severest torments. The hermit, or anchor- 
ite, as the solitary recluse was termed, was 
considered by the world to be invested with 
peculiar sanctity. To his cell the learned, 
the noble, and the devout resorted, eager to 
pay him homage. A life so highly esteemed 
by the world attracted large numbers, and 
communities of recluses were formed, and 
the rules which the celebrated Anthony had 
laid down for the guidance of single monks 
came to be applied to the administration of 
these monastic institutions. Thus the mon- 
achism of the cloister was substituted for 
the mouachism of the cell. At first, howev- 
er, the monastery consisted of an assemblage 
of huts, or similar rude dwellings, arranged 
in a certain order, and in some cases encir- 
cled by a wall surrounding the whole extent 
of the community. These primitive monas- 
teries were termed Laurce. By the consent 
of antiquity the formation of the first regu- 
lar monastery, or ccenoMum,^ is ascribed to 
Pachomius, an Egyptian monk. He is also 
said to have been the originator of convent- 
ual establishments for women. 

Until near the close of the fifth century 
the monks were regarded simply as laymen, 
and laid no claim to be ranked among the 
sacerdotal order. But they specially en- 
gaged in the cultivation of spiritual life, and 
many of its members began to occupy them- 
selves with the work of reading and ex- 
pounding the Scriptiu^es — an occupation 
which, together with their austere mode 
of life, being supposed to indicate superior 
sanctity and virtue, gave them great favor 
with the multitude, and speedily acquired 
for them such popularity and influence that 
the clergy could not but find in them either 
powerful allies or formidable rivals. When 
they began to form large and regular estab- 
lishments, it was needful that some mem- 
bers of their body should be ordained, in or- 
der to secure the regular performance of di- 
vine worship ; and, at length, not only was 
it usual for many members of a monastery to 
be in holy orders, but it came to be regard- 
ed as an advantage for the clergy to possess 
the additional character of monastics. The 
abbots, jealous of their spiritual superiors 
the bishops, at length made earnest appli- 
cation to be taken under the protection of 
the pope at Rome ; and very quickly all the 
monasteries, great and small, abbeys, prior- 
ies, and nunneries, were taken from under 



^ See Cenobites. 



the jurisdiction of the bishops, and subject- 
ed to the authority of the See of Rome. 
This event was the source of a great acces- 
sion to the pontifical power, establishing in 
almost every quarter a kind of spiritual po- 
lice, who acted as spies on the bishops as 
well as on the secular authorities. The 
abuses to which the monastic system gave 
rise culminated toward the end of the ninth 
and the beginning of the tenth century. 
Discipline had disappeared from the mon- 
asteries, and they had become hotbeds of 
profligacy and vice. Such flagrant enor- 
mities demanded a reformation of monastic 
institutions in general. At this crisis in the 
history of monachism was established the 
monastery of Cluny, which, from the regu- 
larity and order of all its arrangements, was 
soon recognized as a model institute, and 
formed the centre of a work of reformation 
which spread rapidly throughout the monas- 
teries in every part of Europe. Public opin- 
ion now declared loudly in favor of the life 
of a monk ; large sums were dedicated to the 
support of monastic establishments, and chil- 
dren were devoted by their parents to the 
conventual life. Many monasteries sought 
to associate themselves with Cluny, that 
they might share in its prestige, and in the 
benefits arising from its reformed discipline. 

In the beginning of the thirteenth centu- 
ry, monachism received a powerful impulse 
from the establishment of the mendicant or- 
ders (q. v.). This new movement was at its 
outset viewed with coldness by the papal 
court, but in the course of a few years the 
orders were confirmed by the authority of 
the See of Rome. Their numbers rapidly 
increased, and besides the regular members 
of their societies, both the Franciscans and 
the Dominicans adopted into connection 
with them a class of laymen under the name 
of Teriiaries, who, without taking the monas- 
tic vow, pledged themselves to promote the 
interests of the order to which they were 
attached. Thus the influence of the mendi- 
cants became widely diffused. Monachism 
soon became a powerful institution. The 
monastic orders were the natural allies of 
the papacy, and were rivals of the bishops. 
Great privileges were accorded to the monks ; 
and they were generally made independent 
of episcopal jurisdiction. 

Having become both important and pow- 
erful, they rapidly multiplied, and the most 
serious results were likely to arise. But 
Gregory X., with a view to check the grow- 
ing evil, issued a decree prohibiting all the 
orders which had originated since the time 
of Innocent III., a.d. 1200, and reduced the 
mendicants to four orders — the Dominicans, 
Franciscans, Carmelites, and Augustinian 
friars. These four classes of begging monks 
wandered over all Europe, instructing the 
people, both old and young, and exhibiting 
such an aspect of san(;tity and self-denial, 



MONACHISM 



646 



MONACHISM 



that tliey speedily became objects of univer- 
sal admiration. Their churches were crowd- 
ed, while those of the regular parish priests 
were almost wholly deserted; all classes 
sought to receive the sacraments at their 
hands ; their advice was eagerly courted in 
secular business, and even in the most intri- 
cate political affairs; so that in the thir- 
teenth and two following centuries, the men- 
dicant orders generally, but more especially 
the Dominicans and Franciscans, were in- 
trusted with the management of all matters 
both in Church and State. The high esti- 
mation, however, into which monachism 
had risen, more particularly through the 
wide-spread influence of the begging friars, 
awakened a spirit of bitter hostility in all 
orders of the clergy, and in the universities. 
In England the University of Oxford, and in 
France the University of Paris, labored to 
overthrow the now overgrown power of the 
mendicants. Hatred against the mendicants 
was not a little increased by the persecution ' 
which raged against the Beghards in Ger- 
many and the Low Countries. The monks, 
like a swarm of locusts, covered all Europe, 
proclaiming everywhere the obedience due to 
the holy mother Church, the reverence due 
to the saints — and more especially to the 
Virgin Mary — the efficacy of relics, the tor- 
ments of purgatory, and the blessed advan- 
tages arising from indulgences. 

At this point in the history of monachism 
the Reformation burst upon the world. The 
profligacy and deep-seated corruption of the 
monastic institutions had now reached its 
height, and the protest of the Reformers met 
with a cordial response in the breasts of mul- 
titudes whose attachment to the Church of 
Rome was warm and almost inextinguisha- 
ble. A new order was necessary to meet the 
peculiar circumstances in which the Church 
was now placed, and such was found in the 
Society of Jesus, founded by Ignatius Loyo- 
la.^ This order occupied a sort of interme- 
diate place between the monastics of other 
days and the secular clergy. Instead -of 
spending their time in devotion and penance 
and fasting, they gave themselves to the act- 
ive service of the Church. They soon be- 
came a formidable power in the interests of 
Romanism, possessed alike of wealth, learn- 
ing, and reputation, and surpassed in eccle- 
siastical influence all the other orders of 
monks. In the beginning of the seventeenth 
century the attention of many was turned 
toward the necessity of bringing back mo- 
nastic institutions, as far as possible, to the 
rules and laws of their order. The monks 
of the Roman Catholic churches became di- 
vided into the Reformed and the Unreformed, 
and some real effort to restore the monas- 
teries and nunneries to their original state 
was attempted. But whatever necessity ex- 
isted for these institutions in an age of bar- 



1 See Jesuits. 



barism and violence had passed away. The 
printing-press proved a more powerful pre- 
servative of the Bible and religious literature 
than the cells of the monks, and long expe- 
rience had demonstrated that to shut one's 
self out from the world was but a sorry way 
to keep unspotted from it. Monachism as a 
system has never recovered from the blows 
given to it by its own corruptions and by 
the exposures of the Reformation ; and as we 
go to press with this article, the news reaches 
us by Atlantic cable that in Italy itself the 
monastic institutions have been suppressed 
by law, and their property confiscated to the 
uses of the State. 

The inclosure within which a cominunity 
of monks reside is called a monastery (q.v.). 
By the strict law of the Church, it is for- 
bidden to all except members of the order to 
enter a monastery ; and in almost all the or- 
ders this prohibition is rigidly enforced as 
regards the admission of females to the mon- 
asteries of men. The first condition of ad- 
mission to a monastic order is the approval 
of the superior ; after which the candidates 
remain for a short time as postulants. After 
this preliminary trial, they enter on what is 
called the novitiate, the length of which in 
different orders varies from one to three 
years ; and at its close they are admitted to 
the profession, at which the solemn vows are 
taken. The age for profession has varied at 
different times and in different orders ; the 
Council of Trent, however, has fixed sixteen 
as the minimum age. Originally, all monks 
were laymen ; but after a time the superiors, 
and by degrees other more meritorious mem- 
bers, were admitted to holy orders. 

In the United States, monachism, though 
modified to suit the nature and exigencies 
of the times, is a flourishing and important 
institution. It is the great feeder of the 
Roman Catholic Church. Most of the Ro- 
man Catholic schools are more or less direct- 
ly connected with these institutions, and are 
under the care of '^ fathers " or " sisters." 
The rigor which characterized the monas- 
teries and nunneries when they were de- 
voted wholly or chiefly to devotional uses is 
* somewhat relaxed, and they are now work- 
i ing institutions. In the schools connected 
I with these monastic establishments, espe- 
I cially in those for girls, secular branches are 
! taught, but commingled with the Romish 
' theology ; and the pupils are brought under 
influences, both strong and subtle, upon the 
i imagination and the feelings, in favor of the 
i Romish communion ; while the effect of the 
education (we speak of the result both of 
personal observation and of inquiry among 
pupils in these schools) is to divert the mind 
from the more solid to the more superficial 
branches — from mathematics and the sci- 
i ences, to painting, drawing, music, and 
needle-work, and to base such studies as are 
taught rather upon authority than upon any 



MONAECHIANS 



64: 



MONERGISM 



habits of personal and individaal investiga- 
tion. It is imxDossible to obtain the statis- 
tics of these conventual schools, for they 
are carefully concealed : we have, however, 
instituted some inquiries upon this point, 
with the following results : 

There are in the United States to-day, at 
the very least, 300 nunneries and 128 monas- 
teries, besides 112 schools for the education 
of girls, and 400 for the education of boys. 
Of the nunneries and monasteries (as such) 
we have found it impossible to obtain any 
reliable information, either as to discipline 
or number of inmates; but the 112 girls' 
schools acknowledge the charge of 22,176 
young women ; and this we have excellent 
reasons for believing to be far below the 
real number; for the disposition to con- 
ceal the actual work done is so marked that 
even their own official organs admit the im- 
possibility of obtaining statistics. Thus, 
there are known to be 400 Roman Catholic 
schools for boys ; but there are only returns 
from 178 procurable. The arch-diocese of 
Baltimore alone contains 21 convents — one 
of colored sisters — in all of which educa- 
tion is carried on. Besides these, there are 
in Baltimore at least a dozen colleges and 
young girls' seminaries under Roman Cath- 
olic sx^iritual direction ; also 50 pay and free 
schools taught by the "brothers and sisters of 
Christian schools," " Sisters of Notre Dame," 
" Sisters of Mercy," etc., who also have charge 
of thirteen orphan asylums, and various oth- 
er charitable and pious sodalities. And the 
arch-diocese of Baltimore only represents 
what is being done all over the country. 
These figures — and they are far from com- 
plete, and certainly underrate rather than 
overrate the work — show that, while mo- 
nastic institutions are being expelled from 
Italy, they are neither dead nor idle in the 
United States; and that while the terms 
monJc and nun no longer appear very often 
in the Roman Catholic organs, the monastic 
orders are as active and efficient as they 
ever were — none the less efficient because 
they do their work so quietly. 

Monarchians, a general term used to des- 
ignate those in the early ages of the Church 
who, denying the doctrine of the Trinity, 
held that there was but one divine person. 
Some of them held, as do the Unitarians of 
the present day, that Jesus Christ was a cre- 
ated being, subordinate to the Father, and 
the Holy Spirit was only an impersonal influ- 
ence proceeding from him. More generally, 
however, the name is given to those who re- 
garded the titles Father, Son, and Holy Ghost 
as only different words designating the same 
person — a doctrine which survives at the 
present day in the tenets of Swedenborgian- 
ism, but in a modified form. Holding that 
the Father was the same as Christ, they as- 
cribed the Passion to him, and so were call- 
ed Patripassians, from two Greek words, sig- 



nifying suffering of the Father. Substantial- 
ly the same view was held by the Noetians 
of the third century, so called from their 
founder, Ncetus. It was slightly modified 
in the fourth century by Apollinarius, who 
attributed to Christ a human body and a 
human spirit, but taught that the divine na- 
ture took the place of the higher rational 
principle in man. His followers were called 
Ai3ollinarians. The general monarchian view 
of the incarnation has been lately revived by 
Henry Ward Beecher, who denies the union 
of the human and divine nature in Christ, 
and asserts that he was God dwelling in and 
subject to the infirmities and limitation of 
the human flesh — a Adew which he supports 
largely from chap. ii. of Hebrews. See In- 
carnation ; Sabellians ; Monophysites. 

Monastery. This name is confined, in its 
strict acceptance, to the residences of monks 
or nuns, and as such comprises two great 
classes — the ahhey and the priory. The for- 
mer name was given only to establishments 
of the highest order, and governed by an 
abbott or abbess. A priory was governed 
by a prior or prioress, and was generally 
subject to the jurisdiction of an abbey. The 
distinction of abbey and priory is found 
equally among the Benedictine nuns. The 
establishments of the mendicant, and, in gen- 
eral, of the modern orders, are sometimes, 
though less properly, called monasteries. 
Their more characteristic appellation is fri- 
ary, or convent, and they are commonly dis- 
tinguished into professed houses, novitiates, 
and colleges. The names of the superiors 
of such houses differ in the different orders. 
The common name is rector; but in some 
orders the superior is called guardian (as in 
the Franciscan), or master major, father su- 
perior, etc. The houses of females — except 
in the Benedictine or Cistercian orders — are 
called convent, or nunnery, the head of which 
is styled mother superior, or reverend mother. 
The name cloister properly means the inclos- 
ure, and may be considered as synonymous 
with convent. The origin of monasteries 
may be traced to about the third century 
A.D., when the anchorets who inhabited the 
desert of Egypt began to build their cells ad- 
joining one another, for the greater conven- 
ience of receiving the instructions of some 
hermits who enjoyed the reputation of great- 
er sanctity. For the growth of this monas- 
tic spirit, see Monachism. 

Monergism, the doctrine that in regener- 
ation there is but one efficient agent — viz., 
the Holy Spirit. According to this doctrine, 
the will of sinful man has not the least in- 
clination toward holiness, nor any power to 
act in a holy manner, until it has been acted 
upon by divine grace, and therefore it can 
not be said with strictness to co-operate 
with the Holy Spirit, since it acts in conver- 
sion only after it is quickened by the Holy 
Spirit. This doctrine is opposed to syner- 



MONEY 



648 



MONEY 



gism, whicli teaches that there are two effi- 
cient agents in regeneration — the human 
soul and the divine Spirit, which co-operate 
together — a theory which accordiugly holds 
that the soul has not lost all inclination to- 
ward holiness, nor all power to seek for it 
under the influence of ordinary motives. 

Money. There is great difficulty in giv- 
ing the English reader any clear and accu- 
rate idea of the money system of Biblical 
times, so as to enable him to translate the 
Biblical terms into American values. At 
lirst money was measured only by weight, 
and the same term was employed to desig- 
nate a measure of weight and a measure of 
value. Hence, again, we have the same phrase 
signifying sometimes a gold, sometimes a sil- 
ver coin, with widely different values. Yet 
again the Jews had different systems of coin- 
age ; and the Jewish, the Greek, and the Ro- 
man systems are all intermixed in the Scrip- 
ture narrative ; nor is it always easy 'to dis- 
criminate between them. The translators 
of the N. T. use English words to designate 
coins approximating, yet different from, the 
English in value : thus, the N. T. penny is 
nearly equal to eight English pennies, or 
sixteen cents in American currency. And, 
finally, scholars themselves are not agreed 
as to the values of these ancient coins, their 
■estimates differing in some instances very 
widely. Thus, Smith's " Bible Dictionary " 



ing the reader that these estimates are after 
all only approximate, and not by any means 
certain. 

The gerah, maneh, heTcah, shekel, and talent 
were all primarily standards of weight; their 
money value therefore depended, of course, 
upon the question whether it was silver or 
gold that was weighed. Taking the shekel 
as the unit, the silver shekel may be esti- 
mated as about equivalent to 75 cents in our 
currency, the gold shekel to $5.50. In silver 
measure, the gerah weighs the twentieth part 
of a shekel; the bekah was half a shekel;^ 
the maneh was 60 shekels ; the talent, 3000 
shekels. The talent of silver was equal in 
value to about $2250. In gold measure, 
10,000 shekels make a talent ; so that the 
talent of gold was about $55,000 in value. 
The following table presents these values of 
the O. T. Jewish money in a form convenient 
for reference. 



Old Hebrew Money. 
I. Silver. 



1 bekah = 

2 bekahs -- 
120 " = 



1 half-shekel 

1 shekel 

BO " ^1 maneh 

00 " '=50 maneh, or 1 talent. 



j£ s. d. $ cts. 

1 6= 37 

3 0= 75 

9 0= 45 00 

450 = 2250 00 



1 shekel 

100 shekels = 1 maneh 
10,000 " =1 talent. 



II. Gold, at $20 per oz. troy. 

X 8. d. $ cts. 

12 0= 5 50 

110 0= 550 00 

11,000 = 55,000 00 




Public jSotaiies weighiug Money. 



estimates the gold talent at £11,000, while 
Barrow's " Biblical Antiquities " estimates it 
at a little less than half that amount — viz., 
£5475. With this explanation, and without 
perplexing the reader with a discussion of 
the questions of value, on which even the 
ablest scholars are not agreed, we shall give 
the values of the money mentioned in the 
Bible as clearly and briefly as possible, fol- 
lowing the estimates of Dr. Smith,* but warn- 
1 " old Testament History, Appendix," iii. 



In addition to these, the dram of gold is 
mentioned. It 
was in value 
about equivalent 
to $5.00. 

In the N. T. we 
have the mite, the 
farthing, the pen- 
ny, the jpiece of 
money, and the 
pound. The mite 
was a copper 
coin, equal to 
about one-eighth 
of a cent, and 
was the smallest 
coin known to 
the Jews. The 
term farthing is 
used to trans- 
ate two different 
Greek words, sig- 
nifving coins of 
(From the Egyptian Monuments.) different value. 

In Matt. X., 29, and the parallel passage in 
Luke xii., 6, it designates the Eoman assa- 
rium, or as, equivalent to about a cent of our 
money. In Matt, v., 26, and Mark xii., 42, it 
signifies the Eoman quadrans, a coin equal to 
two mites, or a little over one-fourth of a cent 
in American currency. The "piece of money" 
which Peter found in the fish's mouth, with 
which to pay tribute,^ was a statei', equal in 
value to the silver shekel, i. e., about 75 cents. 



Exod. xxxviii., 26.-2 Matt, xvii., 27. 



MONEY-CHANGERS 



649 



MONOTHEISM 



The pound was the Hebrew maneh, and was 
equivalent to something over $15. These 
values, agaiu, may be tabulated thus : 

CUEBENOY IN THE TiME OF ChKIST. 

Copper. d. cts. 

1 mite x6^=i 

2 mites = 1 farthiug, i. e., quadraiis i = i 

8 " = 4 farthings, as i = l 



Silver. 



8. d. 



1 penny ^ — 1^ 

2 pennies = i shekel 1 6 = 37 

4 " =1 shekel, stater, or piece of) g o = 75 

mcmey j 

It is uncertaiu whether the term talent as 
it occurs in the N. T. refers to the Jewish or 
to the Greek monetary system ; and it is there- 
fore variously estimated at from $750 to $1500. 
There was no coin representing the talent, the 
largest coin being the stater, or ^' piece of mon- 
ey." By the term talent a talent of silver is 
intended, unless a talent of gold is specified. 

Money-changers. According to Exodus 
XXX., 13-15, every adult Israelite must pay 
into the sacred treasury, whenever the na- 
tion was numbered, a half-shekel, as an of- 
fering to Jehovah. Foreign Jews were also 
permitted to sell their first-fruits, and with 
the money purchase their gifts at Jerusa- 
lem. The money-changers whom Christ ex- 
pelled frcin the Temple were the dealers 
who supplied half-shekels, for such a premi- 
um as they were able to exact, to the Jews 
who assembled from all parts of the world 
at Jerusalem during the great, festivals, and 
were required to pay their tribute, or ran- 
som -mouey, in the Hebrew coin. These 
money-changers also carried on such other 
exchange as was necessary in so great a re- 
sort of foreign residents to the ecclesiastic- 
al metropolis. The original word in Matt. 
XXV., 27 (rpaTreKiraiQ, exchangers), is a general 
term for banker or broker ; a personage of 
whom we find traces very early, both in the 
Oriental and .classical literature, and who sat 
in the open air at tables, paying out and re- 
ceiving coin. This is a common sight at the 
present day in Eastern cities, and in the 
south of Europe. The symbolical signifi- 
cance of these exchangers in the parable has 
given rise to some discussion. We think 
Dean Alford's explanation the best. "The 
machinery of religious and charitable socie- 
ties in our day is very much in the place of 
the exchangers." [Matt, xxi., 12 ; xxv., 27 ; 
Mark xi., 15 ; John ii., 15.] 

Monophysite, a word compounded of two 
Greek words, signifying of one nature, and 
used to designate those who hold that Christ 
possessed but one nature. It embraces sev- 
eral sects now utterly extinct, as the Severi- 
ans, who asserted also that his body was in- 
corruptible, and subjected to hunger, thirst, 
and pain only by his voluntary choice ; the 
Julianists, who held, on the contrary, that 
his body was strictly human ; and the Ktisto- 



the question whether his body was created 
or not. The Monophysites are also some- 
times called Eutychians, from Eutychus, M^ho 
was the founder, and, while he lived, the 
leader of the sect, and sometimes Acephali 
(without a head), from the fact that a party 
of them disowned Peter Moggus, bishop of 
Alexandria, before an acknowledged leader 
of their party, and thus deprived themselves 
of their ecclesiastical head. Eutychus, the 
originator of the sect, originally taught that 
in the incarnation the human nature was, 
so to speak, transmitted into the divine, so 
that there was but one person and one na- 
ture. This doctrine was first affirmed by 
the Council of Ephesus, a.d. 449, but, as is 
alleged, by means of fraud and Adolence. At 
all events, two years later a new council — 
that of Chalcedon — reversed the previous 
decree, condemning the doctrine as a heresy. 
From this time the holders of this doctrine 
laid aside the name and gradually modified 
the tenets of Eutychus. The doctrine thus 
disavowed by the orthodox Church is still 
maintained in the Coptic, the Ethiopian, 
and the Armenian churches. The Syrian 
Monophysites are also called Jacobites, from 
one Jacob Baradans, who, toward the close 
of the sixth century, revived their churches 
and supplied them with pastors. An attempt 
to reconcile the Monophysites with the or- 
thodox party in the seventh century led to 
a modified form of the doctrine, and a new 
sect, the Monothelites (monos, one, and thelenia, 
will), who attempted to compromise between 
the two factions by the hypothesis that after 
the union of the divine and human natures 
in Christ, though there continued to be two 
distinct natures, yet there was but one will. 
The only effect of this was to increase the 
controversy, and the Monothelites were con- 
demned and anathematized, first by the Lat- 
eran Council, and afterward by the sixth 
Ecumenical Council at Constantinople, a.d. 
680. Nevertheless, the doctrine still con- 
tinued to be held in some parts of the East, 
and is said to have been held by the Maron- 
ites (q. V.) until their final reconciliation to 
the Church of Rome, 1182, when it was re- 
nounced by them. The doctrine that Jesus 
Christ possesses only one simple nature, be- 
ing not truly man, but the divine Spirit in a 
human body, has been recently revived by 
Henry Ward Beecher in his " Life of Christ," 
and is also maintained by the Swedeuborgi- 
ans (q.v.). The union of the DiAdne and hu- 
man natures in Christ is maintained by Dr. 
Hovey (" God With Us"). See Christolo- 
gy; Incarnation; Monarchians. 

Monotheism (one God), the doctrine that 
there is but one God. It is held by all Chris- 
tians, Jews, and Mohammedans. The rest 
! of mankind are commonly said to be poly- 
j theists, i. e., believers in many gods. This 
statement needs qualification, since the phi- 
' losophy of idolatry is, in general, that there is 



MONTANISTS 



650 



MONTH 



but one Infinite Spirit, and that fhe various 
gods and goddesses whose idols are worship- 
ed are emanations from or representatives of 
him. See Idolatry ; Image-worship. 

Montanists, a Christian sect which arose 
in Phrygia in the second century, deriving 
its name from an enthusiastic fanatic named 
Montanus. He pretended to be a divinely- 
commissioned prophet, announced the judg- 
ments impending over the persecutors of the 
Church, and the approach of the millennial 
reign. In connection with him were two 
women, Priscilla and Maximilla, who pre- 
tended to be prophetesses. The Montanists 
preached the most rigid asceticism, were en- 
couraged to wish for martyrdom, and con- 
demned second marriages. They were called 
Phrygians, Cataphrygians, and also Pepu- 
zians. The latter title was given them be- 
cause they believed the millennial reign of 
Christ would begin at Pepuza. They found 
an able apologist in Tertullian, and contin- 
ued to exist till the sixth century. 

Month. It is very difficult to determine 
either the length of the Hebrew month or 
the mode by which it was calculated. The 
terms for "mouth" and "moon" have the 
same close connection in the Hebrew lan- 
guage as in our own ; and though it may 
fairly be presumed, from these terms, that 
the month originally corresponded to a lu- 
nation, no reliance can be placed on the mere 
verbal argument to prove its exact length 
in historical times. From the time of the 
institution of the Mosaic law downward the 
month W' as a lunar one, and the cycle of re- 
ligious feasts, commencing with the Pass- 
over, depended not on the month only, but on 
the moon. Thus, the 14th of Abib was coin- 
cident with the full moon, and the new moons 
themselves were the occasions of regular fes- 
tivals. Besides this, the commencement of 
the month was generally decided by obser- 
vation of the new moon. The usual number 
of months in a year was twelve, as implied 
in 1 Kings iv., 7; 1 Chron. xxvii., 1-15; but 
inasmuch as the Hebrew months coincided 
with the seasons, an additional month must 
have been inserted about every third year. 
Of this intercalary month no notice is taken 
in the Bible ; but in the modern Jewish cal- 
endar it is introduced seven times in every 
nineteen years. The months were usually 
designated by their numerical order; e. g., 
"the second mouth," "the fourth month;" 
and this method was generally retained even 
when the names were given ; e. g., " in the 
mouth Zif, which is the second month," " in 
the third month, that is, the month Sivan," 
Abib, howeVer, is always mentioned by name 
alone. The practice of the writers of the 
post-Babylonian period in this respect va- 
ried.^ The names of the months belong: to 



1 Gen. vii., 11 ; Exod. xiii., 4; xxiii., 15; Numb, x., 
10 ; xxviii., 11-14 ; Deut. xvi., 1 ; 1 Kiugs vi., 1 ; 2 Kings 
XXV., 3 ; Esth. viii., 9. 



two distinct periods : first, we have those 
peculiar to the period of Jewish independ- 
ence, of which four only are mentioned, even 
including Abib (which we hardly regard as 
a proper name), viz., Abib, in which the Pass- 
over fell, and which was established as the 
first month in commemoration of the Exo- 
dus ; Zif, the second month ; Bui, the eighth ; 
and Ethanim, the seventh.^ Second, we have 
the names which prevailed subsequently to 
the Babylonish Captivity ; of these, the fol- 
lowing seven appear in the Bible : Nisan, the 
first, in which the Passover was held ; Sivan, 
the third ; Elul, the sixth ; Chisleu, the ninth ; 
Tebeth, the tenth ; Sebat, the eleventh ; and 
Adar, the twelfth. Then ames of the rem ain- 
ing five occur in the Talmud and other works ; 
they were — lyar, the second ; Tammuz, the 
fourth ; Ab, the fifth ; Tisri, the seventh ; and 
Marcheshvan, the eighth. The name of the 
intercalary month was Veadar, i e., the addi- 
tional Adar.^ The identification of the Jew- 
ish months with our own can not be efiected 
with precision on account of the variations 
that must inevitably exist between the lunar 
and the solar month, each of the former ran- 
ging over portions of two of the latter. It 
nmst, therefore, be understood that the fol- 
lowing remarks apply to general identity on 
an average of years. As the Jews still retain 
the ancient names, it would be needless to do 
more than refer the reader to a modern al- 
manac, were it not evident that the modern 
Msan does not correspond to the ancient one. 
At present Msan answers to March, but in 
early times it coincided with April ; for the 
barley harvest, the first-fruits of which w^ere 
to be presented on the fifteenth of that month, 
does not take place, evenin the warm district 
about Jericho, until the middle of April, nor 
in the upland districts before the end of that 
month. Josephus, too, identifies Msan with 
the Egyptian Pharmuth, which commenced 
on the 27tli of March, and with the Macedo- 
nian Xanthicus, which answers generally to 
the early part of April. He also informs us 
that the Passover took place when the sun 
was in Aries, which it does not enter until 
near the end of March. Assuming then, from 
these data, that Abib, or Nisan, answers to 
April, the Hebrew mouths would correspond 
nearly, though not exactly, with ours, as 
shown in the following table : 

Ahib, or Nisan. .' April. 

Zif, or lyar. . .^ May. 

Sivan ^ June. 

Tammuz... . .^' Jnly- 

Ab '>.. August. 

Elul i- September. 

Ethanim, or Tisri./ October, 

Bnl, or Marcheshvan .\ November, 

Chisleu . f December. 

Tebeth ./. ; January. 

Sebat ..y.i February. 

Adar . . . ,, .^ March. 



1 Exod. xii., 2 ; xiii,, 4 ; xxiii., 15 ; xxxiv., 18 ; Dent. 
xvi., 1; 1 Kings vi., 1, 37, 38; viii., 2.-2 2 Chron. 
XXX., 2; Neh. i,, 1; ii., 1; vi., 15; Esth. ii., 16; ill., 
T ; viii., 9, 12 ; Zech. i., 7 ; vii., 1. 



MOON 



651 



MORAL SCIENCE 



For characteristics of respective months, 
see Seasons ; see also Year. 

Moon. In the history of the Creation, 
this secondary planet appears simultaneous- 
ly with the sun. It was to be the great 
light-bearer of the night, ruling, so to speak, 
among the stars, and testifying to the glori- 
ous power of the Creator. It was appointed, 
conjointly with the sun, "for signs, and for 
seasons, and for days, and years," though in 
this respect it exercised the more important 
influence.^ The Hebrew years were lunar 
years) and the cycle of their feasts was reg- 
ulated by the moon. The day of the new 
moon was observed as a holy-day. It was 
one of those feasts announced by the sound 
of trumpets, and celebrated with special sac- 
rifices. As on the Sabbath, trade and handi- 
craft-work were stopped, and the Temple 
was opened for public worship. The new 
moons seem to have been regarded as a pe- 
culiar class of holy days, distinguished from 
the solemn feasts and the Sabbaths.^ The 
seventh new moon of the religious year, be- 
ing that of the month Tisri, commenced the 
civil year, and had a special significance, and 
rites of its own, which are described under 
the heading New Year (Feast of the). The 
following method of determining the begin- 
ning of the month seven times in the year, 
by observing the first appearance of the 
moon, continued in use during the existence 
of the Sanhedrim, and is said by tradition to 
have derived its origin from Moses. On the 
30th day of the month watchmen were placed 
on commanding heights round Jerusalem to 
watch the sky. As soon as each of them 
detected the moon, he hastened to a house in 
the city which was kept for the purpose, and 
was there examined by the president of the 
Sanhedrim. When the evidence of the ap- 
pearance was deemed satisfactory, the presi- 
dent rose up and formally announced it, ut- 
tering the words, " It is consecrated." The 
information was immediately sent through- 
out the land from the Mount of Olives, by 
beacon-fires on the tops of the hills. This 
practice has been discontinued since the dis- 
persion of the Jews, except by the Caraites 
(q. v.), who still adhere to the ancient cus- 
tom. 

The festival of the new moon seems to have 
been observed for some time after the intro- 
duction of Christianity. A festival called 
jSfeomenia^^as observed by the ancient Greeks 
at the beginning of every lunar month, in 
honor of all the gods, but especially of Apol- 
lo, or the sun. At the new moon the Phoeni- 
cians feasted in honor of Ashtoreth, and sac- 
rificed children to Molech. The Chinese 
consecrate both the new and the full moon 
to the memory of their ancestors. 



1 Gen. i., 14-18 ; Psa. viii., 3, 4 ; cxlviii., 3.-2 Numb. 
X., 10; xxviii., 11-15; 1 Sam. xx., 5, 24-2T; 1 Chron. 
xxiii., 31 ; 2 Chron. ii., 4 ; viii., 13 ; xxxi., 3 ; Ezra iii., 
5; Neh. x., 33; Psa. Ixxxi., 3; Isa. i., 14; IxvL, 23; 
Ezek. xlv., 17; xlvi., 3; Amos, viii., 5. 



In Eastern nations, generally, the moon 
was more extensively worshiped than the 
sun. It was commonly regarded as feminine 
— as the passive productive power of that 
nature of which the sun was the active gen- 
erative principle — and honored under various 
forms and names. The ancient Arabians 
adored this planet under the name of Alilat, 
the Greeks under that of Artemis, and the 
Eomans as Diana. The Israelites appear to 
have learned the practice of moon-worship 
from the Phoenicians and Canaanites, who 
worshiped it as the goddess Astarte, or Ash- 
toreth (q. v.). Moses warned his people 
against imitating this idolatry, but in vain. 
They burned incense to the moon, and their 
women especially adored her as the " queen 
of heaven," offering her cakes, as was done 
among other peoples.^ By many of the an- 
cient heathen nations the moon was consid- 
ered as exercising a peculiar influence over 
the affairs of men, and the success of an un- 
dertaking was dependent upon the phase of 
the moon under which it was inaugurated. 
The religion of the ancient Persians reckons 
the moon not among the deities, but among 
the seven archangels of the heavenly hie- 
rarchy. 

Moral Science, the science of morals as 
distinguished from theology, or the science 
God and divine things. The questions 
which divide moral philosophies into op- 
posing schools may be classed under two 
great divisions — first, By what faculty or 
power does the human soul determine ques- 
tions of right and wrong ? second. What is 
the standard by which those questions are to 
be settled ? The first question has been con- 
sidered under the title Consciexce. Here 
we can only state, without discussing, the 
various theories propounded in answer to 
the second. In general, these theories may 
be regarded as of two kinds ; one class of 
thinkers looking for the standard in some- 
thing exterior, the other to something with- 
in man. The first class generally regard the 
will of God as the final standard of right 
and wrong; for we may pass with a bare 
mention the theory of Hobbes, which is only 
noteworthy as a curiosity in the history of 
philosophy, that the will of the human sov- 
ereign is the final arbiter. According to the 
theory of those who find in the divine will 
the standard of ethics, certain courses are 
right and others wrong, hecause the one has 
been commanded and the other forhidden hy 
God. If we could conceive it possible that 
he had commanded theft and falsehood, that 
commandment would have changed the mor- 
al obligations of the race, which are all sum- 
med up in the one law, to love and obey God. 
It is true, say the advocates of this theory, 
God has not given his written law to all na- 
tions, but he has written the law in the con- 



1 Deut. Iv., 19; xvii., 3; 2 Kings xxiii., 5; Jer, vii., 
18; viii., 2; xliv., 17-19, 25. 



MORAVIANS 



652 



MORAVIANS 



sciences of men and in the nature of socie- 
ty ; but to disobey the demands of conscience 
and disregard the interests of society is 
wrong, not because they are superior in and 
of themselves, but because they are inter- 
preters and revealers of the divine will. 
The other class of philosophers regard the 
will of God as itself an exposition of a law 
of right and ivrong ivhich, according to them, 
is inherent in the nature of things. Right 
is right, and wrong wrong, irrespective of 
any divine laws ; God does not create, but 
only enforces and interprets, the rules of 
right and wrong. This class of philoso- 
phers are not agreed among themselves, 
however, as to what constitutes the basis, 
or standard, of this inherent and eternal rule 
of right and wrong. Some place it in a sense 
of moral beauty ; others, in an eternal and 
essential fitness of things ; others, in a prop- 
er and wise regard to one's own self-interest ; 
others — and this appears to be the theory of 
Mr. Darwin — in the social instinct, and the 
consequent pleasure which both men and 
animals are led to take in the good opinion 
of their fellows ; still others, in an inherent 
obligation of benevolence, i. e., an inherent, 
essential, and universal obligation, which 
applies to God as well as to man, to consult 
in every act the greatest good of the great- 
est number. The latter view is known as 
the Utilitarian philosophy, because it rests 
all morality upon the utility of the act or 
mental state. Utilitarians do not, however, 
as is sometimes charged, hold themselves at 
liberty to violate a general law for the sake 
of some special benefit, as to tell a lie in or- 
der to give pleasure or escape suffering ; but 
they hold that all moral laws, as the law of 
truth, for example, are founded upon the 
fact that their general observance conduces 
to the well-being of the universe. For a 
history of moral philosophy, and a fuller ac- 
count of the various schools, the reader must 
be referred to the large treatises. 

Moravians ( Unitas Fratrum, or United 
Brethren). This sect traces its history back 
through the Bohemian Brethren to the Hussites, 
the followers of John Huss, who was born in 
1369, at a village called Hussinetz, a small 
market-town of Bohemia. He was of hum- 
ble parentage, but his talents being of a high 
order,he was sent to the University of Prague, 
with the view of studying for the Church. 
Here he distinguished himself by his exten- 
sive attainments as a scholar. By means 
of Wycliffe's works, which at that time had 
spread as far as Prague, John Huss was led 
to recognize some of the most obvious errors 
of the Church, and he was not ashamed to 
avow his adherence to most of the doctrinal 
opinions of the English reformer. He was 
therefore exposed to the frowns and the re- 
proaches of both his professors and fellow- 
students, although he attracted great notice 
at the university by the solidity and extent 



of his learning. His public career began in 
1398, when he was appointed a professor in 
the university. In 1401 he became dean of 
its theological faculty, and in 1402 its rector ; 
but it was not before the year 1409 that he 
commenced his public attacks upon the Es- 
tablished Church. The first abuse to which 
he called the attention of the synods was the 
corruption of the clergy. He had already 
intrenched himself in popular favor, not 
only by preaching in the vernacular tongue, 
but by introducing, in conjunction with his 
friend, Jerome of Prague, such alterations 
into the constitution of the university that 
the Germans were compelled to quit it. The 
popularity which Huss had thus obtained 
contributed more than any thing else to 
spread his doctrines in Bohemia. He was 
now elected rector of the University of 
Prague ; and the high position which he 
had reached as a theologian and a popular 
preacher gave him great influence over the 
people. He translated several of the works 
of Wycliffe, and sent them to the principal 
noblemen of Bohemia and Moravia. Such 
a course called forth the most determined 
opposition from the clergy; but Huss and 
his friend Jerome continued to protest 
against the ecclesiastical abuses until they 
both were brought, through great suffering, 
to a martyr's death. Their bodies were 
burned, and the ashes thrown into the 
Rhine. 

The death of Huss gave impulse and en- 
ergy to his friends and followers, who now 
began to be called Hussites ; and their num- 
ber was daily on the increase. One of their 
chief points was, their demand for commun- 
ion in both kinds. Unfortunately, however, 
they began to differ among themselves, some 
of the body repudiating entirely the author- 
ity of the Church, and admitting no other 
rule than the Holy Scriptures ; while others 
were contented with communion in both 
kinds, the free preaching of the Gospel, and 
some reforms of minor importance. The 
former party afterward took the name of 
Tahorites, and the latter of Calixtines. The 
authorities at Rome endeavored to intimi- 
date the Hussites, and adopted the most 
stringent measures to quell the heretics of 
Bohemia. The Hussites felt that the time 
had come when they were imperatively call- 
ed upon to take arms in defense of their re- 
ligious liberties, and, under their leader, John 
Trocznowski, known in Europe by the name 
of Ziska, or the one-eyed, a Bohemian noble- 
man of extraordinary talents and the most 
indomitable energy, they sustained them- 
selves against the papal authority, enforced 
as it was by the arms of Sigismund, em- 
peror of Germany. Although the death of 
Ziska caused divisions among the Hussites, 
they still continued to repulse their assail- 
ants, who at length resolved to seek by ne- 
gotiation the end they could not reach by 



MORAVIANS 



653 



MORAVIANS 



force ; and, after mucli deliberation, a com- 
pact was signed on the 30tli of November, 
1433, although the extreme Hussites were 
much dissatisfied with the arrangement, be- 
ing still unwilling to recognize Sigismund 
as their king. A deadly feud now arose be- 
tween the Calixtines, who were the main in- 
struments in obtaining the Compactata, and 
the extreme Hussite parties, headed by Pro- 
copius. The two armies met in mortal com- 
bat on the plains of Lipau, about four miles 
from Prague, when Procopius, the successor 
of Ziska, was defeated and slain. With this 
unhappy battle between two divisions of the 
Hussites themselves may be said to have 
ended the Hussite war, in which the com- 
paratively small kingdom of Bohemia for fif- 
teen years withstood the armies of Germa- 
ny and Hungary, and even laid waste large 
provinces of these hostile countries. 

The Calixtines and Roman Catholics now 
received the Emperor Sigismund as their 
lawful monarch. The Taborites silently, 
though sullenly, acquiesced, and no longer 
mingling in public affairs, they sought peace- 
fully to discharge their duties as private cit- 
izens. About 1450 they dropped the name 
of Taborites, exchanging it for that of the 
Bohemian Brethren ; and, in the face of all 
opposition, they established themselves as a 
regular Christian denomination, being the 
first Protestant Slavonic Church which was 
ever formed. The organization of the body 
only brought upon them more determined op- 
position, and the Church was compelled to 
hold its synods and to perform divine wor- 
ship in dens, caves, and forests, while its 
members were loaded with the most oppro- 
brious epithets. Notwithstanding all the 
sufferings which they were called to endure, 
so rapidly did the Bohemian Brethren in- 
crease in numbers, that in 1500 they were 
able to reckon two hundred places of wor- 
ship. But this prosperity was short-lived, 
and by long-continued and sore persecution 
they were scattered and almost annihilated. 
But the leaven of a true Christian spirit was 
still at work, and holding mainly the doc- 
trines of the Hussites, a new organization 
arose under the title of Brethren of the Law 
of Christ, changed afterward to Unitas Fra- 
trum, or Unity of the Brethren. They main- 
tained a good degree of prosperity for near- 
ly two centuries, and then for nearly a hun- 
dred years disappeared again. The seed, 
however, was not destroyed, and John Amos 
Comenius, the last bishop of the Moravian 
line, not only published several works by 
which the history, doctrines, and discipline 
of the Brethren were preserved, but also pro- 
vided for the continuance of the episcopate. 
In Moravia many families remained who se- 
cretly entertained the views of their fathers. 
Among these an awakening took place in 
the first quarter of the eighteenth century, 
through the instrumentality of a Moravian 



exile named Christian David. In conse- 
quence of this awakening, the desire to live 
in a Protestant country was felt more and 
more. Just fifty years after the death of 
Comenius, in the night of May 27, 1722, two 
families of Moravians escaped from their na- 
tive country, and, after a journey of eleven 
days, safely reached Berthelsdorf, an estate 
in Saxony belonging to Count Zinzendorf, a 
pious young nobleman, who had offered them 
a refuge. Other Moravians soon joined them, 
and in five years a colony of three hundred 
persons lived on Count Zinzendorf's estate. 
They built a town, and called it Herrnhut — 
from which circumstance the Moravians are 
sometimes called Herrnhutters — introduced 
the discipline of their fathers, preserved by 
the publications of Comenius, and in 1735 
obtained the episcopal succession of the Uni- 
tas Fratrum. In this way the ancient Church 
was renewed. Zinzendorf soon relinquished 
all worldly honors, became a bishop of the 
Brethren, and devoted himself entirely to 
their service ; and churches were established 
in various parts of the Continent, in North 
America, and in Great Britain. 

The modern Moravians are recognized by 
the state in Germany as Protestants attached 
to the Augsburg Confession. They have no 
symbolical books of their own, although they 
drew up a simple and brief confession of their 
faith in 1727, and a brief statement of prin- 
ciples was enunciated by a synod held in 
1775. They profess to be connected with 
the Moravian Brethren of former times by a 
regular succession of bishops. The bishops, 
however, exercise no episcopal authority, and 
their chief function is that of ordination, of 
which they alone have the power. Every 
congregation is governed by a Conference of 
Elders. The elders are bound to visit each 
family once in three months, and to report 
concerning the conduct of the brethren. It 
is also their duty to visit the sick and the 
poor, and to aid those in need with money 
contributed by the brethren. The whole 
Church is governed by synods, which meet, 
always in Germany, at intervals of ten or 
twelve years, and are composed not only of 
bishops but of other members of the brother- 
hood. All affairs are managed in the inter- 
vening time by a Conference of Elders ap- 
pointed by the synod. 

The Moravians prefer, where it is possible, 
to live in colonies, or separate societies, and 
in these they carry out some very peculiar 
parts of their organization, particularly a 
division into choirs of children, youths, maid- 
ens, unmarried brethren and sisters, widow- 
ers and widows, each having a separate lead- 
er or pastor. Unmarried brethren, unmar- 
ried sisters, widowers, and widows, reside in 
separate houses ; married couples in houses 
of their own. Colonies of Moravians exist 
in England, America, Holland, and other 
countries, but are most numerous in Ger- 



MORDECAI 



654 



MORIAH 



many. The most important colonies, how- 
ever, are perhaps those in the mission fields 
which, exist in the West Indies, Greenland, 
Labrador, Cape of Good Hope, and in other 
heathen countries. They have at their mis- 
sion stations about 70,000 converts from hea- 
thenism. 

The religious services of the Moravians 
are conducted with great simplicity. They 
meet for worship daily in the evening, the 
service being much like that of a prayer- 
meeting among other Christians. They use 
a litany on the Lord's Day ; but extemporary 
prayer is frequent. They admit the use of 
instrumental music, maintain the practice of 
washing the feet, both in choirs and in con- 
gregations, before the communion, and meet 
on the last day of the year to bring in the 
new year with prayer and other exercises of 
religion. 

According to Chambers's "Cyclopaedia," 
there were in 1868, in Europe, 68 congrega- 
tions of Moravians, with 6768 communicants. 
The membership in the United States is re- 
ported in the " New York Observer Year-book 
for 1872 " as 7500. There are 5 bishops, 63 
congregations, and about 100 clergymen in 
actual service. There are large schools for 
the education of women at Bethlehem and 
Lititz, Penn., Salem, N. C, and Hope, Ind. 

Mordecai (meaning is uncertain), a Jew, 
of the tribe of Benjamin, and cousin of Es- 
ther, who, under his direction, delivered the 
Jews in Persia from the destruction planned 
by Haman and decreed by Ahasuerus. His 
ancestor Kish, not he himself,^ was taken 
cai)tive under Nebuchadnezzar. He remain- 
ed in Persia, and upon Vashti's deposition 
introduced Esther to the court, who was ac- 
cepted by the king in the place of the de- 
posed queen. For an account of his part in 
the subsequent crisis and delivery of the na- 
tion, see Ahasuerus. He seems subsequent- 
ly to have returned to Jerusalem,^ though it 
is possible that by this name may have been 
meant another person. The Scripture ac- 
count represents Mordecai as an admu^able 
specimen of early Phariseeism, before it had 
degenerated from a sturdy principle to a 
stereotyped form. He was calm, cool, cour- 
ageous ; neither depressed by danger nor 
elated by prosperity. His shrewd counsel 
to Esther to conceal her nationality ; his 
contemptuous refusal, in spite of the king's 
command, to pay to Haman the homage 
which all other attendants upon the court 
were paying; his refusal to flee from the 
danger which threatened his nation — a dan- 
ger from which he personally might prob- 
ably have escaped with ease ; his open and 
public identification of himself with his de- 
spised nation after the decree for their ex- 
termination, and despite the protests of the 

1 Esth. ii., 5, 6. See, for a full discussion of this point, 
M'Clintock and Strong's "Cyclopaedia," article Moe- 
iJEOAi.— 2 Ezra ii., 2; Neh. vii., 7. 



queen ; his clandestine correspondence with 
her ; his response to her fears ; his quiet re- 
sumption of his old place at the king's gate 
after the honors put upon him at the king's 
command by Haman^ — all speak a character 
strong, resolute, courageous, possessed of 
great faith in God and an intense patriotism, 
but also of an inflexible pride of character 
which bordered upon haughtiness. In JeAv- 
ish estimation, he stands very high as the 
deliverer of his people, being designated by 
the appellation of " The Just." He is iden- 
tified by manj^ scholars with a certain Mata- 
cas, or Natacas, who is described by profane 
history as Xerxes's chief favorite, and of whom 
the story is told that he was commissioned 
by his king to plunder the temple of Apollo 
at Delphi, and to insult the god, a commis- 
sion which no one else would undertake, 
but which he performed with alacrity. It is 
certain that such a commission would not be 
unaccej)table to a Jew of the type of char- 
acter of Mordecai. It is to be added that 
Matacas was a eunuch, and that Mordecai 
was one also appears probable from the fact 
that he seems to have had neither wife nor 
child of his own, that he had access to the 
court of the women, and that he was raised 
to the highest post of power in the kingdom, 
which was often the case with the king's 
eunuchs. 

Moreh (stretcliing). 1. The Plaest of. — 

The first recorded halting-place of Abraham 

! after his entrance into the land of Canaan.^ 

j It was at the "place of Shechem," close to 

j the mountains of Ebal and Gerizim.^ The 

j proper rendering of the original in all these 

I references would be rather oaks of Moreh, 

j than j)lain of Moreh. There is reason for 

! believing that the place so designated, the 

scene of so important an occurrence in Abra- 

I ham's early residence in Canaan, may have 

j been also that of one even more important, 

the crisis of his later life, the offering of Isaac 

on a mountain in " the land of Moriah." 

2. The Hill of. — At the foot of this hiU 

the Midianites and Amalekites were encamp- 

; ed before Gideon's attack upon them.* A 

I comparison of Judg. vi.,33, with vii., 1, makes 

i it evident that it laj^ in the valley of Jezreel, 

I rather on the north side of the valley, and 

north also of the eminence on which Gideon's 

little band of heroes was clustered. These 

I conditions are most accurately fulfilled if we 

I assume the "Little Hermon" of the modern 

travelers to be Moreh, the Ain-Jalood to be 

the spring of Harod, and Gideon's j)osition to 

have been on the north-east slope of Mount 

Gilboa, between the village of Nuris and the 

last-mentioned spring. 

Moriah (chosen of Jelwvali), the name of a 
region to which Abraham was commanded to 
go, and on one of the hills offer his son Isaac 
for a burnt sacrifice. On Mount Moriah, also, 

1 Esth. ii., 10; iii., 2; iv., 1-14; vi., 12 — ^ Qen. xii., 
6.-3 Deat. xi., SO.—* Judg. vii., 1. 



MORMONS 



655 



MORMONS 



Solomon is said to have built tlie Temple at 
Jerusalem. Some question has been raised 
as to whether these two places are identical. 
Dean Stanley, following some German schol- 
ars, has maintained that the mountain on 
which Abraham prepared to offer his son 
Isaac was at or about Mount Gerizim. This 
view has not, however, been generally ac- 
cepted, and, despite the ingenuity of his ar- 
gument, we think the better opinion is that 
which locates the scene of Abraham's sacri- 
fice on the hill afterward occupied by Solo- 
mon's Temple. [Gen.»xxii., 2; 2 Chron. 
iii., 1.] 

Mormons, the name popularly given to a 
religious sect in the United States of Ameri- 
ca, whose assumed title is the Church of Je- 
sus Christ of Latter Day Saints. 

I. History. — This sect was founded by one 
Joseph Smith, a native of 
Sharon, Vermont. The 
reputation of his family 
is said to have been of the 
worst kind. A rude, sen- 
sual religiosity, however, 
appears to have been mix- 
ed up in this cion of a bad 
stock with his more carnal 
conduct ; and this forms 
the clue to the otherwise 
unaccountable pertinacity 
of x)urpose and moral hero- 
ism displayed by him in 
the midst of fierce perse- 
cution. From his own ac- 
count of himself, at the 
age of fourteen years com- 
menced the religious work 
in him which eventuated 
in so remarkable and wide 
an influence. One even- 
ing in September, 1823, the 
house he occupied was fill- 
ed with consuming fire, 
and an angelic personage 
stood before him whom he 
particularly describes. He 
announced to Smith for- 
giveness of his sins, and that his prayers 
were heard, and, further, that the fulfill- 
ment of God's ancient covenant to his peo- 
ple Israel was at hand; that the prepara- 
tory work of the second coming of the Mes- 
siah was speedily to commence, and that 
he, Smith, was a chosen instrument for this 
work. The angel also revealed to him re- 
markable facts in the history of the abo- 
rigines of America ; and in this connection 
was disclosed to him the place where were 
deposited some plates containing an abridg- 
ment of the records of certain ancient proph- 
ets. The angel appeared to Smith thrice 
that night, and afterward made him many 
visits. He told him that the records were 
deposited " on the west side of a hill, not far 
from the top, about four miles from Palmy- 



ra, in the County of Ontario, and near the 
mail-road which leads thence to the little 
town of Manchester, and advised him to go 
and view them, which Smith did; but the 
prophet was not yet holy enough to obtain 
possession of them. 

At length, after due disciplinary proba- 
tion, the angel of the Lord, on the 22d Sep- 
tember, 1827, placed in Smith's hands the 
wonderful records. They were engraven on 
small plates, bound together by three rings. 
They represented, in their hieroglyphical 
characters, an unknown language, called 
the reformed Egyptian. A part of the little 
volume was sealed up. With these records 
was found a curious instrument, called by 
Smith "Urim and Thummim," consisting of 
two transparent stones, set in the rim on a 
bow fastened by a breastplate. By means 




Bugham Young 

of these stone spectacles God enabled him to 
understand and translate these records. The 
records contain the primitive history of 
America, from its first settlement by a col- 
ony from the Tower of Babel to the begin- 
ning of the fifth century of the Christian era 
— a history of international warfare among 
the " bad Hebrews," in which millions were 
slain and the country depopulated. After a 
time of silence a new race, six hundred years 
B.C., came direct from Jerusalem. Another 
era of unbrotherly quarreling was initiated, 
and in punishment thereof they and all their 
posterity were condemned to dark skins, to 
idleness, mischief, and subtlety, and to seek 
their subsistence in the wilderness. In the 
time of their ruler, Nephi the Second, an aw- 
ful earthquake announced the Crucifixion. 



MORMONS 



656 



MORMONS 




Three days after- 
ward Christ him- 
self appeared to 
them out of heav- 
en, instructed them 
in the doctrines of 
Christian faith, 
and organized the 
Church as on the 
Eastern continent. 
The purity of their 
faith gradually 
yielded to old 
feuds ; and finally, 
in 384 A.D., a de- 
cisive conflict took 
place at the Hill 
Cumorah, in West- 
ern New York. 
Shortly before this, 
however, a prophet 
called Mormon had 
been commissioned 
by God to write an 
abridgment of all 
their prophecies, 
histories, etc., and 
to hide it in the 
earth until God 
should see fit to 
^ bring it forth to 
1 be supjdemented 
I with the Bible — 
■^ for the accomplish- 
^ ment of his pur- 
^ poses in the last 
days. Thi& is the 
famous Book of 
Mormon. In 420 
A.D. they were final- 
ly sealed up where 
Smith found them, 
by one of the sur- 
vivors of the bat- 
tle of Cumorah. 
Smith, with the 
assistance of an 
amanuensis, trans- 
lated the records. 
A farmer by the 
name of Martin 
Harris supplied the 
necessary funds for 
printing: these, 
with nine other 
witnesses, includ- 
ing his father and 
two brothers, ap- 
pended their names 
in testimony that 
an angel of God 
had come down 
from heaven and 
had shown them 
these plates: these, 
however, are the 



MORMONS 



657 



MORMONS 



only persons who have been 
so privileged. So far we 
have followed Smith's ac- 
count of their origin. That 
account, however, it is hard- 
ly necessary to say, obtains 
no credence except among 
the more ignorant of the 
Mormons. Other testimony, 
of quite an opposite charac- 
ter, shows the whole thing 
to be a plagiarism of an old 
manuscript romance, with 
ungrammatical and pecul- 
iarly modern interpolations. 

In 1835 a new develop- 
ment of the hierarchy oc- 
curred in the institution of 
a body of twelve apostles. 
One of these twelve was the 
famous Brigham Young. He 
and others were sent out 
to the world as missiona- 
ries. Large accessions were 
through them made in En- 
gland and throughout the 
world. The prophet, in 
July, 1843, testified to hav- 
ing received a revelation 
authorizing polygamy. The 
murder of Smith while in 
prison, in 1844, was the one 
thing needed at this crisis to 
give a new impulse to Mor- 
monism. Brigham Young 
was elected by the twelve 
apostles as successor to 
Smith, and about six years 
after was appointed govern- 
or of Utah by the President 
of the United States, but was 
subsequently displaced for 
open disregard of United 
States laws. The subse- 
quent history of Mormon- 
ism, until a very recent pe- 
riod, has been one of fraud, 
corruption, violence, and 
treachery, which is almost 
without a parallel in modern 
times. The Mormons call 
themselves saints. They 
number, it is believed, about 
200,000, one half of whom 
are scattered over the Old 
World; the remainder are 
chiefly in Utah. 

II. Ecclesiastical Organiza- 
tion. — Mormonism is a pure 
theocracy ; its priesthood, 
who rule in matters tem- 
poral and ecclesiastical, are 
divided into various orders. 
The highest is the first pres- 
idency, composed of three, 
who are said to represent 
42 




MORMONS 



658 



MORMONS 



Peter, James, and John in the Gospel Church. 
Of these Brigham Young is head, or chief. 
These possess supreme authority. The sec- 
ond office is that of Patriarch, dispenser of 
blessings ; next comes the Council of " The 
Twelve," whose important functions are to 
ordain all officers, elders, priests, teachers, 
and deacons, to administer the sacraments, 
and to take the lead in meetings ; fourth in 
order come the Seventies, who are propa- 
gandists and missionaries. There are also 
high-priests, bishops (of secular things), 
elders, priests, teachers, and deacons. The 
whole priesthood is divided into two class- 
es — the Melchizedek and the Aaronic. The 
latter can be held only by " literal descend- 
ants of Aaron," who are pointed out by spe- 
cial revelation. 




Mormon Baptism. 

The people are, or until very recently have 
been, under the absolute control of the priest- 
hood, and every attempt at insubordination 
has put not only the property but the life of 
the offender in danger. In theory, the Mor- 
mons recognize the right of private judg- 
ment ; in fact, the attempt to exercise that 
right has been always at the hazard of life 
itself. 

III. Doctrines. — These are an extraordinary 
admixture of truth and falsehood, of philos- 
ophy and fanaticism ; and it is not an easy 
matter to disentangle them, and reduce them 
to any thing like an orderly system. The 
Mormons accept the Bible as a divinely in- 
spired book ; but they also declare that the 
word of God is to be found not only in the 
Bible and the Book of Mormon, but also in 



all good books. They believe in the doc- 
trine of the Trinity, but entangle and ob- 
scure it in statements so wild and mystical 
that it is impossible to explain what the 
doctrine is, as they hold it. They maintain 
a doctrine of faith in Christ and of repent- 
ance, but both ; as explained by their relig- 
ious teachers, resemble only in name faith 
and repentance as taught by those who ac- 
cept the evangelical system of religious truth. 
They administer baptism to candidates at 
eight years of age. They maintain a literal 
resurrection of the body from the dead, but 
assert that only the flesh and bones will 
arise, the blood being the principle of mor- 
tality. They believe in the literal second 
coming of Christ, and his reign upon the 
earth, and the establishment under that 
reign of the new Ziou 
on the Western Conti- 
nent, of which they are 
the saints ; hence their 
title, — " Latter Day 
Saints." There is in 
their chief town. Salt 
Lake City, an immense 
tabernacle, where their 
religious services are 
held, and where one or 
more of their prophets 
preach to them every 
Sabbath. "The gath- 
erings and services," 
saj^s Mr. Bowles, de- 
scribing a service which 
he attended,^ '' both in 
speaking and singing, 
reminded me of the 
Methodist camp -meet- 
ings of fifteen or twenty 
years ago. The singing, 
as on the latter occa- 
sions, was the best part 
of the exercises, sim- 
ple, sweet, and fervent. 
'Daughter of Zion,' as 
sung by the large choir 
one Sunday morning, 
was prayer, sermon, song, and all. The 
preacher that day was Apostle Richards ; 
but beyond setting forth the superiority of 
the Mormon Church system, through its pres- 
idents, councils, bishops, elders, and seven- 
ties, for the work made incumbent upon 
Christians, and claiming that its preachers 
were inspired like those of old, his discourse 
was a rambling, unimpressive exhortation." 
* * * " The Bible, both Old and New Testa- 
ments, is used with the same authority as by 
all Protestants ; the Mormon scriptures are 
simply new and added books, confirming aud 
supplementing the teachings of the original 
Scriptures, The rite of the sacrament [of 
the Lord's Supper] is administered every 
Sunday, water being used instead of wine, 
1 "Our New West;" p. 243. 



MOEMONS 



659 



MORMONS 



and the distribution proceeds among the 
whole congregation, men, women, and chil- 
dren, numbering from three to five thousand, 
while the siugiug and the preaching are in 
progress. The prayers are few and simple, 
undistinguishable, except in these charac- 
teristics, from those heard in all Protestant 
churches, and the congregation all join in 
the Amen." * * * " The next Sunday, espe- 
cially for our edification, Brigham Young 
himself preached ; but he was very unsatis- 
factory and disappointing in his effort." * * * 
"His address lacked logic, lacked effect, lack- 
ed, wholly, magnetism or impressiveness. It 
was a curious medley of Scriptural exposition 
and exhortation, bold and bare statement, 
coarse denunciation and vulgar allusion, 
cheap rant and poor cant. So far as his 
statement of Mormon belief went, it amount- 
ed to this : That God was a human material 
person, with like flesh and blood and passions 
to ourselves, only perfect in all things ; that 



person can not be a Christian, neither have 
salvation." 

As a class, the people are honest and in- 
dustrious ; much can not be said for their 
other virtues, nor for their intelligence. The 
basis of their social civilization is polygamy. 
This is not, indeed, as most suppose, essential 
to their religious system : on the contrary, it 
was at first unknown among them. From 
1830 to 1843 they were monogamists ; but in 
the latter of these years, as we have seen, 
Smith obtained a revelation permitting, and 
even recommending, a plurality of wives. 
Still, it does not appear to have become the 
practice among the Mormons till their jour- 
ney across the prairies to the valley of the 
Salt Lake. Since then it has been boldly 
avowed, and defended against other Chris- 
tians by an appeal to Scripture. Mormons 
are permitted to be monogamists, but en- 
couraged to be polygamists, by the revela- 
tion given to the prophet, that "the rank 




The Great SalL Lake Eegiou. 



he begat his son Jesus in the same way that 
children are begotten now; that Jesus and 
the Father look alike and were alike, distin- 
guishable only by the former being older; 
that our resurrection would be material, and 
we should live in he^-ven with the same 
bodies and the same passions as on earth ; 
that Mormouism was the most perfect and 
true religion ; that those Christians who were 
not Mormons would not necessarily go to hell 
and be burned by living fire and tortured by 
ugly devils, but that they would not occupy 
so high places in heaven as the Latter Day 
Saints ; that polygamy was the habit of all 
the children of God in the earlier ages, and 
was first abolished by the Goths and Vandals 
who conquered and reconstructed Rome." 

IV. Social Character and Civilization. — The 
Mormon creed affirms that — " We believe in 
being honest, true, chaste, temperate, benev- 
olent, virtuous, and upright ; and in doing 
good to all men; also that an idle or lazy 



and dignity given to the Saints in the other 
world is proportioned to the number of their 
wives and children." The universal testi- 
mony of all travelers is that the effect of 
polygamy has been not only to corrupt the 
morals and deteriorate the character of the 
people, but also to degrade their physical 
condition. The women submit to a yoke 
which they abhor, but from which either 
they see no escape, or to which they bend 
from a mistaken sense of duty. The wives 
generally live apart, in some instances in 
separate houses. The first wife is practical- 
ly recognized as the head, though not always 
the favorite of the husband. 

We quote again from Mr. Bowles's pages, 
who epitomizes in a paragraph the common 
testimony of all observers : " It is a dread- 
ful state of society to any of fine feelings 
and true instincts; it robs married life of all 
its sweet sentiment and companionship ; and 
while it degrades woman, it brutalizes man, 



MORTAR 



660 



MOSES 



teaching Mm to despise and domineer over 
his "wives, over all women. It breeds jeal- 
ousy, distrust, and tempts to infidelity ; but 
the police system of the Church and the 
community is so strict and constant, that it 
is claimed and believed the latter vice is 
very rare. As I have said, we had little di- 
rect communication with the women of the 
saints ; but their testimony came to us in a 
hundred ways — sad, tragic, heart-rending. 
One woman, an educated, handsome person, 
as yet a single wife, said, with bated breath 
and almost hissing fury, to one of our party, 
in some aside discussion of the subject, 'Po- 
lygamy is tolerable enough for the men, but 
it is hell for the women!'" It is very certain 
that polygamy, and, it is probable, that Mor- 
monism, is on the decline. The supreme au- 
tocratic power which Brigham Young for- 
merly exercised, he exercises no longer. For 
years the United States authority was open- 
ly defied ; it is now respected. Brigham 
Young himself has been recently arrested on 
a charge of conspiracy and murder, and has 
escaped trial only because of some infor- 
mality or uncertainty respecting the consti- 
tution of the court. The proposition has been 
semi-ofiicially made, as from him, to aban- 
don polygamy, on condition that the United 
States government will recognize the legiti- 
macy of children heretofore born of polyga- 
mous marriages. The railroad has opened 
up the country, so that it is no longer cut 
ofi'from civilization. Gentiles take up their 
residence in Salt Lake City freely, and are 
no longer in peril of theii" lives; mission- 
aries are preaching the Gospel of Jesus 
Christ in the midst of the people, and there 
is no power able to stop them. Several 
Protestant Christian churches have been or- 
ganized there (1872) ; and a recent move- 
ment among the Mormons themselves repu- 
diates the authority of Brigham Young and 
the hierarchy ; and though, like all reac- 
tions from priestly authority, its tendency is 
unmistakably toward fi a grant infidelity, it 
is nevertheless a sign of the breaking up of 
the entire system. 

Since this article was written, other in- 
dications of the decay of the entu'e system 
have shown themselves. Mr. T. B. H. Sten- 
house, formerly a Mormon elder and mis- 
sionary, and editor of a Mormon paper, has 
issued a history of Mormouism whose revela 
tions of the foul and unnatural crimes which 
have stained its entire history are made the 
more impressive by the calmness and mod- 
eration of his language, and the official and 
indisputable evidence which he has with as- 
siduity gathered to sustain them; and it is 
rumored that Brigham Young is preparing 
for another exodus of the entire community 
to regions yet more remote from the incur- 
sion of civilization. 

Mortar. 1. A tifoisil. The simplest, and 
probably most ancient, method of preparing 




Mortar and Pestle. 



grain for food was by pounding it between 
two stones. Convenience suggested that 
the lower of the two stones should be hol- 
lowed, that the corn might not escape, and 
that the upper should be shaped so as to be 
convenient for holding. Thus the pestle 
and mortar must 
have existed from 
a very early pe- 
riod.^ At the 
present day stone 
mortars are used 
by the Arabs to 
pound wheat for 
their national dish, Mhhy. There is no neces- 
sity for supposing an allusion in Prov. xxvii., 
22, to a mode of punishment by which crim- 
inals were put to death by being pounded 
in a mortar. A custom of this kind existed 
among the Turks, but there is no distinct 
trace of it among the Hebrews. 

2. A lind of cement. Moistened clay and 
a composition of lime, ashes, and sand are 
generally used in the East as cement, or 
mortar. The latter composition must be 
very carefully mixed, in order to resist the 
action of water. The " untempered mortar" 
of Ezek. xiii., 10-15, was probably mud or 
clay without lime, and hence unable to re- 
sist heavy rains. Stubble, or straw, is some- 
times intermixed. The builders in the plain 
of Shiuar employed " slime," i. e., asphalt or 
bitumen (q. v.), for mortar. It hardens in 
the sun ; and since it is brittle by itself, is 
combined, when melted, with tar. Its use 
as mortar seems to have been confined to 
Babylonia. 

Moses (Heb. drawn out, or, Copt., water- 
saved), the legislator of the Jewish people, 
and, in a certain sense, the founder of the 
Jewish religion, was the son of Amram and 
Jochebed, of the family of Kohath, of the 
tribe of Levi. The story of his bii'this thor- 
oughly Egyptian in its scene. The beauty 
of the new-born babe induced the mother to 
make extraordinary eftbrts for its preserva- 
tion from the general destruction of the male 
children of Israel. For three mouths the 
child was hidden in the house ; but conceal- 
ment soon became too hazardous, and Joche- 
bed placed her babe in a little ark of papy- 
rus, closed against the water by bitumen, and 
hid him among the aquatic vegetation of the 
shores of one of the canals of the Nile. His 
sister Miriam was set to watch her brother's 
fate. After the Homeric simplicity of the 
age, the Egyptian princess came with her 
maidens to bathe in the sacred river. Espy- 
ing the little ark among the flags, she had it 
brought to her. The infant was beautiful, 
and moved the princess to compassion. She 
determined to rear it as her own ; and Miri- 
am, embracing the opportunity, brought as a 
nurse the child's own mother, who was given 
the bov, with a charo-e to tend it carefnlly. 



1 iNiumb. xi., S. 



MOSES 



661 



MOSES 



The cliild was brougtit up as the princess's 
sou, aud the memory of the iucideut was long 
cherished iu the name given to the foundling 
of the water's side/ 

Adopted by the princess, Moses must for 
many years be considered as an Egyptian. 
Of this time the Pentateuch says nothing ; 
but iu the N. T. he is represented as '^ learn- 
ed in all the wisdom of the Egyptians," and 
as "mighty in words and in deeds."^ He 
is described by tradition as mastering all 
branches of learning, and also as heading 
the armies of Pharaoh against the Ethiopi- 
ans. Certain it is that splendid prospects 
were spread before him. And if he had 
chosen to separate himself from his own 
people, to renounce his fathers God, and to 
grasp the pleasures of sin, he might have 
had the highest worldly honors, might, per- 
haps, have wielded the Egyptian sceptre, 
and hare founded a new dynasty of Pha- 
raohs. But he was influenced by a nobler 
principle. He was aware of the promise of 
God to visit Israel, and he expected its ac- 
complishment. Seeing an Israelite suffer- 
ing violence from an Egyptian, and think- 
ing that they were alone, he slew the Egyp- 
tian, and buried the corpse in the sand. For 
this he was obliged to flee for his life ; and 
it is characteristic of the faithfulness of the 
Jewish records, that his flight is there rep- 
resented as occasioned rather by the malig- 
nity of his countrymen than by the enmity 
of the Egyptians. He wandered away to 
Midian ; and while resting one evening hj a 
well, watching the watering of the flocks, the 
chivalrous spirit which had already broken 
forth in behalf of his oppressed countrymen 
broke forth again in behalf of seven distressed 
maidens whom the Arabian shepherds rude- 
ly drove away from the water. This inci- 
dent led to his becoming the shepherd of 
Jethro, the chief of one of those tribes that 
dwelt by the eastern gulf of the Red Sea. 
Thus Moses, who up to this time had been 
"an Egyptian," became for forty years an 
Arabian. He married Zipporah, one of the 
daughters of his Midianitish master, paying 
for her probably by service, just as Jacob 
had served Laban for Rachel. It was in 
the seclusion and simplicity of this shepherd 
life that he received his preparation and his 
call as a prophet. AVhile tending his sheep 
at Horeb, he was startled by the strange 
sight of a bush that burned, but was not 
consumed. It was probably the well-known 
acacia, the thorn-tree of the desert, spread- 
ing out its tangled branches, thick-set with 
white thorn, over the rocky ground, which 
became the symbol of the divine presence. 
The rocky ground at once became holy, and, 
putting off his sandals, the shepherd heard 
revealed the solemn covenant name of Jeho- 
vah, and received his sacred mission to de- 



liver his peoj)le. His leading characteristic 
; again displays itself. He is not ambitious 
enough to desire the high pre-eminence, and 
repeatedly excuses himself on account of his 
want of influence and his slowness of speech. 
Forty years had cooled the ardor he might 
once have felt. But he is told that the 
Lord, who pronounced to him his solemn 
covenant-name, would be with him ; certain 
signs are given to assure him; and it is 
j promised that his eloquent brother Aaron, 
even now on the way to meet him, shall 
accompany him as his spokesman. Moses 
no longer hesitates, but returns to Egypt 
from his exile. After the incident recorded 
j in Exod. iv., 24-26 (for an explanation of 
which the reader is referred to the article 
\ ZiPPORAJi), he apparently parts from his 
wife aud children, who return to their Mid- 
ianitish home, to see him no more till after 
the fulflllment of his mission iu the deliver- 
ance of Israel. Aaron meanwhile is sent by 
God to meet him. Together the two enter 
Egypt, prepared for their high mission ; and 
the elders of Israel being assembled, are 
speedily convinced that these two brothers 
are indeed commissioned by God. 

It was a sublime attitude in which Moses 
now stood, demanding of the haughty Pha- 
raoh the release of Israel. We find at first 
occasional misgivings ; but ere long, con- 
vinced that Jehovah's might would really 
be put forth, he insisted on his demands, 
and in ominous words described the miseries 
which resistance would inflict on Egypt, and 
the ultimate destruction of their bravest and 
their best. No wonder that when he had 
discomfited the magicians, and when, at his 
word, plagues, such as neither they nor their 
fathers had felt, fell upon them — no wonder 
that this " man Moses was very great in the 
i land of Egypt, in the sight of Pharaoh's serv- 
] ants, and in the sight of the people."^ At 
j length the last fatal blow was struck ; and 
I at midnight a loud universal wail rang 
[ through the land. " There was not a house 
where there was not one dead." And then 
Moses, who had prepared his people, and had 
instructed them to celebrate the passover, 
placed himself at tbeir head, and under the 
guidance of a marvelous pillar of cloud which 
went before them, led their long files toward 
the wilderness and the Red Sea.^ Hence- 
forth the history of Moses is the history of Is- 
rael for forty years. Up to the time of the Ex- 
odus Moses and Aaron appear almost on an 
equality. But after that, the former is usual- 
ly mentioned alone, and is incontestably the 
chief personage of the history. There are 
three main characters in which he appears — 
as a Leader, as a Prophet, and as a Lawgiver. 
I 1. As a leader, his life divides itself into 
the three epochs — those of the march to Si- 
nai, the march from Sinai to Kadesh, and 



1 Exod. ii., 1-10; vi., 1&-20; Acts vii., 20, 21; Heb. xi. 
3.-2 Acts vii., 22. 



1 Exod. si., 3. See Plagues of Egypt.— « Exod. xii. ; 

xiii. 



MOSES 



662 



MOSES 



the conquest of the trans -Jordanic king- 
doms. Of liis natural gifts in this capacity 
we have but little means of judging. The 
two main difficulties which he encounter- 
ed were the reluctance of the people to 
submit to his guidance, and the impractica- 
ble nature of the country which they had to 
traverse. The route through the wilder- 
ness is described as having been made under 
his leadership. The particular spot of the 
encampment is fixed by the cloudy pillar, 
but the direction of the people, first to the 
Red Sea, and then to Mount Sinai, is com- 
municated through or given by Moses. On 
approaching Palestine, the office of the lead- 
er becomes blended with that of the general, 
or the conqueror. By Moses the spies were 
sent to explore the country, and against his 
advice took place the first disastrous battle at 
Hormah. To his direction is ascribed the cir- 
cuitous route by which the nation approach- 
ed Palestine from the east, and to his gener- 
alship the two successful campaigns in whicli 
Sihon and Og were defeated. The narrative 
is told so briefly, that we are in danger of 
forgetting that at this last stage of his life 
Moses must have been as much a conqueror 
and victorious soldier as Joshua. 

2. His character as a prophet is, from the 
nature of the case, more distinctly brought 
out. He is the first, as he is the greatest, 
example of a prophet in the O. T. In a cer- 
tain sense, he appears as the centre of a 
prophetic circle, but high above them all. 
With him the divine revelations were made 
'•mouth to mouth, even apparently, and not 
in dark speeches," and he beheld the '^ simil- 
itude of Jehovah."^ In the beginning, at 
the first appearance of God to him in the 
flaming bush, there is no form described; 
only the Angel or Messenger is spoken of as 
being in the flame. But later, the revela- 
tion becomes more distinct ; twice he pene- 
trates the cloud of thick darkness which en- 
virons Mount Sinai, to remain there in abso- 
lute seclusion, and in communion with God, 
for forty days. This prepared the way for a 
revelation yet more wondrous. In the de- 
spondency produced by the apostasy of the 
molten calf, he besought Jehovah to show 
him " his glory." The divine answer an- 
nounced that an actual vision of God was 
impossible. "Thou canst not see my face; 
for there shall no man see my face and live." 
But God commanded him to come absolutely 
alone and place himself in a cleft in the 
rock, and passed by him in a cloud, partly 
revealed, while at the same time he pro- 
claimed the two immutable attributes of 
God, Justice and Love, in words which be- 
came part of the religious creed of Israel, 
and thence of the world. The fourth meth- 
od of divine manifestation, which com- 
menced at this juncture and continued 
with more or less continuity through the 



1 Numb, xi., 25-2T ; xii.,S. 



rest of his career, was his communication 
with God in the sacred " tabernacle of the 
congregation." There is also another form 
of the prophetic gift, in which Moses more 
nearly resembles the later prophets — the 
poetical. Though in his other characters as 
leader, prophet, and lawgiver, he is so pre- 
eminent that few think of him as also among 
the sacred poets, yet it is true that some of 
the finest specimens of Hebrew poetry are 
attributed in the Bible to his pen.^ 

3. It is, however, as a lawgiver and states- 
man that he stands pre-eminent. As a lead- 
er, Joshua was perhax)S his equal; as a proph- 
et and poet, Samuel, David, Isaiah, and the 
later writers, were certainly his equals, if 
not his superiors. But as an organizer and 
statesman, he stands without a peer, not 
only in Jewish, but in all history. Of all 
the sons of men, he has exerted the widest 
influence, not merely on the permanent in- 
stitutions of his own people, but on those of 
other lands. The ritual which, under divine 
inspiration, he prescribed, not only lasted as 
long as the nation, but was founded upon prin- 
ciples as universal as the human race, and 
foreshadowed truths which Christianity has 
realized. The Passover, which, under divine 
direction, he instituted, became the type of 
another and more sacred feast, the memorial 
of a more grand deliverance, and celebrated 
in all lands where the Bible is known and 
read. And though the tabernacle, and the 
temple which grew out of it, have long since 
fallen in ruins, and the system of sacrifices, 
which he was the means of prescribing, is no 
longer maintained even by the Jews them- 
selves, the three ideas which underlaid them, 
of expiation, consecration, and thanksgiving, 
are preserved in some form in every Christian 
land, and in all phases of Christian faith.^ 
As a statesman, his influence has been, if 
possible, even more wide-spread. The prin- 
ciples which underlaid the Jewish Common- 
wealth, as he established it, we have dis- 
cussed elsewhere f it is, however, safe to say 
here, that after over three thousand years of 
political instruction, the most advanced na- 
tions of the globe are but just beginning to 
realize and accept those principles of indi- 
vidual and national liberty which he incor- 
porated, by the direction and authority of 
God, in the constitution of the Hebrew na- 
tion. 

The life that was so grand and so service- 
able to mankind ended in a death inex- 
pressibly touching and pathetic. He that 
had lived not for himself ended his life of 
self-sacrifice by dying not unto himself. 
The land which he had set out to possess for 
himself and his people he was permitted to 
see, but not to enter. The sin for which this 
penalty was imposed is stated in Numb, xx., 



1 Exod. XV., 1-19 ; xvii., 16 ; xxxii., 18 ; Deut. xxxii., 
1-43 ; xxxiii., 1-29 ; Psa. xc— = See Saorifiok ; Offer- 
ing.— 3 See Jkws. 1. Commonwealth. 



MOSES 



663 



MOSQUE 



12 ; xxvii., 14 ; Deut. xxxii., 51. The com- 
mand was inexorable; and without a mur- 
mur the lawgiver, in what is in some sense 
the grandest act of his life, submitted to 
the divine decree. Up one of the summits 
of the Pisgah range, a peak dedicated to 
Nebo (q. v.), he went, calmly, to die. From 
this his tomb he could look upon the land 
he might not enter. Beneath him lay the 
tents of Israel, ready for the march; and 
over against them, distinctly visible in its 
grove of palm-trees, the stately Jericho, key 
of the Laud of Promise. Beyond was spread 
out the whole range of the mountains of 
Palestine, in its foiu'fold masses — all Gil- 
ead, with Hermon and Lebanon in the east 
and north ; the hills of Galilee, overhanging 
the Lake of Gennesaret ; the wide opening 
where lay the plain of Esdraelou, the future 
battle-field of the nations; the rounded sum- 
mits of Ebal and Gerizim ; immediately in 
front of him the hills of Judea ; and, amidst 
them, seen distinctly through the rents in 
their rocky walls, Bethlehem on its narrow 
ridge, and the invincible fortress of Jebus. 
All this he saw. He " saw it with his eyes, 
but he was not to go over thither." It was 
his last view. From that height he came 
down no more. The Mussulmans, regard- 
less of the actual scene of his death, have 
raised to him a tomb on the western side of 
the Jordan, frequented by thousands of Mus- 
sulman devotees. But the silence of the sa- 
cred narrative refuses to be broken. " In " 
that strange land, " the laud of Moab, Moses 
the servant of the Lord died, according to 
the word of the Lord." " He buried him in 
a ravine in the land of Moab, over against 
the idol -temple of Peor," apart from his 
countrymen, honored by no funeral obse- 
quies, visited by no grateful pilgrimages; 
and "no mauknoweth of his sepulchre unto 
this day."^ 

We have left ourselves little room to 
speak of the personal character of Moses ; 
but in the presence of such a character there 
is little occasion for speech. He is his own 
best eulogy. " Meekest of men " he is called 
in our English Bible ; most enduring would 
be a nearer expression of the meaning. Most 
self-sacrificing certainly of all political lead- 
ers he was ; in this one respect of his char- 
acter without a superior, if not without a 
peer. As we now look back upon his life, we 
clearly see that the path he chose was the 
path of permanent honor. But it did not 
seem so then. In abandoning the sceptre 
of one nation, he never imagined that he was 
to be the founder of another. He only knew 
that he would rather be a Hebrew herdsman 
than an Egyptian prince ; that he preferred 
to follow God in the wilderness rather than 
to walk godless in the most alluring path 
which luxury carpets, and culture strews 
with flowers, and influence and honor bright- I 

1 See Stanley, "Sinai aud Palestine," chap, viii., 11. I 



en with their sunshine. When once he had 
: entered on his mission, he never hesitated, 
: never once regretted his choice, never in- 
I clined to draw back. The people perpetu- 
ally imputed to him all their troubles. He 
1 bore their murmurings with a patience as 
[ touching as it was wonderful. His courage 
I never faltered ; his faith in the fulfillment 
[ of God's promise never wavered. Even 
j when brother and sister turned against him, 
j he maintained the same calm and unruffled 
i composure of spirit. And when Joshua 
sought to forbid the unauthorized prophesy- 
1 ing of Eldad and Medad, his only answer 
j was one which reminds us of Christ's re- 
buke, fifteen hundred years later, of a simi- 
j lar spirit in the apostle John/ 

Eefusiug the crown, Moses has received it. 
^ Mankind have already forgotten the name 
of the Egyptian monarch whose successor he 
might, perhaps, have become. Despite the 
royal works this Pharaoh accomplished at 
so great a cost, history has engraved his 
name so lightly, that, effaced by time, schol- 
arship spells it with difficulty, and pro- 
nounces it with uncertainty. The name of 
Moses, more enduring than the tables of 
stone on which, by divine command, the 
fundamental precepts of the Hebrew law were 
preserved, more enduring than even the aw- 
ful mount where he met Jehovah and talk- 
ed with him face to face, will live on in im- 
perishable renown so long as humanity con- 
tinues to honor the heroism of a true self- 
sacrifice. While the world stands, the story 
of Moses — his rejection of rank, purchasable 
only at the expense of fidelity to his own 
convictions, and his deliberate choice of a 
life of honorable obscurity, together with its 
marvelous and unexpected results — this will 
be told from generation to generation, a 
striking exemplification of the truth of 
Christ's paradox, " the last shall be first, and 
the first last." 

Moslems, a name derived from the Arabic 
verb saJama, to be devoted to God, and ap- 
plied to those who believe in the Koran, and 
who, in the Mohammedan sense of the word, 
form the body of the faithful. See Moham- 

MEDANTISM. 

Mosque, a Mohammedan place of wor- 
ship. The Arabic term is Musjid, an oratory, 
or place of prayer. Like the term church 
with us, the word is used to designate both 
the building and the ecclesiastical institu- 
tion. 

The building is constructed usually of 
stone, and in the figure of a square. In front 
of the principal gate is a square court, paved 
with white marble ; and all round the court 
are low galleries, the roofs of which are sup- 
ported by marble pillars. In these the Mo- 
hammedans perform their ablutions before 
entering the place of prayer. The walls of 
the mosques are all white, except where the 
1 Comp. Niinab. xi., 26-29, with Luke ix., 49, 50. 



MOSQUE 



664 



MOTH 




Mosque of Omar. 



name of God or passages from the Koran are 
written in large Arabic characters. In each 
mosque there are a great number of lamps, 
between which hang crystal rings, ostrich 
eggs, and other curiosities, which make a 
tine show when the lamps are lighted. 
About the mosque there are generally six 
high towers, each having three little open 
galleries raised one above another. These 
towers, which are called minarets, are cover- 
ed with lead, and adorned with gilding and 
other ornaments; and from these minarets 
the people are summoned to prayer by cer- 
tain officers appointed for the purpose, whom 
they call Muezzins. Most of the mosques 
have a kind of hospital attached to them, in 
which travelers, whether believers or infi- 
dels, may find entertainment for three days. 
Each mosque has also a place called Tarhe, 
which is the burying-place of its founders ; 
within which there is a tomb six or seven 
feet in length, and covered with velvet or 
green satin. At each end are two wax-tapers ; 
and around it are several seats provided for 
those who read the Koran and pray for the 
souls of the deceased. No person is allowed 
to enter a mosque with his shoes or stockings 
on. With many of the larger mosques there 
are schools, academies, and hospitals connect- 
ed, and public kitchens, in which food is pre- 
pared for the poor. 

The mosque, as an ecclesiastical institu- 
tion, has three great duties to perform : first, 
to conduct the religious worship of the peo- 
ple five times a day, at the five canonical 
hours of prayer, and on Friday (which they 



call assembly or congregation day) to in- 
struct the people in the duties of religion. 
Second, they must establish schools for both 
secular and theological education. The so- 
called Meddresses, connected with the chief 
mosques, are theological institutions with 
special endowments from government, or 
often from pious individuals. Third, the 
mosques have the management of nearly all 
the benevolent legacies which pious Mussul- 
mans have left for hospitals and schools, and 
for the poor. These are very numerous, and 
have not in all cases been any too faithfully 
administered. The mosques have in these 
ways come into the possession of great es- 
tates, and the Mussulman clergy wield an 
immense influence. The mosques are sup- 
ported by revenues derived from land. On 
all sales of lands three per cent, is collected 
by the mosque ; and if one dies without di- 
rect heirs — that is, without children — his 
lands revert to the mosque again, and are 
sold at auction. There is immense dishon- 
esty in the mauagenient and administration 
of this whole system. 

Moth. The Hebrew word which has 
been so translated is derived from a root 
signifying to fall away, suggesting moth- 
eaten clothes. The creature intended is ev- 
idently the clothes -moth. Almost all the 
Scripture allusions to the moth refer to its 
destructive habits. In the East large stores 
of clothing are kept by the wealthy ; not only 
for their own use, but as presents for guests. 
Hence the peculiar significance to the Jews, 
in Christ's reference to the insecurity of 



MOURNING 



665 



MOUENING 



earthly store-houses/ to which these insid- 
ious little foes might find entrance, and se- 
cretly destroy the hoarded wealth. The 
word occurs several times as a figure ex- 
pressive of gradual destruction.^ 

Mourning. The modes of giving expres- 
sion to sorrow have varied in different ages 
and countries. In the East the mourner has 
always been remarkable for his worn and 
haggard aspect. His dress is slovenly, his 
hair disheveled, his beard untrimmed, and 
his whole apparel in a state of negligence 
and disorder. The Israelites of old were 
wont to rend their garments, sprinkle dust 
upon their heads, and to put on sackcloth 
and other mourning apparel. When the 
armies of Israel were driven before their 
enemies, Joshua " rent his clothes, and fell to 
the earth upon his face before the ark of the 
Lord until even-tide, he and the elders of 
Israel, and put dust upon their heads."^ On 
the Egyptian monuments, also, are represent- 
ed various instances of extreme grief indi- 
cated by similar tokens, and very like the 
mode of lamentation usual in Egypt at the 
present day. When any one dies, the fe- 
males of the family raise the cry of lament, 
one after another, with increased vehemence 
and piercing shrieks ; and many of the neigh- 
bors as well as friends of the family join in 
the lamentation. Hired mourning-women 
are also engaged, who utter cries of grief, 
and praise the virtues of the deceased, while 
the females of the house rend their clothes, 
beat themselves, and make other violent 
demonstrations of sorrow. A sort of funer- 
al dirge is also chanted by the mourning 
women, to the sound of the tamborine, from 
which the tinkliug-plates have been removed. 
This continues until the funeral takes place, 
which, if the person died in the morning, is 
performed the same day ; but if in the after- 
noon or evening, is deferred until the morn- 
ing ; and the lamentations are kept up 
through the night. Mohammed forbade 
the wailing of women at funerals ; but not- 
withstanding this prohibition, the custom is 
still found, even where the Koran is in other 
respects most rigidly adhered to. Mr. Lane 
tells us that in modern Egypt he has seen 
mourning-women of the lower classes follow- 
ing a bier, having their unveiled faces and 
their head-coverings and their bosoms be- 
smeared with mud. The same writer in- 
forms us that the funeral of a devout sbeik 
differs in some respect from that of ordi- 
nary mortals; and the women, instead of 
wailing, rend the air with shrill and qua- 
vering cries of joy, called Zughareet If 
these cries are discontinued but for a mo- 
ment, the bearers of the bier stop, protest- 
ing that a supernatural power rivets them 
to the spot. 

The noisy mourning of the Egyptians ap- 



1 Matt, vi.: 
8 Josh. Tii., ( 



2 Psa. xxxix., 11; Hos. v., 12. 



pears to have been imitated by the Israel- 
ites, who hired professional mourners emi- 
nently skilled in the art of lamentation. 
These, commencing their doleful strains im- 
mediately after the person had expired, con- 
tinued them at intervals until the body had 
been buried. Instrumental music was af- 
terward introduced on these occasions, the 
trumpet being used at the funerals of the 
wealthy, and the pipe or flute at those of 
the humbler classes. Such were the min- 
strels whom our Lord found in the house of 
Jairus, making a noise round the bed on 
which the dead body of his daughter lay.^ 
The mournful wailing over the dead was 
particularly violent when the women were 
washing the corpse, when it was perfumed, 
and when it was carried out for burial. 
While the funeral procession was on its way 
to the place of interment, the melancholy 
cries of the women were intermingled with 
the devout singing of the men. Hired 
mourners were in use among the Greeks at 
least as early as the times of the Trojan war, 
as is seen in the description which Homer 
gives of a band of mourners surrounding the 
body of Hector, whose funeral dirge they 
sung with many sighs and tears. The Chi- 
nese women make loud lamentations and 
wailings over the dead, particularly upon 
the death of the head of a family. Among 
various tribes of negroes in Africa, when a 
person of consequence dies, the relations and 
neighbors meet together and engage in loud 
wailings. The same practice is followed at 
an Irish wake, where the keeners, or xjrofes- 
sional mourners, give way to the most vo- 
ciferous expressions of grief. Another mode 
of expressing intense sorrow in the East, 
among the relations of the dead, was by cut- 
ting their bodies with daggers and knives. 
This barbarous practice is alluded to by Jer- 
emiah, and forbidden by Moses.^ The Per- 
sians express their sorrow with similar ex- 
travagance, when celebrating the anniver- 
sary of the death of Hossein, one of their 
great religious heroes. The time of mourn- 
ing anciently was longer or shorter accord- 
ing to the dignity of the person who had 
died. The Egyptians mourned for Jacob 
seventy days.^ Among the ancient Greeks 
the mourning lasted till the thirtieth day 
after the funeral. At Sparta the time of 
mourning was limited to eleven days. Dur- 
ing the period allotted to mourning the rel- 
atives remained at home in strict seclu- 
sion, never appearing in public. They were 
accustomed to wear black, and they tore, 
cut off, and sometimes shaved their hair. 
The Jews also, in ordinary cases of sor- 
row, let their hair hang loose and dishev- 
eled upon their shoulders ; when their grief 
was more severe, they cut off their hair; 
and in a sudden or violent paroxysm of 



1 Mark v., 38.-2 Lev. xix., 28; Deut. xiv., 1; Jer. 
xlviii., 37. See Cuttings in tue Flesh.— ^ Geu. 1., 3. 



MOURNING 



666 



MUEZZIN 



grief, they plucked the hair out with their 
hauds/ 

It has been usual, from remote ages, for 
mourners to wear for a time a dress or badge 
of a particular color. The official mourners 
at an ancient Egyptian funeral bouud their 
head with fillets of blue. The same color is 
still adopted by mourners in modern Egypt. 
The dress worn by the chief mourners at a 
Chinese funeral is composed of coarse white 
cloth, with bandages of the same worn round 
the head. In Burmah, also, white is the 
mourning color. The ancient Greeks, as we 
have already noticed, wore outer garments 
of black ; and the same color was worn by 
mourners of both sexes among the ancient 
Romans, under the Republic. Under the 
Empire, however, a change was made, and 
white veils were worn by the women, while 
the men continued to wear a black dress. 
Men wore mourning but for a few days, but 
women for a year, when they lost a husband 
or parent. From the time of Domitian the 
women wore only white garments, without 
any ornaments. The men let their hair and 
beards grow, and wore no flowers, while 
mourning lasted. The Greeks never mourn- 
ed for children under three years old. It 
was an invariable custom among Oriental 
mourners to lay aside all jewels and orna- 
ments. In Judea mourners were often 
clothed in sackcloth of hair. In the O. T. 
we find various instances of individuals ex- 
pressing their sorrow by sprinkling them- 
selves with ashes. To sit in sackcloth and 
ashes is a very frequent Oriental expression 
to denote mourning. In deep sorrow per- 
sons sometimes threw themselves on the 
ground and rolled in the dust. In some 
cases of great distress they covered their 
heads. To cover the face, also, was, among 
the Jews, as among almost all nations, a 
sign of deep mourning ; and a very ancient 
sign of mourning was covering the lips.^ 

Among the modern Jews the mourning 
which follows the death of a relative con- 
tinues for seven days, during which the 
mourners do not venture abroad, nor trans- 
act any business. They do not allow them- 
selves to shave their beards, cut their nails, 
or Wash themselves, for thirty days. 

The early Christians, who were accustom- 
ed to contemplate death not as a melancholy 
but a joyful event, gave no countenance to im- 
moderate grief or excessive mourning on the 
occasion of death, and completely discarded 
the mourning customs of the Jews as incon- 
sistent with Christian faith and hope. Some 
of the fathers actually censure the practice 
of wearing black as a sign of mourning. No 
rules were laid down in tlie early Christian 
Church as to the duration of mourning for 
the dead. This matter was left to custom 
and the feeling of the parties concerned. 



1 Ezra ix., 3.-2 Josh, vii., G; 2 Sam. xix., 4; Esth. 
vi., 12; Ezek. xxiv., 16-18, 22, 23. 



Little by little, however, heathen customs 
crept into the Church. 

In modern Europe and this country the 
ordinary color for mourning is black; in 
Turkey, violet; in China, white; in Egypt, 
yellow ; in Ethiopia, brown. It was white 
in Spain until 1498. 

An affecting form of mourning is prac- 
ticed at the present day by the Jews in Je- 
rusalem — bewailing the desolations of the 
Holy City and the sacred and beautiful 
house where their fathers worshiped. A 
considerable portion of the lower part of the 
walls which inclose the mosque of Omar is 
the same which formed part of Solomon's 
Temple. At one place, where the remains 
of this old wall are the most considerable 
and most massive — where two courses of 
massive masonry thirty feet in height meet 
— is what is called the wailiug-place of the 
Jews. At the foot of this wall is an open 
place paved with flags, where the Jews as- 
semble every Friday, and in small numbers 
on either day, for the purpose of prayer aud 
for bewailing the desolations of their holy 
places. Neither Jews nor Christians are al- 
lowed to enter the harem, which is conse- 
crated to Mohammedan worship ; and this 
part of the wall is the nearest approach they 
can make to what they regard as the precise 
spot within the forbidden inclosure on which 
the ancient Temple stood. The Jcavs keep 
the pavement swept with great care, and 
take off" their shoes as on holy ground. 
Standing or kneeling, with their faces to- 
ward the ancient wall, they gaze upon it in 
silence, or pour forth their complaints in 
half suppressed though audible tones. Some- 
times they sob aloud, and still, after the 
lapse of centuries, find tears to flow out over 
the desolation of their beautiful house. " If 
I forget thee, O Jerusalem, let my right hand 
forget her cunning. If I do not remember 
thee, let my tongue cleave to the roof of my 
mouth ; if I prefer not Jerusalem above my 
chief joy." 

Mouse. The original word so translated 
denotes a field ravager ; it seems to be used 
as a generic term, comprehending many spe- 
cies of the small gnawing animals which 
abound in Palestine. It is probable that in 
the reference " the mice that mar the land,"^ 
the allusion is particularly to the short-tail- 
ed field-mice, which abound in large num- 
bers, and commit great depredations in the 
corn-lands of Syria. As this little creature 
would not be very attractive food, we may 
suppose that the prohibition iu the Mosaic 
law has more especial reference to some of its 
larger relatives, some of which are at the 
present day used as food in Northern Syria. 

Muezzin, or Mueddin, an officer belong- 
ing to a Mohammedan mosque, whose duty it 
was to summon the faithful to prayers five 
times a day at the appointed hours. Sta- 
1 1 Sam. vi., 5. 



MUFFLERS 



667 



MUSIC 



tioned on one of the minarets, he chants in a 
peculiar manner the form of proclamation. 
The office of a muezzin is generally intrust- 
ed to blind men only, lest they might, from 
their elevation, have too free a view over 
the surrounding terraces and harems. 

Mufflers. The word so rendered in Isa. 
iii., 19, is derived from a root signifying to 
tremble. It denotes light thin veils, so call- 
ed from their tremulous or fluttering mo- 
tion. They consisted of two pieces, united 
by clasps near the eyes, and hung over the 
face to protect it from the sun. 

Mulberry-tree. Although the mulberry- 
tree is found in Palestine, it is difficult to 
think of any reason which should have led 
the translators to adopt it as a translation 
for the Hebrew in 2 Sam. v., 23, 24, and 1 
Chron. xiv., 14, 15. The Septuagint render- 
ing is pear-trees, but there are many pre- 
sumptions in favor of some kind of poplar, 
such as the aspen, which, with its peculiar 
leaf-stalk, trembles at the lightest breath of 
air. 

Mule, a name given properly to the off- 
spring of an ass (q. v.) and a mare, but fre- 
quently applied to any description of hy- 
brid. The Scripture contains no mention 
of mules till the time of David — just when 
the Israelites were becoming well acquaint- 
ed with horses : after the first half of Da- 
vid's reign, they became very common. As 
the Levitical law forbade the coupling to- 
gether of animals of different species,^ we 
must suppose that the mules were import- 
ed, unless the Jews became subsequently 
less strict in their observance of the cere- 
monial iuj auctions, and bred their mules. 
In Solomon's time, it is possible that mules 
from Egypt occasionally accompanied the 
horses, which we know the King of Israel 
obtained from that country. It would ap- 
pear that only kings and great men were in 
the habit of riding on mules. We do not 
read of mules at all in the N. T. ; perhaps 
because they had ceased to be imported. Va- 
rious explanations have' been attempted in 
regard to that passage in Genesis, " This was 
that Anah that found the mules in the wil- 
derness, as he fed the asses of Zibeon his 
father.'^ As at this time horses were un- 
known in Canaau, mules could not have 
been bred there. Modern scholars general- 
ly suppose that the disputed word should be 
translated " warm springs." 

Murder. The law of God, as early as the 
days of Noah, provided for the punishment 
of murder by the death of the murderer.^ 
It was left, however, in the absence of any 
established government, for the next of kin, 
as the one most interested, to execute the 
law and avenge the murder ; and this is, in 
fact, the practice in most semi-civilized na- 
tions. To prevent this punishment from 
degenerating into a blind revenge, careful 
1 Lev. xix,, 19.— 2 Gen. xxxvi., 24.-3 Qen. ix., 5, 6. 



guards (for that age of the world and stage 
of society) were tlu'own around any one who 
had killed by accident, or was otherwise 
guiltless of the crime imputed to him. The 
principal Mosaic laws on the subject are to 
be found in Exod. xxi., 12, 14, 18, 19, 25, 28-30 ; 
Dent, iv., 41-43; xix., 4-13 ; xxi., 1-9; Numb. 
XXXV., 9-28 ; Lev. xxiv., 19, 20. They pro- 
vide that willful murder shall be punished 
by death, without sanctuary, reprieve, or 
satisfaction ; death by neglect shall be also 
punished by death ; the death of a slave un- 
der the rod shall be punished, but the pun- 
ishmeut is not prescribed ; murder commit- 
ted by an unknown assassin shall be expi- 
ated by a formal ceremonial by the elders of 
the nearest city ; assault shall be punished, 
and the committer of an accidental homicide 
shall find succor in the cities of refuge (q. v.). 

Murrain, the fifth plague of Egypt. The 
word murrain {a great mortality) exactly ex- 
presses the meaning. The disease does not 
appear to have been common in ancient 
times, and no distinct notice is found on the 
monuments. Within the last few years the 
murrain has thrice fallen upon Egypt — in 
1842, 1863, and 1866 (also sixty years pre- 
viously) — when nearly the whole of the 
herds have been destroyed. 

Music. A musical element entered into the 
religious services of the Jews from the very 
earliest date. Music is referred to both in 
Genesis and Job, the two oldest books of the 
Bible; by music the divine deliverance of the 
Jews from the Egyptians, and subsequently 
from Jabin and the children of Ammon, was 
celebrated;^ silver trumpets were made in 
connection with the Tabernacle to direct the 
movements of the camp, by a kind of male 
martial music ; with music David was greet- 
ed after the slaughter of the Philistines ; and 
the earlier prophets accompanied themselves 
with music, which seems to have been an 
essential part of their practice.^ Up to the 
time of David, however, the musical service 
of Judaism was probably of a rude descrip- 
tion. The sweet singer of Israel, who was 
indebted for his first introduction to court to 
his musical attainments, organized an elab- 
orate musical service, the germ of which is 
to be found in his first steps for the removal 
of the ark to Jerusalem.^ From among the 
Levites he organized a chorus and orchestra 
composed of four thousand men, divided into 
twenty-four courses, each with its own pres- 
ident, or leader. The orchestra was provided 
with the various musical instruments (q. v.) 
of the age, and many of the psalms were 
written for the Temple -service, and were 
sung by the choir, with orchestral accompa- 
niments.* Antiphonal chanting constituted 
a feature of this service, the choir being di- 
vided into two parts, who sang responsively. 

1 Exod. XV. ; Judg:. v.— 2 Nnmb. x., 1-10 ; 1 Sam. x., 
5; xviii , 6, T.— 3 2 Sam. vi., 5.—* Compare 1 Chron, 
XV., lC-24 ; xxiii., 5; xxv. 



MUSIC 



MUSICAL INSTEUMENTS 



Psalm xxiv., for example, was doubtless sung 
in this way. Striking illustrations of spe- 
cial musical services in the Temple are af- 
forded by 2 Chron. v., 12, 13 ; vii., 6 ; xxix., 
27, 28. It is doubtful whether any modern 
service has ever afforded a more magnificent 
musical effect than that produced at the ded- 
ication of the Temple by the singing in uni- 
son of the whole chorus, accompanied by the 
entire orchestra, apparently the entire four 
thousand singers and musicians, the melody 
led by a hundred and twenty trumpets.^ The 
pictorial representation of music in heaven 
afforded in Eev. v. is doubtless taken from 
the Temple - service ; and the language of 
that passage, as well as some phrases in the 
Psalms, indicate that the congregation at 
times joined in the musical service.^ Music 
appears to have been in vogue in the Chris- 
tian Church from its inception, the singing 
of a hymn, probably Psalm cxviii.,^ being 
part of the service which accompanied the 
institution of the Lord's Supper, and music 
from this time forth having a prominent part 
in the services of the infant Church.^ This 
musical service was probably vocal only, and 
was certainly participated in by all. The 
Psalms of David probably furnished the 
words; the music was most likely a kind 
of chant. About the fourth, century, a sub- 
ordinate order of clergy, analogous to the 
order of Levites, was set apart for the music- 
al service, and the Council of Laodicea even 
forbade all others from singing ; possibly the 
musical service had become disorderly, and 
the measure was thought necessary to a ref- 
ormation. It is certain, however — indeed 
this decree itself proves it — that the sing- 
ing of the early Church was largely congre- 
gational, though sometimes led by a pre- 
centor or choir. For a long time harmony 
was comparatively 
unknown, the early 
chorals being sung in 
octaves and unisons. 
The invention and 
adoption of the or- 
gan, in the thirteenth 
century, gave a great 
impetus to sacred mu- 
sic, while, at the same 
time, it probably tend- 
ed to withdraw the 
musical service from 
the congregation and 
leave it in the hands 
of a choir. This tend- 
ency undoubtedly has 
been increased in the 

Roman Catholic Church by the widening gulf 
between the priests, or administrators of the 
service, and the people. The musical service 
in that Church is, accordingly, conducted al- 



most exclusively by choirs. This Church 
also employs the orchestra in church service. 
The Reformation, which tended to obliterate 
the distinction between priest and people, 
re-awakened a taste for congregational sing- 
ing. This taste was developed and strength- 
ened by Luther, who adapted the religious 
hymns of the Reformation to simple and 
popular chorals. In our own country Lowell 
Mason may almost be said to be the father 
of church music. The Puritans made little 
of the musical service of the church, and it 
is only during the last quarter century that 
music has begun to regain its place in the 
public services of those churches of which 
they were the founders. 

Musical Instruments. The musical in- 
struments of the Hebrews were of three main 
kinds — stringed instruments, wind instru- 
ments, and instruments of percussion ; but 
we have no exact notions of the forms of 
the instruments mentioned in the Bible, and 
must content ourselves with the most prob- 
able of all the different theories concerning 
them. The accompanying illustrations in- 
dicate the nature of some of the ancient in- 
struments, so far as their character is por- 
trayed either by pictures on the Egyptian 
monuments or by modern musical instru- 
ments of the East. It is not improbable 
that these pictures will give a more vivid 
idea of the probable character of the instru- 
ments of O. T. times than can be conveyed 
by verbal description. 

Stringed instruments were of different 
kinds. There are especially mentioned two 
which were in common use. The first, that 
designated by the Hebrew word Miinnor — 
the instrument upon which David excelled 
— had, according to Josephus, ten strings, 
which were touched with the plectrum;'^ 




1 2 Chron. v., 12-14. Compare 1 Chron. xxiii., 5.— 
2 Psa. Ixvii., 3, 5; cxlviii., 11-13 : cl., G.— ^ See Hallel. 
— * Matt, xxvi., 30; Acts ii., 47; Eph.v,, 19; Col.iii., 16. 



Lyres found at Thebes, Egypt. 

while the sacred text says positively that 
David played the Jchimwr with his hand. 
They played perhaps with two hands, ac- 
cording to the size of the instruments. As 
to the form of the kUnnor opinions differ. 



1 A small instrument of ivory used by the ancients, 
commonly in playing the lyre. 



MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 



669 



MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 



Some think it an in- 
strument resembling 
our liarp ; others, a 
species of guitar. St. 
Jerome attributes to 
it twenty-four strings, 
and the form of a tri- 
angle. Probably the 
number of strings was 
not always the same. 
It appears that they 
had a particular kind 
of Minnor, with eight 
strings, called shemi- 
nith;^ for it is not prob- 
able that the Hebrews used this word in the 
modern sense of octave. Upon the Egyptian 
monuments are seen harps with eight strings. 
The second — the nebel — had, according to 
Josephus, twelve strings, and was played on 
with the fingers. In regard to its figure there 
is no more certainty than in regard to that of 
the Tchinnor. The word nebel has also the sig- 
nification of bottle, and some think, from this, 
that the instrument bore some resemblance 




Egyptian Eeed Pipes. 

to the bottle, or flask, which served to pre- 
serve wine. According to St. Jerome and 
others, it had the form of a triangle stand- 
ing upon its point, and is still found in a 
species of Oriental lyre which has that form, 
upon a leather-covered base of wood. This 
instrument has, it is true, but five strings ; 
but the number might have been greater for- 
merly. There was 
certainly a nebel with 
ten strings^ — the ne- 
beV-dsor. The khinnor 
and the nebel are the 
only stringed instru- 
ments which we can 
with certainty at- 
tribute to the an- 
cient Hebrews. The 
one or the other of 
these served as well 
for secular as for sa- 
cred music. The har- 
lots who sang in the 
streets accompanied 
themselves upon the 
khinnor.^ These are 
the words (representin 



Egyptian Viol. 

The wind instruments which we find 
among the Hebrews are four in number : 1. 
The ougab, the form of which is unknown, 
according to the Bible rendering, was a kind 
of flute, or organ. Some suppose it to be a 
double pipe, consisting of two tubes with a 
common mouth-piece, or two tubes with a 
sack, the same as the sampogna still in use 
among the Italians, the sambonya of Asia 
Minor, and the instrument designated by 
the Chaldee word 
sumplionia, which is 
translated dulcimer 
in Dan. iii., 5, 10, 15. 
Others identify the 
ougab with the Pan- 
dean pipes, an in- 
strument common in the East, and of unques- 
tionably ancient origin. 2. The lialil, or ne- 
hila, was a flute, or pipe, made of reed, wood, 
or horn, and probably of different forms. 
This " pipe " of the Scriptures is still used 
in Palestine. 3. The hatzotzeraJi^ was a 
straight trumpet of metal, such as is figured 
upon the arch of Titus. 4. The scliopliar was 




Egyptian Cymbal?, 5^ inches in diameter. 



stringed instru- 
ments generally) which are translated in the 
Bible by harp and psaltery ; and the saeJcbut 
of Dan. iii., 5, 7, 10, 15 — no doubt an erroneous 
translation — seems to have been a species of 
the same genus of instrument. 



1 1 Ciiron. xv 21.- 
xxiii., 16. 



a curved trumpet, of horn, also designated 
by the names keren, " horn," and yobel,^ and 
sometimes translated trumpet, and sometimes 
cornet. " Cornet " is also found as the trans- 
lation of another Hebrew term, mena'an'im 
— probably an instrument of percussion. 



-2 Psa. xxxiii., 2; cxliv., 9.-3 Isa. ^ Numb, x., 2 ; 2 Chron. v., 12, IS 
16 ; Dan. v., 5, 7, 10, 15. 



' Exod. xix., 13, 



MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 



670 



MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS 




Tambouriue and Castanets. 
Instruments of percussion were also four 
in number. 1. The topli, rendered tabret and 
timh^el, was, without doubt, much the same 
■instrument which the Arabs still call doff, 
and the Spaniards adufa — that is to say, the 
tambouriue, which 
the women, espe- 
cially, played with 
the hand, accom- 
panying the mu- 
sic by dancing and 
singing. 2. Celce- 
lim, or meciltliaim,^ 
one of which is 
the plural and 
the other the dual 
form of the same 
word, designates 
the cymbals of 
the ancients. 
There were among 
them, as among 
the Orientals, two 
kinds : one con- 
sisted of four lit- 
tle pieces of wood 
or iron,which were ^^"^^^ Model of a Listrum. 
held between the fingers, two in each hand, 
and which are now known under the name of 
" castanets ;" the other was composed of two 
large hemispheres of metal. In Psa. cl., 5, 
this distinction is made, and the castanets 




the "cornet" of 2 Sam. vi., 5, was probably 
a kind of rattle giving a tinkling sound 
when shaken — like the sistrum used in the 
worship of the Egyptian Isis ; which was 
from eight to eighteen inches in length, of 
bronze or brass, with loose rings on trans- 
verse bars. 4. ScliaUschim, which we see in 
the hands of the women,^ though possibly 
three-stringed instruments, are more proba- 
bly the triangles, which are of Syrian origin. 
In addition to these words, which have been 
represented in our version by some modern 
word, there are other terms, which are vague- 
ly or generally rendered. These are da- 
chdvdn, rendered " instruments of music," in 
Dan. vi., 18 ; the meaning is most probably 
that approved by Gesenius, " concubines ;" 
minnim, rendered, with great probability, 
" stringed instruments," in Psa. cl., 4, ax)- 
pears to be a general term ; but beyond this 
nothing is known of it ; dsor, " an instrument 
of ten strings ;" the full phrase is nebeV dsor, 
" a ten-stringed psaltery," as in Psa. xxxiii., 
2 ; cxliv., 9, and the true rendering would be, 
"upon a ten-stringed lute;" sMdddh vesliid- 
dotJi, in Eccles. ii., 8, only, "musical instru- 
ments, and that of all sorts :" the most prob- 
able interpretation of these words is that sug- 
gested by a usage of the Talmud, where sliiddh 
denotes a "palanquin," or "litter "for women. 
There are, also, some other words connected 
with music which we find untranslated in 
the inscriptions of many Psalms, such as 
alamofh, " after the manner of maidens," i. e., 
"treble," or " soprano." These words, which 
some have regarded as the names of in- 
struments, more probably designate certain 
modes of song. Thus neginah, and its plu- 
ral, neginoth, indicate " instrumental accom- 
paniment ;" neliiloth, the " accompaniment 
of wind instruments ;" malialath, and malia- 
lath leannoth, with "stringed instruments for 
singing," i. e., vocal accompaniment ; gittith. 



^^ M 




Ancient Eg}'ptian Military Band. 



are termed the "loud," and the others the 
"high-sounding" cymbals. 3. Mena'anHni,^ 



1 2 Sam. vi., 5: 
of2Sam. vi.,5. 



1 Chron. xiii., 8.-2 Tl 



probably from Gath, a wine-press, hence a 
vintage song, betokens a light joyous air ; 
and sMgionoth, in Hab. iii., 1, a wild and 



1 1 Sam. xviii., 6. 



MUSTARD 



671 



MYRRH 



mournful strain. Sometimes the melody 
appears to be indicated by the first words 
of a song then generally known. This, 
without doubt, is the explanation of the 
words al-taschith, " destroy not ;" aijeleth-sha- 
har, " hind of the dawn ;" jonath-elem-recho- 
Tcim, "the dumb dove of distant places;" 
muth - lahhen, probably " on the death of a 
son;" shushan-eduth, "lily of the testimony;" 
dhoshannim, "lilies;" shoshannim-eduth, "lil- 
ies of the testimony." MascMl, however, " a 
song," " a poem ;" tnichtam, " a writing," " a 
poem ;" and shiggaion, which indicates a wild 
and mournful ode, serve rather to describe 
the composition than to direct in its per- 
formance. 

Mustard. Mustard, with us, is an annual 
plant. It is always small, and is properly 
an herb. The Hebrew writers speak of the 
mustard -tree as one on which they could 
climb, as on a fig-tree. All plants of that 




Wild Mustard. 

nature grow much larger in a warm climate, 
like that of Palestiue, than in colder regions. 
The seeds of this tree were remarkably small, 
80 that they, with the great size of the plant, 
were an apt illustration of the progress of the 
Church and of the nature of faith. " I have 
seen," says Dr. Thomson, "this plant, on the 
rich plain of Akkar, as tall as the horse and 
his rider. To furnish an adequate basis for 
the proverb, it is necessary to suppose that a 
variety of it was cultivated, in the time of 
our Saviour, which grew to an enormous size, 
and shot forth large branches, so that the 
fowls of the air could lodge in the branches 



of it. It may have been perennial, and have 
grown to a considerable tree ; and there are 
traditions in the country of specimens so 
large that a man could climb into them. 
After having seen red pepper bushes grow on, 
year after year, into tall shrubs, and the cas- 
tor-hean line the brooks about Damascus like 
the willows and the poplars, I can readily 
credit the existence of mustard-trees large 
enough to meet all the demands of our Lord's 
parable." [Matt, xiii., 31,32.] 

Myrrh. This word is used in Scripture as 
a translation of two Hebrew words designa- 
ting very different articles. The reference 
in Gen. xxxvii., 25, xliii., 11, is probably to 
gum ladanum, a product of the oak-rose, a 
shrub about two feet high. Formerly the 
goats gathered this substance, which adhered 
to their hair and beards, whence it was af- 
terward scraped oft\ At the present time the 
shrubs are beaten with a kind of whijj fur- 
nished with thongs, which, 
when filled with the resin 
of the plant, are scraped 
with a knife. 

The other substance, en- 
titled myrrh in the Scrip- 
ture, is the product of a 
species of thorny mimosa, 
and is obtained by making- 
incisions in the bark, where 
it slowly gathers, and oozes 
thence in little tear -like 
drops, in very minute quan- 
tities ; wherefore its value 
is greatly enhanced from 
scarcity. These tiny drops 
harden by exposure into a 
reddish -yellow substance, 
and look almost like little 
''^Xj^^^ gems, lustrous and trans- 
^^^^ parent, and so friable that 
they are easily shivered 
into flakes like crystal. 
The taste is bitter,. but the 
smell very fragrant, as is 
the wood of the tree like- 
wise. The openings in the 
bark are made twice a 
year, and the droppings 
are secured on rush mats, 
which are placed under the 
tree. It is imported in granules of various 
sizes and shapes ; as the drop fell, and sin- 
gly hardened into one separate shiniog gem, 
or as several flowed together in a clus- 
ter, while in a half oily state. The myrrh 
used in Palestine comes from Arabia, but 
the finest is obtained from that country of 
ivory and gold and musk, of strange and rich 
commodities — Abyssinia. That its strange, 
penetrating odor was highly esteemed in the 
earliest times, Ave have abundant evidence in 
the Scriptures, where myrrh, aloes, cinnamon, 
and frankincense are so often alluded to. It 
was valued not only for its peculiar aromatic 



MYRTLE 



672 



MYSTICS, MYSTICISM 



odor, but for its medicinal properties. It 
was an ingredient in the holy anointing oil, 
in unguents, in embalming, in perfumes, and 
is notable in Christian literature from having 
been among the gifts of the Magi to the in- 
fant Redeemer. [Esth. ii., 12; Psa. xlv. 8; 
Prov. vii., 17; Sol. Song i., 13; iii., 6; v., 5; 
Matt, ii., 11 ; Mark xv., 23 ; John xix., 39.] 

Myrtle. Although the myrtle has disap- 
peared from the Mount of Olives, where it 
grew in the days of Nehemiah, it still flour- 
ishes in many parts of Palestine, more espe- 
cially in the northern provinces ; and in the 
lands of their dispersion, wherever they are 
able, the Jews still adorn their booths with 
its branches at the Feast of Tabernacles, as 
did their fathers of old. A more delicious 
canopy can scarcely be conceived ; for the 
fallen leaves, crushed under foot, are as fra- 
grant, as the branches overhead are beauti- 
ful. With its pure starry blossoms shining- 
through its dark foliage ; with its leaves so 
delightfully scented, and with flexible sprays 
which so readily twist into garlands, there 
is no wonder that every nation familiar with 
it has loved this exquisite evergreen. [Neh. 
viii., 15 ; Isa. xli., 19 ; Iv., 13 ; Zech. i., 8, 10, 11.] 

Mysia, a province of Asia Minor, bounded 
on the north by the Propontis, or Sea of Mar- 
mora, and the Hellespont ; on the east by By- 
thinia and Phrygia ; on the south by Lydia ; 
and on the west by the -<Egean Sea. In it 
lies the site of ancient Troy. It was one 
of the richest and most populous regions of 
Asia Minor. The soil is rich and fertile, 
the climate genial and healthy, and the scen- 
ery among the most beautiful in the world. 
[Acts xvi.,7, 8.] 

Mysteries, certain rites and ceremonies 
in ancient religions, chiefly the Greek and 
Roman, only known to, and practiced by, 
congregations of certain initiated men and 
women, at appointed seasons, and in strict se- 
clusion. They consisted of purifications, sac- 
rificial offerings, processions, songs, dances, 
dramatic performances, and the like. The 
bold which the secrecy of these meetings 
must naturally have taken upon the popular 
mind was increased by all the mechanical 
contrivances of the effects of light and sound 
which the priests could command. Myste- 
rious voices were heard singing, whispering, 
and sighing, all around; lights gleamed in 
manifold colors from above and below ; fig- 
ures appeared and disappeared ; all the arts, 
in fact, were taxed to their very utmost to 
make these performances as attractive and 
imposing as possible. It is to these mys- 
teries, probably, that Paul alludes in such 
passages as 1 Cor. ii., 7-9 ; Eph. iii., 9. Their 



spirit entered into the Christian Church, and 
gave to it the Miracle Plays (q. v.) of the 
Middle Ages. 

Mystics, Mysticism. The name of Mys- 
tics is given, inHheological history, to a sect 
which is commonly said to have borrowed its 
philosophy from Plato, but which represents 
a type of mind as old as human nature it- 
self; while, historically, its chief influence in 
theology was felt about the twelfth century. 
Philosoi^hical mysticism represents the op- 
posite pole of thought from that of rational- 
ism — that is to say, rationalism regards the 
reason as the chief faculty, and the sole ar- 
biter in all matters of religious doctrine. It 
reduces all religion to propositions which the 
intellect recognizes, and the truth of which 
the intellect demonstrates. Mysticism, on 
the other hand, declares, in the language of 
Pascal, that the head has reasons of its own 
that the reason knows not of ; or, in the words 
of Paul, that the wisdom of God is a mystery 
which the natural man receiveth not.^ In 
this general sense nearly all Christians now 
recognize an element of mysticism in the 
Gospel ; i. e., they recognize that Christian 
experience has depths which the natural 
reason can not sound ; that there are truths 
which the spiritual sense perceives, which 
the natural sense, or reason, can not recog- 
nize or demonstrate, though it may perceive 
that they are consonant with, or at least not 
antagonistic to, reason. It will be readily 
perceived, however, that this doctrine is lia- 
ble to perversion; and, historically, it has 
been perverted. The mystics embrace vari- 
ous classes, from those who held the ortho- 
dox doctrines of the Church, but in the form 
of an experience, rather than as a dogma or 
system of philosophy, to those who not only 
undervalue but actually repudiate all doc- 
trinal theology, and reduce religion from a 
system of truth to a dream. The study of 
Mysticism in this latter sense of the word 
is very unprofitable, except to the professed 
student of ecclesiastical history. It must 
sufflce here to indicate in these general terms 
the fundamental character of Mysticism, leav- 
ing the reader curious to study its lore to 
other and larger works. Historically, Mys- 
ticism is opposed to Scholasticism (q. v.). 
The name Quietists is given to one sect of 
Mystics, who regard the purely passive state 
of meditation on God and divine things as 
the highest religious exercise. The name 
Pietists is given to another sect, distinguish- 
ed for their repudiation of doctrinal theology 
and the stress they laid upon the religion of 
feeliug. 

1 1 Cor. ii., 6-16. 



NAAMAN 



673 



NADAB 



N. 



Naaman {pleasantness) the Syrian, as lie 
is usually called/ was captain of tlie host of 
Ben-hadad, king of Syria — the prime minis- 
ter, apparently, of that monarch, and held in 
great regard hy Jiim, because through him 
" the Lord had given deliverance to Syria."^ 
How Naaman had been the means of achiev- 
ing this deliverance is not stated. An an- 
cient Jewish tradition has sought to render 
an explanation by identifying Naaman with 
the person who shot the well-aimed arrow 
that gave the mortal wound to Ahab when 
fighting with Syria.^ The most natural ex- 
planation, perhaps, is, that Naaman, in de- 
livering his country, had killed one who was 
the enemy of Jehovah not less than he was 
of Syria. In the midst of his prosperity Na- 
aman was afflicted with a stroke of leprosy 
(q. v.), which was understood to be beyond 
the cure of human skill. The simple utter- 
ance of a little captive maid from the land 
of Israel led Naaman to seek relief by ap- 
plying to the prophet Elisha ; and by fol- 
lowing his directions the wished -for cure 
was actually accomplished. His religious 
sentiments seem to have undergone as com- 
plete a change as his physical frame. His 
request for two mules' burden of earth seems 
to be the expression of the grateful convert's 
feelings. He wished for some sensible me- 
morial of what had happened, very proba- 
bly with the intention of erecting an altar 
to Jehovah. We have no information con- 
cerning his future life. [2 Kings v.] 

Nabal {fool) was an inhabitant of Maon, 
on the southern side of Carmel, and proba- 
bly a descendant of Caleb. His wealth was 
great, amounting, we are told, to three thou- 
sand sheep and one thousand goats.* It was 
the custom of the shepherds to drive their 
flocks into the wild downs on the slopes 
of Carmel, where, from the very nature of 
the region, they must have been exposed to 
many depredations. Here David and his 
party sought a refuge from the violence of 
Saul ; and, while sojourning there, not only 
abstained from all interference with Nabal's 
property, but probably acted as a protection 
to it.^ Emboldened by this service, David 
sent ten of his young men to Carmel to sa- 
lute Nabal, and to beg of him a gift of what- 
ever might come to his hand.® They met, 
however, with a bluff refusal, and were treat- 
ed in the most insulting manner, as a band 
of desperadoes. On hearing this report from 
his young men, David was extremely in- 
censed, and immediately prepared to inflict 
summary vengeance on Nabal. Abigail (q. 
v.), Nabal's wife, who seems to have been 



1 Luke iv,, 27.-2 2 Kings v., 1.— 3 1 Kincrs xxii., 34.— 

1 Sara. XXV., 2.— ^ l Sam. xxv., 7.— « 1 Sam. xxv., 6-8. 

43 



the good angel of the household, by her 
wisdom and tact averted this evil. Having 
learned from one of the shepherds the treat- 
ment which David's men had received, she 
hastily made up a present of the best her 
house afl'orded, and rode away to meet Da- 
vid. By her respectful demeanor and ear- 
nest entreaty, she succeeded iu pacifying Da- 
vid's anger, and in turning him from his 
purpose. He gladly accepted the iieace-of- 
fering she had brought, and she returned 
home iu safety. Nabal, who was a man not 
only of a churlish spirit, but of intemperate 
habits, was in the midst of a feast when his 
wife returned, and was so " very drunken "^ 
that she delayed till the next day informing 
him of the imminent danger from which she 
had rescued him. But when he heard the 
tidings ''his heart died within him, and he 
became as stone." It was as if a stroke of 
apoplexy or paralysis had fallen upon him. 
Ten days he lingered, and then " the Lord 
smote Nabal, that he died." [1 Sam. xxv.] 

Naboth {fruit) was a Jezreelite, and own- 
er of a vineyard near the palace of King 
Ahab. The king wishing to get possession 
of this vineyard, offered to purchase it ; but 
Naboth refused to sell the inheritance of his 
fathers. The immoderate grief of Ahab on 
account of this disappointment caused Jez- 
ebel to take the matter into her own hands. 
Under her instructions, and by means of 
false witnesses, Naboth was accused of blas- 
phemy, and he, with his sons, was dragged 
out of the city and stoned to death, the usu- 
al punishment for the crime of blasphemy. 
His property being forfeited to the crown, 
Ahab gained his coveted treasure ; but it 
brought with it fearful denunciations from 
the prophet Elijah, and final punishment in 
the destruction of his dynasty. [1 Kings 
xxi. ; 2 Kings ix., 26.] 

Nadab {liberal). 1. Eldest son of Aaron 
and Elisheba, struck dead with his brother 
Abihu for kindling incense in their censers 
with "strange," i. e., not sacred, fire. See 
Abihu. [Exod. vi., 23 ; xxiv., 1 ; Lev. x. ; 
Numb, iii., 2.] 

2. Son of Jeroboam I., and second king of 
Israel, B.C. 954-953. He is said to have be- 
gun to reign in the second year of Asa, king 
of Judah. As Asa began his reign in the 
twentieth year of Jeroboam, and Jeroboam 
reigned twenty-two years, it is conjectured 
that Nadab may have shared his father's 
throne. He was assassinated by Baasha, 
with all his father's house, so that the dy- 
nasty established by Jeroboam perished in 
his person. See Baasha. [1 Kings xv.,25- 
3L] 



1 1 Sam. xxv. 



NAHASH 



674 



NANTES 



Nahash (serpent). 1. A king of the Am- 
monites, defeated by Saul "while besieging 
Eamoth-gilead. He, or perhaps his son of 
the same name, was on friendly terms with 
David. [1 Sam. xi. ; 2 Sam. x., 2.] 

2. According to 2 Sam. xvii., 25, Abigail 
was the daughter of a person named Nahash ; 
while according to 1 Chron. ii., 16, both she 
and Zeruiah were sisters of David. An an- 
cient Jewish tradition declares that Jesse 
and Nahash were identical. Another opin- 
ion is, that Jesse's wife was first married to 
Nahash, possibly the Ammonite king, and 
subsequently divorced and married to Jesse. 
This would partially account for Nahash's 
subsequent kindness to David. See David. 

Nahum (comfort). Owing to the paucity 
of information respecting the prophet Na- 
hum, little can be said in regard to his life 
or times. All that we know of him person- 
ally is, that he was a native of a town or 
village called Elkosh.^ It has been thought, 
and not without reason, by some that Caper- 
naum, most properly rendered tJie village of 
Nahum, derived its name from the prophet 
having resided. in it, though he may have 
been born elsewhere in the vicinity, just as 
it was said to have been the city of our Lord, 
though he was born in Bethlehem. The only 
historical data furnished by the book itself, 
with respect to the period in which Nahum 
flourished, are the humiliation of the king- 
doms of Israel and Judah by the Assyrian 
power ; the final invasion of Judah by that 
power ; and the conquest of Thebes in Upper 
Egypt.^ Nahum appears, from these data,^ 
to have prophesied during the reign of Hez- 
ekiah, about B.C. 712, and to have uttered 
his prophecy against Nineveh nearly one 
hundred years before its accomplishment; 
for Nineveh was overthrown and the Assyr- 
ian power destroyed B.C. 625. Where the 
prophet was when he delivered his predic- 
tions is not specified ; but from his familiar 
reference to Lebanon, Carmel, and Bashau, it 
may be inferred that he prophesied in Pales- 
tine ; while the very graphic manner in which 
he describes the appearance of Sennacherib 
and his army* would seem to indicate that 
he was either in or near Jerusalem at the 
time. The subject of the prophecy is the 
destruction of Nineveh, which Nahum intro- 
duces, after having in the first chapter, and 
at the beginning of the second, depicted the 
desolate condition to which the country of 
the ten tribes had been reduced by the As- 
syrian power, the invasion of Judah by Sen- 
nacherib, whose destruction he predicts, and 
the joyful restoration of the captives to their 
own land, and the enjoyment of their former 
privileges. The book is not to be divided 
into three separate parts or prophecies, com- 
posed at different times, as some have im- 



1 See Elkosh.— 2 Nahum i., 9, 11 ; ii., 3 ; iii., 10.— 
3 Compare account of Seuuacherib's invasion in Hez- 
ekiah with Nahum i., 9-12 ; ii.— * Nahum i., 9-12. 



agined, but is to be regarded as one entire 
poem. The style of Nahum is of a very high 
order. He is inferior to none of the minor 
prophets, and scarcely to Isaiah himself, in 
animation, boldness, and sublimity, or, to the 
extent and proportion of his book, in the va- 
riety, freshness, richness, and elegance of his 
imagery. The rhythm is regular, and sin- 
gularly beautiful; and with the exception 
of a few foreign or provincial words, his lan- 
guage possesses the highest degree of class- 
ical purity. His description of the Divine 
character at the commencement is truly ma- 
jestic ; that of the siege and fall of Nineveh, 
inimitably graphic, vivid, and impressive. 

Nain, a city mentioned only in Luke vii., 
11. Its remains, the little village of Nain, 
lie on the south side of the Little Hermon, 
looking down into the plain of Esdraelon, 
two or three hours' distance from Nazareth, 
on the road to Jerusalem. 

Naioth, or, more fully, " Naioth in Ea- 
mah," a place in which Samuel and David 
took refuge together after the latter had 
made his escape from the jealous fury of 
Saul. The name signifies '' habitations,". and 
probably means the huts or dwellings of a 
school or college of prophets over which 
Samuel presided, as Elisha did over those at 
Gilgal and Jericho. See Ramah. [1 Sam. 
xix., 18, 19, 22, 23 ; xx., 1.] 

Nantes (Edict of). During the reign of 
Henry IV., of France, the city of Nantes had 
become the head-quarters of the Huguenots, 
and here was promulgated, in 1598, the cel- 
ebrated edict which secured religious liberty 
to the French Protestants. It was in reali- 
ty a new confirmation of former treaties be- 
tween the French Government and the Hu- 
guenots, by which all verdicts against them 
were erased from the rolls of the courts, and 
their unlimited liberty of conscience was rec- 
ognized. This edict was confirmed by Lou- 
is XIII. in 1610, and by Louis XIV. in 1652. 
Nevertheless, the Huguenots did not have 
uninterrupted enjoyment of the privileges 
granted them ; and in 1685 the edict was re- 
voked by Louis XIV., at the instigation of 
the Jesuits. Although its provisions had, 
in fact, long been repealed by various ordi- 
nances forbidding the profession of the Re- 
formed faith under severe penalties, the act 
of revocation was the death-knell of the Hu- 
guenots. It authorized the destruction of all 
Protestant churches, and prohibited all pub- 
lic and private worship ; it banished all Prot- 
estant pastors from France ; demanded the 
closing of all Protestant schools, and par- 
ents were forbidden to instruct their chil- 
dren in the Reformed faith, but enjoined to 
bring them up in the Roman Catholic relig- 
ion. If any persons were detected in the 
act of attempting to escape from France, 
men were condemned to the galleys for life, 
and women were imprisoned for life. Such 
were some of the inhuman provisions of 



NAPHTALI 



675 



NAPHTUHIM 



tlie Edict of Eevocation, wMch cost France 
about half a million of her most useful cit- 
izens, who, braving all dangers, escajied to 
other countries, where they found freedom 
to worship God. See Huguenots; Bar- 
tholomew, St. (Massacre of). 

Naphtali {my wrestling) ^ the son of Jacob 
by Bilhah, Eachel's maid. He had his name 
from the earnest struggles of Rachel with 
God to obtain offspring.^ Of Naphtali's per- 
sonal history we know nothing further than 
that he had four sons, who became heads of 
the families of the tribe. 

The number of the males in the tribe of 
Naphtali at the first census after leaving 
Egypt was 53,400 ; its place on march was 
the rear-guard. At the time of the second 
census the number had diminished. It was 
then only 45,400.^ The limits of the territory 
assigned to this tribe^ show that it possessed 
one of the finest and most fertile districts 
of Upper Galilee, extending from the Lake 
of Gennesaret and the border of Zebulun 
on the south to the sources of the Jordan 
and the spurs of Lebanon on the north, and 
from the Jordan on the east to the bor- 
ders of Asher on the west. It included the 
sources of Jordan, the Sea of Merom, and 
the hilly region called Mount Naphtali, now 
called Djebel Safed. Among its considera- 
ble towns were Hazor, Kedesh, Chinnereth 
(afterward Gennesaret), and Migdal-el, af- 
terward Magdala. The men of Naphtali 
did not immediately take possession of the 
whole of the land assigned them by Joshua. 
They did not " drive out the inhabitants of 
Beth-shemesh, nor the inhabitants of Beth- 
anath, but dwelt among the Canaanites, the 
inhabitants of the land ; nevertheless, the 
inhabitants of Beth-shemesh and Beth-anath 
became tributaries unto them." This cir- 
cumstance, and the geographical position of 
the district upon the northern border of the 
country, which necessarily led to a consid- 
erable admixture of their heathen neighbors 
with the Naphtalites, gave occasion to that 
part of the land being called the district of 
the Gentiles, and from this, again, first the 
frontier, and afterward the whole of North 
Palestine came to be called Galilee (or cir- 
cuit) of the Gentiles.^ Their position on 
the northern frontier laid the tribe open, of 
course, to the first dangers of invasion in 
that direction, and they are repeatedly men- 
tioned with honor in the days of Barak and 
Gideon for their services in the cause of the 
nation's independence. But except when 
the immediate pressure of the northern in- 
vaders rallied the northern group of tribes 
— Naphtali, Zebulun, Asher, and Issachar — 
first round Barak, and then round Gideon, in 
the plain of Esdraelon, they hardly ever ap- 




CnSt-azm 

CapeVnaiim 
En hazoro , ^ oHuklbak 
,'oAjaion ^ Hannathbn'- N ^^-, 
' y^^ /' ^Cmneiotx > -^\^ 



^o 



nA 



1 Gen. XXX., 8. — ^ Qen. xxx., 8 ; xxxv., 25 ; xlvi., 24 ; 
Exod. i., 4; Nnrab. ii., 29, 30; xxvi., 48-50; 1 Chron. 
ii., 2.-3 Josh, xix., 32-39 — * jogh. xx., 7; xxi., 82; 
Judg. i., 33; Isa. ix., 1. 



Map of the Tribe of Naphtali. 
pear in the events of the Jewish history. 
Like Asher, Issachar, and Zebulun, they were 
content with their rich mountain valleys 
and with the thoroughfare and traffic of the 
Sea of Galilee, " satisfied with favor, and full 
with the blessing of the Lord."^ Naphtali 
shared in the revolt of the ten tribes, and 
shared also largely in the desolations which 
that division of the strength of a small 
nation brought upon both sections at the 
hands of their powerful neighbors. Their 
territory was ravaged by Ben-hadad, king of 
Syria, and the inhabitants were, at a later 
period, carried into captivity by Tiglath-pi- 
leser. But at length on Naphtali and Zeb- 
ulun there dawned the brighter light pre- 
dicted by Isaiah f and through many of the 
towns and villages of Naphtali (the N. T. 
Nephthalim) spread widely the glorious gos- 
pel of Christ.^ 

Naphtuhim, a Mizraite nation or tribe, 
mentioned only in the account of the de- 
scendants of Noah. If we may judge from 
their position in the list of the Mizraites, the 
Naphtuhim were probably settled at first 
either in Egypt, or immediately to the west 
of it. [Gen. x., 13 ; 1 Chron. i., 11.] 



1 Deut. xxxiii., 23 ; Judg. v., 18 ; vi., 35 ; vii., 23.— 
i 2 Isa. ix., 1, 2.-3 1 Kings xv., 20 ; Isa. ix., 1, 2; Matt. 
I iv., 15, 16. 



NARTHEX 



676 



NAZARETH 



Narthex, the name given by early Chris- 
tians to that portion of a church which form- 
ed its outer division within the walls. It 
was an oblong section of the building, ex- 
tending across and occupying the front part 
of the interior of the house. It was entered 
by three doors leading from the outer porch. 
From the narthex there were also three en- 
trances; ^nd the different classes of worship- 
ers entered the nave at different doors, which 
were appropriated to them. The vessel, or 
font, of water for purification, which stood 
at one time outside the church, was after- 
ward introduced into the narthex. In this 
part of the church the penitents and cate- 
chumens stood during divine service to hear 
the Psalms and Scriptures read, and the ser- 
mon preached, after which they were dis- 
missed without any prayers or solemn ben- 
ediction. In the narthex, also, Jews, hea- 
thens, heretics, and schismatics were some- 
times allowed to take their place, in the 
hope that hearing the Scriptures might re- 
sult in their conversion. The term narthex 
seems to have been applied to the ante-tem- 
ple of a church, because it was of an oblong 
figure. 

Nathan (ivJiom God has given), a prophet 
who acted a conspicuous part in the history 
of David. It was he with whom the king 
took counsel when he intended to build the 
Temple. It was Nathan who was sent by 
the Lord to bring David to a knowledge and 
sense of his sin in taking the wife of Uriah. 
Once again, in David's old age, Nathan chief- 
ly had the arrangements to make for secur- 
ing the succession of Solomon to the throne 
and defeating the conspiracy of Abiathar. 
Like many of the later prophets, he seems to 
have employed himself to a considerable ex- 
tent in writing the history of his people and 
their kings ; and it is evident that he lived 
beyond the time of David's death, though 
probably not bej^ond the death of Solomon. 
[2 Sam. vii., 1-17; xii., 1-15, 25; 1 Kings i., 
10-14, 22-27, 32-45; 1 Chrou. xxix., 29; 2 
Chron. ix., 29 ; xxix., 25.] 

Nathanael (given of God), a native of Cana, 
and one of the earliest disciples of our Lord. 
He is more generally known as Bartholomew, 
i. e., the son of Talmai ; for that the two are 
to be regarded as one and the same can hard- 
ly be doubted. He is called Nathanael only 
by John. He was one of the twelve apostles. 
Little or nothing is known of his personal 
history except his call and ordination ; but, 
according to tradition, he preached the Gos- 
pel in India, and was there flayed alive, and 
then crucified with his head downward. 
[Matt. X., 3 ; Mark iii., 18 ; Luke vi., 14; John 
i., 45-51; xxi.,2; Acts i., 13.] 

Nazarenes, a term of reproach applied by 
the Jews to tlie early Cln-istiaus.^ A Chris- 
tian sect similarly entitled appears to have 
existed in the second centuiy of tlie Church. 



1 Acts xxiv., 5. 



They maintained the obligation of the Jew- 
ish law, including circumcision, and denied 
the divinity, while they maintained the mi- 
raculous conception of Jesus Christ. It has 
been supposed by some Unitarian scholars 
that this sect was really composed of the 
primitive Christian converts from Judaism, 
who retained, however, their Jewish preju- 
dices despite their conversion, and that their 
faith respecting Jesus Christ is to be taken 
as an illustration and evidence of the faith 
of the early Church. Among most writers, 
however, they are regarded as a small, ob- 
scure, and heretical sect, and it is certain 
that they were thus considered as far back 
as the third century. 

Nazareth, the town of Joseph and Mary, 
to which they returned with the infant Je- 
sus, after the accomplishment of the events 
connected with his birth and earliest infan- 
cy.^ Previous to that event, the place is al- 
together unknown to history. It reposes in 
the bosom of a beautiful valley about five 
miles west of Tabor, secluded by surrounding 
hills, and filled with corn-fields, vineyards, 
and gardens. Sheltered from the bleaker 
winds of the north, it luxuriates in the fra- 
grant blossoms and ripened fruits of the 
pomegranate, orange, fig, and olive. The 
neighboring hill behind the town commands 
a magnificent view of the surrounding coun- 
try. From its summit Jesus must often have 
looked upon Galilee, spread out as a map be- 
neath his feet. On the north the snowy peak 
of Hermon lifts itself up, in clear relief, against 
the background of the deep blue sky ; on the 
east, over the intervening hills, a glimpse 
of the Lake Tiberias reveals itself. Close 
at hand was the mountain where, later, 
he preached that ever-memorable discourse 
known as the " Sermon on the Mount." 
Within the range of his vision were Acre, 
famous in its after-history for its. successful 
resistance to the protracted siege of Napole- 
on ; Cana, where the water was made wine ; 
Nain, where the widow's son was raised; 
Endor, where the witch appeared to Saul; 
Jezreel, the royal residence of the infamous 
Ahab. Before him nestled his own beautiful 
village of Nazareth, while beyond it. Mount 
Carmel, the retreat of the ancient prophet 
Elijah, jutted out into the Mediterranean, 
the blue of whose waters, sparkling in the 
sun, was just discernible in the far north- 
west. 

As regards the modern town itself, Dr. 
Robinson represents its present population 
as consisting of the following numbers and 
religious denominations, viz., Greek Church, 
1040 ; Greek Catholics, .520 ; Latins, 480 ; Ma- 
ronites, 400; Moslems, 680 — making, in all, 
3120 persons. This population is, in all prob- 
ability, considerably greater than that which 
it possessed in the time of our Lord. Of its 
condition during^ the earlier centuries of the 



1 Matt, ii., 22, 23 ; Luke ii., 39. 



NAZARETH 



677 



NAZARITE 



Christian era next to nothing is known. 
Though there is every reason to suppose that 
the modern town stands on the site of the 
ancient village, the one has entirely super- 
seded the other. The stone of the place is 
of a soft and crumbling character ; and dur- 
ing the time of Judea's desolation, subse- 
quently to the destruction of Jerusalem by 
the Romans, and to the driving of the Jews 
into exile from their native land, the original 
Nazareth must have entirely disappeared. 
That it was rebuilt, after those terrible times, 
on or about the old foundations, seems all 
the more likely, from the fact that there are 
still close beside it, and beneath some parts 
of it, cliffs of from thirty to forty feet in 
height, answering exactly to the account 



tical traditions which form the basis of their 
information. 

Nazarite, a person separated and devoted 
to the Lord by a special vow, the terms of 
which were carefully prescribed. It has 
been imagined that this kind of vow already 
existed in Egypt, and that it was thence 
adopted into Israel with particular regula- 
tions. There is, however, no certain proof 
of this. Either male or female might be- 
come a Nazarite. 

The restrictions of the vow were three- 
fold. There must be entire abstinence from 
all stroug drink, from the juice of the grape, 
and from every thing belonging to the vine. 
The hair of the Nazarite was to be permitted 
to grow, no razor touching his head during 




The Vale of Nazareth. 



given of the position and character of those 
described in the Scripture narrative of the 
assault upon our Lord,^ any one of which 
might have been the true mount of precipi- 
tation. There can not well be a single track 
or pathway in or around this sequestered spot 
which has not been trodden many a time by 
the feet of Jesus. So closely and inseparably 
was he identified with it, that its very name 
was to cleave to him to the end of time. 
" He came and dwelt in a city called Naza- 
reth, that it might be fulfilled which was 
spoken of him. He shall be called a Naza- 
rene."^ Though the monks point out with 
the greatest confidence the various sacred 
sites in and about the village, not the slight- 
est reliance is to be placed in the ecclesias- 



1 Lnke iv., 29.-2 Matt, ii., 23. 



all the days of his separation, and he should 
on no account defile himself for the dead. If, 
unavoidably, he became so defiled, he was to 
shave his head, bring a trespass-offering for 
the discharge of the debt he had thus con- 
tracted to the Lord, also a sin-offering and a 
burnt-offering, and to begin again his vow, 
all the time before the defilement being lost. 
When the term of the vow expired, the Naz- 
arite brought a sin-offering, a burnt-offering, 
and a peace-offering, with the usual append- 
ages, his hair being shorn or shaven, aud 
cast into the fire under the sacrifice of the 
peace-offerings, indicating the ordinary state 
of friendly communion with God. 

The customary term of the Nazarite vow, 
according to the rabbins, was thirty days. 
But sometimes it continued for life. Three 



NEAPOLIS 



678 



NEBUCHADNEZZAE 



instances are recorded in Scripture of persons 
so sanctified — Samson, Samuel, and John the 
Baptist. It is doubtful whether the vow 
which St. Paul had upon him was that of 
the Nazarite.^ It will not escape notice that 
the Nazarites were not hound to celibacy : 
their vow, therefore, gives no countenance to 
any profession involving such a restriction. 
[Numb, vi., 1-21 ; Judg. xiii., 5 ; 1 Sam. i., 11 ; 
Luke i., 15.] 

Neapolis (new toivn), a sea -port on the 
coast of the ^gean Sea, originally belong- 
ing to Thrace, and about ten miles from 
Philippi, the frontier Macedonian town ; but 
it was attached to the province of Macedo- 



Hermes, and the Latin Mercury. Astronom- 
ically, he is identified with Mercury, the 
planet nearest the sun. In Babylonia Nebo 
held a prominent place from an early time. 
The ancient town of Borsippa was especial- 
ly under his protection, and the great tem- 
ple there was dedicated to him from a very 
remote age. He was the tutelar god of the 
most important Babylonian kings, in whose 
names the word Nabu, or Nebo, appears as 
an element. 

2. The mountain from which Moses took 
his first and last view of the Promised Land. 
It is described as in the land of Moab, facing 
Jericho — the head or summit of a mountain 




Neapolis. 



uia by Vespasian. St. Paul landed there on 
his voyage to Europe. The village of Ka- 
valla is on the site of Neapolis, and contains 
at present about 5000 or 6000 inhabitants. 
[Acts xvi., 11.] 

Nebaioth, or Nebajoth (lieiglits). Nebai- 
oth was the eldest son of Ishmael, called 
Nebajoth in Gen. xxv., 13 ; xxviii., 9 ; xxxvi., 
3. His descendants may probably be iden- 
tified with the Nabathseans, a most distin- 
guished Arabian tribe. They originally de- 
voted themselves to the feeding of cattle ; 
their habits were simple, and their prin- 
'ciples independent. Afterward they built 
towns, especially the noted Petra. They 
were under a monarchical government, but 
the power of their king was limited. In 
later times they applied themselves to com- 
merce. Josephus says of them that they 
were not given to war. Thf.y seem to have 
attained a high degree of civilization and 
culture, and they raised their capital to the 
rank of one of the most important centres 
of commerce in the ancient world. [1 Chron. 
i.,29; Isa.lx.,7.] 

Nebo {interpreter). 1. This word occurs 
both in Isa. xlvi., 1, and Jer. xlviii., 1, as the 
name of a Chaldean god, and is a well-known 
deity of the Babylonians and Assyrians. He 
was the god who presided over learning and 
letters. His general character corresponds 
to that of the Egyptian Thoth, the Greek 



Acts xviii., 18; xxi., 23-26. 



called the Pisgah. Eecent travelers iden- 
tify it with a peak, or rather with one of a 
succession of peaks, of the Abarim, or Moab 
mountains on the east of Jordan, and about 
three miles south-west of Heshbon. See 
Moses. [Deut. xxxii., 49 ; xxxiv., 1.] 

3. A town of Eeuben, on the eastern side 
of the Jordan, which, after the captivity of 
the trans-Jordanic tribes, seems to have fall- 
en under the power of Moab. Eusebius and 
Jerome locate it eight miles south of Hesh- 
bon. [Numb, xxxii., 3, 38 ; 1 Chron. v., 8 ; 
Isa. XV., 2 ; Jer, xlviii., 1, 22.] 

4. A place belonging to Judah, called, for 
distinction's sake, "the other Nebo." It is 
possibly the modern Beit Nubali, about twelve 
miles north-west of Jerusalem. [Ezra ii., 
29; x.,43; Neh. vii., 33.] 

Nebuchadnezzar {protector against mis-. 
fortune), the greatest and most powerful of 
the Babylonian kings, was the son and suc- 
cessor of Nabopolassar, the founder of the 
Babylonian Empire. During the lifetime of 
his father he conducted a campaign against 
Pharaoh-necho, king of Egypt, defeated him 
in a great battle,^ and, marching southward, 
took Jerusalem in the third year of the 
reign of Jehoiakim. During this expedi- 
tion Nabopolassar died, and his son hasten- 
ed home to take possession of the throne, 
which he did without disturbance, about 
B.C. 604. He had not reigned more than 
1 Jer. slvi., 2. 



NEBUCHADNEZZAR 



679 



NEHEMIAH 



three years, when Jehoiakim revolted, and 
at the same time Phoenicia threw off the 
Babylonian yoke. Nebuchadnezzar took the 
field in person, marched first against Tyre, 
and, having invested that city with one por- 
tion of his army, pressed on with another 
against Jerusalem, which, according to Jo- 
sephus, made no resistance, and his revolted 
vassal was put to death. ^ Jehoiachin, the 
new king, soon displeased his foreign lord, 
and a third time Nebuchadnezzar, whether 
in person or not is uncertain, came against 
the city, deposed the king, plundered the 
Temple, carried captive to Babylon the roy- 
al household and a large portion of the pop- 
ulation, leaving Zedekiah a vassal-king over 
a feeble remnant. Nine years after, Zede- 
kiah having rebelled, Nebuchadnezzar com- 
menced the final siege of Jerusalem, B.C. 
588, and, after two terrible years of siege, 
took it. The country was pillaged and de- 
populated ; "so Judah was carried away 
out of their own land.""'^ The conquest of 
Jerusalem was followed by the fall of Tyre, 
and the complete submission of Phoenicia 
to the Babylonian arms. Nebuchadnezzar's 
victories were then pushed into Egypt, which 
he devastated without mercy. Beyond this 
point, his military successes can not be mi- 
nutely traced. 

The Chaldean monarch is famed as much 
for his architectural works, as for his suc- 
cessful invasions and battles. He restored 
and adorned the capital, and surrounded it 
with several lines of fortifications. Baby- 
lon rose a new city under his hands; and 
the temples and palaces constructed by his 
orders still attest, in the hugeness of their 
ruins, the gigantic works he planned and ex- 
ecuted. In every way he strove to develop 
the agricultural and commercial resources 
of his empire. No element of national pros- 
perity was overlooked ; the useful was com- 
bined with the ornamental — canals, reser- 
voirs, aqueducts, roads, temples, palaces, 
hanging gardens. Ancient authors describe 
the grandeur of his erections, and the monu- 
ments catalogue his works. The bricks dug 
up from the ruins of Babylon bear no other 
name than his, and the bricks of a hundred 
towns in the neighborhood of Bagdad bear 
no other inscription than that of "Nebu- 
chadnezzar, son of Nabopolassar king of 
Babylon." 

Toward the close of his reign the glory of 
Nebuchadnezzar suffered a temporary eclipse. 
The strange malady that fell on him has giv- 
en rise to many conjectures. It was prob- 
ably a species of lycantliropy, Sb mysterious 
monomania, in which one imagines himself 
transformed into an animal, and acts accord- 
ingly. "A beast's heart was given to him, 
till his hairs were grown like eagles' feathers, 
and his nails like bkds' claws."^ Similar 



forms of insanity have often been recorded. 
After an interval of four, or perhaps seven, 
year^, Nebuchadnezzar's malady left him. 
We are told that " his reason returned," and 
that he " was established in his kingdom, and 
excellent majesty was added to him."^ The 
wealth, greatness, and prosperity of Nebu- 
chadnezzar are strikingly depicted in the 
Book of Daniel. The golden image ^ere 
described, which the king set up in the plain \ 
of Dura, was probably one of his patron god^^—'"' 
— Bel-merodach. The dedication of such a 
statue is in keeping with his religious char- 
acter, which is apparent from his numerous 
inscriptions of homage to the same divinity, 
after whom he named his son and successor. 
Nebuchadnezzar died B.C. 561, after a reign 
of forty-three years, at the advanced age of 
eighty-four. [2 Kings xxiv., 1, 10-17 ; xxv., 
1-22 ; 2 Chron. xxxvi., 6-20 ; Ezra i., 7 ; ii., 
1 ; v., 12 ; Jer. xxxix., 1-13 ; xlvi., 2 ; Ezek. 
xxvi.,7-11; Dan. i., 1,2; ii. ; iii. ; iv.] 

Necrology (discourse of the dead), a book 
anciently kept in churches and monasteries, 
wherein were registered the benefactors of 
the same, the time of their deaths, and the 
days of their commemoration, as also the 
deaths of the priors, abbots, religious canons, 
etc. This record was also called calendar and 
obituary. 

Nehemiah was the son of Hachaliah,'^ and 
born at Babylon during the Captivity. All 
that is known of him is contained in the book 
that bears his name, which determines noth- 
ing of the circumstances. of either his birth 
or death. By some he was supposed to be 
of the race of the priests ; by others, of the 
tribe of Judah ; and by others still, of the 
royal family. Scripture gives him the name 
of Tirshatha,^ that is, cup-hearer ; and he is 
first introduced to us at Shushan, the winter 
residence of the kings of Persia, holding this 
office under King Artaxerxes Longimanus.* 
In the twentieth year of that king's reign, 
B.C. 445, some Jews arrived from Judea, and 
gave Nehemiah a deplorable account of the 
j state of Jerusalem. He was greatly troubled 
j by the evil news he had heard, and gained 
I the king's permission to go to Jerusalem with 
a commission as a governor, but was under a 
j promise to return at a stated time.^ Nehe- 
: miah's great work was to rebuild the walls 
I of Jerusalem, for the first time since their 
destruction by Nebuzar-adan, and to restore 
that city to its former state and dignity as 
a fortified town. To this great object he di- 
rected all his energies without delay. ' He 
assembled the chiefs of the people, produced 
his commission and letters, and, under his 
direction, the work of repairing the gates 
and walls of the city was immediately com- 
menced. He was not allowed, however, to 
pursue his work unmolested. The enemies 
of the Jews, headed by Sanballat (q. v.) and 



1 Comp. Jer. xxii., IS, 19 ; xxxvi. 
XXV., 21. See Zedekiah.— ^ Dan. iv. 



30.— 2 2 Kiuc 
IC, 33. 



Dan. iv., 36.-2 ]sjeh. 
1.-5 Neh. ii., 6. 



l._3 Neli..viii., 9.—* Neh. 



NEHEMIAH (BOOK OF) 



680 



NEHEMIAH (BOOK OF) 



Tobiah, who were greatly exasperated at 
the appointment of Nehemiah, at first used 
threats, and finally made a conspiracy to put 
a stop to the undertaking. Nehemiah, how- 
ever, defeated all their stratagems, and com- 
pleted his work of rebuilding the walls in 
fifty-two days.^ The next date in Scripture 
that we have is in chapter xiii., verse 6, 
where he speaks of returning to Babylon in 
the thirty-second year of Artaxerxes. No 
information is given as to whether he con- 
tinued in Jerusalem during all of these twelve 
years. After an interval, perhaps of some 
years, he was again permitted to return to 
Jerusalem, and to crown his work by repair- 
ing the Temple and dedicating its walls. He 
then applied himself to the reforming of the 
corruptions which had crept into public af- 
fairs. He repressed the exactions of the no- 
bles and the usury of the rich ; rescued the 
poor of the land from spoliation and slavery ; 
dissolved the unlawful marriages with the 
heathen ; made provision for the maintenance 
of the priests and Levites ; enforced the ob- 
servance of the Sabbath, and by his resolute 
conduct succeeded in repressing the lawless 
traffic on that day of rest.^ During his whole 
term of office, he refused to receive his law- 
ful allowance as governor from the people, 
in consideration of their poverty, and ke^^t, 
at his own charge, a table for one hundred 
and fifty Jews, at which any who returned 
from captivity were welcome.^ His admin- 
istration lasted about thirty years, including 
the interval that he was absent. 

Nehemiah (Book of). The opinion is held 
by some that Ezra, Nehemiah, and Chroni- 
cles, or at least Ezra and Nehemiah, formed 
one single work, which was afterward bro- 
ken up into the separate books as at present 
appearing in our copy of the O. T. ; for these 
books treat of contemporary events. But 
the better opinion claims for the book of Ne- 
hemiah an independent position, inasmuch 
as this independent position has been as- 
signed to it from time immemorial. More- 
over, the book contains within itself evi- 
dence of its independent integrity. It has 
a title of its own, as distinct as that of any 
book of the O. T. ; and it is difficult to be- 
lieve that the same writer would have giv- 
en the two lists of people who returned from 
Babylon as they are given in Ezra ii., and 
Nehemiah viii., without removing the dif- 
ferences which appear in the details. The 
general language and style is exactly that 
of tlie books purporting to be of the same 
age ; and in this respect the book is similar 
to Chronicles or Ezra. But the author has 
quite his own manner, and certain phrases 
and modes of expression peculiar to himself. 
That the author was Nehemiah, Avhose name 
the book bears, and who was cup-bearer to 
Artaxerxes Longimanus, is beyond reasona- 
ble doubt. Some maintain that the whole 

1 Neh. vi., 15.— 2 Neh. xiii., 15-20.— 3 Neh. v., 14-19. 



was from his pen, but there are some serious 
objections to this belief. By far the princi- 
pal portion, indeed, is the work of Nehemi- 
ah, but other portions appear to be either 
extracts from various chronicles and regis- 
ters, or supplementary narratives and reflec- 
tions. It is true that some of the arguments 
urged, as that taken from the use of differ- 
ent divine names, are not of much weight ; 
still, when we find a perceptible diversity 
of diction, when in parts of the book Nehe- 
miah seems to retire into the background, 
when his own title varies and the designa- 
tion of the nobles is not the same, when we 
see lists extended beyond what we can rea- 
sonably imagine was the limit of Nehemiah's 
life, we can hardly help coming to the con- 
clusion that various hands contributed to 
this book in its present form. And as much 
of the book, though not the whole, was writ- 
ten by Nehemiah, we may believe that it 
was ultimately arranged in its present form 
by some one who, under Divine guidance, 
has transmitted to future ages of the Church 
this most instructive narrative which forms 
the close of the Scripture history. 

The main history contained in the book 
of Nehemiah covers about twelve years, viz., 
from the twentieth to the thirty-second year 
of Artaxerxes Longimanus, i. e., from B.C. 445 
to 433. The whole narrative gives us a 
graphic and interesting account of the state 
of Jerusalem and the returned captives in 
the writer's times, and, incidentally, of the 
nature of the Persian Government and the 
condition of its remote provinces. The doc- 
urflents appended to it also give some fur- 
ther information as to the times of Zerubba- 
bel on the one hand, and as to the continua- 
tion of the genealogical registers and the 
succession of the high-priesthood to the close 
of the Persian Empire on the other. The 
view given of the rise of two factions among 
the Jews — the one the strict religious party, 
the other the gentilizing party — sets before 
us the germ of much that we meet with in a 
more developed state in later Jewish histo- 
ry. In this history, as in the book of Ezra, 
we see the bitter enmity between the Jews 
and Samaritans acquiring strength and de- 
finitive form on both religious and political 
grounds. The book also throws much light 
upon the domestic institutions of the Jews. 
Some of its details give us incidentally in- 
formation of great historical importance. 
The account of the building and dedication 
of the wall contains the most valuable ma- 
terials for settling the topography of Jeru- 
salem to be found in Scripture.^ The list 
of returned captives, who came under dif- 
ferent leaders, from the time of Zerubbabel 
to that of Nehemiah — amounting in all to 
only 42,360 adult males, and 7337 servants — 
conveys a faithful picture of the political 
weakness of the Jewish nation as compared 
1 Nell. iii. ; xii. 



NEOPHYTES 



681 



NESTORIANS 



with the times when Judah alone numbered 
470,000 fighting men/ The lists of leaders, 
j)riests, Levites, and of those who signed the 
covenant, reveal incidentally much of the 
national spirit, as well as of the social hab- 
its of the captives, derived from older times. 
Thus the fact that twelve leaders are named 
in Neh. vii., 7, indicates the feeling of the 
captives that they represented the twelve 
tribes — a feeling further evidenced in the 
expression " the men of the people of Israel." 
Among other information, the book shows 
us the hereditary crafts pursued by certain 
priestly families ; and by its statistics it re- 
minds one of the Domesday-Book of England. 
There is no quotation from it in the N. T. 

Neophytes {new -lorn, or regenerated), a 
term sometimes applied in ancient times to 
those who were newly baptized, or to new 
converts to Christianity. It has also been 
often used to denote those who had recently 
joined a religious order. 

Ner (liglit), sou of Jehiel, and, according 
to 1 Chron. viii., 33 ; ix., 39, father of Kish 
and Abner, and therefore grandfather of King 
Saul. In 1 Chron. ix., 36, Kish and Ner are 
described as both sons of Jehiel ; but son is 
sometimes used for grandson, and is proba- 
bly so used here. Jehiel and Abiel are prob- 
ably the same. 

Nergal {hero), a well-known Assyrian god, 
mentioned in 2 Kings xvii., 30, as made by 
the men of Cuth, who emigrated to Samaria. 
In one inscription in the British Museum, 
Nergal is said to ^' live " in Cutha, so that 
men of Cutha, transplanted into Northern 
Palestine, naturally made an image of him 
as their god. According to an old Arabian 
legend, Cutha is the city of Nimrod, and Ner- 
gal's patronage of the chase, seen especial- 
ly in the inscriptions of Tiglath-pileser and 
Sardanapalus, may be a reminiscence of the 
'' mighty hunter." [2 Kings xvii., 30.] 

Nergal-sharezer {Nergal fire-jprince), the 
name of two Babylonian grandees who were 
present at the taking of Jerusalem. The 
last-named is styled Rab-mag ; that is, pres- 
ident of the Magi. He was probably the 
person known as Neriglissar, who, having 
married a daughter of Nebuchadnezzar, put 
Evil-merodach to death and succeeded to 
his throne. He reigned between three and 
four years — 559-556 B.C. — and built a palace 
on the right bank of the Euphrates. Bricks 
have been discovered there bearing his name 
and title, Rab-mag. [Jer. xxxix., 3, 13.] 

Nero. L. Domitius Nero succeeded Clau- 
dius as emperor of Rome, 54 a.d., and killed 
himself to avoid a public execution, 68 a.d. 
In his reign that war commenced between 
the Jews and Romans which terminated sub- 
sequently in the destruction of Jerusalem by 
Titus and the overthrow of the Jewish poli- 
ty. It was under Nero, too, that a fierce 
persecution of the Christians began, about 



1 Chron. sxi., 5 ; Neh. vii. 



64 A.D., which lasted till his death. St. Paul 
suffered martyrdom in it at Rome. So great 
were this monarch's cruelties, that his name 
has ever since served specially to distinguish 
a tyrant. He is frequently indicated as Csb- 
sar in the N. T., and in Acts xxv., 21, 25, as 
Augustus ; but his name Nero does not occur. 
[Acts XXV., 8, 10-12; xxvi., 32; xxviii., 19; 
Phil, iv., 22.] 

Nestorians, a sect of the fifth century, so 
called from its founder, Nestori us, a patriarch 
of Constantinople, 428 a.d. Soon after his 
consecration a controversy arose as to the 
divine and human natures of our Lord, in 
which Nestorius took a leading part, and in 
Avhich he exaggerated the distinction of two 
natures in our Lord into a distinction of two 
persons, the human person of Christ and the 
Divine person of the Word. For this he was 
tried, condemned, and deposed ; and, adhering 
to his views, died in exile. How far Nesto- 
rius himself maintained the doctrine which 
in theological literature is termed Nestorian- 
ism is uncertain ; that doctrine, at all events, 
involves a denial of the unity of Christ's 
character. " The Nestorian Christ," says Dr. 
Shedd, in his '' History of Christian Doctrine," 
"is two persons — one divine, and one human. 
The important distinction between a 'nature' 
and a ' person ' is not observed, and the con- 
sequence is, that there are two separate and 
diverse selves in Jesus Christ. Instead of a 
blending of the two natures into only one 
self, the Nestorian scheme places two selves 
side by side, and allows only a moral and 
sympathetic union between them. The re- 
sult is, the acts of each nature derive no char- 
acter from the qualities of the other. There 
is no divine humiliation, because the human- 
ity is confessedly the seat of humiliation, and 
the humanity is by itself, unblended in the 
unity of a common self-consciousness. And 
there is no exaltation of the humanity, be- 
cause the divinity is confessedly the source 
of the exaltation, and this also is insulated 
and isolated, for the same reason. There is 
God, and there is man ; but there is no God- 
man." 

The modern Nestorians are found only in 
Persia, their chief seat being in the mount- 
ain-ranges of Kurdistan. They are at pres- 
ent a poor and illiterate race, numbering 
about 140,000, and subject to a patriarch and 
eighteen bishops. All these are bound to 
observe celibacy, but marriage is permitted 
to the priests and inferior clergy. Their li- 
turgical books recognize seven sacraments, 
but confession is infrequent, if not altogether 
disused. Marriage is dissoluble by the sen- 
tence of the patriarch ; communion is admin- 
istered in both kinds ; and although the lan- 
guage of the liturgy plainly implies the be- 
lief of transubstantiation, yet it is said not 
to be popularly held among them. The fasts 
are strict, and of very long duration, amount- 
ing to very nearly one-half the entire year. 



NETHINIM 



682 NEW YEAR (FEAST OF THE) 



The Nestorians pray for the dead, but are 
said to reject the notion of purgatory, and 
the only sacred image which they use or rev- 
erence is that of the cross. They are very 
scrupulous respecting their religious ceremo- 
nies and fasts, but not respecting their daily 
life. They are, as a class, ignorant and su- 
perstitious ; lying, profanity, and intemper- 
ance are common vices ; the clergy are gen- 
erally illiterate ; there is but little preaching, 
and their public services are carried on in 
the Syriac — a language which the common 
people do not understand. There is also an- 
other body of Nestorians, who have existed 
in India from an early period, and who are 
called by the name of Syrian Christians. 
Their chief seat is in Travancore, where they 
number about 100,000, and are subject to a 
patriarch. 

Nethinim, inferior officers employed in 
the service of the ancient Jewish taberna- 
cle and temple, chiefly in cutting wood and 
drawing water, to be used in the sacrifices. 
They were not originally of Hebrew descent, 
but are generally supposed to have been the 
posterity of the Gibeonites, who in the time 
of Joshua were doomed by God to perform 
menial offices. Among them were probably 
some prisoners of war who had become Jew- 
ish proselytes. In the discharge of these 
humble duties, they continued till the time of 
Nehemiah, who mentions that great numbers 
of them returned from Babylon to rebuild 
Jerusalem and the Temple. Ezra brought 
220 of them into Judea. Those who follow- 
ed Zerubbabel made up 392. This number 
seems not to have been sufficient for the dis- 
charge of the duties required of them, and 
hence Josephus speaks of a solemnity called 
Hyloplwria^ in which the people generally car- 
ried wood to the Temple, to keep up the fire 
on the altar of burnt sacrifices. When the 
NetMnim were on duty at the Temple, they 
lodged in the tower of Ophel, or in a street 
adjacent, that they might be near the east 
gate of the Temple, which was the usual en- 
trance. They were not allowed to lodge 
within the courts of the Temple, because 
they were not of the tribe of Levi. When 
their week of ministration was ended they 
returned to the cities and villages assigned 
to them as their places of residence. 

Nettle. There are two Hebrew words so 
rendered in our version. One occurs in Job 
XXX., 7 ; Prov. xxiv., 31 ; Zeph. ii., 9. Its 
meaning is uncertain ; it is perliaps a species 
of wild mustard. Another word is found in 
Isa. xxxiv., 13 ; Hos. ix., 6 : it means a prick- 
ly weed, and j)robably designates some spe- 
cies of thistle. 

New Year (Feast of the). The observ- 
ance of the first day of the year as a sacred 
festival is of very ancient origin. In the 
law of Moses (Numb, xxix., 1, 2) the follow- 
ing command is given : "And in the seventh 
month, on the first day of the month, ye shall 



have a holy convocation ; ye shall do no serv- 
ile work : it is a day of blowing the trump- 
ets unto you. And ye shall offer a burnt-of- 
fering for a sweet savor unto the Lord ; one 
young bullock, one ram, and seven lamljs of 
the first year without blemish." On this fes- 
tival, which received, and still bears among 
the Jews, the name of the Feast of Trump- 
ets, the people assembled from all parts of 
Palestine at Jerusalem; sacrifices were of- 
fered up ; silver trumpets were blown from 
morning till night ; the Levites read pas- 
sages from the law, and gave instructions to 
the people. The season was reckoned pecul- 
iarly favorable for the commencement of any 
undertaking. How far this idea was car- 
ried is illustrated by the rabbinical notion 
that the world was created on this day, and 
that God sits in judgment on mankind on 
this first day of the year. Among the mod- 
ern Jews the first and second days of Tisri 
are still celebrated by a cessation from all 
unnecessary labor, and the observance of 
protracted service in the synagogues. Psalm 
Ixxxi. is used in the service of the day. 
Trumpets are still blown on the first day of 
the seventh month, and on the morning of 
each preceding day for a month; also at 
sunset on the Day of Atonement. This blow- 
ing of the trumpet is considered as a memo- 
rial of the joyous day of creation ; as a call 
to repentance ; as a reminder of the law, the 
prophets, the destruction of the Temple, the 
binding of Isaac, the day of judgment, and 
the resurrection ; and also as a call to prayer 
for the restoration of Israel. No pious Jew 
neglects attendance at this solemn rite on 
the first of Tisri. 

The old Roman year began in March ; and 
on the first day of that month the festival 
Ancylia was celebrated, when the Salii, or 
priests of Mars, carried the sacred shield in 
procession through the city, and the people 
spent the day in feasting and rejoicing. 
They counted it lucky to begin any new en- 
terprise, or to enter upon any new office, on 
New-year's-day. The same sacredness was 
attached to the first day of the year after 
the change took place in the Roman calen- 
dar, which made January the commencing 
month instead of March ; and Pliny tells us 
that on the first of January people wished 
each other health and prosperity, and sent 
presents to each other. It was accounted a 
public holiday, and games were celebrated 
in the Campus Martins. The people gave 
themselves up to riotous excess, and various 
kinds of heathen superstition. It was only 
to oppose a counter influence to this pagan 
celebration, and to protect Christians against 
its contagious debauchery and superstition, 
that Christian assemblies were at last held 
on the first day of January. The early dis- 
ciples strove to exhibit in their life the con- 
trast between the Christiaii and the heathen 
temper, to substitute alms for New-year's 



NEW YEAE (FEAST OF THE) 683 



NICOLAITANS 



gifts, edification from Scripture for merry 
sougs, and fasts for riotous feasting. This 
principle was gradually adopted in the prac- 
tice of the Western Church, and three days 
of penitence and fasting were opposed to the 
pagan celebration of January, until, the time 
being designated, the festival of Christ's cir- 
cumcision was transferred to this season. 
Thus a Jewish rite was opposed to pagan 
observance, and its symbolical reference to 
the circumcision of the heart by repentance, 
to heathen revelry. 

The Hindoos call the first day of the year 
the day of the Lord of creation. It is sa- 
cred to the god of Wisdom, to whom they 
sacrifice male kids and wild deer, while they 
celebrate the festival with illuminations and 
general rejoicings. The Chinese begin their 
year about the vernal equinox, and the fes- 
tival observed on the occasion is one of the 
most splendid of their religious feasts. All 
the people, including the emperor, mingle in 
free and unrestrained intercourse, and unite 
in thanksgiving for mercies received, as well 
as in prayers for a genial season and an 
abundant crop. In Japan the day is spent 
in visiting and feasting. 

Among the ancient Persians prisoners were 
liberated and offenders forgiven on this day ; 
in short, the Persian New -year resembled 
the Sabbatical year of the Jews. There is 
a curious Oriental custom peculiar to this 
day, and called by the Arabs and Persians 
the game of the heardless river. A deformed 
man whose hair has been shaved off, and his 
face ludicrously painted with variegated col- 
ors, rides through the streets on an ass, and 
behaves in the most whimsical and extrav- 
agant manner, to the great delight of the 
multitude that follow him. In this manner 
he proceeds from door to door soliciting small 
pieces of money. A similar custom is still 
found in various parts of Scotland, under the 
name of guizarding. 

On the 10th of March, the commencement 
of the year among the Druids, the famous 
ceremony of cutting the mistletoe was per- 
formed. Beneath the oak where it grew 
preparations were made for a banquet and 
sacrifices, and two white bulls, hitherto un- 
bound, were for the first time tied by the 
horns. Then one of the Druids, clothed in 
white, mounted the tree, and cut off the mis- 
tletoe with a golden sickle, receiving it into 
a white cloak laid over his hand. The sac- 
rifices were then performed, and prayers were 
offered to God to send a blessing upon his 
own gift. The plant thus gathered was sup- 
posed to bestow fertility upon man and beast, 
and to be a specific against all sorts of poi- 
sons. On the first day of the year the Mex- 
icans carefully adorned their houses and tem- 
ples, and employed themselves in various re- 
ligious ceremonies. One, which was at first, 
perhaps, peculiar to this season, though it 
became subsequently of more frequent oc- 



currence, was the offering to the gods of a 
human sacrifice. Indeed the rites connected 
with New-year's-day may be traced back to 
the remotest times, and have been universal- 
ly celebrated in all ages and nations. Though 
of a festive and cheerful, they have been uni- 
formly of an essentially religious character. 

Nibhaz (harlcer?), an idol worshiped by 
the Avites. The rabbinical writers say that 
it was figured as a dog : it may, therefore, 
have been identical with the Egyptian Anu- 
bis. According to De la Roque, the colossal 
figure of a dog was found, three days' jour- 
ney from Beirut on the road to Tripolis, to 
which the inhabitants of the locality paid 
divine honors. [2 Kings xvii., 31.] 

Nicodemus, a man of wealth, of Pharisaic 
learning, of extended influence, a member of 
the Sanhedrim, and himself a teacher of the 
Jewish laws. A fair type of the class to 
which he belonged, the Ibetter portion of the 
Pharisees, he possessed culture without cour- 
age ; moral taste without manly strength ; 
an appreciation of the truth, but no irresist- 
ible craving for it; curiosity to learn of 
Christ, no self-denying earnestness of pur- 
pose to follow him. It was to such Christ 
was afterward accustomed to say, "Whoso- 
ever doth not bear his cross and come after 
me, can not be my disciple." He sought an 
interview with Jesus at night, not for fear 
of the Jews, as is sometimes alleged — for as 
yet there was no imbittered enmity, but only 
an aroused curiosity among the people — but 
for more quiet conversation, or, perhaps, from 
an unwillingness to commit himself to this 
as yet unknown Galilean. In this conversa- 
tion he may be said to represent the ration- 
alism of his age ; he acknowledges Christ as 
a teacher sent from God, and impliedly seeks 
instruction from him. Christ's answer is in 
effect that it is not instruction, but new mor- 
al power, that humanity needs. After this 
first interview we do not meet Nicodemus 
again till toward the close of Christ's minis- 
try. He then speaks fearlessly in the coun- 
cil against pronouncing any judgment with- 
out first hearing Christ in his own defense, 
and subsequently unites with Joseph of Ar- 
imathea in the burial of Jesus. From these 
circumstances we judge that Christ's conver- 
sation had in time produced its due effect, 
and that Nicodemus acquired at last the 
courage to confess Christ, which at first he 
seems to have lacked. [John iii., 1-21 ; vii., 
50-52; xix., 38-42.] 

Nicolaitaus, an heretical sect referred to 
in Rev. ii., 6, 15. It is supposed by some that 
they were followers of Nicolas, the proselyte 
of Antioch, of whom nothing is known ex- 
cept the reference in Acts vi., 5, but who, it 
is on this hypothesis assumed, departed from 
the Christian faith and communion. Others 
regard the Nicolaitans as the same with those 
who held " the doctrine of Balaam,'" and re- 
1 Rev. ii., 14. 



NICOPOLIS 



684 



NILE 



gard their heresy as consisting of an attempt 
to introduce heathen licentiousness into the 
early Church. Both hypotheses are surmises ; 
nothing is known with certainty concerning 
their doctrine or their origin. 

Nicopolis (city of victory). There were 
many ancient cities which bore this name, 
and no less than three of these are claimed 
as the one spoken of in Titus iii., 12 : Nicopo- 
lis in the north-eastern corner of Cilicia, Ni- 
copolis in Thrace, near the borders of Mace- 
donia, and Nicopolis in Epirus, founded by 
Augustus in honor of his victory at Actium. 
This last Nicopolis, situated on a peninsula 
to the west of the Bay of Actium, is most 
probably the one referred to by Paul. 

Night. The ScrijDtural use of this term, 
as regards the general division of time indi- 
cated by it, and the subdivisions under which 
it was thrown, have been noticed under Day. 
Figuratively, the term is used with some va- 
riety, yet never so as to occasion any perplex- 
ity even to the unlettered reader. Periods 
of distress or trouble are so designated. In 
a moral or spiritual respect, " children of the 
night " are those who practice the deeds of 
depravity and corruption — such as natural- 
ly shun the light of day.^ And though the 
Christian life, on account of its comparative 
fullness of light and privilege, is frequent- 
ly spoken of as day, in contradistinction to 
the previous darkness or twilight, yet when 
brought into comparison with the effulgence 
of the glorious future, it is regarded as a sort 
of night. Thus the apostle says, " the night 
is far siDcnt, the day is at hand." [Rom. xiii., 
12.] 

Nile. The Hebrew names of the Nile are 
Shihor, "the black" (river) ; Yeor, " the river ;" 




Nile cluriug inundation. 

" the river of Egypt ;" and "the river of Cush," 
or " Ethiopia." Of these, Shihor, when it oc- 
curs without any adjunct, undoubtedly re- 
fers to the Nile, but the " Sihor which is 
before Egypt," and the " Shihor of Egypt," 
must denote a more easterly stream, the 
modern Wady el-Areesh, as the south-western 
boundary of Canaan.^ Yeor, " the river," in 



the singular, is used of the Nile alone, except 
in Dan. xii., 5, 6, 7 ; where the Tigris may be 
intended ; and in the plural, of the branches, 
canals, and perhaps tributaries of the Nile.^ 
"The river of Egypt," in Gen. xv., 18 (Heb., 
Nahar-mitzraim), is very probably the Nile ; 
but the "river" or "stream of Egypt" spo- 
ken of elsewhere is the translation of a dif- 
ferent Hebrew phrase (Nachal-mitzraim), 
and is most probably not the Nile, but iden- 
tical with the Sihor of Egypt, which was of 
old, and is to-day, the modern Wady el- 
Areesh, the boundary between Palestine and 
Egypt. It comes from the passes of Jebel 
et-Tih toward Sinai, and reaches the sea 
without a permanent stream. Near its mouth 
is a small village, el-Arish, on the site of 
the ancient Rhinocolura.'^ By the " rivers of 
Cush " we must understand the confluents or 
tributaries of the Nile. The Nile is some- 
times poetically called a sea.^ 

The inundation of the Nile fertilizes and 
sustains Egypt, and is the chief blessing of 
the country ; a very low inundation, or fail- 
ure of rising, being the cause of famine. On 
this account, the god of the Nile was an-- 
ciently worshiped under the sacred name 
of HapeCj or Hajjee Mu; the rise of the river 
was anxiously looked for, and welcomed by 
a grand festival and the performance of rites, 
which were thought essential to secure a full 
overflow. Even at the present day the rise 
of the Nile is hailed by all classes with ex- 
cessive joy ; and the sacredness with which 
it was regarded by the Egyptians is still pre- 
served among the Arabs who have settled in 
Egypt, who are accustomed to speak of the 
river as most holy. The flood begins in June, 
about the summer solstice, and increases to 
Sei)tember, at 
which time all 
the lowlands are 
overflowed. The 
welcome stream 
is carried every- 
where by canals, 
continues sta- 
tionary for a 
few days, and 
gradually passes 
away, leaving 
the fields, gen- 
erally by the end 
of November, 
covered with a 
deposit of rich 
brown slime, and ready for the labors of the 
husbandman. 

The problem of the sources of the Nile was 
solved by the explorations of Captains Speke 
and Grant, and Sir S. W. Baker, in 1860-64. 
Its main stream, the White Nile, flows out 



1 1 Thess. v., 5.-2 Josh, xiii., 3; 1 Chrou. xiii., 5; 
Isa. xxiii., 3 ; Jer. ii., 18. 



1 Gen. xli., 1; Exod. 1., 22; ii., 3; vii., 1, 15, IS; 
Amos viii., 8.— ^ Josh, xv., 4, 47 ; 1 Kings viii., 65; 2 
Kings xxiv., T; Isa. xxvii., 12.— 3 Job xli., 31; Isa. 
xviii., 2; Nah. iii., 8. 



NILE 



685 



NIMEOD 



of the lakes Victoria and Albert Nyanza. 
Of these vast lakes, situated at the Equator, 
the Albert Nyanza, which receives the drain- 
age of a ten months' rain -fall, is probably 
the principal source; but the southern ex- 
tremity of the Victoria Nyanza marks the 
greatest distance yet measured, and gives to 
the Nile a total length of 2300 miles. This 
White Nile, which furnishes the great body 
of water, is joined at Khartoom, now the 
seat of Government of Soodan, by the Blue 
Nile, which rises in the mountains of Abys- 
sinia, and carries down from them the great 
quantity of decayed vegetable matter and 
alluvium which makes the stream the fertil- 
izer of Egypt and Nubia. In Upper Egypt 
the Nile is a very broad stream, flowing rap- 
idly between high, steep mud-banks, while 
on either side the valley rise the bare yel- 
low hills, rarely one thousand feet high. 
These, which look from the river like cliffs, 
are often honey-combed with the entrances 
of the tombs which make Egypt one great 
city of the dead, and reveal to us the mean- 
ing of that murmur of the Israelites to Mo- 
ses : "Because there were no graves in Egypt, 
hast thou taken us away to die in the wil- 
derness ?"^ In Lower Egypt the view is 
spread out over one rich plain, bounded on 
the east and west by the sandy desert-edges, 
and watered by the two branches into which 
the river divides a short distance below Cai- 
ro. Through these two branches, which are 
narrower than the undivided stream, the 
Nile pours its waters into the Mediterrane- 
an. During the inundation the whole val- 
ley is covered with sheets of water, above 
which rise the villages like islands. The 
country appears as though overwhelmed by a 
destructive flood, whose vast turbid stream 
seems all the more powerful as it is beaten 
into waves by the north wind, that blows 
ceaselessly during the period of inundation. 
The propiaets more than once allude to this 
striking condition of the Nile.^ 

The river itself abounds in fish ; and, dur- 
ing low Nile, crocodiles, the emblem of Egypt, 
bask upon the shoals. The banks are en- 
livened by the women who come to draw 
water, or, like Pharaoh's daughter, to bathe, 
and the herds of kine and buffaloes which 
are driven down to drink and wash, or feed 
'4n the marsh grass," like those that Phara- 
oh saw in his dream.^ The great difference 
between the stream of the present day and 
the stream of old is caused by the failure of 
some of its branches, and the extinction of 
some of its chief vegetable products. The 
chief change in the aspect of the cultivable 
land, as dependent on the Nile, is the result 
of the ruin of the fish-pools and their con- 
duits, and the consequent decline of the fish- 
eries. The river was famous for its seven 
principal branches, and under the Roman 



dominion four more subordinate ones were 
counted. According to the monuments and 
the narratives of ancient writers, the Egyp- 

I tian Nile was of old a stream bordered by 
flags and reeds, the covert of abundant wild 
fowl, and bearing on its waters the fragrant 
flowers of the various-colored lotus. Now 
the famous papyrus is nearly if not quite 

j extinct, the lotus almost unknown, and the 
reeds have well-nigh perished.^ Then the 
great river must have shown a fairer and 

I busier scene than now. Its banks were bor- 

; dered by light summer pavilions, beautiful 

I gardens, and the ijainted walls of temples. 
Its surface was dotted with vessels of many 

i kinds, from the pleasure-galley, with its one 
great square sail, to the little papyrus skiff, 
bearing the seekers of amusement to spots 
in which they could shoot with arrows, 
or knock down with the throw -stick, the 
wild fowl that abounded among the reeds, 
or engage in the dangerous chase of the hip- 
popotamus or the crocodile. The Nile is 
constantly before us in the history of Israel 
in Egypt. Into it the male children were 
cast. Into one of the mauy recesses of its 
shores the ark of Moses was placed, and 
found by Pharaoh's daughter wlien she went 
down to bathe. When the plagues were 
sent, the sacred river — a main support of 
the people — and its waters everywhere were 
turned into blood. [Exod. i., 22; ii., 3-6; 
vii.,20,21.] 

Nimrod {a rebel), an eminent early war- 
rior and king ; the son of Cush, and grand- 
son of Ham. His history is briefly summed 
up in a few verses.^ The testimony of Scrip- 
ture is that he was " a mighty one in the 
earth," " a mighty hunter," the establisher 
of a kingdom when kingdoms had scarcely 
begun to be known, the builder of four great 
and famous cities — Babel, Erech, Accad, and 
Calneh in the land of Shinar, or Mesopota- 
mia. To him belongs the merit of selecting 
a site peculiarly fitted for the development 
of a great power in the early ages of the 
world, and of binding men together into a 
community, which events proved to possess 
within it the elements of prosperity and per- 

■ manence. Whether he had, indeed, the re- 
bellious and apostate character which nu- 
merous traditions — Jewish, Arabian, and Ar- 
menian — assign to him ; whether he was in 
reality concerned in the building of the Tow- 
er of Babel,^ we have no means of positive- 

j ly determining. The language of Scripture 
wdth regard to Nimrod is rather laudatory 
than the contrary, and it would seem to 
have been from a misapprehension of the 
Mosaic narrative that the traditions above 
mentioned originated. Nimrod had not in 
the days of Moses that ill reputation which 
attached to him in later ages, when he was 
regarded as the great Titan, or giant, who 



1 Exod. xiv., 11.— 2 Jer. xlvi., 7, 8 ; xlvii., 1, 2 ; Amos i Isa. xix., 5-10.— 2 Gen. x., 8-12 ; 1 Chron. i., 10.. 
viii., 7, 8.-3 Gen. xli,, 1, 2 ; Exod. ii., 5 ; Ezek. xxix., 3. 3 Gen. xi. 



NmEYEH 



NINEVEH 



made war upon the gods, and who was at 
once the builder of the Tower and the per- 
secutor who forced Abraham to quit his 
original country. It is, at least, doubtful 
whether we ought to allow any weight at 
all to the additions and embellishments with 
which later writers, so much wiser than Mo- 
ses, have overlaid the simplicity of his nar- 
rative. 

Nineveh (liaUtation of Mnus, or perhaps 
compounded with the name of the Assyrian 
deity, Mn). This great city, the ancient 
metropolis of Assyria, is first mentioned in 
Gen. X., 11, where it is said to have been 
founded by Nimrod ; it is not again noticed 
in the sacred history till many years subse- 
quently. At the time of the mission of Jo- 



corn for all the people in case of a siege. Af- 
ter the mission of Jonah, which resulted in a 
temporary repentance, we find prophetic de- 
nunciations renewed by Nahum. His proph- 
ecy is almost exclusively directed against 
the city ; the ruin of the country and the 
sovereign being, however, involved in the 
fall of the capital.^ Zephaniah also predicts 
the destruction of Mneveh, with the kingdom 
of which it was the capital. In fulfillment 
of this prophecy, it was destroyed by Cy- 
axares, king of Media, and Nabopolassar, 
king of Babylon, in the seventh century B.C. 
Thenceforth the once populous metropolis 
became utterly waste. Even its very site 
was unknown. Herodotus passed near it ; 
Xenophon encamped upon it ; and yet neither 




Site of Niueveh. 



nah, we find it in the seat of a powerful mon- 
archy, the centre of the Assyrian empire.^ 
It is described in the book of that prophet 
as " an exceeding great city of three days' 
journey," with 120,000 children, " who knew 
not their right hand from their left f which 
would make a population of about 2,000,000. 
According to Diodorus Siculus, it was no less 
than fifty-five miles in circumference, built, 
no doubt, like the ancient cities of the East, 
with pastures and pleasure-grounds inter- 
spersed among streets and houses. Even in 
Babylon, which was of less extent than Nin- 
eveh, Diodorus says that there were gardens 
and orchards, and land sufficient to provide 



1 2 Kings xix., 36; Isa. xxxvii., 37; Jon. iv., 11, 
2 Jon. iii., 3 ; iv., 11. 



of these historians seemed aware that they 
were close by the ancient mistress of nations. 
It was disputed, indeed, whether it had not 
been built upon the Euphrates ; and those 
travelers who were at all acquainted with 
its true position could tell of little but waste 
mounds and accumulations of rubbish. A 
noted city, Mosul, was afterward built on 
the opposite bank of the Tigris ; but, though 
the neighborhood was thus the haunt of men, 
few had any curiosity to explore the heaps 
which lay at hand. In 1840, Dr. Layard and 
M. Botta commenced a series of explorations 
in the mounds and rubbish which mark what 
is the site of ancient Nineveh. The results 
of these explorations it would take volumes 
1 Nahum iii., 12, IS. " 



NINEVEH 



687 



NISROCH 



to give. Thty have revealed the ruins of 
palaces and buildings full of sculptures, and 
covered with inscriptions which afford silent 
and unanswerable testimony to the truth of 
Scripture in many particulars, throw much 
light on ancient manners and customs, and 
give us the materials for constructing an ac- 
curate and trustworthy picture of ancient 
civilization.^ Among the most remarkable 
monuments recovered, and now in the Brit- 
ish Museum, are two winged, human-headed 
lions, twelve feet high, and as many in length ; 
winged human-headed bulls, of similar di- 
mensions with the lions ; winged sphinxes ; 



amount of spoil, the chase of the lion, of the 
antelope, of the wild ass, and other animals. 
Such are the favorite subjects of the Assyr- 
ian sculptor. Nor are they treated in the 
conventional style of Egypt, but in a man- 
ner which, for grace, spirit, correctness, and 
delicacy of execution, excels every thing else 
known in Asiatic art. The labor bestowed 
on the careful finish of a priest's dress, and 
in the tasteful decorations of an article of 
furniture, proves them to be the work of an 
ingenious and pains -taking people. Jars, 
bronzes, glass bottles, carved ornaments in 
ivory and mother-of-pearl, engraved gems. 




Winged humau-headed Lion. 



and a famous obelisk of black marble, sculp- 
tured on four sides. On this last are repre- 
sented a victory, a prisoner prostrate at the 
feet of the king, and foreign people offering 
tribute, and leading such animals as the Bac- 
trian camel, elephant, lion, rhinoceros — ani- 
mals found only in lands far east of the Ti- 
gris. The bass-reliefs are very numerous, 
exhibiting especially war and hunting. The 
march, the onset, the pursuit, the siege, the 
passage of the rivers, the submission and 
treatment of captives, secretaries noting the 
number of heads taken in battle, and the 
1 See AssYEiA. 



bells, ear-rings, arms, and utensils of various 
descriptions, have been discovered, all of ex- 
cellent workmanship. The ornaments espe- 
cially are in good taste, and evince no in- 
considerable skill in the working of metals. 
For a condensed account of these explora- 
tions, see Smith's " Ancient History of the 
East," chap, xii., and Rawlinson's " Ancient 
Empires," vol. i., chap. iv. For a fuller ac- 
count, " Layard's Nineveh and its Remains," 
and "Layard's Nineveh and Babylon." 

Nisroch {great eagle f), an Assyrian deity, 
in whose house or temple Sennacherib was 
worshiping when he was slain by his sons 



XITEE 



688 



NUMBERS 




Supposed Figure of Asshur, the tutelary Deity of the 
aucieut Assyrians. From the Monuments. 

Adrammelech and Sharezer. Very little is 
known of this god. He is probably identical 
vritli Asshnr, the supreme deity of tlie Assyr- 
ians. [2 Kings xix., 37 ; Isa. xxxvii., 38.] 

Nitre occurs in Prov. xxy., 20, and in Jer. 
ii., 22. The substance denoted is not that 
which we now understand by the term nitre, 
i. e., nitrate of potassa, saltpetre, but the ni- 
triim of the Latins, the natron or native car- 
bonate of soda of modern chemistry. This 
is found abundantly in certain Egyptian 
lakes, fifty miles west of Cairo. The Egyp- 
tians use it in bread and for soap. 

Noah {rest), an eminent patriarch, and 
ninth in descent after Adam. He is de- 
scribed as a "just man," and perfect in his 
generations, and as ''walking with God." 
When, therefore, God determined to destroy 
the world by a flood (q. t,), Noah was chosen 
not only to preserve and perpetuate the race, 
but also, as we learn from the N. T., to warn 
the ungodly of the coming judgment.^ All 
that we know of him after the cessation of 
the flood, is the incident recorded in Gen. ix., 
18-27, and the statement of Scripture that 
he lived after the flood 350 years, attaining 
in all the age of 950 years. According to 
the chronology of the Hebrew text, he died 
in the year of the world 2006, two years be- 
fore the birth of Abraham, and was thus 
within 126 years of filling up the long inter- 
val between the death of Adam and the birth 
~ 1 2 PetriL, 5. 



I of Abraham. But it is to be remembered 
I that in this respect, as in all others where 
I Hebrew chronology is concerned, there is 
great uncertainty as to dates.^ 

Nob {liiU), a city in Benjamin, on the great 
road from the north to Jerusalem, in the im- 
mediate neighborhood of which it must have 
been. The tabernacle seems to have been 
here in the time of Saul, who, for the alleged 
favor shown by the high-priest Ahimelech 
to Da\dd, destroyed the city, which was, 
however, afterward rebuilt. [1 Sam. xxi., 
1; xxii.,9-19; Neh.xi.,32; Isa. x., 32.] 

Non-jurors, an appellation given to those 
Scottish E]3iscopalians who, from religious 
scruples, at the Eevolutiou of 1688, adhered 
to the banished family of the Stuarts, and 
refused to take the oath of allegiance to 
William and Mary. At the death of the 
last of the Stuart family, in 1788, this body 
transferred their loyalty from the House of 
Stuart to that of Hanover, and thus ceased 
to be Non-jurors. 

Non-residence, the name given in Church 
Law to the offense of a person holding a spir- 
itual benefice in the Established Church vrho 
absents himself without legal justification 
from the local precincts within which the 
duties attached to the benefice are prescribed 
to be performed. The obligation of residence 
is very clear, and from the constant tendency 
to relaxation on the part of the clergy, has 
been an unfailing subject of legislation, ec- 
clesiastical and civil, from the very earliest 
times. The English and Roman Catholic 
churches enforce their decrees by heavy pen- 
alties, yet great abuses prevail, a clergyman 
not infrequently receiving all the emolu- 
ments from a parish without once yisiting 
it, or manifesting any care for the parish- 
ioners. 

North. In the great majority of cases, 
the use of this word in Scripture is perfectly 
simple, and requires no explanation. But 
it is sometimes employed by the prophets 
for those nations which lie to the north of 
Palestine. [Jer. i., 13 ; iii., 12 ; iv., 6 ; vi., 1 ; 
xlvi., 10 ; Ezek. viii., 3, 14 ; Zeph. ii., 13.] 

Novices, in countries where mouachism 
prevails, are those persons who are candi- 
dates, or probationers, for a religious life. 
The time of their probation is called the Xo- 
vitiate; after which, if their behavior is ap- 
proved, they are professed, i. e., admitted into 
the order. See Moxachism ; Nuns. 

Numbers. The fourth book of the Pen- 
tateuch. Its name in the Septuagint and 
Vulgate — whence our "Numbers" — is evi- 
dently suggested by the two numberings of 
the people, recorded in it in chapters i. and 
xxvi. The Jews sometimes designate it af- 
ter their ordinary mode, by its first word, 
Varjedahler, or more frequently by its first 
distinctive y^OT(\.,Bemidl)ar. The book nar- 
rates the history of the Israelites during 
1 See Chronology. 



NUN, NUNNERY 



689 



NUN, NUNNERY 



their sojourn in the wilderness, from the 
completion of the lawgiving at Sinai, to 
their mustering in the plaius of Moah for 
actual entry into the land of promise. Its 
contents may be divided into four parts : 1. 
The preparations for the departure from Si- 
nai ; 2. The journey from Sinai to the borders 
of Canaan ; 3. A notice of various occurrences 
and enactments belonging to the thirty-eight 
years of penal wandering in the wilderness ; 
4. The history of the last year spent in the 
wilderness, the fortieth after the Exodus. 
The incidents are generally given in their 
chronological order, except in the third part. 
The five chapters comprised in this part deal 
with a long period, from which only isolated 
episodes are given, and of these the dates can 
only be conjectured. Referring to the arti- 
cle Pentateuch for the general discussion 
as to the unity, antiquity, authorship, and 
credibility of that portion of Scripture as- 
cribed to Moses, it is only necessary to re- 
mark in this place that this, like the other 
books of the Pentateuch, is supposed hj a 
certain class of critics to consist of a com- 
pilation from two or three, or more, earlier 
documents. But the grounds on which this 
distinction of documents rests are in every 
respect most unsatisfactory. The book is 
unmistakably, in substance, the work of the 
great lawgiver; and while many portions 
were probably committed to writing years 
before the whole was completed, yet the 
concluding chapters were not written until 
toward the close of the fortieth year after 
the Exodus. The Book of Numbel-s is rich 
in fragments of ancient poetry, some of them 
of great beauty, and all throwing an inter- 
esting light on the character of the times in 
which they were composed. Such, for in- 
stance, is the blessing of the high-priest, in 
chap, vi., 24-26. Such, too, are the chants 
which were the signal for the Ark to move 
when the people journeyed, and for it to rest 
when they were about to encamp ; and such 
the " Book of the Wars of the Lord." 

Nun, Nunnery. As there were ascetics 
in the Church long before there were any 
monks, so there were virgins who made 
public and open profession of virginity be- 
fore the monastic life or name was known. 
Before monasteries existed, Cyprian and Ter- 
tullian speak of virgins dedicating them- 
selves to Christ. These are sometimes call- 
ed ecclesiastical virgins, to distinguish them 
from such as embraced the monastic life. 
The ecclesiastical virgins were commonly 
enrolled in the canon of the Church, that is, 
in the catalogue of ecclesiastics ; and hence 
they were sometimes called canonical vir- 
gins. They lived privately, at home, and 
were maintained by their parents, or, in cases 
of necessity, by the Church, instead of living 
in communities and upon their own labor, as 
did the monastical virgins or nuns confined 
to cloisters in after ages. Whether these 
44 



ecclesiastical virgins indicated their inten- 
tions to remain in that state all their lives 
by a solemn vow, or a simple profession, is 
not clear ; but it appears from ancient writ- 
ings that the profession of virginity was not 
so strict as to make after-marriage a crime 
worthy of ecclesiastical censure. But gradu- 
ally it became a subject of censure, and by the 
fourth and fifth centuries the Church became 
decided and rigorous in its treatment of the 
marriage of professed virgins, condemning 
such to severe jDenance, though such mar- 
riages "were not rescinded" or pronounced 
null. Indeed, the law gave great liberty and 
indulgence to all virgins that were conse- 
crated before the age of forty. For though 
some canons allowed them to be consecrated 
at twenty-five, and others at sixteen or sev- 
enteen, other canons required virgins to be 
forty years old before they were veiled ; and 
the law not only required that age in conse- 
crated virgins, but further decreed. That if 
any virgin was veiled before that age, either 
by the violence or hatred of her parents 
(which was a case that often happened), she 
should have liberty to marry. There ap- 
pears, therefore, a very wide difference be- 
tween the practice of the ancient churches 
and that of the Church of Rome in this mat- 
ter. The consecration itself was usually per- 
formed publicly in the church, by the bishop, 
or some presbyter particularly deputed by 
the bishop for that purpose. When a virgin 
had signified to the bisho]3 her desire for the 
usual consecration, she made a public profes- 
sion of her resolution in the church, and the 
bishop put upon her the accustomed habit 
of sacred virgins. This change of habit is 
frequently mentioned in the ancient councils, 
but in what it consisted is not plain. A veil, 
and a purple and gold mitre is spoken of, but 
it is said that they did not use them for any 
sacrament or mystery, but only as a badge 
of distinction, and to signify to whose service 
they belonged. The introduction of the cus- 
tom of cutting off the hair of consecrated 
virgins called forth the condemnation of the 
council of Gangra, which passed a decree 
that. If any woman, under pretense of an 
ascetic life, cut off her hair, which God hath 
given her for a memorial of subjection, let 
her be anathema, as one that disannuls the 
decree of subjection ; and Theodosius the 
Great added a civil sanction to confirm the 
ecclesiastical decree made against this prac- 
tice. Although the virgins were not ordain- 
ed to special office in the Church, as the dea- 
conesses were, they were of great esteem in 
the Church, and had some particular honors 
paid to them. They were specially protect- 
ed by the law, and ladies of high rank were 
accustomed to entertain them, and to seek 
their salutations and embraces. Our English 
name, nun, probably comes from norma, which 
was an ancient name of the ecclesiastical vir- 
gins. The widows of the Church were gen- 



NUNC DIMITTIS 



690 



OAK 



erally under the same laws and rules as the 
ecclesiastical virgins were, concerning their 
habit, consecration, profession, and mainte- 
nance. 

The nunneries, or convents, as they are 
generally termed, though with less accuracy, 
since convent properly signifies a religious 
house for either men or women, are now 
generally devoted to some form of work for 
the Church. For an account of their houses 
and their work in the United States at the 
present time, see article Monachism. No 
outsider is permitted to enter the Nunnery. 
The rules of the diiferent nunneries differ 
widely, but all agree in requiring absolute 
obedience of all the members. The superiors 
of nunneries are termed Abbess, Princess, or 
Mother Superior. The authority of the Moth- 
er Superior is very comprehensive ; but it is 
strictly defined and separated from that of 
the priest. 

Nunc Dimittis (7ioiv lettest thou depart), 
a name given to the song of Simeon, from 
the first words of it in Latin, " Lord, now 
lettest thou thy servant depart in peace, ac- 
cording to thy word." It appears to have 
been used in public worship in very ancient 
times, as it is found in the Apostolical Consti- 



tutions. It is appointed to be used in the 
rubric of the Church of England after the 
second lesson at Even-song. 

Nuncio, an ambassador from the Pope 
to some Roman Catholic prince or state. 
Sometimes he is deputed to appear as the 
Pope's representative at a congress or dip- 
lomatic assembly. 

Nut. The "nuts" of Gen. xliii, 11, are 
pistachio-nuts. The pistachio-tree is fre- 
quently found in Palestine and Syria. It 
thrives best in a dry and rocky soil ; but it 
is of slow growth. It attains a height of 
twelve to twenty, sometimes thirty, feet. 
The stem is not thick; but the branches 
are numerous, and much divided. It is in 
full bloom in April; and the blossoms are 
whitish and in clusters. The shell of the 
nut is odoriferous. These nuts are a fa- 
vorite fruit in the East ; they have a sj)icy 
taste, and are eaten either dry or preserved. 
It has been imagined that the kernel 
strengthened the stomach, and was a spe- 
cific against the bite of serpents. In India 
the seeds are eaten with sweetmeats, or 
fried with pepper and salt. Another word 
is translated "nuts" in Sol. Song vi., 11. 
Possibly walnuts may be there intended. 



O 



Oak. In our version of the Bible sever- 
al Hebrew words are rendered oaTc. There 
has been some difference of opinion as to 
whether the oak or terebinth tree is in- 
tended. The later, and we think the bet- 
ter, opinion is that our translators have cor- 




Syrian Oak. 

rectly rendered the Hebrew. There are flive 
species of oak found in Palestine at the pres- 
ent day. 1. The evergreen oak. This is a 



tall but not wide -spreading tree, and the 
timber, being very hard, is much used for 
purposes in which compactness and durabil- 
ity are required. 2. The holly-leaved Mont- 
pelier oak, another evergreen. This tree, 
also, is a native of Southern Europe, and is 
markedly distinguish- 
ed from the former by 
its numerous straggling 
branches, and the thick 
underdoAvn of its leaves. 

3. The liairy-cupped oak, 
so called from the bris- 
tly appearance of the 
calyx. It grows to a 
considerable size, and 
furnishes an excellent 
timber, much used by 
the Turks in the build- 
ing of ships and houses. 

4. The great prickly-cup- 
ped oak, which takes its 
name from its large 
prickly calyx. This 
species is common in 
the Levant, where it is 
a handsome tree, which 
it is not in our ungenial 
climate, though it has 
long been cultivated. 

The wood of this species is of little worth ; 
but its acorns form the valonia of commerce, 
of Avhich 150,000 cwt. are yearly imported 



OATH 



691 



OBED-EDOM 




Terebinth. 

into this country for the use of tanners. 
5. The Jcermes oak takes its name from an 
insect {kermes, oi the genus coccus) which 
adheres to the branches of this bushy ever- 
green shrub, in the form of small reddish 
balls about the size of a pea. This affords a 
crimson dye, formerly celebrated, but now 
superseded by cochineal. The dye was used 
by the ancient Hebrews. From the hints 
of travelers there appear to be some other 
species of oaks in Palestine, but their infor- 
mation is not sufficiently distinct to enable 
us to identify them. The Druids esteemed 
the oak the most sacred object in nature, 
and they believed the mistletoe also, which 
grew upon it to partake of its sacred char- 
acter. Hence originated the famous cere- 
mony of cutting the mistletoe," which took 
place at the commencement of the year. 

Oath. The form of administering oaths 
among the ancient Jews was laying the 
hand of the witness on the head of the ac- 
cused,^ and putting the hand under the 
thigh of the person to whom the promise 
sanctioned by an oath was made f a cove- 
nant was ratified by dividing a sacrificial 
victim and passing between the pieces.^ 
In later times a common method of putting 
one under oath was that employed by the 
high-priest on Christ's trial. In daily life 
and common conversation, an ordinary form 
of oath was, "As the Lord liveth." Perjury 
in criminal trial was punished by the same 
j)enalty which would have been inflicted 
for the crime to which the perjurer testi- 
fied.* 

The law, "Thou shalt not take the name 



1 Gen. xiv. 22; Lev. xxiv., 14; Isa. iii., 7.-2 Gen. 
xxiv., 2 : xlvii., 29.-3 Qeu. xv., 10, 17 ; Jer. xxxiv., 18. 
— 4 Exod. XX., 7; Lev. xix., 12 ; Dent, xvi., 19; Psa. xv., 
4; Jer. v., 2; vii., 9; Ezek. xvi., 59; Hos, x., 4; Zech. 
viii., 17. 



oftheLordthyGodinvain," 
is capable of a twofold sig- 
nification ; it may be regard- 
ed as prohibiting either false 
swearing or idle swearing, 
and probably includes both. 
Both are clearly prohibited 
by Lev. xix., 12. Notwith- 
standing this prohibition, 
profane swearing was a 
common vice in the time of 
Christ, as it is in the pres- 
ent day in the East. The 
rabbis held that certain 
common oaths were not for- 
bidden by the law. Christ 
gives that law a large sig- 
nification in his comments 
on it in Matt, v., 33-37. The 
essence of an oath consists 
in the fact that it is an ap- 
peal to the Omniscient to 
witness to* the truth of an 
assertion. Christ declares 
that all oaths possess this 
character, even one by the head or by the 
life, since it is an appeal, in fact, to him who 
is the author of all being. 

Obadiah (ivorsMper of Jehovali). The au- 
thor of the shortest prophetic book in the 
Old Testament, consisting only of twenty- 
one verses. He has been called " the least 
of the prophets in number of verses, but not 
in ideas." Of his origin, life, and circum- 
stances nothing is known, except what can 
be gathered from his short book. That he 
lived after the capture of Jerusalem is infer- 
red by his reference to that event ;^ there- 
fore, it is supposed that he lived after, or 
was contemporary with, Jeremiah. In all 
probability, his prophecy was delivered be- 
tween B.C. 588 and 583. Of its style little 
can be said, owing to its extreme brevity. 
Its principal features are animation, regu- 
larity, and i)erspicuity. The subjects of 
the prophecy are the judgments to be in- 
flicted upon the Idumeans on account of 
their cruel conduct toward the Jews at the 
time of the Chaldean invasion, and the res- 
toration of the latter from captivity. 

By some the prophet has been identified 
with the Obadiah who was "governor of 
the house of Ahab f but this seems to be a 
mere Hebrew tradition. This officer seems 
to have had great influence with the idola- 
trous king ; for, though a devout worshiper 
of Jehovah, he retained his position during 
the fierce persecution of the prophets by 
Jezebel. The circumstance of his conceal- 
ing in a cave, and sustaining a hundred 
prophets of the Lord, shows him to have 
been at the same time a faithful servant 
of God. [1 Kings xviii., 3-17.] 

Obed-edom {servant of Edom), a Levite 
who lived in the days of David, and to 



1 Obad. 11-14.— 2 1 Kings xviii. 



OBIT 



692 



OFFERINGS 



whose house the ark was carried after the 
death of Uzzah (q. y.)- It continued there 
three months, and its presence brought a 
blessing upon Obed-edom and his household. 
The significant expression, " for God bless- 
ed him/'^ evidently alludes to the special 
blessing obtained by him when he received 
the ark of God in his house. He is also 
spoken of as one of those who were ap- 
pointed to minister before the Lord with 
psalteries and harps.^ The site of Obed- 
edom's house is still a remarkable spot. 
About two miles from Kirjath-jearim, on 
the way to Jerusalem, is a high and promi- 
nent ridge, on which is a flat plateau of three 
or four acres of land surrounded by a belt 
of trees, and called the Abode of the Blessed 
One. This spot, a striking object from all 
the surrounding heights, is intensely green, 
more so than any other in all the Holy 
Laud, except the King's Gardens near the 
Pool of Siloam, at Jerusalem. 

There are mere allusions to two other 
persons of the same name.^ [2 Sam. vi., 
10-12; 1 Chron. xiii., 13, 14; xxvi., 4, 5, 6; 
xvi., 5.] 

Obit, an office performed at funerals, when 
the corpse was in the church before it was 
buried; it afterward came to be performed 
on the anniversary of the death of a bene- 
factor. Thus, in many colleges, the obit, or 
anniversary of the death of the founder, is 
piously observed. There have been since 
the Reformation commemoration days at Ox- 
ford and Cambridge, on which the names of 
all the known benefactors to the universi- 
ties are proclaimed and a special service re- 
cited. 

Oblations. At the administration of the 
Lord's Supper, in the primitive Christian 
churches, the communicants were required 
to bring presents, called oMations, from which 
the sacramental element was taken. The 
custom of offering oblations was discontin- 
ued during the 12th and 13th centuries. In 
very early times — that is, in the 1st and 
2d centuries — the Christian Church had no 
revenues except the oUations, or voluntary 
contributions of the people, which were di- 
vided among the bishop, the presbyters, the 
deacons, and the poor of the Church. These 
voluntary oblations were received in place 
of tithes ; but as the number of Christians 
increased, a fixed maintenance became nec- 
essary for the clergy; but still oblations con- 
tinued to be made by the people through 
zeal for the cause of Christ and the main- 
tenance of his Gospel. In the Church of 
England, whatever is offered at the altar is 
termed an oblation. They are principally 
alms, the bread and wine for the Lord's 
Supper, and prayers. The four days in the 
year — Christmas, Easter, Whitsuntide, and 
All Saints - day — on which oblations are 



1 1 Chron. xvi., 5.-2 1 Chrou. xvi., 4, 5.-3 1 Chron. 
xvi., 38 (second clause) ; 2 Chron. xxv., 24. 



more especially made, are called offering- 
days ; and that portion of the Roman Cath- 
olic and English church service at which 
time the offerings are presented is called 
the offertory. 

Octave, in the ecclesiastical calendar, the 
eighth day after any of the principal festi- 
vals. It was anciently observed with much 
devotion, including the whole period also 
from the festival to the octave. 

Offerings. Viewed generally, offerings 
express the consciousness of our dependence 
upon God, our gratitude to him, and our de- 
sire to secure his favor. The same impulse 
which leads men to praise and prayer, prompts 
them to acts of sacrifice. The principles of 
such offerings have been discussed under Sac- 
rifice (q. v.); this article will speak briefly 
of the offerings themselves. Since the con- 
ciliation of deity has been considered, as well 
in the Jewish as in all other religions, as the 
one thing needful, offerings have always con- 
stituted an essential part of i^ublic worship 
and private piety. Among the Hebrews we 
find a whole code of regulations, prescribing 
in the minutest detail a complex and multi- 
form system of offerings, extending through 
the entire circle of divine worship.^ They 
are grouped under various forms, each hav- 
ing its peculiar signification; (a.) The iurnt- 
offering — Self-dedicatory. (6.) The meat- 
offering {unbloody); the jjeace-offering (Moody) 
— EuCHARiSTic. (c.) The sin-offering; the 
trespass-offering — Expiatory. To these may 
be added, (d.) The incense, offered after sacri- 
fice in the Holy Place, and in the Holy of 
Holies on the Day of Atonement, the symbol 
of the intercession of the priest, accompany- 
ing and making efficacious the prayer of the 
people. In the consecration of Aaron and 
his sons, we find these offered in what became 
ever afterward the appointed order : first, 
came the sin-offering, to prepare access to 
God ; next, the burnt-offering, to mark their 
dedication to his service ; and thirdly, the 
meat-offering of thanksgiving. In its widest 
sense the term offering indicates, in the He- 
brew ritual, a very great number of things ; 
as, the firstlings of the flock, first-fruits, tithes, 
incense, shew -bread. The objects offered 
were salt, meal, baked and roasted grain, 
olive-oil, clean animals. The animals were 
required to be spotless, and — with the excep- 
tion of doves — at least eight days old. The 
smaller beasts, such as sheep, goats, and 
calves, were commonly one year old. Oxen 
were offered at three years of age ; in Judges 
one is spoken of which is seven years old. 
As to sex, option was sometimes left to the 
offerer, e. g., in peace and sin offerings ; some- 
times, as in burnt-offerings, males were re- 
quired, for, contrary to classical usage, the 
male was considered the more perfect. In 
burnt-offerings and in thank-offerings the 
kind of animal was left to the choice of the 



1 Lev. i.-vii. 



OFFERINGS 



693 



OIL 



worshiper ; but in trespass and sin offerings 
it was regulated by law. 

The offerings which have been enumerated 
might be made as occasion should require, or 
were the voluntary expression, the free-will- 
offering, of a loving heart. But there were 
certain sacrificial rites necessary to be per- 
formed — the daily, weekly, monthly, and an- 
nual. The daily sacrifice was a burnt-offer- 
ing, consisting of two lambs, offered every 
day, morning and evening, at the third and 
ninth hours. They were burnt as holocausts, 
but by a small fire, that they might continue 
burning the longer; a bread-offering and a 
drink-offering accompanied each. Incense 
also was to be burned every morning and 
evening. The weekly offering on the Sab- 
bath was equal to the daily offering, and was 
in addition to it. The monthly sacrifice at 
the new moon consisted of two young bul- 
locks, one ram, and seven lambs of a year 
old, for a burnt -offering, with a suitable 
meat and drink offering, and a kid for a sin- 
offering. There were, besides, the five year- 
ly offerings — at the Passover, on the Day of 
Pentecost, on the first of the seventh month 
or beginning of the civil year, on the tenth 
of the same month or day of expiation, and 
at the Feast of Tabernacles. The objects to 
be offered and the ceremonial for these are 
carefully prescribed.^ 

There were perpetually arising other oc- 
casions when offerings were to be made, 
such as purification-offerings for women af- 
ter childbii-th, at the cleansing of the leper, 
and of other persons who had been unclean ; 
offerings at dedications, marriages, and sim- 
ilar joyous ceremonies ; and families seem 
sometimes to have had yearly sacrifices.^ 
The only place where offerings were to be 
presented was the outer court of the nation- 
al sanctuary, at first the tabernacle, after- 
ward the temple. Offerings were forbidden 
to be made elsewhere under pain of death. 
This rule, however, was not strictly preserved 
in the troubled period of the Judges, nor un- 
til the time of David. Offerings were made 
in other places than the door of the taberna- 
cle ; high places, which from long use by the 
Canaanites retained a certain sanctity, were 
honored with offerings. Even the loyal Sam- 
uel followed this practice, and David endured 
it. In the kingdom of Israel, cut off as its 
subjects were from the holy city, the nation- 
al shrine was neglected.^ 

The regular sacrifices in the Temple-serv- 
ice were, (a.) Burnt -offerings. 1. The 
daily burnt-offerings. 2. The double burnt- 
offerings on the Sabbath. 3. The burnt-of- 
ferings at the great festivals.^ (&.) Meat- 
offerings. 1. The daily meat-offerings, ac- 
companying the daily burnt -offerings. 2. 



1 Exod. xxix., 38-42 ; xxx., 7, 8 ; Numb, xxviii. ; xxix. 
—2 Lev. xii. ; xiv., 1-32; xv., 13-83; Numb, vi., 9-21; 
1 Sam. XX., 6-29.-3 Lev. i., 3 : iii., 2 ; Judg. ii., 5 ; vi., 
26; xiii., 19; 1 Sam. vii., 17; 1 Kings iii., 2, 3.— 
* Exod. xxix., 38-42 ; Numb, xxviii., 9 ; xxix., 39. 



The shew -bread, renewed every Sabbath. 
3. The special meat-offerings at the Sabbath 
and the great festivals. 4. The first-fruits, 
at the Passover, at Pentecost ; the first-fruits 
of the dough and threshing-floor at the har- 
vest-time.^ (c.) Sin-offerings. 1. Sin-of- 
fering each new moon. 2. Sin-offerings at 
the Passover, Pentecost, Feast of Trumpets, 
and Tabernacles. 3. The offering of the two 
goats for the people, and of the bullock for 
the priest himself, on the Great Day of Atone- 
ment.^ (d.) Incense. 1. The morning and 
evening incense. 2. The incense on the Great 
Day of Atonement.^ Snch, briefly, were the 
ceremonial offerings of the first dispensation, 
rites by which some of the great lessons of 
the law were continually presented to the 
mind. Very beautiful and impressive were 
the lessons taught to the devout Israelite by 
the series of offerings prescribed — not a mere 
collection of unmeaning, burdensome serv- 
ices, but full of instruction, intended and 
adapted to prepare for the better covenant 
wherein the shadows would have their abid- 
ing substance. But under the multiplicity 
of these outward oblations, the Hebrews lost 
the thought in the symbol, the thing signi- 
fied in the sign ; and failing in those devotion- 
al sentiments and that practical obedience 
which offerings were intended to prefigure 
and cultivate, sank into the practice of mere 
dead works. Whereupon the prophets be- 
gan to utter their admonitions, to which 
the world is indebted for so many graphic 
descriptions of the real nature of religion 
and the only true offerings to Almighty 
God." 

Offices, the forms of prayer used in Rom- 
ish and Episcopal churches. Before the Ref- 
ormation the offices of the Church consisted 
in missals, breviaries, psalteries, graduals, and 
pontificals. See under respective title. 

Og {long-necked? or prince?), the gigantic 
king of Bashan, an Amoritish prince, who 
reigned in Ashtaroth and Edrei. He attack- 
ed the Israelites, and was overthrown and 
destroyed by them, and his kingdom was 
taken possession of and given to the half- 
tribe of Manasseh. His bedstead was pre- 
served in Rabbath of Ammon, as an evidence 
of his stature. It was of iron, nine cubits 
long, and four cubits broad. [Numb, xxi., 
33-35 ; xxxii., 33 ; Deut. i., 4 ; iii., 1-13 ; iv., 
47 ; xxix., 7, 8 ; xxxi., 4 ; Josh, ii., 10 ; ix., 10 ; 
xii., 4, 5 ; xiii., 12, 30, 31 ; 1 Kings iv., 19 ; 
Neh. ix., 22 ; Psa. cxxxv., 11 ; cxxxvi., 20.] 

Oil. Oil was very extensively used among 
the ancient Hebrews, just as it is at the pres- 
ent time throughout Western Asia. For cu- 
linary purposes it is much preferred to animal 

1 Exod. xxix., 40, 41 ; Lev. xxiii., 10-14, 17-20 ; xxiv., 

5, 9; Numb, xv., 20, 21; xxviii. ; xxix. ; Deut. xxvi., 
1-11.— 2 Lev. xvi. ; Numb, xxviii., 15, 22, 30 ; xxix., 5, 

6, 19, 22, 25, 28, 31, 34, 38.-3 Exod. xxx., 7, 8 ; Lev. 
xvi., 12. — * Isa. i., 11 ; Jer. vi., 20; vii., 21 sq. ; Hos. 
vi., 6 ; Amos v., 22 ; Mic. vi., 6 sq. ; compare Psa. xl., 
6 ; Ii., 17 sq. ; Pro v. xxi., 3. 



OLIVE 



694 OLIVES— MOUNT OF OLIVET 



fat or butter, wMcli is likely to be soon ran- 
cid, or to melt, in a warm climate. It was 
used in some of the offerings mingled with 
the meal, or for the making of unleavened 
cakes ; but it was excluded from the sin-offer- 
ing, andfrom the jealousy-offering, onaccount 
of their character of humiliation/ It was 
applied to the person in anointing (q. v. ), and 
was an ingredient in perfumes or ointment.^ 
It was employed for medicinal purposes, and 
symbolically used at the miraculous cures of 
sick persons. The bodies of the dead, too, as 
among the Greeks and Eomans, would seem 
to have been anointed with oil, or at least 
some unguent.^ Oil was also used for burn- 
ing in lamps.* In aU. these cases olive-oil 
was considered the best. From this exten- 
sive use of oil many illustrations are de- 
rived in Scripture. The use of oil betoken- 
ed gladness ; the omission of it, sorrow. It 
signified also spiritual blessing.^ It may be 
added that the first-fruits and tithes of oil 
were to be offered to the Lord. See Chrism ; 
Anointing; Olive. 

Olive. No tree is more closely associa- 
ted with the history of man. Its foliage is 
the earliest mentioned by name when the 
waters of the Flood began to retire. Next, 
we find it the most prominent tree in the 
earliest allegory. With David it is the em- 
blem of prosperity and the divine blessing ; 
and the later prophets use it as the symbol 
of beauty, luxuriance, and strength. After 
the Captivity, when the Israelites kept the 
Feast of Tabernacles, we find them, among 
other branches for the booths, bringing " ol- 
ive branches" from the ''Mount," doubtless 
the famous Olivet, or Mount of Olives. We 
can not forget that the trees of this sacred 
lull witnessed not onlv the humiliation and 




Oil-press. 



sorrow of David in Absalom's rebellion, but 
also some of the most solemn scenes in the 
life of David's Son and Lord — the prophecy 



1 Exod. xxix., 40; Lev. v., 11; vii., 12; Numb, v., 
15; vi., 15; Deut. xxxii., 13; Ezek. xvi., 13.— 2 Exod. 
XXX., 24, 25; 1 Sam. x., 1; xvi., 13; 2 Sam. xiv., 2; 
Psa. xxiii., 5; xcii., 10; civ., 15; Luke vii., 4G.— ^ Isa. 
i., 6 ; Matt, xxvi., 12 ; Mark vi., 13 ; Luke x., 34; Jas. 
v., 14, 15. — 4 Exod. xxvii., 20; Matt, xxv., 3, 4, 8.— 
5 2 Sam. xiv., 2 ; Psa. xlv., 7. 



over Jerusalem, the agony in the garden, 
and the ascension, after his resurrection, to 
heaven.^ 

The olive grows freely almost everywhere 
on the shores of the Mediterranean, but was 
peculiarly abundant in Palestine.^ The cul- 
tivation of the olive-tree had the closest con- 
nection with the domestic life of the Israel- 
ites, their trade, and even their public cere- 
monies and religious worship. Too much 
of this product was supplied for home con- 
sumption : hence Ave find the country send- 
ing it as an export to Tyre and to Egypt.^ 
The oil was used in coronations ; was mixed 
with the offerings in sacrifice ; was used for 
burning in lamps ; was employed in anoint- 
ing the hair and skin ; and was valued for 
medicinal purposes.* The berries which 
produce the oil were sometimes gathered 
by shaking the tree, sometimes by beating 
it. Then followed the processes^ for obtain- 
ing the oil. This was done sometimes by 
treading with the foot,^ sometimes by press- 
ing in a mill. The ruins of some of the an- 
cient oil-mills still remain in Palestine. Our 
illustration gives a fair idea of these ruins. 
In the groove which the reader will per- 
ceive in the face of the upright posts, a plank 
Avas moved down by a IcA^er playing upon the 
huge stone above, so as to press the. oil out 
of the olives into a stone trough or basin near 
by. The olive-tree thrives best in even and 
sunny situations. It is of moderate height, 
with knotty, gnarled trunks, and a smooth, 
ash-colored bark. The wood is hard and sol- 
id, with a fine grain, and a pleasing yellowish 
tint. It grows slowly, but it lives to an 
immense age. Its look is singularly indica- 
tive of tenacious vigor. The leaA^es, too, are 
not deciduous. Those who see the olive- 
tree for the first time 
are occasionally disap- 
pointed by the dusty 
color of its foliage ; but 
those who are famil- 
iar with it find an in- 
expressible charm in 
the rippling changes 
of these slender, gray- 
.- green leaves. [Deut. 
' xxxiii., 24 ; 1 Kings vi., 
23, 31, 32, 33 ; Job xv., 
33 ; Amos i\'., 9 ; Hab. 
iii., 17, 18; Zech. i\., 
3, 11-14 ; Mark vi., 13 ; 
Eom. xi., 16-25 ; Jas. v., 
14; Eev.xi.,3,4.] 
Olives — Mount of Olivet. Directly east 
of Jerusalem is a long ridge, with four dis- 
tinct summits, one outlier starting off to 



1 Geu. viii., 11 ; Judjr. ix., 8, 9 ; 2 Sam. xv., 30; Neh. 
viii., 15; Psa. Iii., 8; cxxviii., 3; Hos. xiv., 6; Matt, 
xxiv., 3 ; xxvi., 30 ; Acts i., 12.— 2 Deut. vi., 11 ; xxviii., 
40; 1 Chron. xxvii., 28.- ^ Ezek. xxvii., IT; Hos. xii., 
1.— ■» Exod. xxvii., 20 ; Lev. ii., 1-15 ; 1 Sam. x., 1 ; xii., 
3, 5 ; Psa. xxiii., 5; Matt, vi., 17 ; xxv., 3-8 ; Luke x., 34. 
—3 Deut. xxiv., 20; xxxiii., 24; Isa. xxiv,, 13.—^ Mic. 
vi., 15. 



OLIVES— MOUNT OF OLIVET 



695 



OLIVES— MOUNT OF OLIVET 



the north, and another to the south. This 
ridge is that known both in the O. T. and 
N. T. as the Mount of Olives, or of Olivet. 
Its four summits are now distinguished by 
traditional names: 1. The •' Galilee," from 
the supposition that there the angels stood 
and said, "Ye men of Galilee;" 2. The ''As- 
cension," the supposed scene of that event, 
and now covered by the village and mosque 
and church of the Gebel et - Tur ; 3. The 
''Prophets," from the curious catacombs, 
called the "Prophets' Tombs," on its side; 
4. The "Mount of Offense," or "Mount of 
Corruption,"^ so called from Solomon's idol- 
worship. The northern outlier has been in 
modern times usually called " Scopus ;" the 
southern, the " Hill of Evil Counsel," mark- 



have made it a constant resort for pleasure 
and seclusion. The olive and fig now alone 
remain : the olive, still in more or less abun- 
dance ; the fig, here and there on the road- 
*side ; but both enough to justify the Mus- 
sulman's belief that in the oath in the Ko- 
ran, " By the olive and the fig," the Al- 
mighty swears by his favorite city of Je- 
rusalem, with this adjacent mountain. 

The Mount of Olives was the "park" of 
Jerusalem. Its green slopes, as seen in the 
early spring, even now stand out in refresh- 
ing contrast to the dreary and withered 
ruins of the city at its foot. It was also, 
from its situation, the bulwark against any 
enemy approaching from the east, and the 
thoroughfare of any going or coming in the 




Mount of Olives. 



ed from afar by the single wind-driven tree, 
called the " Tree of Judas." From Jerusa- 
lem this long ridge forms a familiar fea- 
ture, so near, so immediately overhanging 
the town, that it almost seems to be within 
it. The olives and olive-yards, from which 
it derived its name, must in earlier times 
have clothed it far more completely than at 
present. Now it is only in the deeper and 
more secluded slope leading up to the north- 
ernmost summit that these venerable trees 
spread into any thing like a forest. In 
those times, as we see from the name of 
Bethany {house of dates), and from the al- 
lusions after the Captivity and in gospel his- 
tory, myrtle-groves, pines, and palm-trees — 
all of which have now disappeared — must 



2 Kings xxiii., 13. 



direction of the great Jordan Valley. In 
accordance with this are the few notices 
we find of it in the older history. The sac- 
rifice of the " red heifer," the only sacrifice 
which was to be performed outside the 
camp in the wilderness, was by analogy 
excluded from the Temple-courts, and yet 
was celebrated as near as possible to them. 
The slope of Olivet was the spot selected. 
David, before the Temple was built, and 
while "high places" were still recognized 
scenes of religious services, was wont to 
" worship God at the top of the Mount."^ 
Solomon, when in his later years lie toler- 
ated or adopted the idolatrous rites of his 
foreign wives, made "high places" of the 
three summits " on the right hand of the 



2 Sam. XV., 



OMNIPOTENCE 



OMNISCIENCE 



Mount of Corruption."^ With the excep- 
tion of these general allusions, there is hut 
one event in the O. T. which lends any in- 
terest to its heights. It was by the ascent 
of Mount Olivet that David went up, on his* 
flight from Jerusalem to Mahanaim, at the 
news of Absalom's revolt.'-^ It was at the 
top that he encountered Ziba and the asses, 
laden with provisions. It was, as he de- 
scended the rough road on the other side, 
that " Shimei went along on the side of 
the mountain over against him, and threw 
stones at him and cast dust."^ The picture 
of this mournful procession stands alone in 
the earlier history of the Mount of Olives. 
But the Mount is intimately associated in 
the N. T. with the last scenes in the life of 
Christ. Thither, during the last days of 
teaching in the Temple, he was wont to re- 
sort. Over it he passed on the day when 
he entered Jerusalem in triumphal proces- 
sion, and from its palm-groves the people 
gathered the branches which they strewed 
beneath his feet. From Olivet, while the 
plaudits of the multitude still rang in his 
ears, he looked upon the doomed city, and 
reflecting upon the miseries so soon to over- 
take it, wept over it bitter tears of sympa- 
thetic sorrow. On one of the rocky banks 
of the mountain he sat over against the 
Temple as the setting sun bathed the domes 
and spires of the city in gold, and foretold 
to his awe-stricken disciples its inevitable 
doom. And from Olivet, when all was done, 
the great atonement made, the victory over 
death achieved by the glorious resurrection, 
and the last charge given to the disciples, 
Christ ascended, to reign till every enemy 
should be subdued beneath his feet. [Matt, 
xxiv., 3 ; xxvi., 30 ; Mark xi., 1-20 ; xiii., 3 ; 
xiv., 26; Luke xix., 29-44; xxi., 37; xxii., 
39 ; John viii., 1 ; Acts i., 9-12.] 

Omnipotence {all poiver), the attribute 
of infinite power belonging to God alone. 
Among the distinct declarations of Scripture 
attributing such power to God are the fol- 
lowing, but they are by no means all of even 
the most important: Gen. xvii., 1 ; Exod. xv., 
11, 12 ; Deut. iii., 24 ; 1 Sam. xiv., 6 ; Psa. Ixii., 
11 ; Ixv., 6 ; cxlvii., 5 ; Dan. iv., 35 ; Matt, vi., 
13; xix., 26; Eph. L, 19; iii., 20; 1 Pet. i., 5; 
Rev. xix., 6. An examination of these pas- 
sages will show that the doctrine as declared 
in Scripture involves an absolute power over 
nature, and an equally absolute power over 
the souls of men. Both doctrines are denied 
by modern philosophy. Materialistic phi- 
losophy asserts that the world of nature is 
governed by natural laws, and practically 
denies to God the possibility of interfering 
with them. On this assumption its advo- 
cates base their denial of the doctrine of 
prayer, special Providence, and the miracles. 
Under the latter title we have shown that 



1 1 Kings xi., 7 ; 2 Kiugs xxiii., 13.— 2 2 Sam. xv., 30. 
—3 2 Sara. xvi. 



these doctrines do not necessarily involve a 
setting aside of the laws of nature, but only 
the employment or direction of them, and 
that even man possesses that power in a 
limited degree. Again, the fear of fatalism 
has led some men, in the interest of the doc- 
trine of free-will, to deny the power of God 
over the human soul. It is difficult to frame 
any philosophy which can reconcile the two 
doctrines, the divine omnipotence and hu- 
man freedom, yet Scripture and reason tes- 
tify to the one, and human consciousness to 
the other ; nor is it necessary to deny either, 
because in our imperfect knowledge we are 
unable to harmonize them. The doctrine of 
God's omnipotence involves the other, that 
human wickedness can go no further than 
God permits, and is at the basis of such prom- 
ises as John x., 28. See Law ; Miracles ; 
Predestination. 

Omnipresence (presence in every place),ilie 
attribute of divinity which enables God to 
be everywhere present at the same instant, 
or, in other words, the doctrine of divine om- 
nipresence implies that his will and power 
pervade equally the entire universe. It may 
be illustrated by the relation which the soul 
bears to the human body. As the soul per- 
vades and controls equally the whole body, 
and is alike in every part of it, so God per- 
vades and controls all the physical realm. 
The doctrine of the omnipresence of God dif- 
fers radically from pantheism (q. v.), in that 
the latter regards God as identical with na- 
ture, while the Christian doctrine of his om- 
nipresence regards him only as pervading 
and controlling all nature. Among the prin- 
cipal Scripture texts supporting this doctrine 
are Psa. cxxxix., 1-12; Isa. Ivii., 15; Jer. 
xxiii., 23, 24; Matt, xxviii., 20; Acts xvii., 
24-28. 

Omniscience. This word is composed of 
two Latin words, meaning all knowledge. 
It is used to designate one of the attributes 
of God, and to signify that all things are 
perfectly known to him. It differs from hu- 
man knowledge in several particulars ; and 
especially in that : 

1. It is perfect and absolute. We may be 
said not to know any thing absolutely. Our 
knowledge of the external world depends 
upon our senses. But our senses often de- 
ceive us, as in dreams and optical illusions. 
Our knowledge of ourselves and what is pass- 
ing in our own minds depends upon self-con- 
sciousness. But this often deceives ; so often 
that it may be truly said that no man knows 
himself. Our knowledge of the past depends 
upon testimony often inaccurate; and our 
knowledge of the future is only surmise, or 
at best a conclusion based upon premises 
and reasonings which may prove to be false. 
God's knowledge is absolutely perfect. Noth- 
ing is seen by him dimly or uncertainly. 
[Job xxxvi., 4; xxxvii., 16.] 

2. Our knowledge is limited. In the whole 



OMRI 



697 



ONYCHA 



realm of even knowable things we know but 
little; are as those that examine the stars 
and see but a few amidst the endless myriads 
which fill the sky. And there are innumer- 
able subjects which utterly surpass our com- 
prehension, are to us unknowable. But God's 
knowledge is complete and illimitable. It 
is absolutely boundless, embraces all things, 
present, past, and future. [Job xxvi., 6; 
xxviii., 24; Psa. cxxxix., 1-24; cxlvii., 5.] 

3. Our knowledge is to a large extent con- 
fined to the external world, so much so that 
some philosophers maintain that all knowl- 
edge comes to us through the senses. We 
accordingly judge of men by their external 
conduct, and, indeed, are bidden to do so. 
But God sees the heart, and knows, without 
possibility of error, what passes within the 
soul; knows us better than we can know 
ourselves. [Deut. xxxi., 21 ; 1 Chron. xxviii., 
9; Matt, vi., 4.] 

4. Properly speaking, our knowledge is 
confined to things past. But God is declared 
in the Scripture to know the future as the 
past. Even those events which depend on 
the free-will of man are represented as being 
absolutely foreknown to God. The difficul- 
ty of reconciling this doctrine with the ab- 
solute and unfettered freedom of the soul 
has led some philosophers to question it, but 
the declarations of the Bible respecting his 
foreknowledge are very clear and emphatic, 
and the whole doctrine of inspired prophecy 
rests upon it. [Job xxiii., 10 ; Isa. xlvi., 10 ; 
xlviii., 5 ; Matt, vi., 8 ; Rom. viii., 29 ; 1 Pet. 
i., 2.] 

Omri (prob. servant of Jehovah), sixth king 
of Israel, and founder of the third dynasty 
B.C. 929-918. On the murder of Elah by 
Zimri, Omri, who, as captain of the host, was 
absent at the siege of Gibbethon, was pro- 
claimed king by the army, and returning 
took Tirzah, the Israelitish capital, which 
was surrendered without serious resistance, 
Zimri perishing in the flames of the palace. 
Omri, however, was not allowed to establish 
his dynasty without a struggle against Tib- 
ni, whom " half the people " desired to raise 
to the throne. The civil war lasted four, 
perhaps five years. After the defeat and 
death of Tibni, Omri reigned for six years 
in Tirzah ; but at the end of that time he 
transferred his residence, ]}robably from the 
proved inability of Tirzah to stand a siege, 
to the mountain Shomron, better known by 
its Greek name Samaria, which he bought 
for two talents of silver from a rich man, 
otherwise unknown, called Shemer. The 
wisdom of his selection was demonstrated 
by the fact that Samaria thenceforth contin- 
ued the capital of Israel till the dissolution 
of the kingdom.^ Dying after a reign of 
twelve years, he left the kingdom to his son 
Ahab. There is some difficulty in reconcil- 
ing the statements of 1 Kings xvi., 15, with 



1 See Samaeia. 



that of verse 23. Probably the first verse 
dates Omri's reign from the death of Zimri, 
the second from the death of Tibni and the 
close of the civil war. See Zimri ; Ahab. 
[1 Kings xvi., 15-28.] 

On, a town of Lower • Egypt, which is 
mentioned in the Bible under at least two 
names, Beth-sheniesh,^ corresponding to the 
ancient Egyptian sacred name, Ha-ra, " the 
abode of the sun," and On, corresponding 
to the common name. An. It is also proba- 
bly the Aven mentioned in Ezek. xxx., 17. 
On is better known under its Greek n-ame, 
Heliopolis. It was situate on the east side 
of the Pelusiac branch of the Nile, just be- 
low the point of the Delta, and about twen- 
ty miles north-east of Memphis. The chief 
object of worship at Heliopolis was the sun, 
whose temple, described by Strabo, is now 
only represented by a single beautiful obe- 
lisk, which is of red granite, 68 feet 2 inches 
high above the pedestal. Heliopolis was 
anciently famous for its learning, and Eu- 
doxus and Plato studied under its priests. 

The first mention of this place in the Bi- 
ble is in the history of Joseph, to whom, 
we read, Pharaoh gave "to wife Asenath, 
the daughter of Potipherah, priest of On."^ 
Local tradition asserts that the ancient On 
was the place where the infant Saviour rest- 
ed when brought by his parents into Egypt, 
where he remained " until the death of Her- 
od, that (by his abode there) it might be ful- 
filled which was spoken of the Lord by the 
prophet, saying, Out of Egypt have I called 
my Son." [Hos. xi., 1 ; Matt, ii., 15.] 

Onesimus, the slave in whose behalf Paul 
wrote the Epistle to Philemon. He abscond- 
ed from his master after having defrauded 
him,^ fled to Rome, where, in the midst of 
its vast population, he could hope to be con- 
cealed, and there was converted to Chris- 
tianity by the instrumentality of Paul. Be- 
ing persuaded by him to return to his mas- 
ter, he was furnished with a letter to Phile- 
mon to recommend him, now no longer mere- 
ly a servant, but a brother also, to his former 
master. Tradition says that he was after- 
ward made bishop of Berea, and ultimately 
martyred at Rome. See Philemon (the 
Epistle to). 

Onions. Referred to in Scripture only in 
Numb, xi., 5, as one of the good things of 
EgyiDt, the loss of which the Israelites re- 
gretted. Onions have been from time im- 
memorial a favorite article of food among 
the Egyptians. They are much milder in 
flavor and less pungent than those of this 
country, and are so favorite an article of 
diet that the Turks in Egypt express the 
hope that they shall enjoy them in Para- 
dise. 

Onycha, a costly perfume imported from 
the East, probably neither a gum nor oil, but 



1 Jer. xliii., 13.— 2 Gen. xlL, 45, 50 ; xlvi., 20.— 3 Phil- 
em. 18. 



ONYX' 



698 



OEACLE 



obtained from the shell of a very scarce mus- 
cle found on the coast of India. It emits a 
sweet musky odor -syhen burned. It is men- 
tioned only in Exod. xxx., 34. 

Onyx. The onyx is mentioned in Gen. ii., 
12, as a product of the land of Havilah. Two 
of these stones, upon which were engraven 
the names of the children of Israel, six on 
either stone, adorned the shoulders of the 
high-priest's ephod, and were to be worn as 
** stones of memorial." An onyx was also 
the second stone in the fourth row of the 
saceMotal breastplate. Onyx stones were 
collected by David for adorning the Temple, 
and are mentioned as one of the treasures of 
the king of Tyre. There is nothing in the 
contexts of the several passages, where the 
Hebrew term occurs, to help us to determine 
its signification. Scholars differ in judg- 
ment, but the balance of authority is, we 
think, in favor of some variety of the stone 
known in modern times as the onyx. [Exod. 
xxviii., 9-12, 20; 1 Chron. xxix., 2; Ezek. 
xxviii., 13.] 

Ophel {a hill), a hill or ridge on the east 
of Mount Zion, surrounded and fortified by 
a separate wall. Dr. Robinson identifies 
Ophel with the continuation of Moriah, 
southward toward Siloam, between the Val- 
ley of Jehoshaphat to the east, and the Ty- 
ropoeon to the west. It is about 1550 feet 
in length, and 290 in breadth, and ends in a 
rocky bluff, forty or fifty feet above the Pool 
of Siloam. The ground is tilled and planted 
with olive and other fruit-trees. [2 Chron. 
xxvii., 3; xxxiii, 14; Neh. iii., 26, 27; xL, 
21.] 

Ophir. 1. The eleventh in order of the 
sons of Joktan, coming immediately after 
Sheba. From the way in which the sons 
of Joktan are here described, it is evident 
that this Ophir corresponds to some city, 
region, or tribe in Arabia. [Gen. x., 29; 1 
Chron. i., 23.] 

2. A sea-port or region with the same 
name is subsequently mentioned, from which 
the Hebrews, in the time of Solomon, obtain- 
ed gold, in vessels which went thither in con- 
junction with Tyrian ships from Ezion-ge- 
ber, near Elath, on that branch of the Red 
Sea which is now called the Gulf of Aka- 
bah. The gold was proverbial for its fine- 
ness, so that "gold of Ophir" is several 
times used as an expression for fine gold. 
In addition to gold, the A^essels brought 
from Ophir almug-wood and precious stones. 
The precise geographical situation of Ophir 
has long been a subject of doubt and discus- 
sion. Some scholars have placed it in Ara- 
bia, others in India, others in Africa, while 
others have suggested the hypothesis that 
there were two different places bearing the 
same name. It is pretty clear that the re- 
gion settled by the sons of Joktan was in 
Arabia, and we think, on the whole, that the 
better opinion regards the Ophir of later 



history as identical with it. There is no 
mention in the Bible or elsewhere of any 
other Ophir ; and the idea of there having 
been two Ophirs evidently arose from a per- 
ception of the obvious meaning of the 10th 
chapter of Genesis, on the one hand, coup- 
led with the erroneous opinion, on the oth- 
er, that the Ophir of the Book of Kings 
could not have been in Arabia. There do 
not, however, appear to be sufficient data 
for determining in favor of any one locality 
in Arabia. [1 Kings ix., 26-29 ; x., 11 ; xxii., 
48 ; 1 Chron. xxix., 4 ; 2 Chron. viii., 18 ; ix., 
10 ; Psa. xlv., 9 ; Job xxviii., 16 ; Isa. xiii, 12.] 

Opus Operatum (a tcorlc wrought), an ex- 
pression used to denote a doctrine held by 
the Church of Rome, that efi'ectual grace is 
necessarily connected with, and inseparable 
from, the outward administration of the sac- 
raments (q. v.). 

Oracle. This word is used in Scripture 
to denote the place where, and instrumen- 
tality through which, divine or supernatural 
instruction was given, or the instruction it- 
self. Instances of its use in the first sense 
are found in the history of the building of 
the temple by Solomon.^ These passages 
show that the term was applied to the holy 
of holies, and explain the meaning of Psa. 
xxviii., 2. The holy of holies was thus call- 
ed the oracle, because it was the place of di- 
vine manifestation, where the oracular ut- 
terances of God were to be expected, and 
where the tables written originally by the 
finger of God were inclosed in the ark — a 
place proclaiming with a divine voice to 
the Jewish people the grandeur and sanc- 
tity of their religion. The word is used in 
the second sense in the passage which lik- 
ens the counsel of Ahithophel to the oracle 
of God, and in the N. T., where it has but 
one meaning, "utterances."^ The manner 
of such utterances was various. God spake 
to his people of old in sundry times and di- 
vers manners — face to face, as with Abra- 
ham and Moses ; by dreams and visions, as 
with Joseph and Pharaoh ; by signs and to- 
kens, as with Gideon and Barak ; by proph- 
ets ; and by a regularly organized system of 
communication, as the Urim and Thummim. 
These last, which had a distinct locality, and 
were always accessible, were especially the 
Hebrew oracles, and occupied the same place 
among the ancient Jews as did the oracles 
of Delphi, Dodona, and Troj)honius among 
the Greeks.^ Heathen oracles are referred 
to several times, and that of Baalzebul or 
Baalzebub (q. v.) seems to have been very 
celebrated. They originated among the 
Egyptians, and by them were introduced, 
together with the art of divination, among 
the Greeks. The responses supposed to 



1 1 Kincs vi., 16 pq. ; 2 Chi on. iv., 20 sq.-2 2 Sam. 
xvi., 23 ; Acts vii., 3S ; Rom. iii., 2 ; Heb. v., 12 ; 1 Per. 
iv., 11.— 3 1 Sam. xxiii., 9 ; xxx., T, S. See Uiiisi and 
Thummim. 



ORATOEY 



ORDINATION 



proceed from the gods were given in sever- 
al ways. At Delphi the ^iriestess of Apollo 
was seated on a tripod over a fissure in the 
rock, from which issued an intoxicating va- 
por, under the iufluence of which the priest- 
ess delivered incoherent hexameter verses, 
which were interpreted by the priests. At 
Dodona the responses were uttered from be- 
neath the shade of a venerable oak. The 
oracle of Trophonius was in a cavern in 
which the inquirer spent the night. The 
god replied by visions, which were usually 
of so awful a character that it was said that 
he who had passed a night in the cave of 
Trophonius was never again seen to smile. 
And uniformly the answers of oracles were 
given in ambiguous terms, and capable of 
quite opposite and contradictory interpreta- 
tions. The Romans, who had the Sibylline 
books, augury, aud many other means of dis- 
covering the will of the gods, never adopted 
the oracle. The ancient Scandiu avians had 
their oracles, and it was generally believed 
by all the Northern nations that the Three 
Destinies gave forth these oracles. Some, 
among whom were nearly all the fathers of 
the early Church, contend that these oracu- 
lar responses were really given by demons ; 
citing as proof a host of testimonies to their 
truth in ancient times, the fact that all ora- 
cles died away soon after the coming of 
Christ, who gave to the early Church mi- 
raculous gifts by which such utterances 
were stopped;^ and arguing that much more 
glory is given to God by a theory which al- 
lowed the reality and continuance of dia- 
bolic power than by one which resolved all 
such wonders into mere fraud and impos- 
ture. Others, among whom are Clement of 
Alexandria, Origen, and Eusebius, maintain 
that they were but more or less refined ex- 
amples of imposture ; dwelling on the am- 
biguity of most of the recorded responses, 
which indeed were so contrived that, what- 
ever happened, the event would justify the 
oracle, the merely traditional testimony con- 
cerning those cited as true, and observing 
that oracles continued after Christ, and that 
some of the most remarkable miracles claim- 
ed by the post-apostolic Church rest upon 
that continued existence. 

Oratory, a name anciently given to places 
of public worship in general, as being houses 
of prayer ; but in later times given to small- 
er or domestic chajjels. Oratory is used 
among the Romanists to denote a closet or 
little apartment near a bed-chamber, fur- 
nished with a little altar, crucifix, and other 
furniture, suited, in their view, to a place for 
private devotion. 

Orders, in theological language the gen- 
eral description of ecclesiastical ofiflcers of 
various ranks. Thus to " take orders " is to 
be ordained as a deacon or priest. The dis- 
tinction in the primitive Church between 
» Acts xiii., 8; xvi.,16. 



the ditferent orders of church officers has 
not been very clearly preserved, and, in 
fact, was not probably very clearly defined. 
The plainest statement is that contained in 
Eph. iv., 11 ; and this would seem to indicate 
four classes of officers, each of them preach- 
ers, viz. : apostles (q. v.), who were personal 
witnesses of Christ's resurrection; proph- 
ets (q. v.), who were endowed with special 
inspiration ; evangelists, who were itiner- 
ant missionaries ; and pastors (q. v.) and 
teachers, two names for the same officer, who 
would appear to have been intrusted with 
some sj)ecial flock which he tended. In 
all Episcopal churches, including under that 
general description the Episcopal, Methodist, 
and Romish churches, three orders of clergy 
are recognized ; the bishop (q. v.), the priest, 
or presbyter or pastor (q. v.), and the deacon 
(q. v.). In the non-Episcopal churches but 
two orders are recognized, pastor and dea- 
con. The various higher officials in the 
Episcopal churches — archbishop, primate, 
metroi)olitan,etc. — all belong to the order of 
bishop ; and the lower officials, curate, rector, 
parson, etc., all belong to the order of priests 
or presbyters. There are also minor orders 
in the Roman Catholic Church, including 
doorkeepers, readers, etc. See Bishop ; Epis- 
copacy. 

Ordinal, the book which contains the 
forms observed in the Church of England 
for the ordination and consecration of bish- 
ops, priests, and deacons. It was prepared 
in the time of Edward YL, and confirmed at 
,the same time by the authority of Parlia- 
ment. 

Ordination, the rite or ceremony by which 
ministers of the Christian Church are dedi- 
cated to their sacred office. The use of a 
ceremonial for such purposes is traceable 
among the Jews ;^ and the N. T. contains 
frequent reference to the specific ceremoni- 
al of "imposition of hands."^ All Episcopal 
churches, including under that title the Rom- 
ish and Greek churches, hold that ordination 
can only be administered by a bishop. Many 
hold, therefore, that any one not so ordained 
is not a clergyman, and has no right to ad- 
minister the sacraments, nor even, perhaps, 
to preach. Intimately connected with this 
doctrine is that of apostolic succession (q.v.). 
In Presbyterian churches the power of ordi- 
nation rests with the Presbytery, and con- 
sists simply in the laying on of hands. In all 
Congregational churches, including the Bap- 
tist, ordination is only necessary for the pres- 
ervation of church order, and is held to con- 
fer no special grace or divine authority. Or- 
dination services are performed by pastors 
of other churches, usually of the same de- 
nomination. Among the Lutherans, in coun- 
tries where Lutheranism is the established 



1 Exod. xxix., 24; Lev. xxi., 10; Numb, iii., 3.- 
2 Acts vi., 1-7; xiii., 1^; xiv., 23; 1 Tim. iv., 14; v. 
22 ; 2 Tim. i., 6. 



OREB 



700 



ORIGINAL SIN 



Churcli, the superintendent or bishop or- 
dains ; in other countries, the rite of ordina- 
tion is administered by other clergy. The 
qualifications of candidates for ordination 
are also different in different churches. In 
the early Church every candidate for ordina- 
tion was required to undergo a strict exam- 
ination in regard both to his faith and to his 
morals and worldly condition. The conduct 
of the examination was intrusted chiefly to 
the bishops, but it was held in public, and 
the people were allowed to take a part in it. 
By a law of Justinian each candidate was 
required to give a written statement of his 
religious opinions in his own handwriting, 
and to take a solemn oath against simony. 
It was decreed also, by a council in the be- 
ginning of the ninth century, that every 
candidate should go through a course of 
preparation, or probation, previous to his 
being ordained. Some form of examination, 
or some public and solemn acceptance of the 
standards of the Church, is required by all 
modern denominations previous to ordina- 
tion. Some few denominations, as the Plym- 
outh Brethren, have no ceremony of ordina- 
tion, and no ordained clergymen. 

Oreb, the " raven " or " crow," the com- 
panion of Zeeb, the " wolf," was one of the 
chieftains of the Midianite host which in- 
vaded Israel, and was defeated and driven 
back by Gideon. The defeat is but slightly 
touched upon in the narrative of Judges, but 
the terms in which Isaiah refers to it are 
such as to imply that it was a truly awful 
slaughter. He places it in the same rank 
with the two most tremendous disasters re- 
corded in the whole of the history of Israel 
— the destruction of the Egyptians in the 
Red Sea, and of the army of Sennacherib. 
The slaughter was concentrated round the 
rock at which Oreb fell, and which was long 
known by his name. [ Judg. vii., 25 ; Isa. x., 
26; compare Psa.lxxxiii.] 

Original Sin. " By original sin," says Dr. 
Edwards, " as the phrase has been most com- 
monly used by divines, is meant the innate 
sinful depravity of the heart." That there 
is a depravity of the passions, appetites, and 
will, which early leads the soul astray is 
doubted by few or none. The question of 
personal responsibility for this depraved na- 
ture has been a fruitful source of theological 
controversy. The fact is that all men are 
sinners, and sinners from infancy. The ques- 
tion is, how can they justly be held responsi- 
ble for a sinful disposition, which was none 
of their choosing, but with which they were 
endowed by divine decree ? Conscience con- 
demns us for our sinful appetites and pas- 
sions. But though this testimony of con- 
science is unanimous, the philosophers are 
not able to agree in stating the philosophical 
grounds on which this universal conscious- 
ness of guilt rests. Without entering into 
the controversy on the subject, we shall state 



the four principal hypotheses, to one or the 
other of which all the various explanations 
offered may probably be reduced. 

1. The first theory is that the whole hu- 
man race was literally in Adam as the oak 
is in the acorn, and thus participated in his 
transgression. In other words, the race is 
a unit, and God deals with it as a unit — 
not with individuals as individuals. Thus, 
though unconsciously, every soul participa- 
ted in the first great transgression, and, in 
the words of the catechism, " sinned in him 
(Adam), and fell with him in that first trans- 
gression." 

2. The second theory is that Adam was 
the representative of the race; that as a 
king, or as an ambassador, or a congress, 
represent the nation, and the entire nation 
is held responsible for the act of its repre- 
sentative, so Adam represented the human 
race, was chosen as the type to stand for hu- 
manity, and by his trial the whole race was 
tried, thus sinning in his sin, and falling in 
his fall. Acting thus as representative for 
the race, his sin was imputed, i. e., charged to 
the whole race. It is said, moreover, that in 
point of fact this choice of Adam as a repre- 
sentative was not arbitrary, that Adam and 
Eve fairly represented the race, and that the 
continual sin of his descendants, placed in 
similar circumstances of trial, shows that no 
injustice was done by submitting them to a 
trial in the person of such a representative. 

3. The third theory can perhaps hardly be 
termed a theory; it is rather a generalization. 
Adam, it is said, in fact fell, and, in falling, 
became a sinner. The universal law of na- 
ture is that like begets like. So all his de- 
scendants have inherited from him a nature 
like his own, a nature depraved and prone 
to sin. Those who maintain this theory add, 
usually, that man is not responsible for this 
depraved nature, and that he is not in any 
strict sense guilty before God for it; that 
while infants must be redeemed from it 
through the power of God in Christ Jesus, 
because nothing impure can enter heaven, 
still they can not be said to be guilty until 
they have arrived at an age when they are 
capable of choosing between good and evil, 
and that they are then held responsible for 
that voluntary choice, and for that alone. 
In other words, this school distinguishes be- 
tween sin and depravity, holding all sin to 
consist in voluntary action, and depravity 
to be simply that disordered state of the 
soul which renders it prone to commit sin.^ 

4. The fourth theory, known in theologic- 
al language, from its most eminent expound- 
er, Pelagius, as Pelagianism, denies that there 
is any connection between Adam and his 
posterity, or that the race is in any sense 
held responsibfe for, or on account of, Adam's 
sin. Each soul, according to this theory, is 
created as was Adam, pure and innocent, and 



1 See Depravity ; Sin. 



OEION 



701 



ORNAMENTS 



undetermined toward either sin or holiness. 
Each soul for itself chooses its own destiny 
by its voluntary choice of good or evil, right 
or wrong. The universality of sinfulness, it 
is said, is sufficiently explained by the evil 
influence and example of those by whom the 
young are from their earliest years surround- 
ed. According to this theory, it is possible, 
or at least quite conceivable, that a man 
should be utterly sinless, and in such a case 
there would be no need of any divine Saviour 
or any regenerating Spiiit. That need is 
occasioned in each individual case by each 
individual deliberately choosing for himself 
the way of sin. A modification of this view, 
and by which there is an endeavor to combine 
with the others, is termed Semi-Pelagianism. 

The first two of these views are held, one 
or the other of them, by those who are known 
in modern times as belonging to the Old 
School ; the third is the view generally en- 
tertained by the New School divines in the 
Presbyterian Church, by a majority of the 
Congregationalists, and by large numbers 
among the Episcopalians and Methodists. 
The fourth view is that generally held by 
the Unitarians and Universalists. Accord- 
ing to the first two the entire race is treated 
by God as a unit, and is, because of Adam's 
sin, under Divine condemnation, and, irre- 
spective of the sin or the virtue of the indi- 
vidual, requires to be pardoned and redeem- 
ed ; according to the third, mankind are over- 
whelmed in ruin, which Adam brought upon 
the race, but are not guilty except as they 
become so personally by their individual 
conduct; according to the fourth, there is 
no ruin except that which each individual 
brings upon himself, and no need of redemp- 
tion except such as sj)rings from the individ- 
ual's own guilt in departing from God and 
disobeying his law. It has been well said 
that the first two represent man as morally 
dead, the third as morally sick, the fourth as 
morally well. 

Orion. This word occurs three times in 
our version as the rendering of the Hebrew 
word cJiesel; and there can be little doubt 
that the translation is a just one, and that 
the well-known brilliant constellation south 
of Taurus and Gemini is intended. [Job ix., 
9; xxxviii.,31; Amos v., 8.] 

Ormuzd, the supremely Good Being, ac- 
cording to the system of the ancient Per- 
sians ; not, however, original and underived, 
but the offspring of illimitable Time. They 
represent a perpetual contest between Or- 
muyd, the Prince of Light, and Ahriman 
(q. v.), the Prince of Darkness. A peace 
was finally concluded upon condition that 
the earth should be given over to Ahriman 
for 7000 years, and afterward restored to Or- 
muyd. Upon this restoration, they say, man 
shall become immortal, the earth shall re- 
sume her native beauty, and none but the 
righteous shall inhabit it. 



Ornaments. I. Ecclesiastical. — Under this 
title we class the various minor utensils and 
articles of furniture of the ritualistic church- 
es. Their number is great, especially in the 
Romish and Greek churches, and in the rit- 
ualistic churches of paganism. Without en- 
deavoring to give a complete list of these, 
we embody in this article a concise descrip- 
tion of the chief articles used in the ritual- 
istic churches of Christendom, and their sup- 
posed significance, taking it largely from a 
curious little book written in defense of ex- 
treme ritualism, and entitled ''The Ritual 
Reason Why." 

The altar-rail is a rail which separates the 
altar from the rest of the chancel, because it 
symbolizes the Holy of Holies in the Tem- 
])le ; the altar-cloth veils it as a token of re- 
spect, and to mark the different seasons of 
the Church by a change of colors, which are 
five in number: the lights are emblematic 
of Christ, the light of the world, and also 
signs of spiritual light and joy; flowers are 
used for the same purpose ; the credence-tahle 
(q. V.) is used for the preparation of the ele- 
ments for the communion before they are 
placed on the altar; the seclilia are the seats 
of the lesser clergy, arranged according to 
their rank ; the paten is a thin dish of gold 
or silver gilt, on which the altar breads are 
placed for consecration and for communion ; 
the ciborium is a kind of shallow cup used 
for the same purpose ; the chalice is the cup 
for holding the consecrated wine ; the chal- 
ice-veil is a square of embroidered silk for 
covering it when empty; the corporal is a 
napkin of fine linen spread on the altar at 
the time of the communion ; the cruets are 
vessels of glass or metal for holding the sa- 
cred wine, and for water ; the pyx is a met- 
al canister lined with linen in which the 
bread is kept till required for use ; the l)asin 
and naphin are used for washing the priests' 
hands ; the piscina is a small stone basin set 
in the wall, and used for the same purpose ; 
the lectern (q. v.) is the name given to the 
reading-desk ; the censer, or thurible, is a ves- 
sel of metal, usually in the shape of a cup, 
with a perforated cover, in which incense is 
offered ; the sanctus hell is a small bell used 
to give notice of the elevation of the host, 
or eucharistic bread; the houseling - cloth is 
spread over the altar-rails, or before the 
communicants, to prevent any of the bread 
falling to the ground. There are other ar- 
ticles, especially different kinds of candles 
and candlesticks, used in and about the al- 
tar and in •processions ; but these are the 
most important, except such as are worn 
upon the person, for which see article Vest- 
ments. 

II. Jewish. — These ornaments were much 
worn by all the Oriental nations. Men, 
as well as women, wore bracelets, amulets, 
charms, and rings. They were especially 
used in times of festivity, and were taken 



OENAMENTS 



702 



OENAMENTS 




Ecclesiastical Oruameuts aud Vestments. 
1 Cassock • 2. Cotta and Cassock ; 3. Surplice and Cassock ; 4. Rochet and Cassock ; 5. Cope ; 6. Stole ; T. Alb ; 
*S Chasuble; 9. Censer-, 10. Chalice; 11. Cruet; 12. Maniple; 13. Amice: 14. Ciborium ; 15. Burse; 16. Pyx; 
17. Chalice-veil. [For description of the first eight figures, see article Vestments.] 



ORNAMENTS 



703 



ORTHODOX 



off in times of mourning. Eings were worn 
both in the nose and in the ears. The for- 
mer were sometimes so large that they hung 
down over the mouth, and had to be lifted 
up while eating. Signet-rings ornamented 
and often loaded the fingers ; and bracelets 
and armlets were worn by both men and 
women, often in such profusion as to cover 
the arm from the wrist to the elbow. The 
legs, also, were ornamented with anklets; 
these were fastened together by means of 
chains, so that the Oriental women were 
compelled to measure off even little steps, 
and walk with a mincing gait. So fond 



concealment applied to the face. A graph- 
ic description of the dress of a Jewish belle 
is afforded in Isaiah iii., 18-24, but in terms 
which render it but partially intelligible to 
the ordinary reader. 

Orthodox. This word is composed of two 
Greek words meaning right opinion. In the- 
ology it is employed to indicate the views of 
those who are sound in the Christian faith ; 
as heterodox, i. e., other opinion, is used to in- 
dicate the views of those who are unsound 
in Christian faith. But as every one thinks 
that he is sound, and those who oppose him 
are unsound, of course each sect is, in its 




Jewish Ornaments. 
1. Necklace; 2. Anklets; 3. Ear-drops; 4. Bracelets. 



were they of displaying these ornaments, 
that Mohammed, in the Koran, forbade the 
wearing of them. The heads were orna- 
mented with "cauls," i e., caps of net-work, 
or perhaps spangles fastened into the hair, 
and with various head-dresses, as the tiara, 
the turban, and the muffler, the latter a thin 
slight veil in two parts, which covered the 
forehead and the lower part of the face, leav- 
ing an opening for the eyes. Round tires, 
in shape like the moon, were worn around 
the neck, and chains from which depended 
sacred amulets. Boxes of perfume were 
carried in the hand, while cosmetics of va- 
rious description were freely and without 



own opinion, orthodox. In ordinary usage, 
however, the term orthodox is employed to 
designate the common creed of Protestant 
Christendom. All those churches are said 
to be orthodox which accept the inspiration 
of the Bible, and base their theology upon 
it, maintaining the sinfulness of man, the 
forgiveness of sins through the atonement, 
and the doctrines of the Trinity, the resur- 
rection of the dead, the judgment and eter- 
nal punishment. In New England the term 
is employed to distinguish those Congrega- 
tional churches which hold this creed from 
the Unitarian and Universalist churches, 
which are also conjjreffational in form of 



OSPEEY 



704 



OSTEICH 



goYernment. See article Evangelicai., 
where the creed, held in common by the 
orthodox churches, is given. 

Osprey, an unclean bird mentioned only 
in the Mosaic law. There is a difference of 
opinion in respect to it, but probably the 
translation of our version is correct. The 
osprey is spread over a very large range of 
country, being found in the New World as 
well as the Old. 

In consequence of its peculiar habits, it 
is often called the fishing-eagle. It seems 
strange that a predacious bird allied to the 
eagles, none of which can swim, much less 
dive, should obtain its living from the wa- 
ter; yet the osprey does on a large scale 
what the kingfisher does on a small one, 
and contrives to take abundant food from 
the water. 

The bird is furnished with long, very sharp, 
and boldly-hooked talons, which force them- 
selves into the sides of a fish, and hold it 
as with graj)pling-irons while it is carried, 
struggling, to the shore to be devoured. 
[Lev, xi., 13 ; Dent, xiv., 12.] 

Ossifrage (bone-hrealcer), an unclean bird, 
mentioned only in the Mosaic law. The 
word may be a general term for any of the 
larger falconidse, but, from the etymology 
of the word, it is supposed that the bird 
specially intended is identical with the 
bearded vulture. It is one of the largest 
of the flying birds, its length often exceed- 
ing four feet, and the expanse of its wings 
being rather more than ten feet. In con- 
sequence of this great spread of wing, it 
looks, when flying, like a much larger bird 
than it really is. It has a curious habit of 
breaking the bones of the animals upon 
which it preys, in order to extract the mar- 
row contained in them. The bird seizes 
the bone in its claws, rises to an immense 
height in the air, and then, balancing it- 
self over some piece of rock, lets the bone 
fall and sweeps after it with great rapidity. 
It often breaks the shells of tortoises by 
the same means. [Lev. xi., 13 ; Dent, xiv., 
12.] 

Ostrich. The ostrich is mentioned eight 
times in Scripture, though the word appears 
only three times in our version, because a 
Hel3rew term which undoubtedly refers to 
the ostrich has been rendered " owl" by our 
translators. In the vivid description of the 
bird in the book of Job,^ the language is ev- 
idently poetical, presenting the appearance 
of the bird as seen by a casual observer. 
Scientific accuracy is not attempted. The 
plumes of the ostrich were formerly used as 
emblems of rank ; pcrhai^s the sacred poet 
alludes so prominently to the feathers be- 
cause of their being held in such high esti- 
mation as princely ornaments. Several fe- 
male ostriches lay their eggs in one nest, 
which is merely a hole scratched in the 



Job xxxix., 13-19. 



sand; the eggs are then covered over to 
the depth of about a foot, and are, in the 
case of those birds which are found within 
the tropics, generally left for the greater 
part of the day to the heat of the sun, the 
parent-birds taking their turns at incuba- 
tion during the night. But an impression 
of carelessness in the bird is given by the 
multitude of supplementary eggs left scat- 
tered about on the sand, so that they may 
easily be crushed by the hoof of a horse, 
if not by foot of man, and are often eaten, 
not only by beasts, but also by birds of prey. 
Naturalists have discovered that these eggs 
are the mother's provision to nourish the 
young birds until they are able to forage 
for themselves. Probably the idea that the 
ostrich is cruel toward its young is derived 
from the fact that if a flock of ostriches be 
chased, and among them there be some very 
young birds, these are left behind by their 
parents, to fall a prey to the hunters. But 
in reality the ostrich has no choice in the 
matter. Nature has not furnished it with 
weapons by means of which it can fight for 
them ; consequently, it is forced to use the 
only means of escape by which it can avoid 
sacrificing its own life as well as the lives of 
its young. The young are protected in some 
degree by their color. Their downy plum- 
age harmonizes completely with the sandy 
and stony ground, even when they run ; and 
when they crouch to the earth, as is their 
manner when alarmed, even the most prac- 
ticed eye can scarcely discover them. The 
ostrich has several curious habits, which 
have given it such a reputation for stupid- 
ity, that "stupid as an ostrich" has become 
a proverb among the Arabs. When hunted, 
it will thrust its head into a bush, seeming 
to suppose that it is thus concealed from 
the hunter. It will swallow knives, stones, 
bits of bone or metal, and has even been 
known to surprise its stomach with bullets 
hot from the mold. The ostrich is the 
largest of all known birds, and swiftest of 
all running animals. Its wings are useless 
for flight, but are spread as sails, and so 
used, to assist it in running. The state- 
ment, " she scorneth the horse and his 
rider," seems literally true. Although the 
ostrich, like many other inhabitants of the 
desert, can live for a long time without 
water, yet it is forced to drink, and, like the 
camel, which it resembles in many of its 
characteristics, drinks enormously, taking 
in the water by a succession of gulps. The 
cry of the ostrich is a deep bellow, which 
so resembles the roar of the lion, that even 
practiced ears can scarcely distinguish the 
roar of the animal from the cry of the bird. 
It is evidently to this cry that the prophet 
Micah alludes : "I will make a wailing like 
the dragons, and mourning as the owls" (os- 
triches).^ 



1 Mic. i., 8. 



OTHNIEL 



705 



PAGODA 



Othniel (lion of God), a valiant warrior 
of the tribe of Judah at the time of the con- 
quest, and latterly designated a judge of 
Israel. When first mentioned, he is called 
" Othniel the son of Keuaz, the brother of 
Caleb."^ It is a question whether the term 
" brother " here is understood of Kenaz the 
nearer name, or Othniel the more remote. 
The better oi^inion appears to be that Kenaz 
was the brother of Caleb, and Othniel his 
nephew. Othniel gained his wife Achsah 
as a reward for his valor in the capture of 
Kirjath-sepher, or Debir (q. v.). He subse- 
quently delivered the Israelites from their 
heathen oppressors, and became the first of 
their judges. [Josh, xv., 17 5 Judg. i., 13; 
iii., 9-11.] 

Owl. Owls are several times mentioned 
in Scripture ; mistakes, however, have un- 
questionably been made by our translators 
in regard to some of the words which they 
have translated " owl." Thus, the " owl," 
forbidden as food in the Mosaic law, is cer- 
tainly the ostrich. It is probable that the 
words translated "little owl" and "great 
owl" in the same passage have been correct- 
ly rendered, though scholars are not quite 



agreed on the question ; and it is impossible 
to determine the particular species to which 
each word refers. It is supposed that " the 
little owl " may be a term including several 
of the smaller owls of Palestine. One of 
these seems identical with the little night 
owl of England ; others represent our screech- 
owl and common barn-owl. "The great 
owl" is probably the Egyptian eagle owl, a 
bird which is closely allied to the Virginian 
eared owl of America. This fine bird meas- 
ures some two feet in length, and looks much 
larger than its real size, owing to its thick, 
light feathers. It hides during the day in 
some dark deserted place, its enormous eyes 
not being able to endure the light of day. 
In the evening it comes out to seek its prey, 
which consists of smaller birds, quadrupeds, 
fish, reptiles, and even insects, when it can 
find nothing better. In the prophecy of Isa- 
iah against Idumea, the owl is several times 
mentioned as a type of desolation. Some 
scholars have supposed that the " screech- 
owl," in verse 14, merely represents some my- 
thological being, introduced to lend gloomy 
weirdness to the picture. [Lev. xi., 16; Deut. 
xiv., 15 ; Isa. xxxiv., 10-16.] 



Pacification (Edicts of), a name given to 
certain edicts issued by sovereigns of France, 
intended, under special circumstances, to af- 
ford toleration to the Reformed Church of 
that country. The first edict of this kind 
was granted by Charles IX., in 1562, and re- 
peated the following year. The successive 
edicts proclaimed by Charles IX, instead of 
bringing relief to the Protestants, only served 
to lull them into a false and deceitful securi- 
ty, while the cruel monarch was preparing 
the way for the Bartholomew massacre, on 
the 25th of August, 1572."^ The most famous 
edict of pacification, however, was the Edict 
of Nantes, issued by Henry IV. in 1598, the 
most effectual measure of relief which the 
French Protestants had ever enjoyed. By 
this edict of toleration they were allowed 
the free exercise of their religion, declared 
to be eligible to all public oflBces, and placed 
in all respects on a footing of equality with 
their Roman Catholic fellow-subjects. 

Pagans (country men). It is said that this 
name is derived from the fact that, when 
Constantine and his successors forbade the 
worship of the heathen deities in the cities, 
its adherents retired to the villages, where 
they could practice their rites secretly and 
safely ; whence they were called pagans, i. e., 
country men. The name is now given to all 
those who not merely reject Christianity, but 
who worship other than the one true God. 



of). 



Josh. XV., 17.— 2 See Baetholomew, St. (Massaoke 
45 



The whole human race may be said to be 
divided into Jews, Mohammedans, Christians, 
and Pagans. The pagan religions of the 
world may be briefly defined as follows: 
That of Japan, Buddhism and Sintoism ; of 
China, Buddhism and Confucianism ; of Tar- 
tary, Lamaism ; of India, Brahmanism, Bud- 
dhism, Thugism, and the religion of the Par- 
sees ; of Persia, Mohammedanism and the Zo- 
roastrian religion ; of Africa, Fetichism ; of 
Polynesia, Image- worship and Hero-worship ; 
of the ancient aborigines of Lapland, Green- 
land, and North America, a peculiar combi- 
nation of spirit and fetich worship, described 
under the article Indians. For* an account 
of various forms of paganism, see under re- 
spective titles as given above. The entire 
pagan population of the world is estimated 
in Johnson's " Family Atlas " at 766,342,000, 
distributed as follows : 

America 3,899,000 

Asia 666,251,000 

Africa 94,972,000 

Australasia and Polynesia 1,220,000 

766,342,000 

Against this there is an estimated Chris- 
tian population, including Protestant, Ro- 
man Catholic, and Greek communions, of 
369,969,000 ; a Mohammedan population of 
160,823,000; and a Jewish population of 
6,000,000. 

Pagoda (a house of idols). In Hindoostan, 
Burmah, and China, it implies a temple in 
which idols are worshiped. The light of 



PAINT. PAINTING 



706 



PALESTINE 



day is usually admitted only by the front ' 
door when thrown wide open, as there are 
few or no windows- Darkness is thus min- 
gled with light in the idol cell, and tends to 
add to the mysteriousness of the scene. A 
pagoda for Hindoo worship generally con- 
sists of an outer court, usually a quadran- 
gle, sometimes surrounded by a piazza, and 
a central edifice constituting the shrine, 
which again is divided into two parts, the 
sabha, or vestibule, and the garbha-griha, or 
adytum, in which the image is placed. 

Paint, Painting. There is no reason to 
suppose that the art of painting was culti- 
vated among the Hebrews. But buildings 
were decorated with painting. The walls 
and beams of houses were covered with ver- 
milion ; and figures, probably of idols, were 
depicted on the walls of temples. The As- 
syrian discoveries have illustrated these cus- 
toms. Dr. Layard found the Avails of vari- 
ous chambers in the palaces of Nimroud 
constructed of sun-dried brick, covered with 
plaster coating, on which were painted fig- 
ures and ornamental devices. On the walls 
of Egyptian monuments, also, paintings have 
been discovered. 

The use of paint as a cosmetic has pre- 
vailed in all ages in Eastern countries. It 
does not appear, however, to have been by 
any means universal among the Hebrews. 
The notices of it are few ; and in each in- 
stance it seems to have been used as a mere- 
tricious art, unworthy of a woman of high 
character.^ The Bible gives no indication 
of the substance out of which the dye was 
formed. A dye is at the present day pro- 
duced from the henna-plant, and is exten- 
sively applied to the hands and hair. An- 
timony is also used for the purpose in Ara- 
bia and in Persia; but in Egypt a soot is 
produced by burning either a kind of frank- 
incense or the shells of almonds. The dye- 
stuff was moistened with oil, and kept in a 
small jar. The probe with which it was 
applied was made either of wood, silver, or 
ivory, and had a blunted point. Both the 
probe and the jar have frequently been dis- 
covered in Egyptian tombs. Whether the 
custom of staining the hands and feet, par- 
ticularly the nails, now so prevalent in the 
East, was known to the Hebrews is doubt- 
ful. See Eye. 

Palace. This word, as used in Scripture, 
often denotes the entire mass of buildings, 
courts, and gardens contained within the 
external wall inclosing a royal residence. 
Sometimes, however^ it designates -a citadel 
or fortress, like the keep of a more modern 
castle. Some of the ancient palaces, as that 
at Shushan,for example, were of great mag- 
nificence. Solomon's palace occupied thir- 
teen years in building ; and we may readily 
suppose, from the unlimited resources at the 
sovereign's command, that it equaled, prob- 



1 2 Kings ix., 30 ; Jer. iv., 30 ; Ezek. xxiii., 40, 



ably exceeded, any palace of which history 
gives account.^ Modern plans of it have 
been drawn ; they are, however, almost en- 
tirely conjectural. In the New Testament 
the name was given to the residence of any 
man of rank and wealth. The ''palace" of 
Phil, i., 13, must have been the barrack of 
the Praetorian guards attached to the emper- 
or's palace. [1 Kings vii., 1 ; Dan. i., 4 ; iv., 
4, 29 ; Matt, xxvi., 3 ; Mark xiv., 66 ; Luke 
xi., 21 ; John xviii., 15.] 

Palestine. This word and its correspond- 
ent, Palestina, occurs but three times in the 
English Bible,^ and then refers not to the 
entire land now so designated, but to the 
plains in the south - west angle ; in other 
words, to Philistia. But the name is now 
so universally applied to the country for- 
merly inhabited by the Jewish nation, that 
we gather under this title the principal in- 
formation respecting its physical and polit- 
ical geography, leaving its history, as the 
description of its special localities, to be 
treated of under other titles. 

I. Hie Name. — The earliest name of Pal- 
estine appears to have been Canaan, or Land 
of Canaan, derived from the descendants of 
Moab, whose offspring were its first settlers. 
A little later came the name ''Land of the 
Hebrews." Then the whole, receiving by 
accommodation the title which strictly be- 
longed to a part only, was designated as 
" Judea" (q. v.), or the "Land of Judea," 
though properly only the southern prov- 
ince constituted Judea, and the northern 
province Israel. "The Land," "the Land 
of Promise," and " the Land of Jehovah," 
are also applied to it in the Bible. The 
term "Holy Land," though found in the 
rabbinical writers and in Philo, dates its 
extensive use from the days of the Cru- 
sades, and does not occur in Scripture at all. 

II. Physical Geography. — The size of Pales- 
tine is in striking contrast with tlie impor- 
tant part it has played in the bistory of 
mankind. In size and shape it does not 
differ widely from Vermont. In round num- 
bers, its length may be stated at 180 miles ; 
its average breadth at 65. But within this 
area there commingle, in a remarkable de- 
gree, the characteristics of the three great 
continents at the junction of which it is 
placed. In Southern Judea the desert of 
Africa obtrudes from below. Bordering the 
Mediterranean Sea are plains whose fertili- 
ty is not exceeded by that of any plain of 
Europe. In Central Palestine is repeated 
the hill country, which constitutes the char- 
acteristic feature of Southern Scotland. On 
its northern boundary are mountain-chains 
whose rugged steeps rival the White Mount- 
ains or the Alps. Embosomed in the hills 
of Galilee are lakes, unsurpassed for their 
great beauty. On the north Mount Hermon 

1 See Solomon.— 2 Exod. xv., 14 ; Isa. xiv., 29, 31 ; 
Joeliii.,4., 



PALESTINE 



707 



PALESTINE 



lifts its head, 
wrapped in per- 
petual snow, 
3000 feet above 
our own Mount 
Wasliin gton. 
The waters of 
the Dead Sea lie 
in a basin scoop- 
ed out of the sol- 
id rock, nearly, 
if not quite, as 
far below the lev- 
el of the ocean 
as the deepest 
mines of Corn- 
waU. The Jor- 
dan, a mountain 
stream whose 
tumultuous tor- 
rent finds no 
equal in any riv- 
er of its size and 
length in the 
world, Carrie 
the snows of 
the one into the 
briny waters of 
the other. With- 
in sight of its 
central hills beat 
the waves of the 
Mediterranean 
upon 150 miles 
of coast. So 
that in this one 
province, small- 
er than Massa- 
chusetts or Ver- 
mont, are min- 
gled the oceau, 
the mountain, 
the valley, the 
river, the lake, 
the desert, and 
the plain. By 
its physical fea- 
tures, Palestine 
is divided into 
three long and 
narrow sections 

parallel to each other, and nearly parallel to 
the coast — the valley of the Jordan, with 
the Dead Sea ; the hill country of Central 
Palestine ; and the rich and fertile lowlands 
which border the Mediterranean. 

I. The Jordan Valley. — This valley begins 
with the river at its remotest springs of 
Hasbeiya, on the north-west side of Her- 
mon, and accompanies it to the lower end 
of the Dead Sea, a length of about 150 
miles. During the whole of this distance 
its course is very winding, though its gen- 
eral direction is nearly due north and south. 







Physical Map of Palestine. 



northern end of the Dead Sea is 1317 feet 
below it, so that between these two points 
the valley falls with more or less regulari- 
ty through a height of more than 3000 feet. 
In width the valley varies. In its upper 
and shallower portion, as between Banias 
and Lake Merom (Huleh), it is about iiv© 
miles across. Between Lake Merom and 
the Sea of Galilee it contracts, and becomes 
more of an ordinary ravine or glen. It is in 
its third and lower portion that the valley 
assumes its more definite and regular char- 
acter. During the greater part of this por- 
The springs of Hasbeiya are 1700 feet above tion, it is about seven miles wide from the 
the level of the Mediterranean, and the ! one wall to the other. The eastern mount- 



PALESTINE 



708 



PALESTINE 




Map of Palestine iu the Time of Christ. 



PALESTINE 



709 



PALESTINE 



ains preserve their straight line of direction, 
and their massive horizontal wall-like aspect, 
during almost the whole distance. The west- 
ern mountains are more irregular in height, 
their slopes less vertical. North of Jericho 
they recede in a kind of wide amphitheatre, 
and the valley becomes twelve miles hroad 
— a breadth which it thenceforward retains 
to the southern extremity of the Dead Sea. 
Buried as it is between such lofty ranges, 
and shielded from every breeze, the climate 
of the Jordan Valley is extremely hot and 
relaxing. Its enervating influence is shown 
in the inhabitants of Jericho, who are to this 
day prone to the vices which brought de- 
struction upon the people of Sodom and Go- 
morrah. 

II. The Hill Country. — West of the Jordan 
Valley the land rises by an ascent in the 
south even precipitous, to an elevated range 
of hills. This central hill country, intersect- 
ed by broad lowland plains, preserves from 
north to south a remarkably even and hori- 
zontal profile. Its average height may be 
taken as 1500 to 1800 feet above the Mediter- 
ranean. It can hardly be denominated a 
plateau, yet so evenly is the general level 
preserved, and so thickly do the hills stand 
behind and between one another, that, when 
seen from the coast or the western part of 
the maritime plain, it has quite the appear- 
ance of a wall, standing in the background 
of the rich district between it and the ob- 
server — a district which, from its gentle un- 
dulations, and its being so nearly on a level 
with the eye, appears almost immeasurable 
in extent. This general monotony of profile 
is, however, accentuated at intervals by cer- 
tain centres of elevation. Beginning from 
the south, they are : Hebron, 3029 feet above 
the Mediterranean ; Jerusalem, 2610 ; Mount 
of Olives, 2724 ; Bethel, 2400 ; Ebal and Ger- 
izim, 2700; Little Hermon and Tabor (on the 
north side of the plain of Esdraelon), 1900 ; 
Safed, 2775 ; Jebel Jurmuk, 4000. Between 
these elevated points runs the water-shed of 
the country, sending off on either hand — to 
the Jordan Valley on the east and the Medi- 
terranean on the west, the long tortuous arms 
of its many torrent beds. These valleys dif- 
fer considerably in character. Those on the 
east — owing to the extraordinary depth 
of the Jordan Valley — are extremely steep 
and rugged, especially in the southern and 
middle portions of the country. The west- 
ern valleys are more gradual in their slope. 
The level of the external plain on this side 
is higher, and therefore the fall less, while 
at the same time the distance to be traversed 
is much greater. Still, here the valleys are 
the only means of communication between 
the lowland and the highland. And these 
western valleys, though easier than those on 
the eastern side, are of such a nature as to 
present great difficulties to the passage of 
any large force encumbered with baggage. 



In fact, these mountain passes really formed 
the security of Israel ; and if she had been 
wise enough to settle her own intestine quar- 
rels without reference to foreigners, the na- 
tion might, humanly speaking, have stood to 
the present hour. 

When the highlands of the country are 
closely examined, a considerable difference 
will be found to exist in the natural condi- 
tion and appearance of their different por- 
tions. The south, being nearer the arid des- 
ert, and farther removed from the drainage 
of the mountains, is drier and less productive 
than the north. The tract below Hebron, 
which forms the link between the hills of 
Judah and the desert, was known to the an- 
cient Hebrews by a term originally derived 
from its dryness. This was "The south 
country." It contained the territory which 
Caleb bestowed on his daughter, and which 
he had afterward to endow specially with 
the "upper and lower springs" of a less 
parched locality.^ Here lived Nabal, so 
chary of his " water ;"^ and here may well 
have been the scene of the composition of 
the sixty-third Psalm — the " dry and thirsty 
land where no water is." As the traveler 
advances north of this tract there is an im- 
provement ; but perhaps no country equally 
cultivated is more monotonous, bare, or un- 
inviting in its aspect than a great part of 
the highlands of Judah and Benjamin during 
the largest portion of the year. The spring 
covers even those bald gray rocks with verd- 
ure and color, and fills the ravines with 
torrents of rushing water ; but the flowers, 
which for a few weeks give so brilliant and 
varied hues to whole districts, wither and 
vanish before the first fierce rays of the sun 
of summer ; they are " to-day in the field, to- 
morrow cast into the oven." Eounded hills 
of moderate height fill up the view on ev- 
ery side ; their coarse gray stone continually 
discovering itself through the thin coating 
of soil, and hardly distinguishable from the 
remains of the ancient terraces which run 
round them with the regularity of contour 
lines, or from the confused heaps of ruin 
which occupy the site of former village or 
fortress. Caverns, characteristic of all lime- 
stone districts, exist in the eastern portion 
of this district in astonishing numbers. Ev- 
ery hill and ravine is pierced with them, 
some very large and of curious formation — 
perhaps partly natural, partly artificial — 
others mere grottoes. Many of them are 
connected with most important and inter- 
esting events of the ancient history of the 
country. Machpelah, Makkedah, Adullam, 
En-gedi, names inseparably connected with 
the lives, adventures, and deaths of Abraham, 
Joshua, David, and other O. T. worthies, are 
all within the small circle of the territory of 
Judea. And there is perhaps hardly one of 
these caverns, however small, which has not 



Josh. XV., 19.-3 1 Sam. xxv., 11. 



PALESTINE 



710 



PALESTINE 



at some time or other furnislied a hiding- 
place to some ancient Hebrew from the sweep- 
ing incursions of Philistine or Amalekite. 

There is no country in which the ruined 
towns bear so large a proportion to those 
still existing, as they do in Southern Pal- 
estine. Hardly a hill-top of the many in 
sight that is not covered with the vestiges 
of some fortress or city. That this numer- 
ous population knew how most effectually 
to cultivate their rocky territory is shown 
by the remains of their ancient terraces, 
which constantly meet the eye, the only 
mode of husbanding so scanty a coating of 
soil, and preventing its being washed by the 
torrents into the valleys. Besides this, for- 
ests appear to have stood in many parts 
of Judea until the repeated invasions and 



lovely, wooded mound, or leaping headlong, 
foaming and roaring, from a mountain cave, 
are rarely met with out of rocky, mountain- 
ous countries, and, being such unusual sights, 
can hardly be looked on by the traveler 
without surprise and emotion. But, added 
to their natural impressiveness, there is the 
consideration of the prominent part which 
so many of these springs have played in his- 
tory. Even the caverns are not more charac- 
teristic of Palestine, or oftener mentioned in 
the Biblical narrative. But with all its rich- 
ness, there is a strange dearth of natural 
wood about this central district. No soon- 
er, however, is the plain of Esdraelon pass- 
ed than a considerable improvement is per- 
ceptible. The low hills which spread down 
from the mountains of Galilee, and form the 




Southern Palestine, from the Mount of Olives. 



sieges caused their fall, and the wretched 
Turks prevented their reinstatement. 

Advancing northward from Judea, the 
country becomes gradually more open and 
pleasant. Plains of good soil occur be- 
tween the hills, at first small, but afterward 
comparatively large. The hills assume a 
more varied aspect than in the southern dis- 
tricts, springs are more abundant and more 
permanent, until at last, when the ancient 
Mount Ephraim is reached, the traveler en- 
counters an atmosphere and an amount of 
vegetation and water greatly superior to 
any thing in Judea, and even sufficient to 
recall much of the scenery of the West. 
Such glorious fountains, welling out from 
deep blue recesses worn in the limestone 
rock, or eddying forth from the base of a 



barrier between the plains of Akka and Es- 
draelon, are covered with timber. Beyond, 
the natural growth increases at every step, 
until the timber becomes so abundant that 
large quantities of it are regularly carried 
to the sea-coast at Tyre, and there shipped 
as fuel to the towns on the coast. The no- 
tices of this romantic district in the Bible 
are but scanty ; in fact, till the date of the 
N. T., when it had acquired the name of 
Galilee, it may be said, for all purposes of 
history, to be hardly mentioned. And even 
in the N. T. times the interest is confined to 
a very small portion, the south and south- 
west corner, containing Nazareth, Cana, and 
Nain, on the confines of Esdraelon, and Ca- 
pernaum, Tiberias, Gennesaret, on the mar- 
gin of the lake. 



PALESTINE 



711 



PALESTINE 



III. The Plains. — Upon the west the cen- 
tral plateau descends by a slope, far more 
gradual than on the east, to the maritime 
plains. These lowlands constitute the most 
fertile part of Palestine. Their average 
width is fifteen or sixteen miles. The cli- 
mate is mild, the soil rich. This region, 
only slightly elevated above the level of the 
Mediterranean, extends without interruption 
from el-Arish, south of Gaza, to Mount Car- 
mel. It naturally divides itself into two 
portions, each of about half its length ; the 
lower and wider one, the plain of the Philis- 
tines, the upper and narrower one, the plain 
of Sharon. Viewed from the sea this mari- 
time region appears as a long, low coast of 
white or cream-colored sand, its slight undu- 



natural shrubbery, and with large planta- 
tions of olives in a high state of cultivation ; 
the whole gradually broadening down into 
the wide expanse of the plain itself. The 
larger towns, as Gaza and Ashdod, which 
stand near the shore, are surrounded with 
huge groves of olive, sycamore, and palm, as 
in the days of King David ;^ some of them 
among the most extensive in the country. 
The whole plain appears to consist of a 
brown loamy soil, light but rich, and al- 
most without a stone. It is now, as when 
the Philistines possessed it, one enormous 
corn-field; an ocean of wheat covers the 
wide expanse between the hills and the sand 
domes of the sea- shore, without interrup- 
tion of any kind — no break or hedge, hard- 





Northern Palestine— Mount Hermon in the distance. 



lations rising occasionally into mounds or 
cliffs, which in one or two places, such as Jaf- 
fa and Um-khalid, almost aspire to the dig- 
nity of headlands. Over these white undu- 
lations, in the farthest background, stretch- 
es the faint blue level line of the highlands 

of Judea and Samaria. The Philistine 

plain, called also Philistia,^ is, on an aver- 
age, fifteen or sixteen miles in width, from 
the coast to the first beginning of the belt 
of hills, which forms the gradual approach 
to the highlands of Judah. It is described 
by modern travelers as a beautiful, open 
country, consisting of low, calcareous hills, 
rising from the alluvial soil of broad, ara- 
ble valleys, covered with inhabited villages 
and deserted ruins, and clothed with much 
1 Psa. Ix., 8 ; Ixxxvii., 4. 



ly even a single olive-tree. Its fertility is 
marvelous ; for the prodigious crops which 
it raises have been produced almost year 
by year for the last forty centuries, without 
any of the appliances which we find neces- 
sary for success — with no manure beyond 
that naturally supplied by the washing 
down of the hill-torrents — without irriga- 
tion, without succession of crops, and with 
only the rudest method of husbandry. No 
wonder that the Jews struggled hard to get, 
and the Philistines to keep, such a prize ; no 
wonder that the hosts of Egypt and Assyria 
were content to traverse and re-traverse a 
region where their supplies of corn were so 

abundant and so easily obtained. The 

plain of Sharon is about ten miles wide from 



1 1 Chrou. xxvii., 2S. 



PALESTINE 



712 



PALESTINE 



fhe sea to the foot of the mountains, which 
are here of a more abrupt character than 
those of Philistia, and without the interme- 
diate hilly region there occurring. At the 
same time, it is more undulating and irreg- 
ular than the former, and crossed by streams 
from the central hills, some of them of con- 
siderable size, and containing water during 
the whole year. Owing to the general level 
of the surface, and to the accumulation of 
sand on the shore, several of these streams 
spread out into wide marshes, which might 
without difiiculty be turned to purposes of 
irrigation, but in their present neglected 
state form large boggy places. The soil is 
extremely rich, varying from bright red to 
deep black, and producing enormous crops 
of weeds or grain, as the case may be. Here 
and there, on the margins of the streams or 
the borders of the marshes, are large tracts 
of rank meadow, where many a herd of cam- 
els or cattle may be seen feeding, as the roy- 
al herds did in the time of David.^ At its 
northern end Sharon is narrowed by the low 
hills which gather round the western flanks 
of Carmel, and gradually encroach upon it 
until it terminates entirely against the shoul- 
der of the mountain itself, leaving only a 
narrow beach at the foot of the promontory 
by which to communicate with the plain 
on the north. 

It is probable that the Jews never perma- 
nently occupied more than a small portion 
of these rich and favored plains. Their 
principal towns were, it is true, allotted to 
the different tribes ; but this was in antici- 
pation of the intended conquest.'* The five 
cities of the Philistines remained in the 
Philistines' possession, and the district was 
independent of, and apart from, Israel.^ In 
Roman times this region was considered 
the pride of the country, and some of the 
most important cities of the province stood 
in it — Csesarea, Antipatris, Diospolis. The 
one ancient port of the Jews, the beautiful 
city of Joppa, occupied a position central be- 
tween the Shefaleh and Sharon. Roads led 
from these various cities to each other — to 
Jerusalem, Neapolis, and Sebaste in the in- 
terior, and to Ptolemais and Gaza on the 
north and south. The commerce of Damas- 
cus, and beyond Damascus, of Persia and 
India, passed this way to Egypt, Rome, and 
the infant colonies of the West; and that 
traffic, and the constant movement of troops 
backward and forward, must have made this 
plain one of the busiest and most populous 
regions of Syria at the time of Christ. Now 
Caesarea is a wave- washed ruin ; Antipatris 
has vanished both in name and substance ; 
Diospolis has shaken off the appellation 
which it bore in the days of its prosperity, 
and is a mere village, remarkable only for 

1 1 Chron. xxvii., 29 2 josh, xiii., 3-6; xv., 45-4T; 

xvi., 3; xvii., 11.— 3 1 Sam. v. ; xxi., 10; xxvii., 2; 1 
Kings ii., 39 ; 2 Kings viii., 2, 3. 



the ruin of its fine mediaeval church, and for 
the palm-grove which shrouds it from view. 
Joppa alone maintains a dull life, surviv- 
ing solely because it is the nearest point at 
which the sea-going travelers from the West 
can approach Jerusalem. 

Climate and Productions. — This general de- 
scription of the physical features of Pales- 
tine affords, perhaps, an adequate descrip- 
tion of its climate and productions. The 
variety in the one produces an equal variety 
in the other. And though, partly owing to 
desolating wars, partly to bad government, 
and partly, perhaps, to natural causes, the 
country is now desolate, it is evident that 
it was formerly fruitful to an extraordina- 
ry degree. Its general climate corresponds 
with that of Northern Florida. But the 
mountains which border it on the north are 
never free from snow, while its central val- 
leys never witness snow except from afar. 
Hence in no other district, not even on the 
southern slopes of the Himalaya, are the 
typical fauna of so many distinct regions 
and zones brought into such close juxtapo- 
sition. The bear of the snowy heights of 
Lebanon and the gazelle of the desert may 
be hunted within two days' journey of each 
other ; sometimes even the ostrich approach- 
es the southern borders of the land ; the 
wolf of the North and the leopard of the 
tropics howl within hearing of the same 
bivouac ; while the falcons, the linnets, and 
the buntings, familiar inhabitants of the 
temperate zone, mingle with some of the 
most brilliant types of the bird-life of Asia 
and South Africa. Tropical fruits and north- 
ern cereals grow also almost side by side. 
The fig-tree and the grape-vine produce 
their fruits in perfection on the sunny hill- 
sides of Judea. The cedars clothe the rocky 
sides of Lebanon. The apple, the pear, the 
plum, the quince grow near neighbors with 
the date, the pomegranate, the banana, and 
the almond. The oak, the maple, and the 
evergreens of our Northern States make ac- 
quaintance with the sycamore, the fig, the 
olive, residents of Asiatic climes. In short, 
in a single day one may travel from the cli- 
mate and productions of the Gulf States to 
such as characterize New England. 

Imagine, then, the State of Vermont, its 
western shore bounded by the Atlantic 
Ocean instead of by Lake Champlain, the 
Connecticut Valley its eastern boundary — 
a deep and almost impassable ravine, cleft 
by some great convulsion in the solid rocks 
— the northern peaks of its Green Mountain 
range overtopping Mount Washington, its 
southern hills rounded like those of West- 
ern Connecticut, its northern climate and 
productions not widely different from those 
of the Middle States, its southern counties 
akin in both respects to the Gulf States, 
and the reader will have a tolerably accu- 
rate picture of that laud which, the birth- 



PALL 



713 



PALMERS 



place and home of Jesus Clirist, is the cra- 
dle of Christianity. 

Pall, the name given to two very differ- 
ent portions of the vesture employed in the 
Romish and some other churches. One of 
these is the funeral pall, an ample covering 
of black velvet or other stuff, which is cast 
over the coffin while being borne to burial. 
The ends of the pall are held, during the fu- 
neral procession, by the most distinguished 
among the friends of the deceased, generally 
selected from among those unconnected by 
blood. In its second and most strictly litur- 
gical use, the word pall is applied to one of 
the coverings used at the altar in the celebra- 
tion of the mass. It is usually a linen cloth, 
but sometimes composed of richer materials. 

Palm, Palm-tree. There are many spe- 
cies, several hundreds, it is said, of palm ; 
but the Fhcenix dactylifera, or date-palm, is 
that which is referred to in Scripture. It is 




Palm-tree. 

highly valued by Eastern nations ; and trav- 
elers tell us that its fruit furnishes the in- 
habitants of Egypt, Persia, and Arabia with 
a considerable part of their subsistence. A 
conserve is also made of it with sugar ; while 
the stones are ground in the hand-mills for 
the food of camels. Baskets, bags, and mats 
are manufactured of the leaves ; the trunk 
is split up, and is serviceable in various 
ways ; the web - like integuments at the 
bases of the leaves are twisted into ropes ; 
the sap is collected, and is at first a sweet- 



ish mild beverage, but afterward ferments, 
and a kind of arrack is produced from it by 
distillation. Every part, therefore, of the 
tree has its use. 

Formerly palm-trees abounded in Judea. 
The word tamar, a palm, enters into the 
names of several localities ; as Baal-tamar, 
Hazezon-tamar, etc. Phoenicia received its 
name — phoenix-palm — from the Greeks, be- 
cause of the abundance of its palm-trees. 
Jericho was termed " the city of palm-trees," 
and Bethany "the house of dates."^ Few 
palms, however, are now left, except in gar- 
dens about Jerusalem and in the Philistine 
plain. The palm is a refreshing sight in a 
thirsty land ; and, standing often alone, one 
solitary tree on the yellow waste can be 
seen by the weary and parched traveler 
from afar. He hails it with delight inex- 
pressible; not alone because it will afford 
him the shade he has longed for under 
that intolerable glare, but because he 
knows that somewhere within reach 
of its roots, if not on the surface of 
the ground, water can be obtained; 
for this tree gives an unerring sign 
of the presence of water. Sometimes 
that which sustains the stately palm 
nourishes also a little moss, a cluster 
of flowers, and a few shrubs which 
the camels love to browse upon ; and 
even this scant patch of greenness in 
the sand is a thing of joy. The tree 
itself is one of the most elegant in the 
world. There is no other to be com- 
pared to it for a certain stateliness 
and beauty. It rises straight up in a 
slender shaft, sometimes sixty, eighty, 
or even a hundred feet, like a column, 
without a branch to break the uni- 
formity of its outline, and of the same 
thickness from the ground to the top, 
where it bears an inimitably graceful 
and exquisite crown of evergreen fo- 
liage. Its long, fringed leaves, some- 
times four yards in length, droop with 
all the airy lightness of plumes, and, 
seen at that height, have an indescrib- 
able softness and delicacy. In Cath- 
olic countries, triumphant religious 
festivals are commemorated by bear- 
ing palm-branches, which are, for this 
purpose, regular articles of commerce. 
The practice is borrowed from the 
Scripture ; the palm having been used both 
in O. T. and N. T. times, in a similar manner, 
as a symbol of joy and victory. [Lev. xxiii., 
40 ; Deut. xxxiv., 3 ; Judg. iii., 13 ; 2 Chron. 
xxviii., 15 ; Neh. viii., 15 ; John xii., 13 ; Rev. 
vii.,9.] 

Palmers, a class of itinerant monks which 
arose in the mediaeval times. They had no 
iixed residence, professed voluntary pover- 
ty, observed celibacy, and visited at stated 
times the most remar kable sanctuaries of 
1 Deut. xxxiv., 3 ; Judg, iii., 13 ; 2 Chron. xxviii,, 15. 



PALM-SUNDAY 



714 



PANTHEISM 



the several countries of the West. The 
Palmer, properly so called, was a pilgrim 
who had performed the pilgrimage to the 
Holy Sepulchre. They received the name of 
Palmer from their carrying branches of the 
Oriental palm, in token of their accomplish- 
ed expedition. On arriving at their home, 
they repaired to the church to return thanks 
to God, and offered the palm to the priest to 
he placed upon the altar. The palms so of- 
fered were frequently used in the procession 
of Palm-Sunday. 

Palm-Sunday. The Sunday immediate- 
ly preceding Easter (q. v.) is so called from 
the custom of blessing branches of the palm- 
tree or substitutes, and of carrying the bless- 
ed branches in procession, in commemoration 
of the triumphal entry of Jesus Christ into 
Jerusalem.^ The date of the origin of this 
custom is uncertain, though the usage cer- 
tainly existed in the seventh century. This 
festival is annually celebrated with great 
pomp at St. Peter's Church at Rome. The 
pope, magnificently arrayed, is carried into 
the church on the shoulders of eight men, 
attended by his court. The priests bring 
him palm branches, which he blesses and 
sprinkles with holy water; the procession 
then commences, and the whole is ended by 
high mass, after which thirty years' indul- 
gence is granted to all who witness the cer- 
emony. Each member of the congregation 
carries home his branch, which is regarded 
as a charm against diseases. Some of these 
branches are reserved to burn to ashes for 
the next Ash -Wednesday. 

Palsy. Palsy, or paralysis (which last is 
a Greek word, signifying a loosening or re- 
laxation), is a disease in which sensation or 
the power of motion is lost in some part of 
the body. There is a distinction between 
nerves of sensation and of motion ; hence, 
according as one or other is affected, paral- 
ysis is loss of sensation or ancestliesia, or in- 
capacity of moving. The two, however, 
may exist together, and power of motion 
and sensation be both lost. The disease 
varies in intensity and in the extent to 
which it prevails. Sometimes it is com- 
plete, all power, sensational or motive, be- 
ing destroyed ; sometimes incomplete, the 
powers being only impaired. 

Mr. Barnes classifies the infirmities in- 
cluded under the general name of palsy 
in the N. T. as follows : 1st. The paralytic 
shock, affecting the whole body. 2d. The 
hemiplegy, affecting only one side of the 
body — the most frequent form of the dis- 
ease. 3d. The paraplegy, affecting all the 
system below the neck. 4tli. The catalep- 
sy. This is caused by a contraction of the 
muscles in the whole or a part of the body, 
and is very dangerous ; the effects are very 
violent and fatal. For instance, if, when a 
person is struck, he happens to have his hand 
1 John xii. 



extended, he is unable to draw it back ; if 
not extended, he is unable to stretch it out. 
It gradually becomes diminished in size, and 
dried up in appearance ; hence it was called 
the withered hand. 5th. The cramp. This, 
in Eastern countries, is a fearful malady, and 
by no means infrequent. It originates from 
chills in the night. The limbs, when seized 
by it, remain immovable, and the person af- 
flicted with it resembles one undergoing a 
torture. This was probably the disease of 
the servant of the centurion. Death fol- 
lows from this disease in a few days. Many 
persons described as palsied or paralytic 
were cured by our Lord and by the apos- 
tles. [Matt, iv., 24 ; viii., 5-13 ; ix., 2-7 ; xii., 
10-13 ; Mark ii., 3-11 ; Luke vii., 2-10 ; Acts 
viii., 7; ix.,33, 34.] 

Pamphylia, one of the southern provinces 
of Asia Minor, bounded on the north by Pi- 
sidia, on the west by Lycia, on the east by 
Cilicia, £pnd on the south by the Levant. As 
in the case of most other provinces of Less- 
er Asia, the boundaries of Pamphylia were 
frequently changed, but it may be roughly 
said to have been separated from Pisidia by 
the Taurian range. The valleys are rich 
and fertile, but toward the sea unhealthy. 
At the time of Paul, it formed a province 
together with Lycia. It w^as then a flour- 
ishing commercial province ; the rivers, now 
rendered useless for ships by the formation 
of bars across their mouths, were then navi- 
gable to a considerable extent. The inhab- 
itants were mild and courteous in manners, 
and largely engaged in commerce, to which, 
indeed, they were led by the peculiarly fa- 
vorable situation of the country. [Acts 
xiii., 13 ; xiv., 24, 25 ; xv., 38 ; xxvii., 5.] 

Pantheism, the doctrine that God includes 
all existence and is identical with it, nothing 
besides him really existing. Of pantheism in 
its modern forms Spinoza may be said to be 
the founder. He was a German scholar of 
the seventeenth century, a man of a singu- 
larly pure spirit and self-denying life, and 
one who, in spite of his philosophy, was, 
though in a peculiar way, a devout man. 
His definition of pantheism may be taken 
as a trustworthy exposition of the system : 
" Besides God no substance can exist or be 
conceived to exist." He held, that is, that 
God is the only being, and that all forms of 
existence, both in the material world and in 
the souls of men, are only modes of the Di- 
I vine existence, parts, or manifestations of 
I the Divine essence. While pantheism con- 
! ducts to the same result as atheism (q. v.), 
it is theoretically widely different, and starts 
I from exactly the opposite premise. The 
atheist commences with nature, perceives 
I and recognizes the material universe, but 
denies that there is any God ; the panthe- 
ist starts with the assumption of the exist- 
ence of a divine being as a truth which the 
, soul can not deny, and maintains that he is 



PAPHOS 



715 



PARABLES 



identical with nature — in other words, de- 
nies that there is any nature except God. 
The Christian maintains the existence of 
both God and nature, the one present every- 
where in and controlling the other, as the 
soul the body, but distinct from it. Some 
attempts have been made to maintain that 
the germs of pantheism are to be found in 
the Bible, as in such declarations as that of 
1 Cor. XV., 28, '' That God may be all in all ;" 
but it is evident that belief in an omnipres- 
ent God regnant in nature, and belief in an 
impersonal God identical with nature, are 
widely different. There are no distinguish- 
ed advocates of pantheism in either England 
or America, but pantheistic sentiments and 
phrases are very common, especially in cer- 
tain mystical literature, and in some modern 
poetry. See Atheism. 

Paphos, a town at the west end of Cy- 
prus, connected by a road with Salamis at 
the east end. The great characteristic of 
Paphos was the worship of Aphrodite, or 
Venus, who was here fabled to have risen 
from the sea. Her temple, however, was 
at " Old Paphos," now called Kuklia. The 
harbor and the chief town were at "New 
Paphos," at some little distance. The place 
is still called Baffa. To the Christian Pa- 
phos is chiefly interesting from the visit 
there of Paul and Barnabas on their first 
missionary tour. [Acts xiii., 6.] 

Parables. There are three questions re- 
specting the parables which properly re- 
quire consideration in this article. 1st. 
What is a parable ? 2d. What is the object 
of the parable — and, particularly, what was 
the reason that Christ employed this form 
of instruction so extensively ? and, 3d. Are 
there any general rules for the interpreta- 
tion of the parable — if so, what are they ? 
In answering the first question, we borrow 
largely from " Trench on the Parables ;" in 
answering the second, from Abbott's " Je- 
sns of Nazareth ;" in answering the third, 
from Rev. W. Milligan's admirable article in 
the " Imperial Bible Dictionary." 

I. What is a Parable ? — The original Greek 
signifies a comparison. All parables may 
be said to teach by comparison, i. e., by em- 
ploying some real or imaginary incident in 
life or nature for the purpose of conveying 
instruction, either by directly pointing out 
a parallel between it and the moral truth 
to be inculcated, or by indirectly suggest- 
ing such a parallel. Thus, for example, in 
the simple parable of the Two Sons,^ Christ's 
hearers at once and instinctively recognize 
the truth that the son who really did his fa- 
ther's will was the obedient son, not the one 
who merely professed so to do, and were 
easily led to recognize, in the parallel be- 
tween the fictitious characters of the para- 
ble and the two classes in the Jewish na- 
tion, the lesson which Christ wished to in- 



1 Matt, xxi., 28-31. 



culcate concerning the difference between 
the religion of profession and that of prac- 
tical obedience. But it is not the parable 
alone which thus teaches by comparison. 
The same may be said of the fable, the prov- 
erb, and the allegory. It is in distinguish- 
ing the parable from these analogous forms 
of instruction that the writers on this sub- 
ject have experienced their chief difficulty. 

1. Some have identified the parable with 
the fable, but erroneously. The parable is 
constructed to set forth a truth spiritual 
and heavenly ; this the fable, with all its 
value, does not. It is essentially of the earth, 
and never lifts itself above it. It never has 
a higher aim than to inculcate maxims of 
prudential morality, industry, caution, fore- 
sight, and the like ; and these it will some- 
times recommend even at the expense of 
the higher self-forgetting virtues. The fa- 
ble just reaches that pitch of morality which 
the world will understand and approve ; but 
it has no place in the Scripture, and in the 
nature of things could have none, for the 
purpose of Scripture excludes it ; that pur- 
pose being the awakening of man to the con- 
sciousness of a divine Creator, the educa- 
tion of the reason, and of all Avhich is spir- 
itual in man, and not, except incidentally, 
the sharpening of the understanding. There 
is also another important point of difference 
between the fable and the parable. The one 
in its representation disregards the nature 
of things, and without perhaps violating the 
truth, since there is no intention to deceive, 
certainly does not conform to the truth in its 
representations. But in the parable there is 
never any transgression of the laws of na- 
ture. Christ never presents to us any speak- 
ing or reasoning beasts ; and we should be 
at once conscious of an unfitness in his so 
doing. When animals are introduced, as in 
the parable of the Good Shepherd, they are 
introduced not as types of humanity, nor as 
though endowed with human reason, but as 
animals. 

2. The parable is also clearly distinguish- 
able from the proverl, though the words are 
sometimes used interchangeably in the N. T.^ 
It is easy to account for this interchange of 
the words. Partly it arose from one word 
in Hebrew signifying both parable and prov- 
erb, which circumstance must have had con- 
siderable influence upon writers accustomed 
to think in that language, and is itself to 
be explained from the parable and proverb 
being alike enigmatical and somewhat ob- 
scure forms of speech — " dark sayings," ut- 
tering a part of their meaning, and leaving 
the rest to be inferred. This is obviously true 
of the parable, and is not, in fact, less true of 
the proverb. For though such proverbs as 
have become the heritage of an entire peo- 
ple, and have obtained universal currency. 



1 Matt. XV., 14, 15; Luke iv., 23; v. 
xvi., 25. 



John X., 6 : 



PARABLES 



716 



PARABLES 



may be, or rather may have become, plain 
enough, yet in themselves proverbs are very 
often enigmatical, requiring for their right 
apprehension a quickness in detecting latent 
affinities, and not seldom a knowledge which 
shall enable one to catch more or less remote 
allusions. Still the proverb is sometimes a 
concentrated parable ; for instance, " If the 
blind lead the blind, both shall fall into the 
ditch," might evidently be extended with 
ease into a parable. 

3. It remains to consider wherein the par- 
able differs from the allegory. This differ- 
ence is one chiefly in form. In the allegory 
the symbol and the thing symbolized are 
both kept constantly and continuously be- 
fore the mind, while in the parable the sym- 
bol is used alone, and the interpretation fol- 
lows, or is left to be deduced by the reader. 
The allegory needs not, as the parable, an 
interpretation to be brought to it from with- 
out, since it contains its interpretation with- 
in itself; as it proceeds, the interpretation 
proceeds hand in hand with it, or, at least, 
never falls far behind it. Thus John xv., 
1-8, where Christ compares himself to the 
vine, is allegorical in its character, while 
John X., 1-16, where he compares himself to 
a good shepherd, is parabolic. 

To sum up all, then, the parable differs 
from the fable, moving as it does in a spirit- 
ual world, and never transgressing the act- 
ual and natural order of thiugs ; from the 
proverb, inasmuch as it is more fully carried 
out, and is not merely accidentally and oc- 
casionally, but necessarily figurative ; from 
the allegory, comparing as it does one thing 
with another, but, at the same time, preserv- 
ing them apart, and not transferring, as 
does the allegory, the properties and quali- 
ties and relations of one to the other. 

"A parable, then, is a fictitious narrative, 
true to nature, yet undeceptive, veiling a spir- 
itual truth under a symbol, for the purpose 
of conveying it to minds reluctant or indif- 
ferent. It differs from the proverb in being 
a narrative, from the fable in being true to 
nature, from the myth in being undeceptive, 
from the allegory in that it veils the spiritual 
truth."^ 

II. What is the ohject of Parables ? — This 
question would not probably have given rise 
to much discussion, were it not for the sin- 
gular expression concerning them by Christ, 
who declares that his instructions are put 
in the form of parables, " That seeing they 
may see, and not perceive ; and hearing they 
may hear, and not understand ; lest at any 
time they should be converted, and their 
sins be forgiven them."^ Various explana- 
tions of this singular language have been 
proposed. Thus Mr. Barnes suggests that 
Christ would have hazarded his life if he 
had plainly and directly taught the truth 

1 Abbott's " Commentary on the New Testament." ^ John iii., 17.— ^ See, for example, Matt, xxi., 28-32, 
—2 Mark iv., 12. 33-45 ; Luke x., 29-37. 



concerning his kingdom, and that he there- 
fore veiled them under parables. But this 
seems scarcely worthy the character of 
Christ, who never spoke obscurely for the 
sake of preserving his life, while many of 
the lessons taught by the parables, as in the 
case of the Sower, and that of the Prodigal 
Son, were not of a character to provoke an- 
ger. Kuinoel and Bloomfield suggest that 
the object of thus preaching obscurely was 
to compel the closer attention on the part 
of the people, if they would gain the benefit 
of the teaching ; but this does not seem con- 
sistent with God's general plan in his reve- 
lation of truth, which is everywhere made 
plain and simple, so that he who runs may 
read. Scott and Doddridge make the ex- 
planation that Christ taught them thus ob- 
scurely as a punishment for the unbelief of 
the people. But this explanation is not al- 
together satisfactory, since one would ex- 
pect Christ would punish their unbelief not 
by preaching blindly, but by refusing to 
preach at all. Moreover, all these explana- 
tions assume that the parabolic form of 
teaching is obscure, and difficult to be un- 
derstood by the popular mind, while the re- 
verse is the fact. And they do not consort 
with Christ's history, mission, or charac- 
ter ; for at the time he first introduced the 
parables the people had not rejected his 
teaching; they received it with applause. 
Had it been otherwise, still he himself de- 
clared that he came not to judge the world, 
but that the world through him might be 
saved ;^ and while, certainly, a teacher might 
refuse further instruction to a willful peo- 
ple — might decline to cast his pearls before 
swine — it is inconceivable that he should 
go through the form of teaching only to 
mislead them. 

The true explanation appears to be that 
Christ employed the parable to veil the 
truth only that he might thus secure for 
it an ultimate reception on the part of his 
hearers. It is the nature of the parable to 
introduce truth to hearts reluctant to re- 
ceive it. This use is strikingly exemplified 
in one or two cases where Christ employed 
it in such a way as to make skeptical in- 
quirers answer their own questions, or big- 
oted opponents utter their own condemna- 
tion.^ Only souls spiritually enlightened 
can understand spiritual truth. It is only 
by a comparison with familiar and recog- 
nized truths that spiritual truth can be 
brought home to the natural understand- 
ing at all. He who has never experienced 
in his own heart the love of God does not 
and can not know what that love is ; but 
he may know a father's love, and so, by the 
parable of the Prodigal Son experiencing 
the forgiveness of a loving father, may be 
taught something of the divine love which 



PAEABLES 



717 



PAEABLES 



he does not apprehend. Christ's declaration 
concerning his use of parables may then, 
perhaps, be paraphrased thus : " If the peo- 
ple were to understand that I was bringing 
them direct spiritual food, not only they 
could not understand it, but they would 
purposely close their hearts against its re- 
ception; for they have willfully hardened 
their hearts and closed their eyes and ears, 
that they might not be converted. There- 
fore, I teach in parables, that they may not 
at first notice the spiritual truth hidden in 
the parabolic dress, and so may be induced to 
receive it.^ 

III. It remains to consider whether there 
are any general rules for the interpretation 
of the parables of Christ, and if so, what 
they are. 

1. It is evidently necessary that the sto- 
ry in which the instruction is conveyed be 
understood. All that can contribute to the 
elucidation of the story must be known, and 
the ordinary rules of grammatical and his- 
torical interpretation must be applied. Nor 
is this always an easy task. As the para- 
bles of our Lord are generally taken from 
common life, more than usual care is neces- 
sary so to translate ourselves into the world 
as it then was, that we may enter into the 
inmost feelings and aims and purposes of 
the actors. Thus, for example, in the par- 
able of the Lost Sheep, the whole beauty 
of the parable is lost if we think only of 
a shepherd going, as he might do now, in 
search of a lost member of his flock. We 
must realize to ourselves the modes of think- 
ing and feeling toward each of his sheep 
by which the Eastern shepherd was charac- 
terized.^ So, also, as in the parable of the 
Good Samaritan, we miss its lesson of uni- 
versal charity unless we thoroughly appre- 
ciate the estimation in which Samaritans, 
priests, and Levites were respectively held 
in Israel — the contempt and hatred enter- 
tained for the one, the halo of sanctity 
which appeared to surround the other. 

2. In passing from the story itself to its in- 
terpretation, we must attend to those state- 
ments as to the object of the parable, which 
are frequently made, either by our Lord him- 
self or by the evangelists. These statements 
are sometimes direct f most commonly, how- 
ever, they are only indirect, to be found in 
the connection in which the parable is in- 
troduced. Thus, for example, the parable of 
the Unmercifal Servant* is connected with 
our Lord's answer to the question of Peter, 
" How oft shall my brother sin against me 
and I forgive him? Until seven times?" 
The three parables in Luke xv. — the Lost 
Sheep, the Lost Coin, and the Prodigal Son 



1 The Saviour himself explains his meaning in the 
parallel passage, Matt, xiii., 11-16, "The language 
quoted from Isaiah expresses," says Wordsworth, " the 
judicial power of the Divine Word, punishing those 
who despise it." (T. J. C.)— ^ See Shepheed.— 3 Luke 
xviii., 1, 2.-4 Matt, xviii., 23-35. 



— are addressed to the murmuring spoken 
of in the second verse of the chapter ; while 
the parable of the Selfish Rich Man, in Luke 
xvi., 19-31, sets forth in striking representa- 
tion the folly of that course of conduct with 
which Jesus had immediately before charged 
the Pharisees.^ In all such cases the drift 
of the parable is explained by the connec- 
tion in which it is introduced; and with 
few exceptions, such as the series of para- 
bles in Matt, xiii., aid of this kind is afford- 
ed by the evangelists. Of such aid the in- 
terpreter must diligently avail himself. He 
will thus understand the position in which 
the Saviour stood and the immediate object 
which he had in view ; and such knowledge 
will be of the utmost moment in guiding 
him aright when he begins to interpret. 

3. Each parable has one leading idea to 
which all its parts are subordinate. It is 
true that the individual parts of a parable 
may be full of instruction. In that of the 
Prodigal Son the description of the young- 
er son's wandering from his father's house, 
of the famine that came upon him in the 
strange land, of his want and misery, and 
of the degrading service to which he was 
subjected, form a striking representation of 
the nature and consequences of sin which 
it is impossible to pass over. But in this, 
as in all other cases, such lessons must be 
kept subordinate to the main drift of the 
parable, and must be so treated as to bring 
more powerfully home to us its one leading 
idea. Ignoring this principle has often led 
to an undue and unscriptural pressing of 
specific traits of parables. Thus, in that of 
the laborers in the market-place, we might 
be easily led, by the last part of it,^ to the 
supposition that, in the heavenly state, the 
rewards of all Christ's servants will be equal 
— a supposition at variance with many oth- 
er passages of Scripture. So it has been er- 
roneouvsly argued that the doctrine of the 
Atonement was not taught by the Redeem- 
er, because, in the parable of the Prodigal 
Son there is no mention made of expiation 
or intercession before the wanderer is wel- 
comed to his father's house, and embraced 
in the arms of his father's love. 

4. While there is thus one leading idea in 
each parable, there are even few of its small- 
est particulars which have not a meaning. 
The story is not told for its own sake, but 
for the sake of the lesson ; and it is reason- 
able, therefore, to infer that it will be con- 
structed in such a manner as to answer this 
end as far as possible in all its traits. And 
the course followed by our Lord confirms 
this opinion. This is illustrated by his ex- 
planation of the parable of the Sower : the 
field, the birds of the air, the heat of the 
sun, the thorns and brambles of the bad 
ground, the thirty, sixty, and hundred fold 
of the good ground, have all a meaning. So 



1 Luke xvi., 15.— » Matt, xx., S-14. 



PARADISE 



718 



PAEISH 



■((^ 



in the parable of the Tares and the Wheat : 
the reapers, the held, the man who sowed 
good seed, the enem;5^ who sowed tares, and 
the harvest, are each explained. There is 
hardly a trait in either parable that is des- 
titute of force. It is true that a certain class 
of interpreters have sought for forced and 
fanciful analogies in detail of some of the 
parables, but this fact is not to prevent us 
from seeking truth in every part, so that we 
keep the details subordinate to the great 
leading truth which the parable is evident- 
ly intended to inculcate. 

Various attempts have been made to clas- 
sify the parables, and to deduce a complete 
system of truth from such a classification. 
This attempt belongs to a later date, to an 
age in which instruction is more scientific 
but less pictorial. Without attempting to 
follow any such classification (for none of 
them are very satisfactory), we shall con- 
tent ourselves here with simply giving a 
list of the more important parables of both 
the Old and the New Testaments. 

Parable of the Trees Judg. ix., 8-15. 

Ewe-lamb 2 Sam. xii., 1-6. 

By the Woman of Tekoah 2 Satn. xiv., 5-12. 

By a Prophet to Ahab 1 Kings xx., 39-42, 

The Thistle and Cedar 2 Kings xiv., 9. 

Vine from Egypt Psa._ Ixxx., 8-16. 

Wisdom Personified Prov.'viii., ix. 

The Vineyard Isa. v., 1-7. 

The Husbandman Isa. xxviii., 23-29. 

Bottles filled with Wine Jer. xiii., 12-14. 

a" Vine Branch Ezek. xv. 

Two Eagles and a Vine Ezek. x vii. 

Lion's Whelps Ezek. xix., 1-9. 

A Wasted Vine Ezek. xix., 10-14. 

Aholah and Aholibah Ezek. xxiii. 

Holy Flesh ;Hagg^_iiyJisl4^__^ 

"•TBe"^owM^ ■fMHTmir, 3-8, 18-23. 

The Tares Matt, xiii., 24-30, 36^3. 

The Mustard-seed Mark iv., 30-32. 

The Leaven Luke xiii., 20, 21, 

The Hid Treasure Matt, xiii., 44. 

The Pearl of Great Price Matt, xiii., 45^6. 

The Draw-net Matt, xiii., 47-50. 

The Unmerciful Servant Matt, xviii., 21-35. 

The Laborers in the Vineyard Matt, xx., 1-16. 

The Two Sons Matt, xxi., 28-32. 

The Wicked Husbandmen Matt, xxi., 33^5. 

The Marriage of the King's Son Matt, xxii., 1-14. 

The Ten Virgins Matt, xxv., 1-13. 

The Talents Matt, xxv., 14-30. 

The Seed Growing Secretly Mark iv., 26-29. 

The Two Debtors Luke vii., 41-43. 

The Good Samaritan Luke x., 30-37. 

The Friend at Midnight Luke xi., 5-8. 

The Rich Fool Luke xii., 16-21. 

The Barren Fig-tree Luke xiii., 6-9. 

The Great Supper Luke xiv., 15-24, 

The Lost Sheep Matt, xviii., 12-14. 

The Lost Piece of Money Luke xv., 8-10. 

The Prodigal Son Luke xv., 11-32, 

The Unjust Steward Luke xvi., 1-9. 

The Rich Man and Lazarus Luke xvi., 19-31. 

Unprofitable Servants Luke xvii., 7-10. 

The Unjust Judge Luke xviii., 1-8. 

The Pharisee and the Publican Luke xviii., 9-14. 

The Pounds Luke xix., 11-27. 

Paradise. This word occurs eight times 
only in the Bible. In Jewish theology it 
signifies that part of Hades, or the abode of 
the dead, where the souls of the righteous 
await resurrection. It seems also to have 
been employed sometimes to indicate the 
final abode of the blessed ; at least, this is 
the signification imputed to it by some crit- 
ics, as it occurs in Rev. ii., 7. In its ordi- 
nary use it did not differ widely from Abra- 
ham's bosom, or rather, perhaps, Abraham's 



bosom indicated a place of especial honor in 
Paradise. See Abraham's Bosom ; Inter- 
mediate State. [Luke xvi., 22 ,• xxiii., 43 ; 
2 Cor. xii., 4 ; Rev. ii., 7.] 

Paran, El-paran (perhaps region with cav- 
erns), a desert region inhabited by nomad 
tribes, and celebrated in sacred song as the 
spot whence, in close connection with the 
solemn legislation of Sinai, the glory of the 
Lord shone forth. It lay to the south or 
south-west of Palestine, in the neighborhood 
of Beersheba and Kadesh, between Egypt 
and Edom, or Midian. The Israelites trav- 
ersed it in their journey from Sinai, from 
which it was three days' march ; and from 
it the spies were dispatched into Canaan. 
Paran, therefore, may be regarded as that el- 
evated desert tract, now called et-Tth, which 
extends from the wilderness of Shur in the 
west to the ridge Jebel et-Tih in the south, 
the land of Edom in the east, and Canaan in 
the north, and is intersected by the Wady 
el-Arish, the direction of which is north- 
west. In the south and west it sinks into 
a sandy plain toward the Mediterranean ; in 
the north-east it is rugged and mountain- 
ous; hence we find Mount Paran spoken of. 
At the point where it reached northward to 
the wilderness of Judah was the oak El-pa- 
ran, to which extended the invasion of the 
confederate kings mentioned in Gen. xiv., 6. 
[Gen. xxi., 14, 21 ; Numb, x., 12, 33 ; xiii., 3, 
17, 26 ; 1 Kings xi., 18 ; Hab. iii., 3.] 

Pariah, the name given to the lowest class 
of the population of India ; that class which, 
not belonging to any of the castes of the 
Brahmanical system, is shunned even by the 
lowest Hindoo professing the Brahmanical 
religion. The Pariahs seem to belong to a 
negro race, as appears from their short wool- 
ly hair, flat nose, and thick lips ; they are, 
besides, of short stature, and their propensi- 
ties are of the coarsest kind. It is scarcely 
possible to imagine a more degraded posi- 
tion than that which is occupied by these 
miserable beings. See Caste. 

Parish. In the law of England a parish 
is an important subdivision of the country 
for purposes of local self-government, most 
of the local rates and taxes being confined 
within that area, and to a certain extent 
self-imposed by the parties who pay them. 
One of the chief characteristics of a parish, 
however, is that there is a parish church, 
and an incumbent and church-wardens at- 
tached to it, and by this machinery the spir- 
itual wants of the parishioners are attended 
to. These several parish churches, and the 
endowments connected therewith, belong, in 
a certain sense, to the nation, aud the in- 
cumbents are members of the Established 
Church of England, and amenable to the 
discipline of the bishops and the spiritual 
courts. The right of presenting a clergyman 
to an incumbency is technically called an 
advowson (q. v.). The patron has an abso- 



PARSEES 



719 



PARTRIDGE 



lute right (quite irrespective of the wishes 
of the parishioners) to present an ordaiued 
priest of the Church of England to a vacant 
benefice, and it is for the bishop to see to 
his qualifications. The incumbents of par- 
ish churches are called rectors, or vicars, or 
perpetual curates.^ There are also in every 
parish church-wardens, appointed annually, 
who are leading parochial officers, and whose 
duty is partly ecclesiastical and partly civil. 
Each parish is bouud to pay the expense of 
relieving its own poor, and all the highways 
within the parish must be kept in repair by 
the inhabitants. 

In the United States the Episcopal Church 
adheres to the parish idea. The whole of 
each diocese is divided into parishes, and 
the spiritual wants of each geographical 
parish is confided to the local church and 
its pastor. But the parish is of course pure- 
ly ecclesiastical. The civil functions of the 
parish officers of England are performed with 
us, in the main, by the town organization. 
The term parish is also used, in a popular 
but inaccurate way, to signify the members 
of the congregation worshiping in any local 
church of any denomination. 

Parsees (people of Pars, or Fars, i. e.. An- 
cient Persia), the name of the small remnant 
of the followers of the ancient Persian relig- 
ion, as reformed by Zoroaster. They reside 
chiefly at Bombay, Surat, Nawsari, Achme- 
dabad, and the vicinity, under English rule, 
and are recognized as one of the most re- 
spectable and thriving sections of the com- 
munity, being, for the most part, merchants 
and lauded j)roprietors. They bear the 
very highest character for honesty, industry, 
peacefulness, benevolence, and intelligence. 
In all civil matters they are subject to the 
laws of the country they inhabit, and its 
language is also theirs, except in the ritual 
of their religion, when the holy language of 
Zend is used by the priests, who, as a rule, 
have no more knowledge of it than the 
laity. 

Their theoretical theology is substantial- 
ly that of the Zoroastrian religion (q. v.). 
They do not eat any thing cooked by a per- 
son of another religion ; they also object 
to beef, pork, and especially to ham. Mar- 
riages can only be contracted with persons 
of their own caste and creed. Polygamy is 
forbidden. Fornication and adultery are 
punishable with death. Their dead are not 
buried, but exposed on an iron grating in 
the. Dokhina, or Toiver of Silence, to the 
fowls of the air, to the dew, and to the sun, 
until the flesh has disappeared, and the 
bleaching bones fall through into a pit be- 
neath, from which they are afterward re- 
moved to a subterranean cavern. Their re- 
ligious rites consist chiefly of an adoration 
of fire as an emblem of the Deity. A schism 
has lately broken out among them, one par- 
1 See under these titles respectively. 



ty of " liberals " desiring to make some im- 
portant reforms in their faith to adapt it to 
modern life and demands. 

Parson, a term employed in common lan- 
guage to designate the pastor of any charge. 
In English ecclesiastical law it is synony- 
mous with rector (q. v.). It is derived 
from the Latin word persona, person, be- 
cause he stands for the invisible Church in 
the eye of the law. In any action by or 
against the parish church the parson is the 
person who represents it. 

Parthia, the designation of an Asiatic 
country south-east of the Caspian, called 
also Parthysea and Parthyene. This coun- 
try was peopled by an uncivilized and needy 
tribe, the Parthinians, and probably of Scyth- 
ian origin. They were subject to the Per- 
sian kings, and passed over to the Macedo- 
nians at the conquest. Afterward Parthia 
revolted from the Syrian rule, and became 
the nucleus of a great monarchy — the Par- 
thian empire. It was founded by Arsaces 
I., about 256 B.C., and ultimately comprised 
the provinces of the earlier Persian king- 
dom, extending itself westward till it met 
the Roman power on the Euphrates. The 
struggles of Parthia with Rome were long- 
continued, with varied fortunes ; it was nev- 
er conquered by the masters of the Western 
World, and continued till the thii'd century 
after Christ. The term Parthians occurs in 
the Bible only in Acts ii., 9, where it is ap- 
plied to Jews who had settled in Parthia, 
and had come up to Jerusalem to attend the 
Jewish feast of Pentecost. 

Partridge (Heb. Icore). This word occurs 
only twice in Scripture. It is generally 
accepted as signifying some kind of part- 
ridge, though, like most other Hebrew uamea 
of animals, the word is probably a col- 
lective one, including a considerable num- 
ber of species. The bird to which David 
compared himself when hiding from Saul 
was, in all probability, the desert partridge, 
a species which especially haunts rocky and 
desert places, and even at the present day is 
exceedingly plentiful about the cave of Adul- 
1am. The males, when they think them- 
selves unobserved, are fond of challenging, 
or calling to each other in a loud, ringing 
note — a peculiarity that has earned for the 
bird, in the Hebrew tongue, the name of 
" the caller." This partridge is at the pres- 
ent day hunted on the mountains, exactly 
as in the time of David. The usual hunters 
are boys, who pursue the bird from place 
to place till it becomes so weary that they 
can come close enough to strike it with 
their fowling-sticks. The eggs of the par- 
■ tridge are so valued for food, that at the 
' proper time of year searching for them is 
I made a regular business. Probably it is 
I these eggs on which the partridge sits, but 
which are so often taken from her before 
I her hope in them can be fulfilled, to which 



PASSOVER 



720 



PASSOVEE 



the prophet Jeremiah refers. [1 Sam. xxvi., 
20; Jer.xvii., 11.] 

Passover. One of the three great Jewish 
festivals. It was originally instituted by 
command of God himself, in commemora- 
tion of the deliverance of the Israelites from 
Egyptian bondage, and the sparing of the 
first-born on the night previous to their de- 
parture. The feast lasted for seven days, 
during which it was unlawful to eat any oth- 
er than unleavened bread. Hence the fes- 
tival is frequently called in Scripture " the 
Feast of Unleavened Bread." On the first 
day of the feast there was to be killed a 
lamb without blemish, and this lamb being 
an eminent type of Christ, the apostle Paul 
speaks of Christ as '^our Passover, sacrificed 
for us." The month Msan, being that on 
which the Israelites left Egypt, was appoint- 
ed to be the first month of the sacred, or 
ecclesiastical, year ; and on the fourteenth 
day of this month the people were com- 
manded to kill the Paschal lamb, and to ab- 
stain from leavened bread. The following 
day, the fifteenth, was the great Feast of the 
Passover, which continued seven days ; but 
only the first and seventh days were particu- 
larly solemn. Each family killed a lamb or 
kid ; and if the number of the family was 
not sufficient to eat the lamb, two families 
might be associated together. With the 
blood of the slain lamb they sprinkled the 
door-posts and lintel of each house, just as 
they had done on that dread night in Egypt, 
that the destroying angel noting it might 
pass over them. The lamb was roasted and 
eaten the same night, with unleavened bread 
and bitter herbs. It was to be eaten entire, 
and not a bone of it was to be broken. As 
on that night whose memory the feast per- 
petuated, the Jews partook of the Paschal 
lamb with their loins girt, shoes on their 
feet, and staves in their hands. The Jew 
who dared to neglect to keep the Passover 
was to be condemned to death. It could be 
observed only in Jerusalem. If any person 
arrived at that city too late for the feast, 
he was allowed to observe it upon the even- 
ing of the fourteenth day of the following 
month. Sacrifices peculiar to the festival 
were oifered every day so long as it lasted ; 
but on the first and last days no servile la- 
bor was permitted, and a sacred convoca- 
tion was held. On these days, also, the first 
fruits or first sheaf of the harvest was pre- 
sented.^ In the course of time the strict- 
ness of the original rules for the observance 
of the Passover was probably relaxed in 
some particulars. Instead of the haste and 
preparations for a march which character- 
ized the first Passover, the feast was after- 
ward partaken in a sitting or reclining pos- 
ture, thus, perhaps, betokening the condition 
of rest to which God had brought his peo- 



* Exod. xii. ; xiii., 4^10 ; Lev. xxiii., .5-14 ; Numb. ix. 
4-13; xxviii,, 16-25; Deut. xvL, 1-8, 16. 



pie. Of course, since the destruction of Je- 
rusalem and the overthrow of the Jewish 
polity the sacrificial offering has ceased ; but, 
with few changes in the mode of its celebra- 
tion, the Passover has been observed with- 
out intermission by the Jews from the peri- 
od of their return from the Babylonish cap- 
tivity to the present day. In the Christian 
Church it finds its counterfeit in Easter (q. 
v.). The institution and continued observ- 
ance of the Passover is the strongest corrob- 
oration of the reality of the facts which it 
commemorated. No man could persuade a 
nation to commence and perpetuate such an 
observance were it not grounded in truth. 
And herein, as in so many other respects, 
the Jews are a proof of the credibility of 
the Bible. 

The symbolical and typical meaning of 
this rite is full of interest. Instituted at 
the deliverance from the bondage of Egypt, 
its commemoration was to the Hebrews like 
a perpetual renewal of their youth. Its so- 
lemnities, repeated over and over again in so 
many details, brought afresh to their view 
the redemptive act to which they owed their 
national existence, and the heritage of life 
and blessing it secured for them. Its cele- 
bration was, therefore, a standing memorial 
of the Lord's mercy and the Lord's power ; 
and we may well conceive the glowing tri- 
umph with which the faithful Hebrew, ques- 
tioned by his children as to the meaning 
of such rites, would describe the wonderful 
works done of old time for their fathers. 
But while the Passover commemorated the 
past, it also typically pointed-to the future. 
It prefigured a yet greater deliverance, and 
taught that befitting temper and purity of 
heart through which that deliverance might 
be gained. The Paschal lamb was slain ; so 
still, " without the shedding of blood there 
is no remission of sins." The blood was 
sprinkled on the lintel and door-post of each 
house ; the blood of the Lamb of God must 
be applied to the heart and evidenced by a 
public confession before men. The Lamb 
that was slain was also to be eaten : " Ex- 
cept," says Christ, " ye eat the flesh of the 
Son of Man and drink his blood, ye have no 
life in you" — an enigmatical saying, which 
Paul explains in saying, " If any man have 
not the spirit of Christ, he is none of his." 
In other words, it is not enough that we are 
pardoned through Christ ; we must partake 
of him. The Israelite took of this feast with 
his loins girded, his shoes on, himself ready 
for a pilgrimage ; so Christian faith is a 
preparation for Christian work, true piety 
for godly activity. The event which the 
Passover celebrated was emancipation ; he 
whom Christ makes free is free indeed. 
This Supper celebrates the great emanci- 
pation of the soul from the law of sin and 
death.^ 



1 Rom. yiii., 2. 



PASTOR 



721 



PATRON, PATRONAGE 



The parallel is so perfect, even in its mi- 
nntest details, tliat one needs no better evi- 
dence of tlie spiritual unity of the Old and 
New Testaments, and the spiritual signifi- 
cance and typical character of the sacrifi- 
cial system of the former dispensation, than 
a comparison of the Jewish Passover with 
the Christian redemption through our Lord 
Jesus Christ, toward which the great Jew- 
ish feast, for so many years and so steadily, 
pointed the Jewish nation. For institution 
of Passover, see Exod. xii., 1-36. 

Pastor {sTxeplm^d), a general term used by 
different denominations to designate an or- 
dained clergyman when settled over a local 
parish. It differs in the common nsage of 
America from evangelist, who is ordained, but 
travels fi'om place to iDlace, carrying on an 
itinerant ministry, and from stated supplies, 
a name sometimes given to a clergyman 
employed to perform pastoral work in a 
given parish for a definite time, but not or- 
dained over it permanently. The term pas- 
tor is also used in several forms and in com- 
position. Thus we hdiXQ pastorate, signifying 
the office of a pastor; pastoral rvork, some- 
times used to distinguish the personal work 
of the clergyman in visiting from house to 
house from his pulpit ministration ; pastoral 
theology, that branch of theological science 
which treats of the practical duties of pas- 
tors in their work, in distinction from system- 
atic theology, which treats of the doctrines in I 
their relations to each other or as a system j 
of truth; pastoral letter, a letter addressed! 
by a bishop to the pastors nnder his charge ; 
respecting the general duties of their office . 
or some especial duty which he wishes to j 
enjoin upon them ; and pastoral charge, an j 
address made to the pastor on his ordina- | 
tion by some clergyman, and forming a ! 
usual part of the ordination services in the \ 
Presbyterian and Congregational denomina- 
tions ; and jM.sfo)-aZ staff, or crosier (q. v.). 

Pathros {region of the south), the proper ; 
name of what is said to be the native land , 
of the Egyptians. It is ordinarily used to | 
signify Upper Egypt. The inhabitants of | 
Pathros were one of the tribes descended j 
from Ham, and are found in the genealogical , 
list of nations, under the title of Pathrusim. 
[Isa. xi., 11 ; Jer. xliv., 1, 15 ; Ezek. xxix., 
14 ; XXX., 14.] 

Patmos, a small island in the Icarian Sea, 
situated about twenty miles south of Samos, j 
and about twenty-four west of the coast of ; 
Asia Minor, near Miletus. The principal in- 
terest of Patmos to the Bible student lies in ! 
the fact that St. John was banished here in 
the reign of Domitian, or, as others contend, | 
during the reign of Nero, and here was per- ! 
mitted to behold those wonders which, at 
the command of the Spirit, he wrote down 
for the edification of the Church in all ages. 
It has no trees, and but a scanty vegetation. 
Its inhabitants subsist by fishing and the 
46 



poor harvests their fields afford them. They 
are, as they ever have been, ignorant and 
superstitious, although quiet and peaceable. 
Patmos has been, in one respect, singularly 
favored. The Turks have never visited it, 
and the moderate tribute which they exact 
has been punctually paid, and sent by the 
islanders themselves to Smyrna. No mosque 
has ever been erected on the spot render- 
ed sacred by the vision of the Apocalypse. 
Slavery is unknown, and piracy has never 
been practiced. The air is pure and whole- 
some. Its modern name is Patino, and its 
inhabitants are about six hundred in num- 
ber. [Rev. i., 9.] 

Patxiarch (father of a tribe), the name giv- 
en to the heads of families in the earliest 0. 
T. history. In the later history of the Jews, 
too, after the destruction of Jerusalem, the 
name was used to designate the heads of the 
Sanhedrim, one of whom, the patriarch of 
the West, resided at Tiberias, in Galilee ; the 
oth€r, the patriarch of the Eastern Jews, at 
Babylon. The most familiar use of the word, 
however, is in the history of the Christian 
Church. Originally, the patriarch, like the 
pope, appears to have been simply a bishop ; 
gTadually, however, his jurisdiction was ex- 
tended until it embraced a number of met- 
ropolitan sees included in his district, which 
was termed a patriarchate. Thus, supervis- 
ing the clergy, were bishops, each in his own 
diocese ; supervising the bishops were met- 
ropolitans, or archbishops ; and supervising 
these were the patriarchs, the highest of all 
officials. The office is still retained in the 
Greek Church,'though it has been abolished 
in the Russo- Greek Church, while in the 
Roman Catholic Church it is little more 
than an honorary title. The three princi- 
pal patriarchates in the Eastern Church are 
those of Constantinople, Antioch, and Jeru- 
salem. • 

Patron, Patronage. In the early ages of 
Christianity, the countries where the new 
religion had been adopted were parceled 
out into large districts or dioceses, under 
the superintendence of a bishop, who usual- 
ly resided in the neighborhood of one of the 
religious houses. Within such districts the 
bishop had the nomination of the priests, 
who supplied religious instruction to the 
people. The priests were paid out of the 
episcopal treasury, and traveled about in the 
exercise of their duties, having their resi- 
dence with the bishop. Occasionally a bish- 
op endowed a church in his diocese, and at- 
tached a priest permanently to it. As Chris- 
tianity became more universal, and the popu- 
lation increased, the proprietors of lands be- 
gan to build and endow churches in their 
own possessions. In such cases the chap- 
lain or priest was not paid by the bishop, 
but allowed to receive for his maintenance, 
and for the use of his church, the whole or a 
part of the profits of the lands with which 



PAUL 



722 



PAUL 



the fonnder had endowed it, and the offer- 
ings of those who frequented the church for 
worship. Eventually it came to be stipu- 
lated with the bishop that the founder and 
his heirs should have a share in the admin- 
istration of the property, and have the right 
to nominate a person in holy orders to be 
the officiating minister whenever a vacancy 
occurred. Thus lay patronage has grown to 
be common both in England and on the Con- 
tinent. When, in the reign of Henry VIII., 
the monasteries were abolished and their 
church property confiscated, it passed into 
the hands of the friends and supporters of 
the king, and so has descended to laymen to 
the present time. Thus in England the lay 
patrons were greatly increased in number, 
^nd in many cases the tithes and other in- 
come which before belonged to the church, 
and went to the support of its incumbent, 
passed directly into the hands of laymen. 
At the present time there is no common law 
governing the various parishes, but the finan- 
cial government of each one depends large- 
ly upon its historical foundation. In some 
cases the patron has simply the right to pre- 
sent a candidate for the olBSce of parson, who, 
when appointed, receives all the income of 
the parish, and who in such case is called 
rector (q. v.). In some cases a portion of 
the income belongs to the patron, while a 
portion is set apart to the incumbent, who 
in that case is called a vicar (q. v.). In 
some cases the incumbent is dependent on 
the will of the patron for his salary, in 
which case he is called curate (q. v.). The 
ecclesiastical living or preferment is called 
a benefice (q. v.), and the patron's right of 
presentation an advowson (q. v.). There 
has been of late years some earnest agita- 
tion in the Church of England to get rid 
of patronage altogether ; and the evils of a 
system which places the appointment of the 
clergy in the hands of laymen, who are often 
indifferent to the spiritual interests of the 
Church, are conceded by all parties. But the 
vested rights are so immense, and the sys- 
tem is so incorporated in the whole organ- 
ization of the Established Church, that for 
the abuses of patronage no adequate remedy 
has yet been discovered ; and it is hardly too 
much to say that there is no radical remedy 
except in the abolition of the Church Estab- 
lishment, and the substitution of the volun- 
tary system of church support as maintain- 
ed in the United States. 

Paul {little), called also Saul, an apostle 
of Jesus Christ, though not one of the twelve. 
No adequate explanation is given of his dou- 
ble name. Perhaps the most reasonable ex- 
planation is that the former appellation was 
Roman, the latter Hebrew ; and that he took 
his Roman name when he commenced his 
missionary career, partly to obtain the more 
readily the advantages which were afforded 
by his Roman citizenship, partly because it 



would better give him access to the Gentile 
world. In this article we shall give a brief 
biographical sketch of the great apostle, re- 
ferring the reader for further information to 
the titles of the various topics incidentally 
referred to. For an account of the various 
churches which he organized, and the epis- 
tles which he wrote, the reader is also refer- 
red to those titles. 

Education and Conversion. — Of Paul's ear- 
ly life all that we know is what little we 
can derive from his own reference to him- 
self in occasional passages in his letters and 
speeches. Of these, perhaps the most im- 
portant are Acts xxi,, 39 ; xxii., 3 ; Phil, iii., 
4-6. He was born in Tarsus of Cilicia. His 
father was a Roman citizen, and Paul was 
thus free-born. Cilicia was famous of old 
for the manufacture of the black tents of 
goats' hair which are to be seen to the pres- 
ent day on the plains of Tarsus. Jewish 
custom required every father to teach his 
son a trade, and young Saul was brought 
up to the occupation of a tent-maker. He 
learned the Greek language by reason of his 
intercourse with the Greek population of his 
native city, though there is no reason to be- 
lieve that he received an education in the 
philosophical schools, for which Tarsus was 
then almost as famous as Athens. His par- 
ents were Pharisees, and of the stricter sect. 
They had, therefore, no respect for Greek 
culture, but rather an abhorrence of it. Saul 
was early sent to Jerusalem to complete his 
education, where he was "brought up," i <?., 
from early youth, at the feet of the most 
distinguished doctor of the Jewish law, Ga- 
maliel. He imbibed his precepts, but not 
his mind and timid spirit. He learned to 
regard the Jewish law as an object of almost 
idolatrous, certainly of superstitious, regard; 
and whatever seemed to weaken its authori- 
ty he conceived to be a foe to God to be re- 
sisted to the death. When, therefore, we 
first meet Saul, it is as a leader of persecu- 
tion against the early Christians. When 
Stephen, the first martyr, was slain, Saul is 
described as consenting to his death, and 
holding the outer garments of the witnesses 
who cast the first stones. This was but the 
beginning. His zeal against the new relig- 
ion was intense. He persecuted the dis- 
ciples from c^ty to city, entering private 
houses, dragging out both men and women, 
pursuing them even to death. To use his 
own words, he was exceedingly mad against 
them.^ At length, however, having driven 
them from Jerusalem, and hearing of their 
preaching in Damascus, he desired and ob- 
tained of the priests letters of authority to 
pursue them thither, and started upon his 
cruel errand. See his own testimony to his 
sincerity, in Acts xxvi., 9-11, and 1 Tim.i., 13. 

Of the extraordinary event which arrest- 
ed him in his course of persecution, and re- 



Acts xxvi., 11. 



PAUL 



723 



PAUL 



suited in Ms conversion to Christ, we have 
three accounts, given respectively in Acts 
ix., xxii., and xxvi. These accounts differ 
in some unimportant details, but they agree 
perfectly in the substantial facts. Paul and 
his companions had nearly reached Damas- 
cus ; they were within sight of its walls ; 
the sun was shining brightly; suddenly it 
was overpowered by a brighter light from 
heaven ; all the men saw the light, all fell 
to the ground, all were thus witnesses of 
the miracle, but Saul alone saw the cause 
of this sudden glory — the Son of God amidst 
the light ;^ he alone heard a voice; to the 
rest it was only a sound as of thunder ; but 
to him it spoke in audible words. Saul yield- 
ed instantly ; and he emphasizes his new al- 
legiance by the question, " Lord, what wilt 
thou have me to do ?" and by promptly obey- 
ing the command to go to Damascus and be- 
come the guest of one of the Christian disci- 
ples, named Judas, of whom nothing more is 
known. Here, after three days, during which 
he remained blind, his eyes were opened, and 
he was baptized, publicly professing his new 
faith in Christ. All three of the accounts of 
this miraculous conversion come evidently 
from Paul himself. Yet they possess, in two 
respects, a remarkable authentication. It is 
certain that Saul, who went to Damascus to 
persecute the Christians, remained to preach 
Jesus Christ, and that from this time he was 
a most ardent and zealous disciple of the 
very faith which he had before pursued with 
such bitterness. For tins faith he yielded 
every thing which such a man could hold 
dear, and gave himself to a life of privation 
and suffering, ending in a cruel death. Those 
who can not believe that he was arrested in 
his way by a light and a voice from heaven, 
must find some other explanation for the 
phenomenon of the change in Saul, which 
was itself more marvelous than the super- 
natural appearance which led to it. In the 
second place, Saul subsequently referred to 
this event, and narrated it in great detail. 
The men who accompanied him on his jour- 
ney were still living. They knew whether 
the tale was true or false. Jewish interest 
was keenly aroused to prove it false. But 
his account appears never to have been de- 
nied during his lifetime. Even in the Chris- 
tian Church Paul's apostolic authority was 
denied by the faction which all his life-long 
he fought. He repeatedly referred to the 
appearance of Christ to him, and to the 
marks of the Lord Jesus Christ which he 
bore in his body as an evidence of his apos- 
tleship ; and the argument appears never to 
have failed. At least, the fact never was 
questioned. What these marks were is un- 
certain. They are reasonably identified with 
the thorn in the flesh referred to in 2 Cor. 
xii., 7 ; and this, again, is thought to be 

1 This is implied in Acts ix., 7-17; xxii., 14; 1 Cor. 
is., 1; xv.j 8. 



identical with the ''infirmity of the flesh" 
referred to in Gal. iv., 13-15. Noting the 
fact that here the apostle declares that the 
Galatians would have plucked ont their eyes 
and have given them to him, and that at the 
time of his conversion he was struck with a 
blindness which lasted three days,^ it has 
been not unreasonably surmised that in 
weakened eye-sight he carried with him to 
his grave the marks of that miraculous in- 
terview.^ 

From Paul's conversion to the commence- 
ment of his first missionary journey, his life 
is involved in some obscurity. The sacred 
historian does not give a biography of 
Paul, but only an account of his religious 
work ; and our knowledge of this period of 
preparation is, therefore, derived almost en- 
tirely from incidental allusions and frag- 
mentary and incomplete notices. These are 
contained chiefly in Acts ix,, 19-30 ; xi., 22- 
30 ; xxii., 17-21 ; and Gal. i., 17-24. From 
these passages we gather that Paul com- 
menced immediately to preach the Gospel at 
Damascus ; and that he did not go up to 
Jerusalem, which was still the centre of the 
Christian Church, for three years ; that the 
greater part of this time he spent in Arabia, 
probably in retirement, studying the Old 
Testament Scriptures, and acquiring that 
spiritual knowledge of them, as a prophecy 
of and preparation, for Christ, which is so 
remarkable a character of his subsequent 
career, as evidenced by such of his writings 
and speeches as have been preserved ; that 
his preaching at Damascus incited the Jews 
to compass his death, and that he escaped 
only by being let down by the wall in a 
basket, probably from the house of some 
Christian disciple which stood upon or con- 
stituted a part of the wall of the city ; that 
when he first went to Jerusalem the dis- 
ciples viewed him with suspicion, and that 
it was not till Barnabas told the story of his 
conversion that he was received among them ; 
that his first desire was to preach the Gospel 
to his own nation, and that when the Lord 
appeared to him in a trance in the Temple 
and bade him leave Jerusalem, he, for the 
first and only time in his life, remonstrated, 
believing that because the Jews had known 
him as a persecutor they would be the more 
ready to receive his testimony to the j>ower 
of the truth ; that when the command was 
repeated, and enforced by threatened perse- 
cutions,^ he yielded, and retreated to Tarsus, 
his native town, where he remained till Bar- 
nabas went after him, and brought him to 



1 Acts ix., 9.-2 Five times he had been scourged, 
thrice beaten with rods, and once he had been stoned 
(2 Cor. xi., 24, 25). He bore the scars in his body ; and 
these he calls "themarlcs of the Lord Jesns" (Gal. vi., 
17), because received in his sei'vice, and borne as its 
trophies, and as proofs of fidelity to it. Some suppose 
an allusion to the mark branded or imprinted on the 
person of a bondman by the master to whom he owed 
service. (T. J. C.)— ^ Compare Acts xxii., 21, with is., 
29, 30. 



PAUL 



724 



PAUL 



Antioch. Of the spiritual struggles of this 
period of his life, the incertitude, the grad- 
ual coming out of darkness into light, the 
gradual casting off of all remnants of Juda- 
ism, and coming out into that perfect liber- 
ty of the Gospel, of which he became the 
greatest expounder, we can only surmise. 
His epistles contain hints from which we 
may reasonably conclude that there was 
such a struggle, that though his conversion 
was instantaneous, his spiritual education 
was not ; but that is all. 

First Missionary Journey. — Even as a per- 
secutor, Saul had unwittingly laid the foun- 
dation for his future work. The early Chris- 
tian Church was not suffered to rest quietly 
at Jerusalem, and there await the coming 
of the Lord. The persecution which Saul 
set on foot did nothing to lessen the Chris- 
tian zeal of the disciples, but it scattered 
them far and wide, and wherever they went 
they preached the Gospel. One of the fruits 
of this primitive preaching was the Church at 
Antioch. There, apparently, the Gospel was 
first preached to the Greeks; here they first, 
in any great numbers, received it; hither 
Barnabas brought Paul, as one adapted, by 
his knowledge of the Greek language and 
character, to labor among these Greek con- 
verts ; here the first line of division between 
Judaism and Christianity clearly showed it- 
self, and the new religion appeared, not as a 
sect of Judaism, but as a new revelation to 
all mankind; here, therefore, the disciples 
were first called Christians; and here the 
first movement was inaugurated to carry 
the glad tidings of the Gospel to other lands 
and peoples.^ The apostle to the Gentiles 
had been prepared for his work ; the Church 
was made ready by the Spirit of God to sec- 
ond his labors. By the direction of the Holy 
Spirit, as the result, apparently, of a special 
occasion of prayer and fasting, possibly to 
consider the problem, What duty, if any, 
was owed to the heathen world ? Saul and 
Barnabas were set apart as the first mission- 
aries of the Cross ; and after receiving the 
benediction of the Church in a simple serv- 
ice of ordination, accompanied with prayer 
and fasting, they set out on the first mis- 
sionary expedition of the Christian Church, 
taking with them John Mark as a sort of 
subordinate minister. They embark at Se- 
leucia, the port of Antioch, for the island of 
Cyprus. Here the Eoman proconsul, Ser- 
gius Paulus, is converted, and Elymas, or 
Bar-jesus, is smitten with blindness. From 
this time, too, the apostle apparently adopts 
his new name, Paul, which is now mention- 
ed for the first time, and by Avhich he is al- 
ways subsequently called. From the island 
of Cyprus John Mark returns, probably de- 
terred by the dangers of the farther jour- 
ney ; while Paul and Barnabas cross over to 
Perga, on the main coast, intending thence 
rXcts xi., 19-26. 



to penetrate the districts of Pisidia and Ly- 
caonia. This new enterprise was beset with 
dangers. The highlands of Pisidia could 
only be penetrated by passes subject to be 
swept by the sudden rise of the mountain 
torrents, and infested by the wildest ban- 
ditti in the world; and the apostles went 
forward through "perils of rivers and per- 
ils of robbers," only to plunge into " perils 
from their kindred and perils from the hea- 
then."^ Their first halting-place was Anti- 
och, in Pisidia, where Paul first preached 
the Gospel in the synagogue to the Jews, 
and then, when it was rejected by them, 
turned to the Gentiles. Driven thence by 
persecution, they go on their way, visiting 
in succession the cities of Iconium, Lystra, 
and Derbe. At Lystra a miracle performed 
upon a cripple brings together a throng of 
the ignorant people, who propose to offer 
sacrifice to the apostles as incarnate gods, 
from which idolatry they are barely re- 
strained by the utmost endeavors of Paul 
and Barnabas. Forbidden this vent to their 
enthusiasm, a sudden revulsion in popular 
feeling takes place, incited by Jews from 
Antioch and Iconium, and Paul is stoned 
and left for dead, though only stunned. 
These experiences of persecution do not 
prevent him from taking all these cities on 
his way home again. Nor is he content 
with only preaching the Gospel ; wherever 
there are converts, he organizes them into 
infant churches, with elders, whom, appar- 
ently, he selects and ordains.'* And so he 
returns to Antioch, in Syria, after an absence 
which is supposed to have lasted about a 
year. The careful reader will notice with 
interest the specimen of Paul's preaching 
afforded by the sermon preached in the syn- 
agogue at Antioch, in Pisidia, during this 
journey, which was addressed to the Jews, 
and consists almost wholly of a commen- 
tary on the Jewish scriptures ; and he will 
compare it with the address delivered at 
Lystra, of which only a fragmentary report 
is given us, but which, being delivered to 
heathen and idolaters, makes no reference 
to the Bible, but refers the hearers only to 
nature as a testimony to the truth that 
there is but one God. 

The First Council. — We can hardly com- 
prehend how radical and even revolutionary 
a step Paul had taken in venturing to carry 
the Gospel into such purely heathen regions 
as the districts of Pisidia and Lycaonia. To 
us the idea of sharing our spiritual blessings 
with other nations is a natural one. But this 
idea was abhorrent to the Jews. The pro- 
posal to extend to Greek and Roman nations 
the peculiar privileges belonging only to 
Abraham's children filled them with rage. 
The Christian Church did not itself under- 
stand clearly, as yet, that Christianity was 
any thing more than a reformed Judaism ; 



1 2 Cor. xi., 26.-2 Acts xiv., 



PAUL 



725 



PAUL 



Christ himself had forbidden his disciples 
while he lived to preach his Gospel to the 
heathen, and though this prohibition had 
been rescinded, and the broad command 
given to preach the Gospel to every crea- 
ture, it was evidently but very imperfectly 
understood/ There were many sincere dis- 
ciples in the Church who were, at first, not 
prepared to go any further than to say that 
heathen might become Christians by first 
submitting to circumcision, accepting the 
Jewish law, and so becoming Jews. Paul 
and Barnabas, on the contrary, maintained 
that Christ was free to every creature, that 
^^ all that helieve are justified from all thiugs 
from which ye could not be justified through 
the law of Moses."^ To settle this dispute a 
council was called at Jerusalem. The whole 
matter was discussed in a friendly spirit. It 
is evident that in this council there was no 
papal authority; Peter was not even the 
leader ; that office appears to have been ex- 
ercised by James, the one elsewhere known 
as the Lord's brother. The result of the 
council was a unanimous approval of the 
work of Paul and of the principles of which 
he was the expounder. As a concession to 
the prejudices of the Jews, it was recom- 
mended that the heathen converts abstain 
from meats offered to idols, from blood, and 
from things strangled. But at a later date 
Paul disowned this as a law, and, while he 
recommended his heathen converts to fol- 
low this advice out of regard to the con- 
science of their Jewish brethren, he emphat- 
ically denied that there was any thing in 
the ancient law on this subject which was 
of binding force. 

Second Missionary Journey. — This journey 
was apparently commenced with very little 
expectation on the part of Paul of its ex- 
tent or its results. He proposed to Barna- 
bas to revisit the churches which they had 
established ; but Barnabas insisted on tak- 
ing John Mark with them, while Paul was 
equally determined not to do so. There was 
a sharp contention between them, which 
resulted in a temporary separation, though 
not in a permanent estrangement.^ Paul 
took Silas, and departed for his former field 
of labor. But the Spirit of God did not suf- 
fer him to stop with a simple revisiting of 
the churches already formed, and the apos- 
tle showed himself ready to follow the lead- 
ings of God's providence, and the guidance of 
his Spirit, without counting the cost. This 
journey, the incidents of which are record- 
ed in Acts XV., 36-xviii., 24, is memorable 
for its wide extent, its long duration, and, 
above all, for the introduction of Christian- 
ity into Europe, though the apostle's labors 
were still confined to that eastern division 
of the Roman Empire which was marked by 



1 Comp. Matt, x., 5, 6, with Matt, xxviii., 19, 20.— 
2 Act? xiii., 39.-3 Gal. ii., 1, 9, 13 ; 1 Cor. ix., 6 ; comp. 
Col. iv., 10 ; Philem. 24 ; 2 Tim. iv., 11. 



the Adriatic. The journey extended over 
the space of more than three or four years, 
of which eighteen months were spent at 
Corinth. Beginning at Autioch, in Syria, 
it embraced Cilicia, Lycaonia, Phrygia, Ga- 
latia, Mysia, and the Troad ; and, in Europe, 
Macedonia, Athens, and Corinth ; thence Paul 
crossed the ^gean Sea to Ephesus, and 
thence, by Coesarea, to Jerusalem, whence, 
after a hasty visit, he returned to Antioch, 
in Syria. 

It was in the course of this journey that 
Paul first met with Timothy, whom, notwith- 
standiug the decree of the council at Jerusa- 
lem, he circumcised out of regard to Jewish 
prejudices. It is difficult to avoid the con- 
viction that, at a later date in his history, 
he would not have yielded to these preju- 
dices.^ He visited Galatia, and there estab- 
lished churches, which received him with 
an enthusiasm characteristic of their Celtic 
character, but soon fell away from the pure 
faith and the freedom of the Gospel. At 
Philippi a mob was incited by men whose 
trade had been taken from them by Paul's 
casting out the spirit of divination which 
possessed a certain damsel, who seems to 
have been in some way under their control. 
The Roman law at this time allowed com- 
parative freedom to all religions, being real- 
ly indifferent to all. The magistrates, how- 
ever, arrested Paul and Silas, and command- 
ed them to be beaten, evidently without any 
investigation of the case ; for they did not 
even know that Paul was a Roman citizen. 
The imprisonment of the apostles, who, de- 
spite their suffering, occupied the midnight 
hours in singing praise, and the earthquake 
which followed, and yet more, the marvelous 
calmness of Paul and Silas, and their kind- 
ness to the jailer who had treated them with 
such indignity, and whom their expostula- 
tions saved from intended suicide, resulted 
in his conversion. The incident is important, 
as presenting in the simplest possible form 
the conditions of salvation. Here at Philippi 
was organized the Church to which he subse- 
quently addressed the Epistle to the Philip- 
pians. There were but few Jews in the city, 
and the Christian Church was probably com- 
posed almost wholly of Gentile converts. 

It was on this journey that Paul organ- 
ized the church at Thessalonica, to which 
afterward he addressed the two Epistles to 
the Thessalonians. On this journey, too, he 
first preached the Gospel at Athens. His 
sermon, of which we have a pretty full re- 
port in Acts xvii., affords a remarkable il- 
lustration of Paul's method, but is unhap- 
pily rendered in our version. It was Paul's 
uniform practice to establish in his opening 
a sympathy between himself and his hear- 
ers. He almost never began an address or 
a letter by rebuking wrong or inveighing 
against error. The opening sentences of his 



1 See Gal. v., 3, 4. 



PAUL 



726 



PAUL 



address at Athens are in reality a commen- 
dation, tliough in our English version they 
appear to be a criticism. Among the innu- 
merable altaxs of Atlieus, where one of the 
ancient satirists had declared it was easier 
to find a god than a man, the apostle be- 
held an altar inscribed, " To The Unknown 
God," or, rather, "To an unknown God." 
When invited by the Athenians to describe 
to them his religion, he seized upon this 
as his text, beginning his address not by a 
denunciation of their superstition, but by a 
commendation of their mistaken zeal for re- 
ligion. " Ye men of Athens," said he, " all 
things which I behold bear witness to your 
carefulness in religion. For as I passed 
through your city, and beheld the objects 
of your worship, I found among them an al- 
tar with this inscription. To The Unknown 
God. Whom, therefore, ye worship, though 
ye know him not. Him declare I unto you." 
It is equally noticeable, however, that while 
he commences his address by securing not 
only the attention but also the sympathj^ of 
his hearers, he brings out in strong promi- 
nence at its close that doctrine of the Gos- 
pel which would be most likely to awaken 
the opposition of the philosophical Atheni- 
ans — the doctrine of the resurrection. Of 
this characteristic of his ministry his course 
in the next city to which he came, Corinth, 
affords an equally remarkable illustration. 
Corinth was the commercial capital of Greece, 
as corrupt as it was populous. It was a 
community to be captivated, one might sup- 
pose, by glowing pictures of the majesty 
and glory of the Godhead, and descriptions, 
appealing to the senses, of the magnificence 
and the enjoyments of the Christian's heav- 
en. It called, so most men would reason, 
for all powers of eloquence and all the skill 
of the rhetorician. Paul, on the contrary, 
deliberately laid these aside, abandoned all 
attempt to entice with words of man's wis- 
dom, and made the predominant staple of 
his preaching the doctrine least likely, hu- 
manly speaking, to obtain favor with a Co- 
rinthian audience, viz., that the glory of God 
is to be seen in the humiliation, the poverty, 
the sufferings, and the death of Jesus Christ.^ 
The corruption of the city seems at first to 
have appalled the ax^ostle. For a while he 
reasoned only in the synagogue upon the 
Sabbath, pursuing tent-making through the 
week. His condition of mind may be com- 
pared to that of Elijah when he thought 
that the kingdom of Israel was wholly giv- 
en over to apostasy; nor was it until the 
Lord appeared to Paul in a special vision, 
assuring him that there were many ripe for 
the Gospel in the city, that he was relieved 
from this oppression, and commenced his 
more open and public ministry.'^ From Cor- 
inth he returned to Palestine, stopping at 



1 1 Cor. i., 17-ii., 5.-2 Comp. Acts xviii., 1-11, with 
1 Cor. ii., 3. 



Ephesus on the way, where was organized 
the Church subsequently so dear to him, 
to which the letter to the Ephesians was 
subsequently written, from Rome. From 
Ephesus he sailed to Csesarea, whence he 
went up to Jerusalem to attend one of the 
Jewish feasts (which one is not known), 
whence he returned to Antioch. This sec- 
ond missionary journey is supposed to have 
occupied from three to four years. 

Third Missionary Journey. — Paul's heart 
was now fully set u^Don the work of preach- 
ing the Gospel to the Gentiles.^ After a 
short rest he departed from Antioch, " and 
went over all the country of Galatia into 
Phrygia in order, strengthening all the dis- 
ciples." This was but the beginning of a 
tour which lasted probably about four years, 
the account of which is contained in Acts 
xviii., 23-xxi., 17. At Ephesus, which, judg- 
ing from the Epistle to the Ephesians, was 
at a later period distinguished by its living 
faith in the person and presence of the Holy 
Spirit, he found that certain of the disciples 
had not even heard of Christ's promise of 
" another comforter," and had only been 
baptized with " John's baptism," *. e., with a 
baptism which was accepted as a symbol of 
repentance from sin, but not as a token of 
the gift of the Holy Spirit. Here the apos- 
tle remained for over two years ; and his ex- 
perience here aff'ords a striking illustration 
of his moral courage. Ephesus, one of the 
chief cities of Greece, was a centre of idola- 
try and witchcraft, half Grecian, half Ori- 
ental. Its Temple of Diana is said to have 
been the most magnificent in the world, and 
there was, perhaps, no similar building about 
which .was concentrated a greater amount 
of superstitious admiration and enthusiasm. 
Thousands of miniature temples, of wood, 
silver, and gold, were made at Ephesus, sold 
to pilgrims, and carried away to every part 
of Greece. Thus its religion became the ba- 
sis of a profitable trade. Even the Jews felt 
the influence of the superstitious atmosphere 
of the place, and conspired with heathen 
priests in the exercise of magic arts. Paul 
boldly and vigorously grappled with this gi- 
gantic and organized superstition. He be- 
gan, as we have seen, by setting the doctrine 
of the Holy Spirit against this pseudo-spir- 
itualism of his times. Under his ministry, 
aided by the miracles wrought by his instru- 
mentality, a reform began. No public signs 
were manifest of the change till after two 
years of preaching. When, however, it did 
begin, it shook the whole community. Pre- 
tended magicians yielded to the power of 
the Gospel, and publicly confessed their arts. 
The books of magic were brought to the 
apostle; he publicly burned them. How 
great was the reformation is indicated by 
the fact that the value of their books was 
estimated at fifty thousand pieces of silver, 



Rom. i., 14, 15; x v., 20-24. 



PAUL 



727 



PAUL 



a sum equal to seven thousand five hundred 
dollars. In this work Paul stood alone — 
without constituency, almost without com- 
panions, and by his public assault threw 
away the protection of the Roman govern- 
ment, which suffered all religions, but per- 
mitted attack on none ; and when at length 
the mob caught two of his companions, and 
gathered in a tumultuous assemblage in the 
theatre, Paul would have rushed in to make 
some endeavor on their behalf, if his friends 
had not prevented/ At Philippi he restored 
Eutychus to life ; and at Miletus, journeying 
now toward Jerusalem, to carry with him 
the contributions of the churches, he held 
that most touching interview^ with the elders 
of the Church at Ephesus, recorded in Acts 
XX., 17-38. At Ca3sarea his imprisonment 
was prophesied by Agabus, and his friends 
besought him not to go up to Jerusalem. 
Paul's nature was not one that could regard 
with indifference the expostulations of those 
dear to him; and his answer illustrates at 
once how strong were his affections, and 
how still stronger his sense of duty : "What 
mean ye to weep and to break- mine heart ? 
for I am ready not to be bound only, but also 
to die at Jerusalem for the name of the Lord 
Jesus." And to Jerusalem he went. 

PauVs Arrest and Imprisonment. — Arriving 
at Jerusalem, the apostle finds himself con- 
fronted with the charge of teaching that Jews 
in Gentile lands were not subject to the cer- 
emonial law, and need not circumcise their 
children. This was true in fact, though 
probably false as understood by those who 
made and those who received the charge. 
Its spirit is illustrated by the charge against 
"which he defends his doctrine in Romans vi. 
It is probable, too, that the Christian Church 
at Jerusalem was far from having attained 
that knowledge of the freedom of the Gos- 
pel iuto which Paul had come. As a means 
of conquering these Jewish prejudices, the 
elders proposed that Paul should take four 
men with him, and share with them in the 
ceremonies which attended the payment of 
a religious vow. Whether the plan was 
wise or not we have not adequate data to 
decide. It is to be remembered, however, 
that the prejudices which Paul had to meet 
existed in the Christian Church, as well as 
among the Jews, and that to have refused 
to follow the counsel of the elders of the 
Church at Jerusalem would almost inevita- 
bly have produced, what Paul all his life 
contended against, a schism in the Church. 
The result of following their advice, though 
Immediately disastrous to Paul, united the 
Christian Church and divided its foes. The 
Jews, so far from being satisfied with Paul's 
apparent compliance with the law, made it 
a pretext for a new attack, spread the re- 
port that he had carried Greeks with him 
iuto the Temple to pollute it, and incited a 
1 Acts xix., 29-31. 



mob, from which he was only rescued by the 
Roman soldiery. In these fearful scenes 
Paul lost neither his courage nor his self- 
possession. No sooner was he rescued from 
the mob which had been beatiug him, than 
he asked and obtained permission to speak 
to them ; and it significantly illustrates the 
magnetic power which, in common with all 
great orators, he possessed, that the beckon- 
ing of his hand secured their silence and at- 
tention. How his declaration that God sent 
him to the Gentiles re-aroused the violence 
of the mob ; how his Roman citizenship saved 
him from a scourging, and secured the defer- 
ence and protection of the Roman captain ; 
how, by proclaiming himself a Pharisee, who 
was called in question for his faith in the 
doctrine of the resurrection, he succeeded 
in dividing the Sanhedrim when it was 
summoned to prefer charges against him; 
how a plot was formed for his assassination, 
from which he was saved by its disclosure to 
him by his nephew; how he was put upon 
his trial before Felix, and left to languish 
two years in prison, in hope of extorting 
from Paul or his friends a bribe ; how a sec- 
ond time he was brought for trial before 
Festus, and how the latter's wily proposition 
to send Paul up to Jerusalem called forth an 
indignant response, and an appeal to Csesar 
himself, an appeal which it was the right of 
every Roman citizen to take ; how a third 
time he was put upon trial, for no other pur- 
pose than to afford an hour's entertainment to 
King Agrippa, and with what simple and no- 
ble eloquence he pleaded the cause of Christ 
before the court ; with what grandeur he re- 
plied to the sarcasm of the king, " Almost 
thou persuadest me to be a Christian ; " and 
how, not pleading for himself, he yet con- 
vinced both Festus and his guest of his own 
innocence, and secured from them the dec- 
laration, "This man doeth nothing worthy 
of death or of bonds " — all this is recorded 
in Acts xxii.-xxvi., and need not be de- 
scribed more in detail here. 

The Voyage and SMjjivrecTc. — It was no 
longer possible for Festus even to release 
his prisoner; the api^eal had taken the case 
out of his jurisdiction. Paul must go to 
Rome for his trial. Acts xxvii. gives an ac- 
count of the A^oyage to Rome. It describes 
in minute detail the course of the ships, the 
ports at which they stopped, the nature of 
the dangers which threatened, the charac- 
ter of the wind which drove them out of 
their course, and of the beach on which they 
were finally cast, and gives even the sound- 
ings off the coast of the island of Melita. 
Investigators have subsequently followed 
the course thus indicated, and have found 
the history verified in every particular. In- 
deed, there is no more striking illustration 
of the scrupulous fidelity of Scripture his- 
tory than that which is afforded by Paul's 
voyage and shipwreck. The reader may, 



PAUL 



728 



PAUL 



by aid of the accompanying maps, trace tlie 
course of the vessel in which Paul embark- 
ed from Csesarea to Sidon, and thence by the 
north coast of Cyprus to Myra, in Lycia, 
where, with the centurion, the soldiers, and 
other prisoners, he re-embarked on an Al- 




exandrian ship bound for Rome ; thence 
he may trace the vessel's course along the 
coast of Asia Minor to Cnidus ; thence a lit- 
tle west of south to the harbor of Fair Ha- 
vens, on the southern coast of Crete. Here 
Paul recommended to winter. The fact 
that his recommendation on such a subject 



is noted shows that he had already secured, 
to a remarkable degree for a prisoner, the 
respect of the centurion. By looking on 
the smaller map the reader will perceive 
that Fair Havens affords but a poor harbor, 
while that of Phenice, or Lutro, as it is now 
called, is well pro- 
tected. A gentle 
south wind spring- 
ing up, the master 
of the ship believed 
that he could reach 
Phenice. He had 
hardly got beyond 
the protection of 
the coast, howev- 
er, when a furi- 
ous wind, probably 
from the north-east, 
struck the ship, and 
drove her before it. 
The course lay to- 
ward the coast of 
Africa, along which 
lie quicksands ; if 
the vessel should 
strike on these, not 
only would it have 
been destroyed, but 
all on board must 
inevitably have 
perished. As soon, 
therefore, as the 
ship came under 
the island of Clau- 
da she was brought 
round and made to 
lie to, with her head 
to the gale. In this 
position navigators 
calculate that she 
would drift, in a 
direction west by 
north, at the rate 
of thirty -six miles 
in twenty-four 
hours. Fourteen 
days of drifting in 
this direction at 
this rate would 
bring her to the 
island of Malta, and 
to that part of the 
island which tradi- 
tion identifies with 
the scene of the 
shipwreck. In this 

respect, therefore, 

modern calcula- 
tions exactly confirm the Scripture narrative. 
These days and nights of tempest had filled 
all on board with despair ; Paul alone retained 
his courage. At length the sound of break- 
ers warned them that they were approach- 
ing a coast. The sounding-line disclosed 
first twenty, then fifteen fathoms, measure- 



PAUL 



729 



PAUL 



ments which modern investigations on the 
island of Malta confirm. The sailors an- 
chored, "and wished for the day." Day- 
light, when it came, disclosed a creek with 
a shore on which it seemed practicable to 
beach the ship. This beach, with its tena- 
cious clay, in which the forepart of the ves- 
sel would stick fast and remain immovable, 
and the place where the two seas meet, have 
been discovered, and are pointed out to the 
modern tourist. 
Of the rescue of 
the whole ship's 
company, of 
Paul's subse- 
quent experi- 
ences upon the 
island, and of the 
final consumma- 
tion of his jour- 
ney, and his min- 
istry in Rome 
itself, nothing 
need be said here 
to explain the 
account given in 
the book of Acts. 
Subsequent His- 
tory. — The con- 
cluding words 
of the book of 
"Acts" hint at 
the issue of the 
apostle's impris- 
onment by tell- 
ing us that it 
lasted tivo ivliole 
years. What 
followed may be 
partly learned 
from his epistles, 
with some uncer- 
tain help from ec- 
clesiastical tradi- 
tion. The result 
is not entirely 
free from uncer- 
tainty. It ap- 
pears probable, 
however, that at 
the end of these 
two years his 
case was heard 
by Nero, who ac- 
quitted him (a.d. 
63) ; that he then 
spent a period, which some reckon at five 
years, others at two or three, in journeys of 
uncertain extent, but which brought him 
again to Ephesus. Here he is supposed to 
have been again arrested and carried to 
Rome ; but, at all events, it is tolerably cer- 
tain that he was imprisoned there a second 
time, condemned by Nero, and put to death 
iu the great persecution of the Christians 
by that emperor. According to the uniform 



tradition, the apostle was beheaded, without 
scourging (as the privilege of his citizenship), 
outside the gate leading to the port of Ostia. 
The date of his death appears to have beeqi 
about midsummer, a.d. 66 or 67. 

It belongs rather to the theologian than 
to the historian to estimate the doctrine of 
which Paul was throughout his life an ex- 
pounder. Our space does not permit us to 
attempt such an estimate here; nor is it pos- 




sible in a paragraph to embody any just con- 
ception of his character. Christ originated 
Christianity ; Paul organized it. Christ im- 
parted to humanity spiritual life, and dis- 
closed a hope of pardon and glorious im- 
mortality ; Paul embodied in letters, which 
approximate systematic treatises, the truths 
which Christ left scattered in priceless gems, 
unwritten, save by his disciples, and gather- 
ed into church organizations, whose succes- 



PAULICIANS 



'30 



PEACE-OFFEEING 




sors will last while the world stands, those in- 
dividual souls to whom Christ had given spir- 
itual life. Paul saw moj-e clearly than any 
of his contemporaries the full meaning of 
Christianity and its future. A man by na- 
ture self-reliant, only John surpassed him 
in humility. In early life a zealous perse- 
cutor, his life is full of incidents which il- 
lustrate the tenderness and the sympathy 
of his later nature. By birth and educa- 
tion a Pharisee, his love for Christ became 
an overmastering passion ; and the change 
which was wrought, not only in his life, but 
in his character, interpreted by such decla- 
rations as, " By the grace of God I am what 
I am," aifords, perhaps, the strongest testi- 
mony which history, sacred or profane, af- 
fords of the omnipotence of Divine love. 
For an account of his writings, see under 
the titles of his various epistles. 

Paulicians, a sect of the fourth century, 



concerning whose history and character 
there is much uncertainty. Eoman Catho- 
lic writers charge it with maintaining the 
doctrines of the Manicheans (q. v.). Mod- 
ern Protestant writers, on the contrary, as- 
sert that the distinctive characteristic of 
the doctrines of the Paulicians was the re- 
jection of the worship of the Virgin, the 
saints, and the cross, the denial of the mate- 
rial presence of Christ in the Eucharist, and 
the assertion of a right freely to search the 
Scriptures, and that the charge of Maui- 
cheism was falsely brought against them by 
their persecutors. 

Pax. It was customary in primitive times 
for Christians, in their public assemblies, to 
give one another a holy kiss, or kiss of peace. 
But when the practice was discontinued, in 
consequence of some appearance of scandal 
which had arisen out of it, the pax was in- 
troduced instead, consisting of a small tab- 
let which first received the kiss of the offi- 
ciating minister, after which it was present- 
ed to the deacon, and by him to the people, 
each of whom kissed it in turn, thus trans- 
mitting throughout the whole assembly the 
symbol of Christian love and peace. 

Pax Vobiscum (Peace le to you), an ordi- 
nary salutation among the ancient Chris- 
tians. This salutation, " Peace be with you," 
to which the people answered, "And with 
thy spirit," was addressed by* the bishop or 
pastor to the people at his first entrance into 
the church, and also employed at the com- 
mencement of the difiereut services. In the 
liturgy of the Church of England a similar 
salutation occurs. 

Peace-offering. There were three differ- 
ent kinds of peace-offerings : those forthauks- 
giving, the adoring gratitude of a full heart, 
expressing its sense of rich, spontaneous mer- 
cy ; for a vow, when, in consideration of a 
promise made, some benefit had been grant- 
ed ; and for a free-will offering, when some- 
thing was devoted to the Lord, but without 
any special purpose "or occasion. Of these, 
the first named would seem to stand in high- 
est estimation. The ceremonial of the peace- 
off'eriug is given in Lev. iii. ', vii., 11-21. It 
was accompanied by a meat and drink offer- 
ing, and was essentially eucharistic. There 
was, indeed, the imijosition of hands upon 
the victim, and its blood was sprinkled upon 
the altar, yet it was the offering of a heart 
reconciled and in amity with God. This is 
expressed by the fact that a portion of it 
was to be eaten by the offerer with his 
friends, in token that he had a seat at God's 
table, and might rejoice before him. The 
rites of " heaving " and " waving " the of- 
fering were an inseparable accompaniment 
of peace-oflerings. The right shoulder, the 
choicest part of the victim, was "heaved" 
and eaten by the priest alone; the breast 
was " waved " and eaten by the worshiper. 
According to Jewish tradition, the parts 



PEACOCK 



731 



PELICAN 



were placed on the hands of the offerer; 
and then the priest, putting his hands un- 
derneath, moved them in a vertical direc- 
tion for the heaving, in a horizontal one for 
the waving. This ceremony must have im- 
plied a presentation of the parts to God, and 
from it arose the terms "heave-offering" and 
" wave-offering." The same ceremony was 
practiced in some other cases. On the sec- 
ond day of the Passover a sheaf of corn, in 
the green ear, was to be waved, accompa- 
nied by the sacrifice of an unblemished 
lamb of the first year, and from the perform- 
ance of this ceremony the days till Pente- 
cost were to be counted. When that feast 
arrived two loaves, the first-fruits of the 
ripe corn, were to be ofiered with a burnt- 
offering, a sin-offering, and two lambs of the 
first year for a peace-offering. These like- 
wise were to be waved. The Scriptural no- 
tices of these rites are to be found in Exod. 
xxix., 24, 28; Lev. vii., 30, 34; viii., 27; ix., 
21 ; X., 14, 15 ; xxiii., 10, 15, 20 ; Numb, vi., 
20 ; xviii., 11, 18, 26-29. 

Peacock, a bird mentioned among the for- 
eign valuables imported by Solomon into Pal- 
estine. There has been some discussion as 
to the identity of this bird ; some Hebraists 
have rendered the word " parrots," while 
others have supposed that guinea-fowls are 
intended ; but by far the stronger evidence 
seems in favor of peacocks. There is little 
doubt that Solomon's fleets visited India 
and Ceylon; and as this magnificent bird 
abounds in those countries, it could hardly 
have escaped the notice of those in quest of 
beautiful and curious objects with which to 
add to the glories of the court of the great 
king. Peacock also occurs in the English Bi- 
ble as the translation of a word which schol- 
ars now understand as referring to the os- 
trich. [1 Kings X., 22; Job xxxix., 13.] 

Pearl. This word occurs in the O, T. only 
in Job xxviii., 18, where its significance is 
very uncertain. In the N. T. pearls are fre- 
quently referred to as objects of commerce 
and as female ornaments. The reference in 
Eev. xxi., 21, to the gates of the heavenly Je- 
rusalem, which are described as each one of 
one several pearl, is probably to the " moth- 
er-of-pearl." [Matt, vii., 6; xiii., 45, 46; 1 
Tim. ii., 9 ; Eev. xvii., 4 ; xviii., 12, 16.] 

Pekah (open-eyed), the son of Remaliah, a 
captain in the army of Pekahiah (q. v.), who 
conspired against the king, slew him, and 
usurped the throne. It is supposed, from 2 
Kings XV., 25, that he was from Gilead. He 
was the eighteenth king of Israel, and reign- 
ed twenty years, B.C. 759-739. Pekah stead- 
ily applied himself to the restoration of the 
weakened power of Israel. For this pur- 
pose he fixed his mind upon the plunder of 
the sister kingdom of Judah, and entered 
into a league with Rezin, king of Damascus, 
to drive the house of David from the throne 
of Judah, and divide the territory between 



them. The execution of this plan was prob- 
ably delayed by the righteous administra- 
tion of Jotham (q. v.), king of Judah; but 
when his weak son Ahaz succeeded to the 
throne, the allies no longer hesitated, and 
laid siege to Jerusalem.^ This league is re- 
markable as furnishing the occasion which 
called forth the great prophecies of Isaiah.^ 
This war failed in its great object^ — the de- 
thronement of the king of Judah — but it 
succeeded for a time in bringing heavy ca- 
lamities upon him.* At length, by the aid 
of Tiglath-inleser (q. v.), king of Assyria, 
the final overthrow of the confederates was 
accomplished. Rezin was put to death ; and, 
in the midst of the confusion occasioned by 
these disturbances, Hoshea (q. v.) conspired 
against Pekah, assassinated him, and usurp- 
ed the throne. This assassination seems to 
have been followed by some years of an- 
archy and confusion. At least it would ap- 
pear that there was an interregnum of sever- 
al years between the death of Pekah and the 
establishment of Hoshea upon the throne, 
which did not take place till B.C. 730, eight 
or nine years after.^ [2 Kings xv., 25-31.] 

Pekahiah {whose eyes Jehovah opened), the 
son and successor of Menahem, and seven- 
teenth king of Israel, B.C. 761-759. After a 
short and worthless reign of scarcely two 
years, a conspiracy was organized against 
him by Pekah (q. v.), one of his captains, 
who killed him, and seized the throne. [2 
Kings XV., 23-27.] 

Peleg (division), son of Eber, and brother 
of Joktan. The only incident connected 
with his history is the statement that *' in 
his days was the earth divided," an event 
which was embodied in his name. This re- 
fers to a division of the family of Eber him- 
self, the younger branch of whom (the Jok- 
tanids) migrated into Southern Arabia, while 
the elder remained in Mesopotamia. [Gen. 
x.,25; xi.,16.] 

Pelican, an unclean bird, forbidden as 
food in the Mosaic law. In three passages 
of Scripture it is mentioned as a type of soli- 
tude and desolation. In the two latter pas- 
sages the name has been translated "cor- 
morant " in the text of our Bible, but pelican 
is given in the margin. The pelican is a 
large aquatic bird, and is peculiarly averse 
to the neighborhood of human beings. It 
lives mostly on fish, which it catches dex- 
terously, by a sort of sidelong snatch of its 
enormous bill, without diving or pursuing 
its prey under water. The skin under the 
lower part of its beak is so modified that it 
can form, when distended, an enormous pouch 
capable of holding a large quantity of fish. 
When it has filled the pouch, it usually flies 
to a retired spot, often many miles inland, 
to be undisturbed while it digests its supply 



1 2 Kings xvi., 5.-2 Isn. vii.-ix.— ^ 2 Kings xvi., 5.— 
4 2Chrou.xxviii.,6-8.— 5 See Chronological Table in 
Appendix. 



PENANCE 



732 



PENTATEUCH 



of food. "When the pelican feeds its young, 
it presses its beak against the pouch, so as 
to force out of it the inclosed fish. The tip 
of the beak is armed with a sharply-curved 
hook, of a bright scarlet color, looking, when 
the bird presses the beak against the white 
feathers, like a large drop of blood. Hence 
arose the curious legend which represents 
the pelican as feeding its young with its 
own blood, and tearing open its breast with 
its hooked bill. This legend is exemplified 
by the oft-recurring symbol of the " pelican 
feeding its young" in ecclesiastical art, as 
an emblem of Divine love. In his lament, 
" I am like a pelican of the wilderness," the 
Psalmist may have had in mind the melan- 
choly appearance of the bird when gorged 
with food. It often sits for hours with its 
head sunk on its shoulders, so motionless 
that from a little distance it might easily be 
mistaken for a white stone. [Lev. xi., 18 ; 
Deut. xiv., 17 ; Psa. cii., 6 ; Isa. xxxiv., 11 ; 
Zeph. ii., 14.] 

Penaiice, one of the seven sacraments of 
the Roman Catholic Church by which those 
sins are forgiven which are committed after 
baptism. To receive this sacrament, three 
things are necessary : first, sorrow for sins 
committed, along with a purpose to commit 
them no more ; secondly, an entire confession 
of all the sins committed ; thirdly, the per- 
formance of the penance enjoined by the 
confessor.^ By penance, as ordinarily em- 
ployed, at least in Protestant literature, is 
meant not the entire sacrament, but the sat- 
isfaction or the doing of the penance im- 
posed by the priest after confession. Ac- 
cording to Roman theology, by the atone- 
ment of Christ and the absolution of the 
confessor only the eternal punishment of sin 
is remitted. Where the penitent has intense 
contrition the temporal punishment is also 
remitted. But, ordinarily, the temporal pen- 
alties remain to be suffered either in this life 
or in purgatory. '^ Whoever," says the Coun- 
cil of Trent, "shall affirm that the entire 
punishment is always remitted by God, to- 
gether with the fault, and therefore that 
penitents need no other satisfaction than 
faith, whereby they apprehend Christ who 
has made satisfaction for them, let him be 
accursed." Penance, accordingly, is imposed 
upon the sinner, not only to atone for the 
punishment due, but also to cure the bad ef- 
fects left by sin. If penance be not per- 
formed in this life, the penalties remain to 
be suffered in purgatory (q. v.), unless they 
are remitted by indulgence (q. v.). The 
principal penances are prayer, fasting, and 
alms, though pilgrimages, scourging and 
bodily tortures of various kinds were not 
infrequently imposed during the Middle 
Ages. 

Peniel (face of God), the place where Ja- 



1 For a consideration of the first two couditious, see 
Atteition : CoNTBiTioN ; and Co2<rEBSioi<. 



cob had his mysterious conflict. The spot 
was probably to the south of the brook 
Jabbok. From early times it had a tower 
or castle called Penuel; this tower Gideon 
destroyed. The city was afterward rebuilt 
or fortified by Jeroboam I. [Gen. xxxii., 24- 
30; Judg.viii., 8-17.] 

Penitential Priests, officers appointed in 
many ancient churches, when private con- 
fession was introduced, for the purpose of 
hearing confessions and imposing penances. 
The office originated in the time of the De- 
cian persecution, and was abolished by Nec- 
tarius, bishop of Constantinople. The ex- 
ample of Nectarius was followed by all the 
bishops of the East, but the office was con- 
tinued in the Western churches, and chiefly 
at Rome. The Council of Lateran, a.d. 1215, 
ordered all bishops to have a penitentiary. 
And such a dignitary is still connected with 
most Romish cathedrals, whose duties, how- 
ever, are quite difierent from those of the 
original penitentiary. 

Penitential Psalms, seven psalms, vi., 
xxxii., xxxviii., li., cii., cxxx., cxliii., which 
are appointed by the English Church to be 
read on Ash -Wednesdays, and are used in 
the Romish Church in token of special hu- 
miliation. The fifty- first Psalm is generally 
called the penitential psalm. 

Penitents. The name given to those 
who, having fallen under ecclesiastical cen- 
sure, had become impressed with a sincere 
sorrow for sin, and sought to be restored to 
the communion of the Christian Church. 
Penance in the primitive Church was wholly 
a voluntary act on the part of those who 
were subject to it. The Church not only 
would not enforce it, but they refused even 
to urge or invite any to submit to this dis- 
cipline. It was to be sought as a favor, not 
inflicted as a penalty. But the offending 
person had no authority or permission to pre- 
scribe his own duties as a penitent. When 
once he had resolved to seek the forgive- 
ness of and reconciliation with the Church, it 
was exclusively the prerogative of that body 
to prescribe the conditions on which this was 
to be effected. No one could even be re- 
ceived as a candidate for penance without 
permission first obtained of the bishop or 
presiding elder. The length of time through 
which the penance extended varied accord- 
ing to circumstances, reaching from three to 
ten years. The usual time for the restora- 
tion of penitents was Passion-week, which 
was hence called Hebdomas Indulgentice, or 
Indulgence- week. 

Pentateuch. The Greek name given by 
the seventy translators to the five books of 
Moses, the name by which they were known 
among the Je-ws being Torali, " the Law." In 
the Scriptures it is called "the Book of the 
Law," " the Book of the Covenant," " the 
Book of the Law of the Lord," " the Law of 
Moses," " the Book of Moses/' or " the Book 



PENTATEUCH 



733 



PENTATEUCH 



of the Law of Moses."^ The division iuto 
five books is thought by many to be also due 
to the Greek translators. The Jews, how- 
ever, retain the division, calling the whole 
" the five quinqueruions of the Law," though 
they only distinguish the several books by 
names derived from a leadiug word in the 
first verse of each, and retain the whole in 
a single MS. or volume, divided only into 54 
larger and 669 smaller sections. The five 
books of the Pentateuch form a consecu- 
tive whole. Beginning wdth the record of 
creation, and the history of the primitive 
world, the work proceeds to deal more es- 
pecially with the early history of the Jew- 
ish family. It gives at length the personal 
history of the three great fathers of the fam- 
ily, describes the growth of the family into a 
nation in Egypt, tells us of its oppression and 
deliverance, of its forty years' wandering in 
the wilderness, of the giving of the law, 
with all its enactments, both civil and re- 
ligious, of the construction of the tabernacle, 
of the numbering of the people, of the many 
important events which befell them before 
their entrance into Canaan, and concludes 
with Moses's last discourses and his death. 
The unity of the work in its existing form 
is now generally recognized. It is not a 
mere collection of loose fragments, carelessly 
put together at different times, but bears 
evident traces of design and purpose in its 
composition. Even those who think they dis- 
cover dififereut authors in the earlier books, 
and who deny that Deuteronomy was writ- 
ten by Moses, are still of opinion that the 
work in its present form is a connected 
whole, and was at least reduced to its pres- 
ent shape by a single reviser or editor. If 
we except some heretical sects who, in the 
early Christian centuries, desired in all ways 
to disparage the O. T., it was the belief of 
all Jewish and Christian antiquity that Mo- 
ses was the author and writer of the Pen- 
tateuch. The sacred narrative itself con- 
tains such uniform assertions of the author- 
ship as to furnish a strong presumption in 
its favor. To substantiate this claim, it is 
not necessary to insist that every word of 
the Pentateuch was written down by Moses's 
own hand. He may have dictated much or 
all of it to Joshua, or to some secretary or 
scribe, or he may have merely superintend- 
ed its writing and stamped it with his own 
authority. Though it is not necessary to 
assume this for that purpose, yet it may ex- 
plain the fact that Moses is always spoken 
of in the third person. It may also explain 
some sayings concerning Moses which he 
might have allowed others to write, but 
would not have been likely to write him- 
self. This may explain the difficulty — if, 
indeed, it be a difficulty — that the last chap- 



1 2 Kings xxii., 8; xxiii., 2, 21 ; 2 Chron. xvii., 9; 
XXV., 4; xxxiv., 14, 30; xxxv., 12; Ezra vi., 18; vii., 
6 ; Neh. viii., 1 ; xiii., 1. 



ter of Deuteronomy relates the death of 
Moses ; for what more likely than that he 
who wrote at Moses's dictation the acts 
and words of Moses should have finished 
the work by recording Moses's death ? It 
is not necessary to deny that the Penta- 
teuch, though the work of the great law- 
giver, may have undergone some recension 
in after times, as by Ezra or others. The 
Jews hold that all the books of the O. T. 
were submitted to a careful review bj^ Ezra 
and the great synagogue; and the fathers 
of the Church generally believed in some 
such supervision. If Ezra collated MSS. and 
carefully edited the books of Moses, it is not 
impossible, and is not inconsistent with the 
original authorship, that he should have ad- 
mitted explanatory notes, which some think, 
rightly or wrongly, to betray a post-Mosa- 
ic hand. Nor is it necessary to deny that 
Moses had certain documents or traditions 
referring to the patriarchal ages which he 
incorporated into his history. Indeed, it is 
most likely that such traditions should have 
come down through them and Abraham to 
Joseph and the Israelites in Egypt ; and 
there can be no reason why an inspired his- 
torian should not have worked up such trust- 
worthy material into the history of the an- 
cestors of his people. It will be sufficient to 
show, 1. That Moses could have written the 
Pentateuch ; 2. That according to the con- 
current testimony of subsequent times, he 
did write the Pentateuch ; 3. That the inter- 
nal evidence points to him, and to him only, 
as the writer of the Pentateuch. 

1. Moses could have written the Penta- 
teuch. The most skeptical of modern ob- 
jectors do not deny the existence of Moses, 
nor that he was a man of genius and energy, 
who led a nation out of captivity and set- 
tled them in a state of civil government in 
another land. He came out of the most civ- 
ilized country in the world, and he most 
probably had acquired much of its civiliza- 
tion. There can, therefore, be no reason to 
doubt that he had acquired the art of writ- 
ing, the early existence of which in Egypt 
is abundantly proved by recent researches, 
and which appears in historj^ as a possession 
of the Semitic nations long before Moses. If, 
then, writing existed in Egypt and Israel, it 
is certain that Moses could have written a 
history, first, of the ancestors of his race, if 
it were only from the traditions which were 
sure to have been preserved among them, 
and secondly, of their wars and their wan- 
derings, in which he himself had been their 
leader. And it is almost certain that he 
would do so. If there be any truth at all in 
history and tradition, the Hebrews grew from 
an oppressed race into a powerful people un- 
der the laws and system of training to which 
their wise leader subjected them before their 
settlement in Canaan. Was it not almost 
certain that he who gave them a nationality 



PENTATEUCH 



734 



PENTECOST 



"would commit Ms laws to writing? Is it 
not highly probable that he should have 
tried to call out their national spirit by. giv- 
ing them a history of their ancestry, and of 
their own assertion of their national inde- 
pendence? 

2. The concurrent testimony of subsequent 
times shows that Moses did write the books 
now known by his name. From the books 
of Joshua and Judges to the N. T. and the 
words of Jesus Christ we can trace a con- 
stant reference to and quotation of the laws, 
the history, and the words of Moses, which 
show them all to have been well known and 
universally accepted. We may fairly ask 
whether any book, ancient or modern, has 
such a stream of credible testimony in sup- 
port of its claims to genuineness and au- 
thenticity. 

3. The internal evidence points to Moses, 
and to him only, as the writer of the Penta- 
teuch. (1.) The author of that work had 
an intimate acquaintance with Egypt, its 
literature, its laws, and its religion. The 
making of bricks among the Egyptians by 
captives is portrayed on the monuments in 
such close conformity with the language 
of the book of Exodus, that the one seems 
to be a description of the other. The ark of 
papyrus smeared with bitumen is suited to 
Egypt, and Egypt only ; aud the Mosaic laws 
and institutions are penetrated throughout 
by a knowledge of Egyptian customs. (2.) 
The history and the law of the Israelites 
both bear marks and tokens of their pas- 
sage through, and long residence in, the wil- 
derness. This is specially to be observed 
concerning the tabernacle, which was only 
the most sacred of the many tents of a mi- 
gratory peox)le. The materials recorded as 
used in the construction of the tabernacle 
and its vessels were such as could be best 
obtained in the desert. The elders, or chiefs 
of the tribes, correspond with the sheiks of 
the desert; the office never disappears in the 
history of the people till out of the sheiks of 
the desert grew the elders of the synagogues. 
Even the distinction of the different kinds 
of food permitted or forbidden points to the 
inevitable conclusion that the law had its 
origin in, and the legislator was intimately 
acquainted with, the wilderness of Sinai. 
(3.) It is patent throughout that the wording 
both of the laws and of the declarations of 
the lawgiver looks forward to a future in Ca- 
naan.^ To the objections that these prophe- 
cies were pretended predictions, made after 
the events to which they refer, it may be an- 
swered that the very prophecies which speak 
so clearly of the future possession of Canaan 
are just such as would not have been writ- 
ten when the events had become known. 



1 See Exod. xii., 25; xiii., 5; xxiii., 20-33; xxxiv., 
11; Lev. xiv., 34; xviii., 8; xix., 23; xx., 22; xxiii., 
10; XXV., 2; Numb, xv., 2, 18; xxxiv., 2; xxxv., 2-34; 
Deut. iv., 1 ; vi., 10 ; vii., 1 ; ix., 1 ; xii., 10. 



Would any skillful forger have put words 
into the mouth of Moses apparently prom- 
ising, immediately upon the conquest of Ca- 
naan, rest and peace and security, when it 
took five hundred years of restless and oft- 
en unsuccessful war to attain security, and 
when the very next reign saw the nation 
rent by an incurable schism ? No ; as the 
Pentateuch bears all the traces on its brow 
of Egypt and the desert, so, also, it must 
have had its origin before the occupation of 
Canaan. (4.) The language of the Penta- 
teuch is such as to suit the age aud char- 
acter of Moses. It is undoubtedly archaic. 
There are numerous words and forms to be 
found in it, and nowhere else, or only in 
manifest imitations of it. 

Thus, multitudes of notes, both external 
and internal, combine to point out Moses as 
the author of the Pentateuch, and to ex- 
clude the possibility of its being written 
by any later prince or prophet. Neither 
Joshua, nor Samuel, nor David, nor Solo- 
mon, will supply the conditions required. 
A forger or redacteur could only have pro- 
duced it by devoting himself with the ut- 
most care to the study of Egyptian customs 
and antiquities, and to an acquaintance with 
the Sinaitic peninsula, and that, too, on the 
spot, in the midst of those countries. Not 
only must he have studied this with the 
most deliberate purpose, but he must have 
brought his study to bear with consummate 
skill. Where, in the times of Samuel, Solo- 
mon, Hezekiah, Josiah, or Ezra, can we find 
such a man ? And beyond this, if modern 
critical theories be true, we must look, not 
for one wise head and skillful hand that 
should have produced such a result, but for 
half a dozen, who at different times made 
the fabric, bit by bit ; who pieced their re- 
spective stories and their laws of many col- 
ors one into another, making out of shreds 
and patches a thing which has commanded 
the wonder of all ages, and every portion of 
which has the same archaic character, the 
same familiarity with the Egypt of the ear- 
ly dynasties, the same air of the desert, the 
same apparent impress of the great master's 
hand. Such a result, under the conditions 
of Jewish history, is inconceivable as the 
work of any man ; but it is such as the 
wildest fancy can not attribute to an in- 
definite and widely separated succession of 
many men. 

Pentecost (the fftieth), one of the three 
great Jewish festivals. It derived its name 
from the circumstance that it was celebrated 
on the fiftieth day after the sixteenth of Ni- 
san, which was the second day of the Pass- 
over. Moses calls it the Feast of Weeks, 
because it was fixed at the end of seven 
weeks from the offering of the sheaf. It 
was also celebrated as a thanksgiving for 
the harvest, and hence is also called the 
Feast of Harvest. Another name by which 



PENTECOSTALS 



735 



PEREA 



it was known was the Day of First-fruits, 
because on this day the Jews offered to 
God the iirst-fruits of the wheat harvest in 
bread made of the new grain. The form of 
thanksgiving for this occasion is given in 
Deut. xxvi., 5-10. The Pentecost was con- 
sidered as commemorating the giving of the 
law, which was delivered from Sinai on the 
fiftieth day after the departure from Egypt, 
that is, after the institution of the Passo- 
ver.^ Among the modern Jews this festival 
includes two days, which are days of holy 
convocation, and is celebrated with the same 
strictness as the first two days of the Pass- 
over. It is observed on the sixth and sev- 
enth days of the month Sivan. The three 
preceding days are called the "three days 
of bordering," because before the giving of 
the law God directed Moses to set bounds 
to the mountain that the people might not 
trespass upon it. In some countries the 
scenery of the open country is imitated, the 
synagogues are decorated with flowers, and 
the tables and floors of the houses are strew- 
ed with flowers and fragrant herbs. For it 
was not in a temple, but in the open coun- 
try, that the law was promulgated. 

It was on the first Pentecost after the res- 
urrection of Christ, A.D. 33, that the prom- 
ised outpouring of the Holy Spirit on the 
disciples and the assembled multitudes at 
Jerusalem occurred; and in remembrance 
of this remarkable event, and of Christ ris- 
en and glorified, the festival of Whitsunday, 
or Whitsuntide, was instituted in the Chris- 
tia-n Church in the close of the second cen- 
tury. This is the Christian counterpart of 
the Jewish Pentecost. For as the law was 
at Pentecost given to the Jews from Sinai, 
80 also the Christians upon this day re- 
ceived the new evangelical law from heav- 
en, by the descent of the Holy Ghost. As 
to the name, the most received opinion is 
that the complete word is White-sun day, 
and that the day was so called from the 
white garments worn in the ancient Church 
by those who were baptized on this one of 
the solemn seasons of baptism. The fifty 
days which immediately followed Easter 
formed a season of festivity, and the last 
day of that period was called the Proper 
Pentecost. No fastings were observed dur- 
ing the whole fifty days, prayers were made 
in the standing, not in the kneeliug posture, 
and in many of the churches the congrega- 
tions assembled daily and partook of the 
communion. Afterward the celebration of 
Pentecost was limited to two special events, 
the ascension of Christ and the effusion of 
the Holy Spirit. The celebration of Whit- 
sunday is confined to the liturgical churches. 

Pentecostals, oblations made by the pa- 
rishioners in the Church of England to their 



1 Exod, xxiii., 14-17; xxxiv., 22; Lev. xxiii,, 15, IG; 
Numb. xxTiii., 26-31 ; Deut. xvi., 9, 10, 16; Acts ii., 1, 
XX., 16 ; 1 Cor. xvi., 8. 



priests at the Feast of Pentecost. They are 
sometimes called Whitsun-farthings. 

Perambulation. It is customary in En- 
gland for the minister, church-wardens, and 
parishioners of each parish to go round, or 
make a perambulation, for the purpose of 
defining the parochial boundaries. This 
ceremony is gone through once a year, in 
or about Ascension-week, and there was a 
homily appointed to be used before setting 
out. It is now known as ieating parish 
hounds, as the marks are struck with a stick. 

Perea (beyond). East of the river Jordan 
lies a wild and romantic region, which is, to 
the present day, a terra incognita. Its mount- 
ains, walling out the eastern deserts, afford a 
fitting retreat for plundering tribes of Arabs. 
Few of the hosts of travelers who annually 
visit the Holy Land are venturesome enough 
to invade its territory. Even those whose 
erudite works are the standards of scholars 
leave us in ignorance of that portion of the 
ancient domain of Israel. Many of them 
seem even to imagine that the Jordan Val- 
ley constituted its eastern boundary. Even 
such writers as Stanley, Robinson, and Rit- 
ter give little or no account of this district, 
concerning which little is known except 
such scanty information as can be gathered 
from a few fugitive papers, and the reports 
of one or two travelers more adventurous 
than their fellows. This unknown region 
went, in the time of Christ, under the gen- 
eral name of Perea. The word is of. Greek 
origin, and signifies beyond. It was used 
by the Western populace to describe the 
country beyond the Jordan. It included 
the districts known in earlier times as Ba- 
shan and Gilead (q. v.). A plateau, whose 
level plains are elevated two or three hun- 
dred feet above the level of the sea, it ap- 
pears to possess a still greater elevation by 
reason of its we-stern border, the Jordan Val- 
ley, which is sunk one thousand feet below 
that level. In the south a laud "tossed 
into wild confusion of undulating plains,*' 
in the north its hills rise into mountains 
that merge at length in the range of Leb- 
anon and anti - Lebanon. Its mountain 
streams and springs are never wholly dry ; 
forests of oak cap its hill - tops ; grassy 
downs afford on its plains admirable pas- 
turage. Now, as in ancient times, it is a 
" place for cattle." It is difficult, if not im- 
possible, to describe with any accuracy the 
bounds of this region, which was not, in- 
deed, a political district, and is not mention- 
ed by name in the Bible. In modern liter- 
ature it is very often vaguely entitled the 
trans-Jordanic region. Little as is known 
of this district, there is enough to indicate 
that at the time of Christ it was fertile and 
populous. This region, which now only the 
boldest traveler dare venture into, was trav- 
ersed by Roman roads, which aided to make 
it a favorite route for pilgrims from Gal- 



PERFECTIONISTS 



736 



PERFECTIONISTS 



ilee to Jerusalem. Where now are only to 
be seen the nomadic cities of the Bedouin 
Arabs, formerly ten flourishing cities, built 
by Roman hands, afforded permanent homes 
to an industrious population. These now de- 
serted hills were dotted with a hundred vil- 
lages; these now desolate but once grassy 
downs were covered with herds and flocks. 
The cities of Perea gave to its southern por- 
tion the name of Decapolis, and it is said 
that the Jordan valley alone contaius the 
ruins of one hundred and twenty-seven vil- 



A wild and rugged region, the early his- 
tory of Perea partakes of its geographical 
character. Among the hills of Gilead Jeph- 
thah gathered the children of Israel for his 
successful campaign against his Southern 
neighbors, the children of Ammon ; here Da- 
vid sought a refuge from the brief rebellion 
of his son ; here the sons of Saul found a 
home after their father's death. From Gil- 
ead came the ascetic prophet of Judah's de- 
generate days, Elijah, the Bedouin wander- 
er, bold, active, circumspect, partaking of 
the very character of the scenery in the 
midst of which he was reared ; and here 
John the Baptist, in spirit Elijah risen from 
the dead, prepared for his brief but signifi- 
cant ministry.^ 

The chief interest to the Biblical student 
in this region is derived, however, from its 
being the scene of an important part of 
Christ's ministry. He appears to have first 
preached the Gospel in Galilee, and to have 
been rejected there at the time of the Pass- 
over, after refusing the crown proffered to 
him by the people. He next preached in 
Judea, from the Feast of the Tabernacles to 
that of the Dedication, where he was threat- 
ened with assassination, twice narrowly es- 
caping the mob with his life. Thence he 
went into Perea to offer the Gospel to the 
scattered Israelites dispersed throughout 
that district. Nearly all our information 
concerning this period of Christ's ministry is 
derived from Luke, chiefly chapters x.-xviii. 
It is, however, involved in great obscurity, 
and all scholars are not agreed in attributing 
to it the incidents whiph we place there. 
According to this hypothesis, however, the 
parable of the lost piece of money, the lost 
sheep, the prodigal son, the rich man and 
Lazarus, the unjust steward, the rich fool, 
and the householder, as well as the commis- 
sion of the seventy, the instruction concern- 
ing divorce, and the rejection of the rich 
young nobleman, all come within the Pere- 
an ministry. 

Perfectionists, a name given to those 
who hold that it is practicable for man in 
this life to attain a state of perfect siuless- 



1 For a further account of these incidents in the 
history of Perea, some of which indicate its charac- 
ter, see Numb, xxxv., 1 ; Judg. xi., 29 ; 2 Sum. ii., 8; 
xvii., 22 ; 1 Kings xvii., 1 ; Luke i., 80. 



ness. This view is not held by any one 
sect, nor confined to any one denomination ; 
but is advocated by some thinkers in differ- 
ent churches, chiefly in the Methodist and 
the Congregational denominations, though 
not accepted by the great body of believers 
in either. The clearest and most careful 
statement of the doctrine is to be found in 
a sermon by John Wesley on '^ Christian Per- 
fection," from the text Heb. vi., 1, in which 
he earnestly contends for perfection as at- 
tainable in this life by believers, by argu- 
ments founded chiefly on the commandments 
and promises of Scripture concerning saucti- 
fication ; guarding his doctrine, however, by 
saying that it is neither an angelic nor an 
Adamic perfection, and does not exclude ig- 
norance and error of judgment, with conse- 
quent wrong affections, such as needless fear 
or ill-grounded hope, unreasonable love, or 
unreasonable aversion. He admits, also, 
that even in this sense it is a rare attain- 
ment, but asserts that several persons have 
enjoyed this blessing, without interruption, 
for many years, several enjoy it at this day, 
and not a few have enjoyed it unto their 
death, as they have declared with their 
latest breath, calmly witnessing that God 
had saved them from all sin, till their spirit 
returned to God. That perfection is attain- 
able in this life is held also by the Francis- 
cans, Jesuits, and Molinists in the Church of 
Rome, but denied by the Dominicans and 
Jansenists. In advocating the doctrine, its 
Roman Catholic supporters generally rest 
much on the distinction between mortal and 
venial sins. 

This doctrine is often confounded with 
two others, from which, however, it is philo- 
sophically distinguishable. One of these is 
the doctrine of the simplicity of moral ac- 
tion, the most powerful advocate of which is 
the theological school at Oberlin, Ohio. Ac- 
cording to this theory, it is impossible that 
sin and virtue should co-exist in the human 
heart at the same time ; all moral action is 
single and indivisible; the soul is either 
wholly consecrated to Christ, or it has none 
of his Spirit. These two states may alter- 
nate ; the man may be a Christian at one 
moment and a sinner the next, but he can 
not be at any one moment a sinful or im- 
perfect Christian. The advocates of this 
view, however, deny that any one can claim 
to be a perfect Christian under this theory, 
because he does not remember any conscious 
failure, since " even present failure is not al- 
ways a matter of distinct consciousness, and 
the past belongs to memory, and not to con- 
sciousness." 

The other view, which is sometimes con- 
founded with perfectionism, is that entitled 
by its advocates the doctrine of "perfect 
sanctification," or sometimes the "higher 
life." This is, in brief, the doctrine that Je- 
sus Christ is a present Saviour fi-om sin ; that 



PERGAMOS 



737 PERSEVERANCE OF THE SAINTS 



lie is able to keep those that trust in him 
from falling into any sin whatever; and that 
if the soul trusted him completely it would 
be preserved from all deliberate sin, and its 
unintentional wrong -doing — errors rather 
than sins — would not be imputed to it. It 
is true that some of the advocates of this 
view claim to have so lived in the presence 
of Christ as to have been for weeks and 
months unconscious of any sin ; but more 
generally those who hold this view of the 
present redeemiug power of Christ, while 
they insist that it is possible to live so near 
to him as to be kept by him " without sin," 
also confess that they fail to keep up a con- 
tinual and undeviating trust in Christ, and 
so do in fact fall away from that condition 
in which they maintain it to be their privi- 
lege to walk. It should be added that this 
doctrine of the " higher life " is one of expe- 
rience rather than philosophy, and it is dif- 
ficult to afford clear and concise definition 
of it. 

Pergamos, more commonly Pergamum, 
an ancient city of Mysia, on the river Cai- 
cus. At first it appears to have been a mere 
hill fortress of great natural strength ; but 
it became an important city, owing to the 
circumstance of Lysimachus, one of Alexan- 
der's generals, having chosen it for the re- 
ception of his treasures, and intrusted them 
to his eunuch Philseterus, who rebelled 
against him (B.C. 283), and founded a king- 
dom, which lasted 150 years, when it was 
bequeathed by its last sovereign. Attains 
III. (B.C. 133), to the Roman people. Perga- 
mos possessed a magnificent library, found- 
ed by its sovereign Eumeues (B.C. 197-159), 
which subsequently was given by Antony to 
Cleopatra, and perished with that of Alex- 
andria under Caliph Omar. Pergamos be- 
came the official capital of the Roman prov- 
ince of Asia. There was there a celebrated 
temple of ^sculapius. There is still a con- 
siderable city, containing, it is said, about 
three thousand nominal Christians. It is 
now called Bergamah. To the Church at i 
Pergamus one of the apocalyptic epistles 
was addressed. In that epistle it is called 
Satan's seat, respecting which there have ! 
been various conjectures. The most proba- ' 
ble is, perhaps, that persecution even to 
death was already rife there. [Rev. i., 11 ; 
ii., 12-17.] 

Perizzites (villages), one of the tribes de- 
scribed as dwelling in Palestine, to be ex- 
pelled by the Israelites. Taken in con- 
junction with Canaanites, the term seems 
sometimes to include all the inhabitants 
of the land. Some are disposed to believe, 
from the signification of the word, that the 
Perizzites were those who lived in open vil- 
lages ; so that the two appellations togeth- 
er comprise the dwellers in cities and the 
dwellers in the country. This would ex- 
plain why Perizzites are named as residing 
47 



in so many different parts of the country, 
in the mountains, in the wooded plains, 
in the territories allotted to Judah and 
Ephraim, and near Beth-el and Shechem. 
Some of them were left in the time of Solo- 
mon, and perhaps even after the captivity. 
[Gen. xiii., 7 ; xxxiv., 30 ; Josh, xvii., 15 ; 
Judg. i., 4, 5 ; 1 Kings ix., 20 ; 2 Chron. viii., 
7; Ezra ix., 1.] 

Perseverance of the Saints. The doc- 
trine of the perseverance of the saints is 
thus, stated in the Westminster Assembly's 
Confession of Faith: "They whom God 
hath accepted in his beloved, effectually 
called and sanctified by his Spirit, can 
neither totally nor finally fall away from 
the state of grace ; but shall certainly per- 
severe therein to the end, and be eternally 
saved." The doctrine is held by all Calvin- 
istic divines, i. e., by all in the Presbyterian 
Churches, and by most of those in the Con- 
gregational and regular Baptist churches. 
It is denied by the Methodists, who main- 
tain, on the contrary, the doctrine of " fall- 
ing away from grace," i. e., the possibility 
that a soul once truly converted may reject 
Christ and return again to a life of sin. The 
Thirty-nine Articles of the Episcopal Church 
contain no explicit utterance on the subject, 
and that Church allows a difference of opin- 
ion respecting it. 

The arguments for the doctrine of the 
perseverance of the saints rest upon two 
foundations: first, the Calvinistic theory 
of regeneration; second, specific texts of 
Scripture. According to the Calvinistic 
theory of regeneration, the soul is chosen 
by God from eternity, its conversion and 
regeneration are wholly the work of the 
Holy Spirit, and the work, having been be- 
gun by God for his own good pleasure, will 
not and can not be abandoned by him. Or, 
to quote again the words of the Westminster 
Assembly's Confession of Faith, " This per- 
severance of the saints depends not upon 
their own free-will, but upon the immuta- 
bility of the decree of election, flowing from 
the free and unchangeable love of God the 
Father; upon the efficacy of the merit and 
intercession of Jesus Christ ; the abiding of 
the Spirit, and of the seed of God within 
them ; and the nature of the covenant of 
grace — from all which ariseth also the cer- 
tainty and infallibility thereof." According 
to the Arminian theology, on the other hand, 
as entertained by the Methodist denomina- 
tion, and by many Episcopalians, the Spirit 
of God is equally ready and willing to act 
upon all hearts ; its efficacy over some rather 
than others depends solely upon their own 
free-will in choosing Christ, and yielding to 
the influence of the Spirit ; hence, if they 
thereafter choose again to reject Christ and 
steel themselves against the continuing in- 
fluences of the Holy Spirit, they can do so, 
in which case they are said to have fallen 



PERSIA 



738 



PERSIA 



from grace. Among tlie principal proof- 
texts quoted for the doctrine are Phil, i., 6 ; 
John X., 28, 29 ; 1 John iii., 9 ; 1 Pet. i., 5 ; 
Romans viii., 37-39; Heb. vii., 25; Jer. 
xxxii., 40. On the other side are quoted 
such passages as Phil, ii., 12, 13 ; 2 Pet. i., 
10 ; Heb. vi., 4-6 ; Isa. i., 28 ; Luke xii., 45, 
46 ; Psalm cxxv., 5. It should be added 
that those who hold to the doctrine of the 
final perseverance of the saints maintain 
that they may temporarily fall away into 
sin, and suffer loss by their inconsistency 
and backsliding, and also that those cases 
in which seeming Christians abandon their 
Christian profession and hope altogether 
are explained by the declaration that the 
conveijsion in such cases was a spurious one. 
Thus the difference between the Armiuian 
and the Calvinistic churches on this subject, 
though very considerable, is less, practical- 
ly, than has sometimes been supposed, since 
both agree that one may give all the exter- 
nal evidences of having commenced a Chris- 
tian life, and yet fall away and be finally 
lost. The real difference between them is, 
that the Arminians hold that in such a case 
the professor of religion was really a Chris- 
tian, but lost his religion by turning his 
back upon Christ ; while the Calvinist holds 
that the appearances were deceitful, and the 
professed Christian was never really a child 
of God. Both, however, agree in urging all 
professed Christians to exercise diligence in 
making their calling and election sure, the 
one that they be not deceived, the other that 
they lose not what they have gained. 

Persia. This name is generally applied 
in Scripture to the wide Persian monarchy. 
In Ezek. xxxviii., 5, however, it appears to 
designate the region which may be called 
Persia proper, the home of the dominant 
race. Persia proper seems to have corre- 
sponded nearly to that province of the mod- 
ern Iran which still bears the ancient name, 
slightly modified, Farsistan, or Fars. There 
is, however, this important difference be- 
tween the two, that whereas, in modern 
times, the tract called Kerman is regarded 
as a distinct and separate region, Carmania 
anciently was included within the limits of 
Persia. Persia proper lay upon the gulf to 
which it has given name, extending from 
the mouth of the Tab (Oroatis) to the point 
where the gulf joins the Indian Ocean. It 
was bounded on the west by Sersiana, on the 
north by Media Magna, on the east by Mycia, 
and on the south by the sea. Its length 
seems to have been about 450, and its aver- 
age width about 250, miles. It thus con- 
tained an area of rather more than 100,000 
square miles, little more than half that of 
Spain, and about one-fifth of the area of 
modern Persia. 

In modern times it is customary to divide 
this province of Fars into the " warm dis- 
trict " and the " cold region." The " warm 



district," that portion which lies along the 
coast, is a sandy plain, often impregnated 
with salt, hardly habitable on account of the 
heat and pestilential winds. It is but a 
narrow strip of land, constituting scarcely 
more than an eighth part of the whole terri- 
tory. The remaining seven-eighths belong 
to the "cold region," a high tract, along 
which lay the bulk of ancient Persia. This 
region is of varied character. Curiously in- 
termixed with hills and lofty mountains, a 
large part of the year covered with snow, 
are many places picturesque and romantic 
almost beyond imagination — lovely wooded 
valleys, green mountain sides, and richly 
fertile plains. To the north the country is 
wild, fitted only for shepherds and migra- 
tory tribes. Among these beautiful valleys 
was born that quick and lively wit, that 
fancy and imagination, that sparkle and 
grotesqueness that runs through all the an- 
cient Persian poetry. Among these extraor- 
dinary mountain gorges were nurtured that 
vigor and activity that carried these Per- 
sians — these tigers, as the name is thought 
to signify — through eighty years of war and 
conquest; that tenacity and stubbornness 
against which no nation of Asia or Africa 
was able to stand ; that energy and courage 
that gave us Platsea and Thermopylte, and 
was conquered only by the superior disci- 
pline, not valor, of the Greeks. The earliest 
appearance of the Persians in history is in 
the Assyrian inscriptions, which begin to 
notice them about the middle of the ninth 
century B.C. They are then, in South-west- 
ern Armenia, in close contact with, but inde- 
pendent of, the Medes, a kindred people, both 
being branches of the great Aryan stock. 
Upon their next appearance they are no 
longer in Armenia, but have migrated along 
the line of the Zagros almost to the region 
to which they have given permanent name. 
It is probable that they did not complete 
their migrations, or settle into an organized 
monarchy, much before the fall of Nineveh. 
The establishment, about 647 B.C., of a pow- 
erful monarchy in neighboring Media might 
well provoke imitation in Persia; and, ac- 
cording to native tradition, Persian royalty 
then began in a certain Achtemenes, who 
united the ten tribes into one, and raised 
Persia into a power of some importance. 
Under these earlier monarchs Persia seems 
to have been a sort of Median fief — in much 
the same relation that Egypt now holds to 
Turkey — whose monarch was required to 
send his eldest son to the court of Media, 
where he was held as a sort of hostage, not 
being allowed to quit court without leave, 
but otherwise well treated. It was while in 
this sort of honorable captivity that Cyrus, 
whose father, Cambyses, was ruler of Persia, 
conceived the idea of freeing his own country 
by a revolt. In the course of this revolt the 
father of Cyrus fell, and upon the overthrow 



PERSIA 



739 



PETER 



and capture of Astyages, the Median king/ 
Cyrus was placed at the head of an empire, 
which he and his successors added to by 
conquest, until it extended from India to 
Egypt, including the wide regions between 
the Black Sea, the Caucasus, the Caspian 
Sea, the Persian Gulf and Indian Ocean, and 
the Arabian Desert, together with parts of 
* Europe and Africa. 

The Median dominions were his. The 
countries bordering on India owned his 
sway. He conquered Lydia, and captured 
Babylon. This conquest had been long fore- 
told, and the conqueror named.^ It was be- 
cause the destinies of God's Church and peo- 
ple were involved that a just retribution 
was to be meted out to the haughty power 
that had enslaved them, and freedom pro- 
claimed to the Jews to return to their own 
land. The prophecy was fulfilled ; and in 
the first year of Cyrus's extended rule he pub- 
lished the remarkable edict recorded in Ezra 
i., 1-4. Cyrus died 529 B.C. : his tomb is said 
to be still at Murgauh, the site of the ancient 
capital, Pasargadse. He was succeeded by his 
son Cambyses (most probably the Ahasuerus 
of Ezra iv., 6), who invaded Egypt. After 
him, Gomates, the Magian, who pretended to 
be Smerdis, son of Cyrus, usurped the throne. 
He is the Artaxerxes who forbade the re- 
building of the Temple. He was slain after 
a reign of seven months, and Darius, the 
son of Hystaspes, succeeded. He built pala- 
ces at Persepolis and Susa (Shushan), and 
was the sovereign under whom the Temple 
was completed.^ He died 485 B.C., and left 
his crown to Xerxes, in all probability the 
Ahasuerus of Esther.* 

Xerxes reduced Egypt to subjection, 484 
B.C., and led the well-known expedition 
against Greece, which ended so disastrously 
for the invaders. Beiug assassinated, 465 
B.C., through a conspiracy in the seraglio, 
his son, Artaxerxes, called by the Greeks the 
" long-handed," succeeded him after an in- 
terval of seven months, during which the 
conspirator, Artabanns, occupied the throne, j 
This Artaxerxes, who reigned forty years, is 
beyond a doubt the king of that name who 
commissioned Ezra, and to whom Nehemiah ; 
was cup-bearer.^ Other kings succeeded; 
of whom the only one that is mentioned in 
Scripture is Darius Codomannus,^ who was I 
also the last ; his empire being overthrown | 
by Alexander the Great, in accordance with | 
the prophecy of Daniel."^ In later ages the 
Persian monarchy revived ; and Persia is 
still an important Asiatic power. 

The Persians were vain and impulsive, I 
but truthful and simple in their habits till 
they came into close contact with the Medes. 
Their own dress had been close-fitting, but l 
they adopted the Median flowing robes and ' 

1 See MEDiji 2 isf,. xliv,, 28; xlv., 1-7.— 3 Hag. i., 

1 ; Zech. i., 1.—* See Dau. xi., 1, 2.-5 Ezra vii. ; Neh. 
ii., 1-9.— « sii., 22.—'^ Dan. viii., 5-S, 21, 22; xi., 3, 4. 



fondness for ornament, becoming by degrees 
a luxurious and effeminate nation. Polyga- 
my was practiced among them. They wor- 
shiped a supreme god, Oromasdes, or Ormuzd 
(q. v.), but believed also in other inferior-^- 
deities; as Mithra, the sun, and Homa, the 
moon. They imagined, too, that there was 
an independent and very powerful principle 
of evil, Arimanius, or Ahriman.^ The lan- 
guage of ancient Persia was near akin to 
the Sanscrit ; the modern speech is a modi- 
fication of it, as Italian is derived from Latin. 
Peter (rock). The apostle Peter, properly 
called Simon, or Simeon, was born at Beth- 
saida, on the Sea of Galilee, the son of one 
Jonas, or John, with whom and his brother 
Andrew he carried on the trade of a fish- 
erman at Capernaum, where he afterward 
lived with his wife's mother, being a mar- 
ried man.^ He became very early a disci- 
ple of our Lord, being brought to him by his 
brother Andrew, who was a disciple of John 
the Baptist, and had followed Jesus on hear- 
ing him designated by his master as the 
Lamb of God.^ It was on this occasion that 
Jesus, looking on him, and foreseeing his dis- 
position and worth in the work of his king- 
dom, gave him the name Cephas ; in Greek, 
Petros, a stone or 7'ock.* He does not, how- 
ever, appear to have attached himself finally 
to our Lord till after two, or perhaps more, 
summons to do so ;^ meanwhile he carried 
on his fishing trade. It would be beside 
the present purpose to follow Peter through 
the well-known incidents of his apostolic 
life. His forwardness in reply and profes- 
sion of warm affection, his thorough appre- 
ciation of our Lord's high office and person, 
the glorious promise made to him as the 
rock of the Church on that account,^ his 
rashness and overconfidence in himself, is- 
suing in his triple denial of Christ and his 
bitter repentance, his re -assurance by the 
gentle but searching words of his risen Mas- 
ter'' — these are familiar to every Christian 
child; nor is there any one of the leading 
characters in the Gospel history which makes 
so deep an impression on the heart and af- 
fections of the young and susceptible. The 
weakness and the strength of our human 
love for Christ are both mercifully provided 
for in the character of this leader of the 
Twelve. After the Ascension we find Peter 
at once taking the lead in the Christian 
body,® and on the descent of the Holy Spir- 
it he receives into the Church three thou- 
sand of Israel; and on another occasion, 
soon following, some thousands more.^ This 
prominence of Peter in the Church contin- 
ues till, by his specially directed ministry, 
the door into the privileges of the Gospel 

1 See ZoROASTEiAN Rkligion : Magi.— ^ Matt. iv. 18 ; 
viii,, 14 ; xvi., IT ; Luke v., 3 ; John i., 43-45 ; xxi., 3 ; 
Acts XV., 14 ; 1 Cor. ix., 5 ; 2 Pet. i., 1. — ^ John i., 35- 
43.-4 Mark iii., 16; John 1., 43, etc.-^ Matt, iv., 18; 
Luke v., 1-11. — e Matt, xvi., 16. — '^ John xxi., 15.— 
8 Acts 1., 15.— » Acts ii., 14-41 ; iv., 4. 



PETER 



740 PETER (THE EPISTLES OF) 



covenant is opened also to the Gentiles by 
the baptism of Cornelius and his party.^ 
But he was not to be the apostle of the Gen- 
tiles ; and by this very procedure the way 
was made for the ministry of Paul. In the 
apostolic council, in Acts xv., we find him 
consistently carrying out the part which 
had been divinely assigned him in the ad- 
mission of the Gentiles into the Church, and 
earnestly supporting the freedom of the Gen- 
tile converts from the observance of the Mo- 
saic law. This is the last notice which we 
have of him, or, indeed, of any of the Twelve, 
in the Acts. But from Gal. ii., 11, we learn 
a circumstance which is singularly in keep- 
ing with his former character; that, when 
at Antioch, in all probability not long after 
the apostolic council, he was practicing the 
freedom which he had defended there, from 
fear of certain persons who came from James 
he withdrew himself, and separated from the 
Gentile converts, thereby incurring a severe 
rebuke from Paul.^ From this time we de- 
pend on such scanty hints as the Epistles of 
Peter furnish, and upon ecclesiastical tradi- 
tion, for further information. We may, in- 
deed, from 1 Cor. ix., 5, infer that he travel- 
ed about on the missionary work, and took 
his wife with him ; but in what part of the 
Roman Empire we know not. If the Baby- 
lon of 1 Pet. v., 13, is to be taken literally, 
he passed the boundaries of Rome into Par- 
thia. Whether these travels ever took him 
to the city of Rome or not is at once a mat- 
ter of great uncertainty and of little impor- 
tance. The Roman Catholic theology in- 
sists on the trustworthiness of the legends 
which report that he was martyred there, 
and that his bones repose under the dome 
of St. Peter's. Protestant theology doubts 
the trustworthiness of these rejDorts. It is, 
at all events, reasonably certain that he did 
not visit that city till the last year of his 
life, and not until after the founding of the 
Christian Church there. He was, according 
to tradition, martyred under Nero, being- 
crucified with his head downward. 

The claims made in the name of Peter 
since his death, never by him while he 
lived, have been the subject of much heat- 
ed theological discussion. The Roman Cath- 
olic writers insist that Christ's declaration, 
" Thou art Peter (rock), and on this rock I 
will build my church," is to be interpreted 
literally, and that by these words he made 
Peter and his successors in office the head of 
the Christian Church, investing them with a 
permanent authority over the entire organi- 
zation. But, in fact, Peter was any thing but 
rock-like in his personal character. He was 
an ardent, impetuous, overzealous, overcon- 
fident disciple. Least stable of the Twelve, 
he is least fitted to be a foundation-stone. 
When Christ walks on the wave, Peter, full 
of zeal, asks the privilege of going to him ; 



1 Acts X.— 2 Gal. ii., 11-14. 



when he reaches the water he cries out in 
fear, '^ Lord, save, or I perish." When Christ 
is arrested in the garden, Peter is first to 
draw his sword in an ardent but ill-advised 
resistance ; when Christ commands to put it 
up, he is quick to flee. With temerity he en- 
ters the high-priest's palace, and sits down 
among the servants ; when he is discovered, 
he denies his Lord, and sustains his false- ' 
hood with violent oaths. He is the first to 
preach the Gospel to the Gentiles ; but when 
the conservatives in the Church object, he 
retracts. " I sometimes think," says Mr. Ar- 
not, "the Papists acted wisely in making 
Peter the first pope. He serves better as a 
type for them than any of the Twelve, un- 
less they had gone all the way and chosen 
Judas. None of the true men were so for- 
ward as Peter in giving their judgment, or 
so frequently wrong." His is by nature no 
rock -like character; he is not the stuff on 
which to build the Church of ages ; nor was 
he, in fact, the master-builder. A man of 
ardent temperament, he was an orator by 
nature ; was always the spokesman of the 
little band while Jesus lived; was their 
revival preacher when Jesus died; swayed 
great multitudes by the power of his pas- 
sion, and won converts to the fold who were 
converted by thousands to the Christian 
Church. But John has contributed, by the 
quiet power of his pen, far more to the rich 
and permanent stores of thought and expe- 
rience than Peter by his oratory ; James, the 
Lord's brother, recognized as the unofficial 
head of the Church at Jerusalem, was more 
efficient as an organizer ; and Paul, entering 
the Church at a later day, and never enroll- 
ed among the Twelve, did more than either, 
perhaps than all, to extend its influence and 
power among other nations. 

Peter (The Epistles of). There are in 
the N. T. two epistles which bear the name 
of Peter. There is no doubt as to the gen- 
uineness and authenticity of the first of 
these epistles ; the testimony of the ancient 
Church is unanimous in its favor, and the 
objections which some modern critics have 
brought against it may be safely disregard- 
ed as of no importance. It is said in the 
epistle itself to have been written from Bab- 
ylon.^ We see no reason to doubt that the 
well-known city of that name is intended, 
though there has been some attempt, chiefly 
by Roman Catholic commentators, founded 
on one or two passages in the Fathers, to 
show that the city of Rome is intended. 
The epistle itself indicates, in its opening 
verse, the persons to whom it is address- 
ed : " The strangers scattered throughout 
Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bi- 
thynia." There are indications in the epis- 
tle itself that the letter was written during 
a time of persecution, apparently inflicted 
by Gentiles.^ The date of the epistle is un- 



1 Pet. v., 13.— 2 1 Pet. iv., 3, 4. 



PETER-PENCE 



741 



PHARAOH 



certain ; it is attributed by Alford to a pe- 
riod between a.d. 63 and 67. The attempt 
bas frequently been made to arrange the 
contents of this and the other epistle in a 
systematic order, but it has not been very 
successful. It must be remembered that Pe- 
ter was an orator rather than a writer, and 
his epistles, which are hortatory in their na- 
ture, partake of the character of an extem- 
poraneous address, in which one topic leads 
naturally, but without logical connection, 
to another. 

The Second Epistle of Peter has, perhaps, 
less amount of ancient testimony in its fa- 
vor than any other book in the N. T., and 
it is freely acknowledged by early writers 
that its authority was doubted ; but by the 
fourth century after Christ it was generally 
received ; and it is a reasonable assumption 
that the Fathers of that period did not ac- 
cept it without satisfying themselves, with 
such evidence as they could command, that 
the objections which had been brought 
against it were untenable. The internal 
evidence is in its favor; and candid critics, 
while they concede that the subject is not 
unattended with difficulty, are also gener- 
ally agreed in upholding its genuineness 
and canonicity. It appears to have been 
written toward the close of Peter's life ;^ 
but nothing more is known concerning the 
date or place of composition. A remarkable 
parallel is noticeable between Jude, verses 
3-19, and 2 Peter ii., 1-19. The similarity 
of the passages is such that it has led some 
to the opinion that Peter has here borrowed 
from the Epistle of Jude. 

Peter -pence, an annual tribute of one 
penny from every Roman Catholic family, 
paid at Rome at a festival of St. Peter. It 
is said to have been originated by the Sax- 
on king, Ina, about the year 740, who gave 
it partly in recompense for a house for En- 
glish pilgrims in Rome. It continued for a 
time to be a voluntary contribution ; after- 
ward became an impost ; but was abolished 
in England in the reign of Henry VIII., 
when it was enacted that henceforth no 
person shall pay any pension, Peter-pence, 
or other impositions to the use of the see of 
Rome. With the decay of the pope's tem- 
I)oral power Peter -pence has ceased to be 
an impost, but the term is popularly applied 
to the voluntary contributions upon which, 
since the loss of his temporalities, the pope 
largely depends. 

Pharaoh, the common title by which the 
native kings of Egypt are known in Scrip- 
ture. It corresponds to the hieroglyphic 
P-Ra or P.H.-Ra, " the Sun," a name which 
the ancient Egyptians gave their kings, as 
the representatives on earth of the god Ra, 
or the sun. As but two of the Pharaohs 
mentioned in the Bible — Pharaoh-necho and 
Pharaoh-hophra — have any other name add- 



ed to their title, it is important to discrimi- 
nate them from each other. 

1. Tlxe Pharaoh of Abraham. — At the time 
at which the patriarch went into Egypt, it 
is generally held that the country, or at least 
Lower Egypt, which would be first entered 
by one coming from the east, was ruled by 
the shepherd-kings, of whom the first and 
most powerful line was the fifteenth dynasty. 
The date at which Abraham visited Egypt 
was about B.C. 2081, which, according to our 
reckoning, would accord with the time of 
Salatis, the head of the fifteenth dynasty.^ 

2. The Pharaoh of Joseph. — The chief points 
for the identification of the line to which this 
Pharaoh belonged, are that he was a des- 
potic monarch, ruling all Egypt ; one who 
followed Egyptian customs, but did not hesi- 
tate to set them aside when he thought fit ; 
who seems to have desired to gain complete 
power over the Egyptians ; and who favored 
strangers. These particulars certainly lend 
support to the idea that he was an Egyptian- 
ized foreigner rather than an Egyptian, and 
one of the kings who ruled during the shep- 
herd period. It is stated by Eusebius that 
the Pharaoh to whom Jacob came was one 
of the shepherd-kings, perhaps Apophis, who 
belonged to the fifteenth dynasty. He ap- 
pears to have reigned from Joseph's appoint- 
ment, or perhaps somewhat earlier, until Ja- 
cob's death, from about B.C. 1876 to B.C. 1850, 
a period of at least twenty-six years, and to 
have been the fifth or sixth king of the fif- 
teenth dynasty.^ 

3. The Pharaoh of the Oppression. — The Pha- 
raoh that knew not Joseph and endeavored 
to check the growth of the Israelites whom 
he had reduced to bondage, has been gener- 
ally supposed to have been an Egyptian king 
of the eighteenth or nineteenth dynasty. 
But if we agree with R. S. Poole, of the Brit- 
ish Museum, who places the whole sojourn 
of the Israelites in Egypt within the shep- 
herd period, this Pharaoh must have been a 
shepherd - king of the sixteenth or seven- 
teenth dynasty.^ His reign probably com- 
menced a little before the birth of Moses, 
which we place B.C. 1732, and seems to have 
lasted upward of forty years. It was the 
daughter of this prince who rescued and 
adopted the great lawgiver; but beyond 
this fact, as related in Scripture, nothing is 
known of her.* 

4. Tlie Pharaoh of the Exodus. — What is 
known of the Pharaoh of the Exodus is rath- 
er biographical than historical, and adds to 
our means of identifying the line of the 
oppressors only by the indications of race 



2 Pet. i., 13-15. 



1 Gen. xii., 10-20. —2 Gen. xl. ; xlv. ; xlvii., 1.— 
3 See his article on Egypt, in "Smith's Dictionary of 
the Bible." The other view, which identifies Pha- 
raoh with Eameses II. of the nineteenth dynasty, 
is ably presented in Dr. William Smith's "Ancient 
History of the East," chap, vi., § 10. To these author- 
ities the reader is referred for a full discussion of the 
qttestion, one confessedly difficult and not really set- 
tled.—* Exod.i., 8-22; ii.,5-10. 



PHARAOH 



742 



PHARISEES 



his character affords. His acts show us a 
man at once impious and superstitious, alter- 
nately rebelling and submitting ; praying 
that a plague might be removed, promising 
a concession to the Israelites, and, as soon as 
respited, failing to keep his word. This is 
not strange in a character influenced by fear, 
and history abounds in parallels to Pharaoh. 
His vacillation ended only in the overwhelm- 
ing waters of the Red Sea, when the Israel- 
ites were delivered out of his hand. His 
character finds its like among the Assyrians 
rather than the Egyptians. His impiety and 
that of Sennacherib are remarkably similar, 
a resemblance which is not to be overlooked 
in connection with the idea that he was a 
shepherd-king, one of whom, at least, was an 
Assyrian. As to time, we can only say that 
he was reigning for about a year or more be- 
fore the Exodus, which we place B.C. 1652.^ 

5. Of Fliaraoh, father of Bithia, whom Me- 
red married, nothing can be determined.^ 

6. The Pharaoh who gave to Hadad, as his 
wife, the sister of his own wife, Tahpenes, 
was probably a Tanite of the twenty-first 
dynasty,^ but not the same as, 

7. Pharaoh, whose daughter Solomon mar- 
ried, who seems, however, to have belonged 
to the same twenty-first dynasty. This Pha- 
raoh led an expedition into Palestine.* 

8. Pharaoh, the opponent of Sennacherib, 
must be the Sethos whom Herodotus men- 
tions as the opponent of Sennacherib, and 
may reasonably be supposed to be the Zet of 
Manetho, the last king of the twenty-third 
dynasty. His comparison with a bent reed 
is remarkably illustrated by the fact that 
the hieroglyphic title of the king of Upper 
Egypt is a bent reed.^ 

9. Pharaoh-necho, who is also called sim- 
ply Necho, was of the Saite twenty-sixth dy- 
nasty, of which Manetho makes him either 
the fifth ruler or the sixth. Herodotus calls 
him Nek6s, and assigns to him a reign of 
sixteen years, which is confirmed by the 
monuments. He seems to have been an en- 
terprising king, as he is related to have at- 
tempted to complete the canal connecting 
the Red Sea with the Nile, and to have sent 
an expedition of Phoenicians to circumnavi- 
gate Africa, which was successfully accom- 
plished. At the commencement of his reign, 
B.C. 610, he made war against the king of 
Assyria, and, being encountered on his way 
by Josiah, defeated and slew the king of 
Judah at Megiddo. Necho himself seems to 
have soon returned to Egypt. His army was 
subsequently defeated at Carchemish by Neb- 
uchadnezzar, B.C. 607, a battle which led to 
the loss of all the Asiatic dominions of Egypt.® 

10. Pharaoh-hophra, the second successor 
of Necho, from whom he was separated by 



. 1 Exod. vii.-xii. ; Psa. cxxxvi., 15. — ^ 1 Chron. iv., 
18.—^ 1 Kinf^s xi., 18-20.—'* 1 Kings iii., 1 ; ix., 16.— 
5 2 Kings xviii., 21 ; Isa. xxxvi., 6.— « 2 Kings xxiii., 
29-35 ; xxiv., 7 ; 2 Chi'ou. xxxv., 20-24 ; Jer. xlvi., 1, 2, 6. 



the six years' reign of Psammetichus II., 
came to the throne about B.C. 589, and ruled 
nineteen years. He was the Apries of sec- 
ular historians, and most probably the king 
who attempted to raise the siege of Jerusa- 
lem. Failing in this, he kindly received the 
remnant of the Jews that fled into Egypt. 
We learn more of his history from the proph- 
ecies against Egypt and against these fugi- 
tives. Ezekiel describes him, in his arro- 
gance, as a great crocodile lying in his rivers, 
and saying, " My river is mine own, and I 
have made it for myself." He was to be over- 
thrown, and his country invaded by Nebu- 
chadnezzar ; and his fate was yet more dis- 
tinctly prophesied by Jeremiah.^ 

No subsequent Pharaoh is mentioned in 
Scripture ; but there are predictions, doubt- 
less referring to the misfortunes of later 
princes until the second Persian conquest, 
when the prophecy,^ " There shall be no more 
a prince of the land of Egypt," was fulfilled. 

Pharisees (separated). This term meets us 
for the first time in the gospels as descrip- 
tive of a religious school or sect. From the 
gospels and the book of Acts, and from some 
incidental allusions in Paul's Epistles, we 
acquire our most trustAvorthy information 
concerning them. But in addition to these 
sources of information are the writings of 
Jewish authors, especially Josephus, and the 
Pharisaic writings as embodied in the Tal- 
mud. The Pharisees are generally defined 
as a Jewish sect; in fact, however, they con- 
stituted the orthodox party in Judaism, and 
undoubtedly embraced the great body of the 
people. Pharisaism was to the Holy Land 
in the time of Christ what Roman Catholi- 
cism was to Europe in the days of Luther, or 
Puritanism to New England in the time of 
Edwards — the religion of the country. His- 
torically, it was a protest against heathen 
corruptions. Its origin is veiled in obscu- 
rity, but it is tolerably certain that it arose 
during the era which just preceded the clos- 
ing of the O. T. canon and the opening of the 
N. T., and probably about the time that the 
Jews were suffering from the persecutions 
of Grecian conquerors, who were attempting 
to force upon them a heathen and idolatrous 
religion which was absolutely abhorrent to 
them. The Pharisees constituted at first the 
purists of Judaism ; they were the reform- 
ers of the second century before Christ. 
They braved undaunted the bitterest perse- 
cution that untempered cruelty, armed with 
unlimited power, could heap upon them. 
In this experience they were sustained by a 
faith, at first devout, eventually fanatical, in 
the providence of God. Out of their suffer- 
ings they evolved the two characteristic fea- 
tures of their creed : faith in immortality, 
faith in the absolute decrees of God. They 



1 Jer. xxvii., 5-8 ; xliv., 30 ; xlvi., 25, 26 ; Ezek. xvii., 
11-18 ; xxix. ; XXX. ; xxxi. ; xxxii ; comp. 2 Kings 
XXV., 1-4.— 2 Ezek. XXX., 13. 



PHAEISEES 



r43 



PHARISEES 



believed that all things were ordered by his 
will. Nothiug, therefore, went wrong; all 
things that seemed so to do he would make 
right in the future. But in the mainte- 
nance of this faith they were met at the out- 
set by an argument which sorely perplexed 
them. They borrowed their hope from the 
future. Bat when they were asked for the 
evidences of immortality in tlie laws of Mo- 
ses, they were compelled to confess that those 
laws contained no clear revelation of any 
future state. On the contrary, they seem- 
ed, in the main, to represent God's govern- 
ment as administered by temporal rewards 
and punishments. If there Avere intima- 
tions of immortality which Christ afterward 
discovered, they were merely intimations. 
Nowhere was Job's question, "If a man die, 
shall he live again?" categorically answer- 
ed. Nor were there any commands to prayer 
in the Pentateuch. The later books of the 
prophets, indeed, partially supplied this seem- 
ing omission. But it certainly was omitted 
from the Mosaic statutes. Pressed by op- 
ponents, who demanded authority for the 
faith which they rightly held, but the foun- 
dations whereof are in the intuitions of the 
soul rather than in the statutes of a com- 
monwealth, they invented a singular fiction. 
They asserted that, during the forty days 
which Moses spent, with God in the mount, 
Jehovah gave him an additional revelation. 
In this he promulgated the doctrine of a fu- 
ture life and the duty of prayer. In this, 
too, he afforded an authoritative interpreta- 
tion of all the precepts of the written law. 
This additional revelation had been, they 
said, subsequently handed down from father 
to son. It constituted a body of traditions 
of equal binding force with the Scriptures 
which accompanied it. Such a doctrine, 
once incorporated in their religion, opened 
wide the door to corruption. The oral tra- 
ditions soon overgrew the written word. 
The traditions became to the Pharisees what 
in the Middle Ages the decrees of the Church 
and the literature of the Fathers were to the 
Romanist. The Scriptures took a subordi- 
nate place. To read the Scriptures was con- 
sidered as dangerous for the common people 
in the time of Christ as in the time of Luther. 
To read them, except in the light of the au- 
thoritative interpretation, was equivalent to 
atheism. Nor was it only the place of the 
Scriptures which this oral tradition usurped. 
It became the exclusive object of study 
among the learned of the land. To investi- 
gate Grecian philosophy subjected the stu- 
dent to an anathema. To teach a single pre- 
cept of the law demanded the pupil's eternal 
gratitude ; to forget a single point of doctrine 
endangered his soul. 

It is impossible to comprehend the power 
and beauty of Christ's teaching without some 
knowledge of the instruction of the Phari- 
sees, as subsequently embodied in the Tal- 



mud. Their interpretations of the Scripture 
were singularly fantastic. From the text, 
" Thou hast fashioned me behind and be- 
fore," they deduced the conclusion that Adam 
was made with two faces, and that Eve was 
made by sawing him asunder. Their orig- 
inal discussions surpassed, if that were pos- 
sible, their Scriptural commentaries. " If a 
man should be born with two heads, on which 
forehead should he bind the phylacteries ?" 
is a sample of the subjects of their most 
serious discussions. In ceremonial instruc- 
tions the Pharisaic rabbis were punctilious. 
To eat an egg laid on the first day of the 
week was seriously interdicted, because, pre- 
sumably, it was prepared, in the order of na- 
ture, on the Sabbath. But to personal morals 
they were, for the most part, profoundly indif- 
ferent. On the Feast of Purim the pious Jew 
was recommended " to make himself so mel- 
low that he shall not be able to distinguish 
between ' Cursed be Haman ' and ' Blessed 
be Mordecai.' " From the Mosaic provision 
of divorce^ the conclusion was deduced that 
a man might divorce his wife whenever he 
found a woman handsomer and more to his 
liking, since his wife no longer found "favor 
in his eyes." On matters in which the con- 
fession of ignorance is the height of wisdom, 
the Pharisaic doctors spoke with the most 
unblushing assumption of knowledge. They 
detailed with minute particularity the lo- 
cation, magnitude, and physical aspects of 
heaven and hell, and the classes, qualifica- 
tions, offices, and conduct of the angels and 
demons. Concerning truth, duty, and practi- 
cal righteousness, the masters of the schools, 
with some notable exceptions, were almost, 
if not altogether, silent. And while it is 
certainly true that some of the rabbis incul- 
cated a pure and high-toned morality, more 
frequently the spirit of even the purest eth- 
ics was purely mercenary. " Consider for 
whom thou dost work, and what is thy mas- 
ter who will pay thee thy wages," if not the 
highest, was certainly the most common, in- 
centive to such virtues as were occasionally 
commended by the purer portion of the Phar- 
isaic party.'' 

Nevertheless, Pharisaism and its literature 
was a composite of contradictions, singular 
and perplexing to those who are unmindful 
of the self-contradictions of human nature, 
who forget that both Tetzel and Feuelon were 
Roman Catholics, both Barebones and Rob- 
inson were Puritans. Among the Pharisees 
were not a few who, possessing a partial ap- 
preciation of the spiritual significance of the 
law, were in some measure prepared for at 
least the ethical teachings of Jesus. Such 
were the young lawyer who declared that 
love to God and man was the first command- 
ment of the law ; the scribe who said that 
to love the Lord with all one's heart, and 



1 Dent, xxiv., 1.— ^ See Tat.mui>, which illustrates 
this peculiar characteristic of Pharisaism. 



PHARISEES 



744 



PHENICE, PHCENICIA 



one's neighbor as himself, was more than all 
whole burnt-offerings and sacrifices ; the rul- 
ers who believed on Jesus, but dared not pro- 
fess his name for fear of the Jews ; the Mco- 
demus who came to him by night ; the Joseph 
of Arimathea, in whose tomb he was buried; 
perhaps the Simon at whose house he sat at 
meat ; and, in later days, the Gamaliel who 
resisted in the Sanhedrim the policy of per- 
secution ; and those of the sect of the Phari- 
sees who, retaining their reverence for the 
Jewish law, yet joined the Chiistiau Church/ 
But this party was neither strong in numbers 
nor in courage. They possessed some appre- 
ciation of the truth, but dared not suffer for 
it. They were inclined to welcome Jesus as 
a new and rare teacher, but dared not avow 
themselves his disciples. They took no part 
in his condemnation, but, if they were pres- 
ent, dared not openly oppose it.* Their 
conservatism was overborne by the intoler- 
ant zeal of the sect whose principles they 
were far from j ustifyiug, but with whom, for 
ecclesiastical and political reasons, they were 
inseparably identified. The Romish Church 
had its Erasmus and its F6nelon, the Phar- 
isaic party its Nicodemus and its Joseph of 
Arimathea ; but neither can be accepted as 
a type of the party to which they severally 
belonged. 

In spite, then, of some pure spirits in the 
Pharisaic party, and some pure precepts in 
their inculcations, the characteristic feature 
of their religion was a formalism which thin- 
ly covered a spirit in appearance intensely 
religious, in fact thoroughly oi3posed to that 
spirit of love which Moses, as well as Christ, 
declared to be the end of the law. They 
fasted and prayed with great regularity and 
precision, but generally in public, and for 
applause. They paid tithes of all they pos- 
sessed, but their alms-giving was no free- 
handed utterance of loving hearts, but a 
formal, though scrupulous, observance of an 
ancient law. They manifested the religion 
they professed, not by engraving the divine 
precepts on their hearts and writing them 
in their lives, but by inscribing them on 
pieces of parchment, which they bound upon 
their foreheads, and by engraving them upon 
the lintels of their doors. Even their belief 
in immortality degraded their conception of 
virtue. Religion became a trade. They had 
no idea of serving God for naught. " Three 
things," so ran their proverb, "will make 
thee prosper — prayer, alms, and penitence." 
They kept strict accounts with Jeliovah. 
They paid for their sins by their fastings. 
They strove to earn the kingdom of God 
by their observance of his ritual. They 
were by no means all hypocrites. There 
were many honest but mistaken souls among 



1 Luke X., 25-28; Mark xiL, 33 ; John xii., 42; vii., 
50; Mark XV., 43; Luke vii., 36; Acts v., 34-39; xv., 5. 
—2 John vii., 50, 51. Corap. Luke xxiii., 50, 51, with 
xxii., 70, 71. 



them. Such a one was Saul of Tarsus — a 
Pharisee of the Pharisees. But such a re- 
ligion of mere outward observance always 
tends to produce hypocrites, and among the 
Pharisees were many who were leaders in 
the Church and were utterly indifferent re- 
specting the spiritual laws of God, so long 
as they observed with scrupulous care the 
ceremonials of the Church. So that they 
made long prayers, they devoured widows' 
houses with untroubled consciences ; for 
their hypocrisy was, for the most part, an 
unconscious hypocrisy, and they hid from 
themselves, even more effectually than from 
others, the selfishness of their hearts by the 
seeming piety of their lives. 

This was the school (rather than the sect) 
which constituted Christ's bitterest foe while 
he lived, which compassed his death, and 
which endeavored in vain to crush his doc- 
trine ; and it is hardly too much to say that 
the spirit of Pharisaism which has survived 
the extinction of the school has continued 
to be, in all ages, the most dangerous and 
deadly enemy of Christianity, even when it 
has assumed the name and pretended to re- 
vere the memory of Jesus Christ. 

Pheiiice, Phcenicia. 1. A country. — Not- 
withstanding the small extent of its terri- 
tory, which consisted of a mere strip of land 
from one to twenty miles in width, and from 
one hundred and fifty to one hundred and 
eighty in length, between the crest of Leba- 
non and the sea, Phoenicia was one of the 
most important countries of the ancient 
world. A very fruitful country and admira- 
bly situated for commerce, the commercial 
spirit first showed itself in her as the domi- 
nant spirit of a nation. Phoenician fleets ex- 
plored the Mediterranean at a time anterior 
to Homer, carrying to the Greeks and the 
other inhabitants of Europe and of Northern 
and Western Africa the wares of Assyria, 
Babylon, and Egypt. 

Phoenicia was i^eopled by the descendants 
of Ham ; for Sidon is said to have been the 
first-born of Canaan; and the Arkite, and 
probably the Siuite, the Arvadite, and the 
Zemarite, had their settlements in this re- 
gion. At no time did they form even an or- 
ganized confederacy ; only in times of dan- 
ger did their great cities, ordinarily separate 
and independent, unite under the leadership 
of the most powerful. Among these cities 
the chief were Sidon, Tyre, Berytus, Byblus, 
Tripolio, and Aradus. The Greeks professed 
to have borrowed letters from the Phoeni- 
cians, who unquestionably used characters 
older than the Hebrew, of which they were, 
perhaps, the origin. Their language was 
essentially Hebrew. Their religion, in its 
popular form, was that natural but debased 
and foolish worship paid to the sun, moon, 
and i^lanets by the appellations of Baal and 
Ashtoreth (q. v.). Very pernicious effects 
were produced on Israel by their contact 



PHENICE, PHOENICIA 745 PHENICE, PHCENICIA 




aud alliance with the Phcenicians. 
Not only was idol- worship thus im- 
ported, but also the most cruel rites 
attendant upon it.^ 

Though the word Pheuice, which 
is of Greek origin, occurs only in the 
book of Acts, the land itself is fre- 
quently referred to in the O. T., gen- 
erally under the title of its chief cit- 
ies, Tyre and Sidon. Eecent explorations in 
the island of Cyprus by an Italian, Count de 
Cesnola, has brought to light a number of cu- 
rious and interesting testimonies to the an- 
cient civilization of Phoenicia. From an ar- 
ticle published in Harper^ s Magazine, vol. xlv., 
p. 188, we take an illustration, representing a 



See AuAB. Jer. xis.,5; xxxii., 35. 



colossal head. This aud other relics discov- 
ered show that great proficiency had been 
attained in working in glass and bronze aud 
stone, as well as in engraving and the con- 
struction of jewelry. See Tyre; Sidox; Ca- 
naan; Hiram. [Acts xi., 19; xv., 3; xxi., 2; 
xxvii., 12.] 

2. A town. — Phenice (it should be Phoenix) 



PHILADELPHIA 



746 



PHILIPPI 



occurs in Acts xxvii., 12, as the name of a 
town in Crete where the officers of the ves- 
sel in which Paul was shipwrecked desired 
to harbor. It has been identified with the 
modern Luiro. The inhabitants preserve 
the memory of the ancient name, Phccniki ; 
and there are some ruins of the town re- 
maining on a hill a little way from the 
shore. 

Philadelphia {hrotlierhj love), in Lydia, on 
the north-west side of Mount Smolus, twen- 
ty-eight miles south-east from Sardis. It 
was built by Attains Philadelphus, king of 
Pergamus. Earthquakes were exceedingly 
prevalent in the district, and it was more 
than once nearly demolished by them. It 
defended itself against the Turks for some 
time, bat was eventually taken by Bajazet 
in 1390. It is now a considerable town 
named Allahshat, containing ruins of its an- 
cient wall, and of about twenty-four church- 
es. [Rev. i., 11 ; iii., 7-13.] 

Philemon {one tcho Msses), the name of 
the Christian to whom Paul addressed his 
epistle in behalf of Onesimus. It is evident 
from Col. iv., 9, 17, compared with Philem. 
1, 2, that he resided at Colosse. He appears 
to have been a man of property and influ- 
ence, since he is represented as the head of 
a numerous household, and as exercising an 
expensive liberality toward his friends and 
the poor in general. His character, as shad- 
owed forth in the ejjistle to him, is one of 
the noblest which the sacred record makes 
known to us. Nothing is known with cer- 
tainty concerning him except what may be 
derived from the epistle which bears his 
name. 

Philemon (The Epistle to). This epistle 
is connected by the closest links with that to 
the Colossians. It was borne by Onesimus, 
one of the persons mentioned as* carrying 
that epistle. The persons sending saluta- 
tion are the same, with one exception. Both 
epistles were sent from Paul and Timotheus, 
and in both the apostle is a prisoner. This 
being so, we are justified in assuming that 
it was written at the same place and time as 
the epistles to the Colossians and Ephesians, 
viz., at Rome, and in the year 61 or 62.^ Its 
occasion and object are plainly indicated in 
the epistle itself. Onesimus, a native of 
Colosse, had absconded, after having defraud- 
ed his master Philemon. He fled to Rome, 
and was there converted to Christianity by 
Paul, wIk) persuaded him to return to his 
master, and furnished him with this letter 
to recommend him, now no longer a servant 
merely, but also a brother, to favorable re- 
ception by Philemon. This alone, and no 
didactic or general object, is discernible in 
the epistle, which is a remarkable illustra- 
tion of Paul's tenderness and delicacy of 
character. Hence it has been termed with 
great propriety the 2>oUfe ejnstle. Luther's 
1 See Colossians (Thk Epistle to tue). 



description of it is very striking, and may 
well serve to close our notice of it : " This 
epistle showeth a right noble, lovely ex- 
ample of Christian love. Here we see how 
St. Paul layeth himself out for the poor 
Onesimus, and with all his means pleadeth 
his cause with his master, and so selleth 
himself as if he were Onesimus, and had him- 
self done wrong to Philemon. Yet all this 
doeth he not with power or force as if he 
had right thereto ; but he strippeth himself 
of his right, and thus enforceth Philemon to 
forego his right also. Even as Christ did 
for us with God the Father, thus also doth 
St. Paul for Onesimus with Philemon ; for 
Christ also stripped himself of his right, and 
by love and humility enforced the Father to 
lay aside his wrath and power, and to take 
us to his grace for the sake of Christ, who 
lovingly pleadeth our cause, and with all his 
heart layeth himself out for us. For we are 
all his Ouesimi, to my thinking." 

Philip. 1. One of the twelve apostles. 
He was a native of Bethsaida, and prob- 
ably already known to our Lord when he 
was called to follow him. It was he that 
brought Nathanael (probably the same as 
Bartholomew) to Jesus, and with Barthol- 
omew he is generally named in the lists 
of the apostles. The few notices of Philip 
found in the Gospel history indicate that 
he was of an active, inquiring mind. Of 
the later life and labors of Philip nothing 
is certainly known. He is said to have 
preached in Phrygia, and met his death at 
Hierapolis ; but traditions difter in regard to 
him. [ John vi., 5-7 ; xii., 21, 22; xiv., 8, 9.] 

2. One of the seven appointed to superin- 
tend the distribution of food and alms in 
the Apostolic Church. He was afterward a 
successful preacher of the Gospel. All that 
we know of his history is contained in the 
references to him and his work in Acts vi., 
5 ; viii., 5-12, 26-40 ; xxi., 8, 9. 

Philippi, a city of Macedonia, on the bor- 
ders of Thrace, thirty -three Roman miles 
north - east of Amphipolis, and about ten 
miles from Neapolis, its port, where Paul 
landed. It was built by Philip, king of 
Macedon, and made a strong military sta- 
tion. The ancient name is still applied to 
the locality, but there are no inhabitants. 
The line of the walls may be traced, and 
there are two lofty gate -ways amidst the 
fragments that are left. There are also the 
remains of an amphitheatre on the sides of 
the overhanging hill, the seats of which are 
quite perfect. So far as the N. T. history 
directly informs us, Philippi was the first 
city in Europe which heard the Gospel mes- 
sage. The account of Paul's visit and of 
his founding of a Church there is given in 
Acts xvi. It is there called the chief city of 
that part of Macedonia. It should rather be 
the first city, ?. e., the first to which Paul and 
his companions came in their travels. 



PHILIPPIAXS (EPISTLE TO THE) 74: 



PHILISTIXES 



Philippians (Epistle to the). It lias 
been all but universally belieTed that this 
epistle was written by Paul. Indeed, con- 
sidering its peculiar character, the sponta- 
neity and fervor of its effusions of feeling, 
the absence of all assignable motive for fal- 
sification, and the uniform testimony of the 
Fathers, it seems impossible to call this con- 
clusion in question. It was written proba- 
bly from Rome, during the imprisonment, 
wbose beginning is related in Acts ssviii., 
30, 31, and probably about the year a.d. 63. 
In style this epistle, like all those where 
Paul writes with fervor, is discontinuous 
and abrupt, passing rapidly from one theme 
to another. Xo epistle is so warm in its ex- 
pressions of affection ; again and again we 
ha\e ^'beloved" and "brethren"' recurring; 
and in chap, iv,, 1, it seems as if the apostle 
could hardly find words to pour out the full- 
ness of his love: "My brethren, dearly be- 
loved and longed for, my joy and crown, so 
stand fast in the Lord, my dearly beloved." 
The character of the Church and the occasion 
of the epistle throw light on this, its peculiar 
feature. The Church was founded by Paul, 
and twice after visited by bim.^ His suf- 
ferings at Philippi^ strengthened the Chris- 
tian bond between bim and his Philippian 
converts. They alone sent supplies for his 
temporal wants ; twice shortly after he had 
left them,^ and a third time shortly before 
the writing of this epistle.^ This fervent 
attachment was, perhaps, in part due to the 
fact that there were but few Jews in Phi- 
lippi to sow the seeds of distrust. There 
was no synagogue, but merely a Jewish ora- 
tory by the river-side. Epaphroditus had 
brought to the ajiostle, in his confinement 
at Eome, the contributions from the Philip- 
pians ; and on occasion of the return of 
Epaphroditus, Paul takes the opportunity 
of pouring out his heart to them in the full- 
ness of the Spirit, refreshing himself and 
them alike by his expressions of affection, 
and thus led on by the inspiring Spirit of 
God to set forth truths, and dilate upon mo- 
tives, which are alike precious to all ages 
and for every Church on earth. 

Philistines (prob. emigrants). The ori- 
gin of this celebrated people is involved in 
much obscurity. The probability seems to 
be that they were Hamites, driven out of 
Egypt by successive waves of i)opulation 
pressing them onward, and that, taking the 
natural course of journeying toward the 
north, they found a fertile and inviting set- 
tlement in Philistia. Perhaps the proper 
inference, from a combined view of all the 
Scripture passages, is, that the Philistines 
were originally a colony from Caphtor — 
most probably the Egyptian Coptos — and 
the names of their five principal towns are 
probably native terms in use among the 



Avim, whom they dispossessed.^ Without 

losing ourselves in doubtful discussions as 

to their origin, it is obvious that they were 

a maritime nation, differing from the other 

great maritime power of Phoenicia in the 

I North in the fact that, whereas the Phoeni- 

I cians were, so far back as history extends, 

I indigenous, the Philistines were emphatical- 

I ly -wanderers," as their name denotes ; im- 

' migration characterized their history. They 

are said to have been a tall, well-proportion- 

: ed people, with regular features, and com- 

' plexion lighter than that of the Egyptians. 

; They shaved the beard and whiskers entire- 

: ly. Their language is generally snxijDosed 

to have been Semitic, though nothing can 

be gleaned from the reference to the speech 

of Ashdod in Neb. xiii., 23, save that it was 

different from the Jews' language of that 

day. 

Abraham found the Philistines in what 
is called the South country (q. v.), in the 
neighborhood of Gerar, and they were then 
but an inconsiderable x^astoral tribe. ^ Be- 
tween the times of Abraham and Joshua 
they had changed their quarters, and ad- 
vanced northward into the plain of Philis- 
tia (q. V.) In this commercial country, the 
thoroughfare between Phoenicia and Syria 
on the north, and Egypt and Arabia in the 
south, they early obtained proficiency in the 
arts of peace, and seem in all respects to 
have been a wealthy and prosperous people. 
They appear to have traded in slaves and 
possessed ships. They cultivated the me- 
chanical arts, worked in the precious met- 
als, and must have had considerable skill 
in architecture.^ Their government was a 
kind of federal union. The five principal 
cities had districts with towns and villages 
dependent on them ; but in war they acted 
in concert. Those that are called the lords 
had considerable influence in affairs of state, 
controlling the king, as he ir. designated, of 
Gath. The gods they worshiped were spe- 
cially Dagon, Ashtaroth, and Baal-zebub; 
also Derceto, not noticed in Scripture. They 
had priests and diviners, and carried their im- 
ages with them in their campaigns.^ They 
were fierce and indomitable wamors, car- 
rying on many border raids against Judah, 
often as much for booty as for conquest or 
retaliation. Their own cities stood long 
sieges, and must have been strongly forti- 
fied ; and they could forge excellent armor, 
as may be inferred from Goliath's harness.' 
Their arms and accoutrements were pecul- 
iar. Their head-dress presented an appear- 
ance like feathers set in a metal band, with 
a defense for the back of the head and the 
sides of the face. They wore corselets quilt- 



1 Acts xvi., 12; XX., 3-6.-2 Acts xvi., 19, etc. 
Phil, iv., 15, IC— 4 2 Cor. iv., 10-lS ; xi., 9. 



1 Gen. X., 13, 14; Dent, ii., 23; Jer. xlvii., 4; Amos 
ix., T.— 2 Gen. xx. ; xxi., 22-32 : xxvi., 12-23.— 3 Jndsr. 
xvi., 26-29; 1 Sam. vi.. 4.— ^ Josh, xv., 4.')-47; Judir. 
xvi., 23 ; 1 Sam. v., 1-7 ; vi., 2 ; xxxi., in ; 2 Sam. v., 21 ; 
2 Kings i., 2-6, 16 ; 1 Chron. x., 10 ; xviii., 1 ; xxix., 3-9. 
—5 1 Sam. xiii., 20; xvii., 5. 



PHILISTINES 



748 



PHINEHAS 



ed with leather or plates of metal. These 
were supported by shoulder-straps, and the 
arms were left free. They wore a girdle 
rouud the waist, from' which hung a quilted 
skirt. They had circular shields, javelins, 
and spears as missile weapons, and poniards 
and long swords for close combat. 

The Philistine country lay within the lim- 
its of the Promised Land ; and the Israelites 
ought to have possessed themselves of it. 
Indeed, it was actually assigned (some of 
the principal towns being specified) to Ju- 
dah and Dan. But the opportunity was 
neglected ; and five lords of the Philistines 
remained in five chief towns, to be a scourge 
to Israel through almost the whole course 
of their existence.^ 

An outline onlj^ of Philistine history, as 
connected with that of Israel, can be given 
here. The tribe of Judah at first occupied 
three of their cities, but did not hold them 
long. And, in spite of the valor of differ- 
ent champions, such as Shamgar and Sam- 
son, the Philistine power grew so much that 
in the time of the later judges they had 
completely broken the spirit of the Israel- 
ites, and kei)t them (the Southern tribes, 
at least) in degrading servitude. They in- 
vaded and spoiled the country at their x)leas- 
nre, and occupied various strongholds, push- 
ing forward even to the Jordan, in order to 
prevent assistance from the trans-Jordanic 
tribes to their Western brethren. An at- 
tempt by the Israelites at freeing themselves 
in the time of Eli was signally defeated; 
and it was not till the administration of 
Samuel that any great advantage was gain- 
ed. The result, however, of the day of Miz- 
peh was that the Philistines were for a time 
confined to their own country. In Samuel's 
later days, and in the beginning of Saul's 
reign, their power was again felt; and when 
Jonathan gave the signal for war by attack- 
ing a Philistine garrison, the peo];)le were so 
far from responding to the call that they 
dispersed and hid themselves, leaving the 
new king almost defenseless. Afterward, 
however, by Jonathan's valor in attacking a 
Philistine stronghold, and in consequence of 
an earthquake, a great and decisive victory 
was obtained by the Israelites ; and for some 
time there was no further Philistine war. 
The next occasion on which Ave read of hos- 
tilities was when, just on the Philistine bor- 
der, David slew Goliath, and Saul, with his 
commander-in-chief, Abner, defeated their 
army. But though they were worsted, the 
Philistines retained their own territory ; and 
David found with Achish, king of Gath, a se- 
cure retreat from Saul's persecution. And 
then, taking advantage of the state into 
which Israel had been brought by Saul's 
misgoverument, the Philistines raised a vast 
body of troops, fought a successful battle in 



1 Numb, xxxiv., 5, 6 ; Josh, xiii., 3 ; xv., 45-47 ; xix. 
41-45; Judg. iii., 3. 



the heart of the Hebrew country, slew Sanl 
and his sons, and established themselves in 
various cities and strongholds.^ 

When David became king over united 
Israel, the Philistines repeatedly attacked 
him, but always unsuccessfully; their cham- 
pions were slain, and their country subdued, 
though probably there were occasional ris- 
ings against the conqueror. Under Solo- 
mon, while retaining some of their petty 
chiefs, they were tributary. Gezer, at the 
extremity of the Philistine plain, was given 
to this king by Pharaoh ; and he deemed it 
prudent to fortify it and some other border 
towns. When the kingdom was divided, 
we find both States from time to time in- 
volved in hostilities with the Philistines. 
And, though Jehoshaphat and Uzziah ob- 
tained advantages over them, it was not 
till the reign of Hezekiah that they were 
entirely subdued. In the Assyrian inva- 
sions and wars with Egypt, the Philistine 
plain was repeatedly traversed by armies : 
and some of their towns, being considered, 
in a military point of view, important idaces, 
underwent sieges. At the Babylonish cap- 
tivity the old hatred against Israel broke 
out ; but, on the return, alliances were made 
by the Jews with Philistine women. ^ Al- 
exander the Great traversed their country, 
and took Gaza; and Philistia was involved 
in the fortunes of the Syrian, Egyptian, and 
Maccabean, and subsequent Jewish wars. 
At last it fell under the power of the Ro- 
mans, and was disposed of by them. 

Some suppose the Pelethites, named with 
Cherethites as David's body-guard, to have 
been Philistines. See Cherethites. 

Phinehas (mouth of Irass), the son of Ele- 
azar, and grandson of Aaron. When an open 
act of licentiousness had been defiantly com- 
mitted by the Simeonite chief, Zimri, with a 
Midianitish female of rank, Phinehas, with 
his own hand, inflicted on them both the just 
punishment of the law they had outraged. 
For this it was promised him that the priest- 
hood should continue in his family. Phine- 
has was afterward appointed to accomjiany 
the expedition against the Midianites ; and 
we hear of him again when the trans-Jor- 
danic tribes had erected an altar in opposi- 
tion, it was imagined, to the altar of the tab- 
ernacle, and in the war of Israel with Ben- 
jamin. He succeeded his father, Eleazar, as 
high-priest. A descendant of his accompa- 
nied Ezra from Babylon. The traditionary 
tomb of Phinehas is shown at Awertah, four 
miles from Nablous. [Exod. vi., 25 ; Numb. 



1 For a history of these successive events, see Judg." 
i.jlS; iii., 31 ; xiv.-xvi. ; 1 Sam. iv. ; vii., 3-14; xiil. ; 
xiv. ; xvii. ; xxvii. ; xxviii., 1-6 ; xxix., 1, 2; xxxi. — 
2 See further Philistine wars with David: 2 Sam. v., 
17-25: viii., 1; xxi., 15-22; 1 Chrou. xi., 13-19 ; xviii., 
1 ; XX., 4-S; under Solomon : 1 Kings ii., 39, 40; iv., 
21, 24 ; ix., 15-17 ; subsequently, lb. : xv., 27 ; xvi., 15; 
2 Kings xviii., S ; 2 Chron. xvii., 11 ; xxi., 16, 17 ; xxvi., 
G; Neh. xiii., 23, 24; Isa. xx., 1 ; Jer. xlvii., 1; Ezek. 
XXV., 15-17. 



PHRYGIA 



749 



PILGRIMAGES 



XXV., 6-15; xxxi., 6; Josh, xxii., 13, 30 ; xxiv., 
33 : Judg. XX., 28 ; Ezra viii., 2.] 

Phrygia, a district of Asia Minor, twice 
mentioned in the N. T. The limits of Phryg- 
ia, as the term was used in the apostolic age, 
were very indefinite. Usually, they are rep- 
resented as the Tanrus range on the south, 
separating it from Pisidia ; on the west and 
north, Caria, Lydia, Mysia, and Bithynia; 
on the east, Galatia, Cappadocia, and Lyca- 
onia. Phrygia did not form properly a Ro- 
man province, but was included in the prov- 
ince designated Asia. The Phrygians were 
originally an Indo-Germanic race, who emi- 
grated westward from Armenia, and are un- 
derstood to have been the oldest inhabit- 
ants of a great part of Asia Minor, whence 
also they spread into the northern regions 
of Europe. The country is a pretty ele- 
vated table - Ian d,w" ell watered, and gener- 
ally with a fertile soil. [Acts xvi., 6 ; xviii., 
23.] 

Phylactery {safeguard), a strip of parch- 
ment on which some verses of Scripture 
were written. These strips were inclosed 
in small leathern box- 
es, and worn by men 
during the time of 
prayer on the fore- 
head between the eye- 
brows, or on the left 
arm near the region 
of the heart, being 
attached by leathern 
straps. Their use was 
to remind the worship- 
er that the law must Fhylactery. 
be in his head and in his heart; and they 
were supposed to be preservatives against 
the power of demons ; hence the name. The 
practice was founded upon a literal interpre- 
tation of Exod. xiii., 9, 16 ; Dent, vi., 8 ; xi., 
18, and is continued to the present day. 

Pi-beseth {atode of Paslitf), a city of 
Egypt. It appears to have had its name 
from Pubasti, or Bubastis, an Egyptian god- 
dess, in whose honor a great festive pilgrim- 
age w^as yearly made thither. It was on the 
western side of the Pelusiac branch of the 
Nile ; and, though its walls were destroyed 
by the Persians, it continued to be a place 
of consideration under the Romans. The site 
of the ancient city is now called Tel Basta, 
and is occupied by mounds of great extent, 
and masses of broken pottery. [Ezek. xxx., 
17.] 

Pilate (Pontius) was the Roman procu- 
rator, or resident governor, of Judea during 
the period of Christ's public ministry and 
death. Of his life before he became proc- 
urator nothing is known, except that his 
name indicates a probability that he was a 
freedman, or the descendant of a freedman, 
connected with the Pontian house. He suc- 
ceeded Valerius Gratus, as procurator of 
Judea and Samaria, about the year 26 a.d., 




and he held the appointment for a period of 
ten years. Secular history shows him to 
have been unscrupulous in the exercise of 
his authority; and instances are recorded 
by Josephus of his contempt of the Jews. 
His behavior was equally tyrannical toward 
the Samaritans ; and, on their complaint to 
Vitellius, president or prefect of Syria, Pi- 
late was ordered to go to Rome to answer 
for his conduct before the emperor. His dep- 
osition must have occurred in a.d. 36, most 
probably i)rior to the Passover. Before he 
arrived in Rome, however, Tiberius was dead. 
Pilate is said to have been banished by Ca- 
ligula to Vienne, in Gaul ; according to Eu- 
sebius, he put an end to his own existence. 
Our chief knowledge of Pilate, however, is 
derived from the gospels ; and it is only his 
connection with the trial, condemnation, and 
execution of Jesus of Nazareth that has given 
him an unhappy fame. From this account 
it is evident that he was a tool in the hands 
of stronger men. He had no inclination to 
yield to the Jewish priesthood, but he had 
still less to occasion a mob in the Holy City, 
and to bring upon himself the charge of not 
being Caesar's friend. He tried to save the 
innocent life before him, but resorted for this 
purpose to a series of compromises and sub- 
terfnges. He had no moral courage. His 
crime w^as the crime of cowardice. 

Pilate's Staircase. This celebrated stair- 
case is contained within a little chapel near 
the church of St. John Laterau, at Rome. It 
consists of twenty-eight Avhite marble steps, 
and it is alleged by Romanists that this is 
the holy staircase which Christ several times 
ascended and descended when he appeared 
before Pilate, and that it was carried by an- 
gels from Jerusalem to Rome. Multitudes 
of pilgrims at certain periods crawl up the 
steps of this staircase on their knees, with 
rosaries in their hands, and kissing each stej) 
as they ascend. On reaching the top, the 
pilgrim must repeat a short prayer. The per- 
formance of this ceremony is regarded as pe- 
culiarly meritorious, and entitling the devout 
pilgrim to a plenary indulgence. It was dur- 
ing this act of devotion that Martin Luther, 
then a monk, was startled by the remem- 
brance of the text, " The just shall live by 
faith." He instantly saw the folly of such 
performances ; and fleeing in shame from the 
place, became from that time a zealous re- 
former. By the Romanists this staircase is 
called ScaJa Santa, or lioly staircase. 

Pilgrimages, exercises of religious disci- 
pline, consisting of journeying to some place 
of reputed sanctity, frequently in discharge 
of a vow. In the Middle Ages pilgrimages 
were regarded as a mark of piety ; it was be- 
tween the eleventh and twelfth centuries, 
however, that the rage for pilgrimages came 
to its height. They are common in almost 
every country where Romanism prevails; 
and not only in Romish but in Mohammedan 



PILLARS 



750 



PISIDIA 



countries, tliey are much in vogue. Among 
heathen nations, also, pilgrimages are greatly 
practiced, and they were common among the 
Jews, who were required to come up to the 
Temple at Jerusalem, especially on certain 
festivals. But the idea of peculiar sacred- 
ness being attached to special localities holds 
no place under the Christian dispensation.^ 

Pillars (consecrated). From the most re- 
mote ages the practice has prevailed of set- 
ting up stones of memorial to preserve the 
remembrance of important events. The first 
instance mentioned in Scripture is that of 
the stone Avhich Jacob (q. v.) set up at Bethel. 
A pillar and a heap of stones were made me- 
morials of a compact of peace ratified be- 
tween Jacob and Laban. Moses, also, at the 
foot of Mount Sinai, built an altar, and set 
up twelve pillars representing the twelve 
tribes of Israel, in token of the covenant 
which they there made with God. For a 
similar reason Joshua took a great stone in 
Shechem, and "set it up under an oak that 
was by the sanctuary of the Lord." This 
pillar of stone was designed to be an endur- 
ing monument of the great transaction in 
which the Israelites had just been engaged. 
Sometimes stone pillars were erected to mark 
the buryiug-place of some relative, of which 
we have a remarkable instance in the pillar 
which Jacob erected over the grave of his 
beloved Eachel. Among the ancient Greeks 
and Romans the same custom appears to have 
existed. Among the Sclavonic nations of the 
North such sepulchral stones, marking the 
resting-x)lace of the dead, are found in great 
numbers. These are the rough-hewn me- 
morial stones, or cromlechs, of the Northern 
hordes — an intermediate link between the 
simple mound of earth and the gorgeous 
mausoleum of more modern days. To the 
rude stone pillars of earlier times succeeded 
the sculptured obelisks of later ages. In 
Egypt, in India, in Persia, such indications 
of a higher civilization have been found in 
great abundance. The towering stone pyra- 
mids of Egypt appear to have been only gi- 
gantic mausoleums containing vaulted cham- 
bers, a sarcophagus, and mouldering bones. 
The substitution of the sculptured for the 
rude pillar took place among the Israelites, 
probably at the introduction among them of 
the government of kings ; and it is not un- 
likely that the monument by which Saul 
commemorated his victory over the Ama- 
lekites may have been a more polished and 
artistic structure than the simple pillars of 
earlier times. Traces of such refined monu- 
ments are still found, chiefly in the northern 
part of the Phoenician territory. Consecrated 
pillars were probably the most ancient mon- 
uments of idolatry, and, accordingly, the Is- 
raelites were forbidden to set them up as 
objects of worship. It is asserted that the 
Phoenicians worshiped Jacob's Stone, and af- 



1 John iv., 21-24. 



terward anointed others, to which they paid 
divine honors, and called Bactylia, in mem- 
ory of Bethel, where Jacob anointed* the 
stone. Sacred stones have frequently been 
worshiped by heathen nations, and traces 
of the practice are even yet to be found in 
various nations. [Gen. xxviii., 18 ; xxxv.,20 ; 
Exod. xiii., 21 ; xxiv., 4 ; Lev. xxvi., 1 ; 1 Sam. 
XV., 12; 2Sam.xviii., 18.] 

Pine. We find "pine," or "pine-tree," 
only three times in our version of the Scrip- 
ture. It is not clear what tree is meant. 
The elm, the palm-tree, the oak, the holm, 
and the ilex have all been suggested. [Neh. 
viii., 15 ; Isa. xli., 19 ; Ix., 13.] 

Pinnacle. It is probable that the pin- 
nacle referred to in the account of Christ's 
temptation was the roof of Herod's royal 
portico, which overhung the ravine of the 
Kidron at such a height that, according to 
Josephus, if any one standing on it looked 
down into the valley, his eye could scarce 
reach the bottom. Recent excavations in- 
dicate that this description is hardly over- 
drawn, though, of course, not literally true. 
[Matt, iv., 5 ; Luke iv., 9.] 

Pisgah (divide). There is no reason to 
doubt that Pisgah was the proper name of 
a mountain range, of which Nebo was a sin- 
gle eminence or peak. In the present state 
of our knowledge on the subject, it is im- 
possible to go further than to say that Pis- 
gah was some higher elevation of the Aba- 
rim range, directly opposite to Jericho on 
the north, and facing the desert of Jeshimon. 
The mountain itself is chiefly memorable as 
the height from which Moses got his most 
distinct view of the Land of Promise. See 
Moses. [Numb, xxi., 20 ; xxvii., 12 ,• Deut. 
iii., 27 ; xxxiv., 1, 5-8.] 

Pisidia, a iirovince of Asia Minor, bound- 
ed on the north by Phrygia, on the west by 
Phrygia and Lycia, on the south by Pam- 
phylia, and on the east by Lycaouia and 
Cilicia. Its political boundaries were, like 
those of other provinces in Asia Minor, fre- 
quently altered. The eastern part of Pisid- 
ia was a mountainous country, containing a 
lofty part of the Taurian range. The west- 
ern portion is more level, and there are sev- 
eral beautiful lakes, some of which, like those 
of Lycaouia, are brackish. The climate is 
agreeable and healthy. Pisidia is a beauti- 
fnl and picturesque region, abounding with 
grand mountains, intersected with lovely 
and fertile valleys. It had little trade, and 
was never a populous country save in the 
neighborhood of its principal cities. There 
were Antioch, Icouium, Sagalassus, and Isau- 
ra. The name occurs once only in Scrip- 
ture, in the relation of Paul's first missionary 
journey with Barnabas ; but as that jour- 
ney, from Perga to Antioch, led the apostle 
through the most dangerous parts of a conn- 
try never very safe, it is extremely probable 
that, when he alludes to those perils among 



PISON 



751 



PLAGUES OF EGYPT 



robbers whicli befell him, be refers to his 
adventures on this route. And, as the wa- 
ters in that region become, in autumn, very 
suddenly furious mountain torrents, his per- 
ils among rivers may be attributed to the 
same place and time. [Acts xiii., 14-51 ; 
xiv., 21, 24, 25 ; comp. 2 Tim. iii., 11.] 

Pison (overfloiving), one of the four rivers 
into which the stream that watered Eden 
was divided, and which compassed the laud 
of Havilah.^ Conjectures as to the identifi- 
cation of the Pison are numerous. Various 
existing rivers, such as the Nile, the Dan- 
ube, the Gauges, the Phasis, have been vain- 
ly attempted to be identified with it. It 
was probably either the Kur or the Araxes. 

Pit. Originally a snare sun k in the ground 
for the capture of animals, the pit became a 
type of sorrow and confusion from whicli a 
man could not extricate himself; and hence 
became the symbol of the dreariness of death. 
" To go down into the pit" is to die without 
hope. Thence, by a natural transition, the 
same symbol was employed to describe the 
place of future punishment. The word deep, 
in Luke viii., 31, and Rom. x., 7, is nearly syn- 
onymous with j>it The process of change 
in the word pit from its original to its sym- 
bolic use may be easily traced by compar- 
ing three Scriptural passages : Psa. xxxv., 
7 ; Job xxxiii., 18 ; Rev. ix., 1, 2. 

Pitch. The more proper term for what 
goes by the name of pitch in Scripture is as- 
phalt, or bitumen, a dark, inflammable sub- 
stance, which in certain places boils up from 
subterranean fountains, but hardens by ex- 
posure to the atmosphere, and in the liquid 
state is well adapted for use as a cement. 
There are no fewer than three Hebrew words 
employed as designations of it — kopher, the 
most general term, merely indicating the use 
to which it was applied, as an external ce- 
ment or coating f cJiemar, from the root to 
boil up or ferment, referring to the manner 
in which asphalt was known to bubble up 
from its concealed reservoirs, especially in 
the region of Babylon, and about the Dead 
Sea ;^ zeplietli, from an obsolete root of much 
the same meaning as the last, signifying to 
flow or drop. In the region of Palestine, 
the great source of supply for this article 
was the Dead, or Salt Sea, and its neigh- 
borhood, which lience got the name of iacws 
Asphaltites. It is still found there, though 
not by any means in the same quantities. 
The local Arabs affirm that it appears only 
after earthquakes. Besides being used for 
covering boats, and paying the bottom of 
vessels, the ancients used it as a substitute 
for mortar in building. The walls of an- 
cient Babylon were cemented by hot pitch, 
which gave them great solidity. It was also 
used as fuel in that city, the environs of 
which, from the earliest times, were renown- 

1 Gen. ii. 11. — 2 Gen. vi., 14. — 3 Gen. xi., 3; Exod. 
ii., 3. 



ed for the abundance of asphalt mines. Pitch 
was also used among the ancient Egyptians 
for embalming the dead. 

Pithom {the narrow place f), one of the 
treasure-cities which the Israelites built for 
Pharaoh. It is believed to be identical with 
the Patumos mentioned by Herodotus. This 
lay on the eastern side of the Pelusiac arm 
of the Nile, in the Arabian part of Egypt, 
not far from the canal uniting the Nile with 
the Red Sea. [Exod. i., 11.] 

Plague (The). The disease now called 
the plague, which has ravaged Egypt and 
the neighboring countries in modern times, 
is supposed to have prevailed there in for- 
mer ages. In recent times it has not ex- 
tended far beyond the Turkish Empire and 
the kingdom of Persia. As an epidemic, it 
takes the character of a pestilence, some- 
times of the greatest severity. It is consid- 
ered to be a severe kind of typhus, accom- 
panied by buboes. Like the cholera, it is 
most violent at the first outbreak, causing 
almost instant death ; later it may last three 
days, and even longer ; but usually it is fa- 
tal in a few hours. Whether this disease is 
referred to in the Scripture is a matter of 
some uncertainty. Several Hebrew words 
are translated plague and pestilence, but it 
is not clear that either of them designates 
the modern plague. Hezekiah's disease has 
been thought to have been the plague ; and 
its fatal nature, as well as the mention of a 
boil, makes this not improbable. On the 
other hand, there is no mention of a pesti- 
lence among his people at the time. [Lev. 
xxvi., 25 ; Dent, xxviii,, 21 ; 2 Kings xx., 1.] 

Plagues of Egypt. Tlie so-called plagues 
of Egypt form the chief part of the mirac- 
ulous side of the great deliverance of the 
Israelites from Egyptian bondage. And as 
miracles are rarely, if ever, mere naked won- 
ders, whose sole design is to attract atten- 
tion and impress with awe, but generally, 
also, signs or expressions of the purposes 
and truths of God which the miracles gath- 
ered up and condensed into acts, a consid- 
eration of these plagues will best show the 
meaning of the deliverance from Egypt; will 
show it to have been no mere symbolical act, 
foreshadowing by this temporal deliverance 
from worldly bondage a spiritual redemp- 
tion from spiritual oppression, but also a 
genuine conflict with, and victory over, the 
powers of evil; and so a real redemption 
from the oppression of spiritual wickedness. 
Frequent intimations are given by the Lord, 
in his intercourse with Moses, of the meaning 
which he wishes to be read in his dealings 
with Pharaoh and Egypt on the one side, and 
his own people on the other. From these it 
is seen that there enter into this great strug- 
gle four powers — Jehovah, the gods of Egypt, 
the Church of God about to be redeemed, and 
the Egyptian power of the world. Jehovah 
descends to work upon the earth, to fulfill 



PLAGUES OF EGYPT 



PLAGUES OF EGYPT 



his promise, and to redeem Ms people. The 
powers of evil tighten their grasp upon Is- 
rael, and thus the struggle is chiefly one be- 
tween Jehovah's power and the world's pow- 
er; but neither the people of God nor the 
people of Egypt stand idle. For the pow- 
ers of good and ill rarely come into direct 
collision ; their warfare is waged on the do- 
main of human wills, of which they possess 
themselves, and which they use as instru- 
ments. The issne of the conflict was, 1st. to 
establish the truth that Jehovah is omnipo- 
tent over all the gods of the nations, and 
God alone ; and, 2d, that the people of God 
experienced a great redemption. For in all 
the O. T. history the mere external transac- 
tion not only symbolizes and pro]Dhecies a 
great future spiritual blessing, but also car- 
ries with it the blessing that it symbolizes, 
unless it fails through the unbelief or inca- 
pacity of the people. The Hebrews were 
not only oppressed with sore bondage in 
brick and mortar, but their spirits were cap- 
tive to Egyptian idolatry: and the sights 
and circumstances of their deliverance shook 
them clear of these enslaving influences, 
tliough not so completely as they were fit- 
ted to do — as they would have done but for 
the i^eoiile's imbelief. 

The preliminary sign of turning Aaron's 
rod into a ••' serpent," as in our Bible (else- 
where dragon, a large serx^ent — some think, 
a crocodile), which, indeed, swallowed up 
the similarly metamorphosed rods of the 
magicians, and so manifested at the com- 
mencement the superiority of the cause of 
Israel to that of Egypt, yet carried with 
it no penal infliction. Apart from this, the 
so-called plagues are ten in number : 1, The 
turning of the water of the Xile into blood : 

2. The bringing up of frogs from the river : 

3. The plague of'' lice," more probably gnats 
or mosquitoes, from the dust of the ground ; 

4. The iflague of '-flies'' — perhaps gad-flies, 
or perhaps the beetles, that were sacred in 
Egypt ; 5. The murrain upon beasts ; 6. The 
plague of boils upon men and beasts from 
the ashes of the kilns ; 7. The hail upon 
men, beasts, and crops ; 8. The plague of lo- 
custs ; 9. The darkness : 10. The destruction 
of the first-born of man and beast. 

The following things may be noted in 
this series. The magicians, though they 
initiate nothing, and do not seem ever to 
have thought of counter -plagues against 
Moses or the Israelites, bring about by then- 
enchantments, to a certain extent, the same 
results as Moses and Aaron, although by 
such means they only increase the calam- 
ity upon themselves. But after the sec- 
ond plague their power entirely ceases, and 
they suffer from the subsequent disasters 
quite like their countrymen. The Israel- 
ites seem to have been involved in the first 
three plagues in common Avith the Egyp- 
tians — a fact which taught them that in 



themselves they were no less liable than 
other nations to the judgments of heaven, 
and that, being sinful, and involved indeed 
too greatly in Egypt's sin, they must, but 
for God's mercy, be involved in her i^lagues. 
The plagues were light at first, and proceed- 
ed, by slow degrees, to terrible severity ; for 
a long time they were not so fearful as to 
compel submission — a fact which shows that 
God desires to bring about his purposes, not 
by the use of mere stupendous portents, but 
by appeals to the principles of truth and 
justice that rule even in the breasts of the 
heathen, and that he does not willingly af- 
flict any of the children of men. The num- 
ber of the iDlagues, ten, is no doubt signifi- 
cant, and implies, ending, as it does, with 
the terrible blow struck direct from heav- 
en, the full outpouring on Egypt of the di- 
vine wrath. 

It is not quite easy to arrange, the plagues 
into any order of progression, but, taken all 
together, they seem designed to show Jeho- 
vah's grasp of all the elements of life and 
power in Egypt, and all the elements of de- 
struction and death both in it and beyond 
it. and his intention to wield all these for 
the humiliation of that land and the deliv- 
erance of his people. As we read the de- 
scription of the plagues, it is impossible not 
to feel how much force is added to it by a 
knowledge of the peculiar customs aud char- 
acter of the country in which they occurred. 
It is not an ordinary river that is turned into 
blood : it is the sacred, beneficent, salutary 
Xile, the very life of the State and of the 
people, in its streams, and canals, and tanks, 
and vessels of wood, and vessels of stone, 
used then, as now, for the filtration of the 
delicious water from the sediment of the 
river-bed. It is not an ordinary nation 
that is struck by the mass of putrefying 
vermin lying in heaps by the houses, the 
villages, and the fields, or multiplying out 
of the dust of the desert sands on either 
side the Xile Valley. It is the cleanliest 
of all the ancient nations, clothed in white 
linen, anticipating, in their fastidious deli- 
cacy and ceremonial purity, the habits of 
our modern civilization. It is not the or- 
dinary cattle that died in the field, or ordi- 
nary fish that died in the river, or ordinary 
reptiles that were overcome by the rod of 
Aaron : it is the sacred goat of Mendes, the 
ram of Ammon, the calf of Heliopolis, the 
bull Apis, the crocodile of Ombos, the carp 
of Latopolis. It is not an ordinary land, 
of which the flax, and the barley, and every 
green thing in the trees, aud every herb in 
the field are smitten by the two great ca- 
lamities of storm and locust ; it is the gar- 
den of the ancient world, the long line of 
green meadow and corn-field, and groves 
of palm and sycamore and fig-tree, from the 
Cataracts to. the Delta, doubly refreshing 
from the desert which it intersects, doubly 



PLAINTS 



753 



PLOW 



marvelous from the river whence it springs. 
If these things were calamities anywhere, 
they were truly "signs and wonders" — 
si)eakiug signs and oracular wonders — in 
such a laud as " the land of Ham." 

By what power the magicians, at the first, 
imitated the miracles of Moses, how they 
changed their rods into serpents, the river 
water into blood, and introduced frogs in 
unprecedented numbers, is a question which 
can not be conclusively answered. Some 
have imagined that the only way of account- 
ing for the phenomena is to ascribe them 
to jugglery and legerdemain, the serpents, 
frogs, and other requisite materials having 
been secretly jDrovided and dexterously pro- 
duced at the required moment. Others con- 
tend that Scripture does not seem to doubt 
the existence of witchcraft, or the posses- 
sion of superhuman power by certain men, 
and that these conjurers were aided in their 
wonderful feats by familiar spirits. 

The relation in which the j)lagues stand to 
visitations which naturally afllict Egypt has 
been much discussed. The locusts, the flies, 
the murrain, the discolored river, the storm, 
the darkness of the sandy wind, the plague, 
are calamities natural to Egypt, though rare, 
and exhibited here in aggravated and ter- 
rible forms. But not the less are they the 
interventions of a power above the power 
of man ; not the less did they call the mind 
of the Israelite from dwelling on his own 
strength and glory to the mighty hand 
and the outstretched arm on which alone, 
through his subsequent history, he was to 
lean. 

Plants. The flora of Syria, so far as 
known, may be roughly classed under three 
principal botanical regions, corresponding 
with the physical characters of the coun- 
try. These are (1.) The western or sea- 
board half of Syria and Palestine, including 
the lower valleys of the Lebanon and Anti- 
Lebanon, the plains of Coele- Syria, Gali- 
lee, Samaria, and Judea; (2.) The desert, or 
eastern half, which includes the east flanks 
of the Anti-Lebanon, the plain of Damascus, 
the Jordan, and the Dead Sea Valley; (3.) 
The middle and upper mountain regions of 
Mount Casius, and of Lebanon, above 3400 
feet, and of the Auti -Lebanon, above 4000 
feet. Nothing whatever is known botanic- 
ally of the regions 
to the eastward, 
namely, the Hauran, 
Lcjah, Gilead, Am- 
mon, and Moab. 
These three botan- 
ical regions present 
no definite bound- 
ary - line. A vast "" "" '^'^' -.-^~ 
number of plants, 

and especially of herbs, are common to all 

except the loftiest parts of Lebanon and the 

driest spots of the eastern district; and in no 

48 



latitude is there a sharp line of demarkation 
between them. But though the change is 
gradual from the dry and semi-tropical east- 
ern flora to the moister and cooler western, 
or from the latter to the cold temperate one 
of the Lebanon, there is a great difierence 
between the floras of the Upper Lebanon, 
Jerusalem, and Jericho, or between the tops 
of Lebanon, of Carmel, and of any of the hills 
bounding the Jordan ; for in the first locali- 
ty we are most strongly reminded of North- 
ern Europe, in the second of Spain, and in 
the third of Western India or Persia.^ 

The following we believe to be a com- 
plete list of the plants and trees mentioned 
in the Bible. For information respecting 
them, the reader is referred to their respect- 
ive titles : 



Algum. 


Cucumber. 


Hyssop. 


Pomegranate. 


Almond. 


Cummin. 


Juniper. 


Poplar. 


Aloe. 


Cypress. 


Leeks. 


Reed. 


Anise. 


Date. 


Lentil. 


Rose, 


Apple. 


Ebony. 


Lily. 


Rue. 


Ash. 


Elm. 


Mallow. 


Rye. 


Balm. 


Fig. 


Mandrake. 


Saffron. 


Barley. 


Fir. 


Melon. 


Shittim. 


Bay. 


Fitch. 


Millet. 


Spikenard. 


Bean. 


Flag. 


Mint. 


Stacte. 


Box. 


Flax. 


Mulberry. 


Sycamine. 


Bramble. 


Frankincense. 


Mustard. 


Sycamore. 


Bulrush. 


Galbanum. 


Myrrh. 


Tare. 


Camphire. 


Gall. 


Myrtle. 


Teil. 


Cane. 


Garlic. 


>fettle. 


Thistle. 


Cassia. 


Gopher. 


Nut. 


Thorn. 


Cedar. 


Gourd. 


Oak. 


Thyme. 


Chestnut. 


Grass. 


Olive. 


Vine. 


Cinnamon. 


Hazel. 


Onion. 


Wheat. 


Cockle. 


Heath. 


Palm. 


Willovv^. 


Coriander. 


Hemlock. 


Pine. 


Wormwood. 


Corn. 


Husk. 







Pleiades, a well-known cluster of stars 
in the shoulder of the constellation Taurus, 
the Bull. The Pleiades are doubtless in- 
tended by the Hebrew word Cimah, or Ki- 
mali :^ the same word occurs in Amos v., 8, 
but there it is rendered " the seven stars." 

Plow. The ancient Syrian plow was a 
very simple instrument, a stake from which 
projected a shorter pointed piece of wood. 
Afterward it consisted of a pole, a point or 
share, a handle, and a yoke. This is the 
plow now in use, very much resembling the 
plows figured on the Egyptian monuments. 
It is a most imperfect implement, making 
no proper furrow. Plows were drawn by 
oxen driven by a goad (q. v.). Dr. Thom- 
son describes the Arabs as fond of plowing 
in company, both for protection and because 
the land is cultivated in common, and says 
that he has seen as many as twelve plows 




Plowing. 

closely following in a line. It is to this 
practice of plowing in company that refer- 



See Palestine.— 2 Job ix., 9 ; xxxviii., 31. 



PLURALIST 



754 



POMEGRANATE 



euce is made in 1 Kings xix., 19. The 
plowing is done in the winter ;^ it can not 
be done with these light plows until the 
ground is softened by the late rains. 

Pluralist, a title given to one who holds 
two or more ecclesiastical offices, and espe- 
cially to a clergyman who holds and re- 
ceives the income of two or more benefices. 
This practice has been forbidden from a 
very early period in the history of the 
Church, as by the councils of Chalcedon 
(a.d. 451), and that of Nice (a.d. 787), and 
is still prohibited both by the Roman Cath- 
olic canon law and by statute law in the Es- 
tablished Church of England. Bat the pro- 
hibition is evaded in various ways ; and in 
all established churches pluralism, in one 
form or another, is not uncommon. 

Poetry. That there is a spirit of poetry 
in the Bible must be recognized by all read- 
ers ; there are not only distinct poetical books, 
as the Psalms, Job, and certain of the proph- 
ets, but the poetical element enters largely 
into other books, chiefly in the O. T. But 
what rhetorically constitutes this poetry, 
i. e., what is the form of Hebrew poetry, 
whether blank verse or metre, seems not to 
have been well settled until the time of 
Bishop Lowth, who flourished so late as only 
the last century. He, in his introduction to 
a new translation of Isaiah, maintained that 
the chief characteristic of Hebrew poetry 
consisted in uttering a particular sentiment 
in one line, and repeating its counterpart, or 
opposite, in another line, or lines, called its 
parallelism, or parallelisms, i. e., its parallel 
as a direct resemblance, its expansion, or its 
contrast. These parallelisms run generally 
in pairs, but they are sometimes found in 
triplets. Thus, in the very opening of the 
Psalms, we have a triplet. The sentiment 
or burden of this Psalm is, that the good is 
a blessed or happy man ; and this is express- 
ed in three illustrations, each of which is 
made more conspicuous and intelligible by 
throwing it into a separate line, 
thus : 

"Blessed is the man, 
That walketh not in the counsel of the 

nugodly, 
Nor staiideth in the way of sinners. 
Nor sitteth in the seat of the scornful." 

In the last verse of this Psalm we 
have an instance of the antithet- 
ical, or antagonistic parallelism, 
the last line expressing the oppo- 
site of the first : 

"For the Lord kiioweth [approveth] the 
way of the righteous ; 
But the way of the ungodly shall per- 
ish " [lead to perdition]. 

Biblical scholars have since an- 
alyzed this Hebrew poetry, and 
shown more in detail the different 
forms of this parallelism, which 
constitutes the essential feature of the form 
of Hebrew poetry. 



But poetry is more than a form of lan- 
guage; essential to it is an insight into 
the reality and beneath the appearances of 
things. That which is characteristic of 
Hebrew poetry in this regard is its recog- 
nition of God in all his works, and in all 
the course of history and the events of life. 
" God," says Dr. Conant, in his introduction 
to the Psalms, "revealing himself in nature 
and his word as the Creator and Sovereign 
of the universe, as God of all the nations of 
the earth, and, in a special sense, of his chos- 
en people — these are the themes of the He- 
brew poet, and the basis of all his religious 
and moral views and sentiments. Whatev- 
er is sublime or beautiful in nature is sung 
only in praise of its more glorious Author. 
The attributes of the Divine Being, the 
principles of his government, his purposes 
with regard to the destiny of man, his past, 
present, and prospective dealings with indi- 
viduals and with nations, are here exhibited 
with all the resources of poetic art. Relig- 
ious experience is delineated in its various 
forms, and under every condition and rela- 
tion in life. But the national traits are ev- 
erywhere preserved. All is domestic. The 
various fortunes of the Hebrew race, in its 
earlier history, furnished ample materials 
for historical illustration, while the gor- 
geous scenery of the Holy Land, its sub- 
lime mountains, its lovely hills and valleys, 
plains and rivers, and its romantic pastoral 
life, supplied inexhaustible stores of image- 
ry from nature, for every purpose of poetic 
illustration and embellishment." 

Pomegranate. The pomegranate was 
well known to the Greeks, among whom 
parts of it were used medicinally. It has 
been highly valued in various countries, 
from Syria to the north of India ; it was cul- 
tivated also in Egypt and other parts of 
Northern Africa. Its dark -green foliage, 
its conspicuous flowers, and its large, red- 
dish-colored fruit, filled with juicy, pleas- 




1 Prov. XX., 4. 



Pomegranates. 

ant-flavored pulp, which covers its numer- 
ous seeds, make it one of the most desira- 
ble products of warm countries. The fruit 



PONTIFEX 



755 



POOL 



was greatly esteemed in ancient times, and 
is meutioued by Moses as one of the excel- 
lences of the Promised Land. Carved fig- 
ures of the pomegranate were employed in 
adorning Solomon's Temple, and worked rep- 
resentations of it ornamented tlie hem of the 
robe of the ephod. [Exod. xxviii., 33, 34 ; 
Deut. Tiii., 8 ; 1 Kings vii., 15-21 ; Sol. Song 
iv.,3, 13; vi.,7; viii., 2.] 

Pontifex, a priest among the ancient Eo- 
mans. The pontifices were formed into a 
college, and all matters of religion whatev- 
er were placed under its exclusive superin- 
tendence. Their functions and duties were 
minutely detailed in the pontifical books, 
which were drawn up in the reign of Nnma 
Pompilius, and contained the names of the 
gods and the various regulations for their 
worship, as well as a detailed description of 
the functions, rights, and privileges of the 
priests. The pontifices were not priests of 
any particular divinity, but of the worship 
of the gods generally, including all religious 
ceremonies, public and private. The head 
of the college was called Pontifex Maximus. 



ing, of which they very early took advantage. 
They spoke a dialect of the Persian, large- 
ly corrupted with Greek ; and their religion 
seems to have been a compound of Greek, 
Scythian, and Persian. [Acts ii., 9; xviii., 
2; 1 Pet.i.,1.} 

Pool, a large reservoir for water, as distinct 
from the smaller and private cisterns (q. v.). 
Pools are, in many parts of Palestine and 
Syria, the only resource for water during the 
dry season, and the failure of them involves 
drought and calamity.^ There were many 
of these reservoirs in the neighborhood of 
Jerusalem for the water supply of the city. 
Captain Wilson, in his recent reports con- 
cerning the excavations carried on in Jeru- 
salem under the Palestine Exploration Fund, 
gives an account of the present condition 
of the more important of these pools. The 
pools of wliich remains exist are the Birket 
Mamilla, Birket es-Sultan, two pools of Si- 
loam, Birket Sitti Miriam, a pool near the 
Tombs of the Kings outside the city, and 
the so-called pools of Hezekiah and Bethesda 
within. The Birket Mamilla is still in use ; 




Grouud-plan of Solomon's Pools. 



Pontifical (belonging to a pontiff or bishop), 
one of the service-books of the Church of 
Rome, in which are contained the several 
ser^dces, whether in the administration of 
sacraments or the performance of public 
worship, in which the bishop exclusively, or 
a priest delegated by the bishop, officiates. 

Pontus, a considerable district or prov- 
ince in Asia Minor, three times mentioned 
in the N. T. It signified a country of very 
various extent at various times. Under the 
Roman emperors, the name comprised the 
whole district along the southern bay of the 
Euxine from the river Halys to Colchis and 
Armenia, separated on the south by lofty 
mountains from Cappadocia. In the south- 
east it was mountainous, in other parts level 
and fertile. It abounds with olives and cher- 
ly-trees, and the valleys produce considera- 
ble quantities of grain. The climate is hot 
in summer, but severe in winter. The in- 
habitants were a hardy, industrious, and war- 
like race, and addicted to cgmmerce. They 
had many convenient harbors on the Euxine, 
and abundance of liae timber for ship-build- 



it collects the surface-drainage of the upper 
part of the valley of Hiunom, and transmits 
its water to the pool of Hezekiah by a con- 
duit which passes under the city wall. The 
average depth of the pool is nineteen feet ; 
but there is a large accumulation of rubbish 
at the bottom, and it now holds water im- 
perfectly. The Birket es-Sultan lies in the 
valley of Hinnom, and at so low a level that 
its waters could only have been used for the 
irrigation of any gardens which may have 
existed lower down the valley. The pool 
does not now hold water ; it is of cousidera- 
ble size, and has been formed by building a 
solid dam across the valley. The two pools 
of Siloam are at the bottom of the Tyropceon 
Valley, and were probably made for the ir- 
rigation of the gardens below. The Birket 
Sitti Miriam, near St. Stephen's Gate, is of 
no great size. It is, however, peculiar from 
its position, which is such that it can receive 
little or no surface-water, and its supply 
must therefore have been brought by an 
aqueduct. It appears to be more modern 



Isa. xlii., 15. 



POOL 



756 



POPE, PAPACY 




The Pool of Jdezekiah. 



than the others, and still holds a little water. 
The pool of Bethesda (Birket Israil) lies in 
the valley which runs past St. Anne's Church ; 
but the drainage is not sufficient to supply 
such a large tank, and it must have been fed 
from some other source. Though partly fill- 
ed with rubbish, it still has a depth of forty 
feet ; it is out of repair, and does not now 
hold water. The pool of Hezekiah receives 
its supply from the Birket Mamilla. It is in 
bad repair, but holds a certain amount of wa- 
ter. The bottom is covered with a thick de- 
posit of vegetable mould, the accumulation 
of several years; and in one corner there 
is a large open cess-pit of so foul a descrip- 
tion that it forbids approach. The pools of 
Solomon, near the head of Wady Urtas, are 
three in number ; they receive the surface- 
drainage of the ground above them, and the 
water of a fine spring known as the Sealed 
Fountain. The pools have been made by 
building solid dams of masonry across the 
valley, and are so arranged that the water 
from each of the upper ones can run off into 
the one immediately below it. The lower 
pool is constructed in a peculiar manner, 
which appears to indicate that it was some- 
times used as an amphitheatre for naval dis- 
plays ; there are several tiers of seats, with 
steps leading down to them, and the lower 
portion of the pool, which is much deeper 
than the upper, could be filled with water 
by a conduit from one of the other reservoirs. 
The upper pool is 380 feet in length, the mid- 
dle pool 423, and the lower one 582. Their 
average breadth is 200 feet, and theii" depth 



38 feet. At present they contain compara- 
tively little water ; yet they are of incalcu- 
lable importance to Bethlehem, and might 
easily be made so to Jerusalem. The water 
from these f>ools was brought into the city 
by an aqueduct which is one of the most re- 
markable works in Palestine. See Conduit. 

Pope, Papacy. The name pope, the same 
as papa, i e., substantially the same as father, 
the title of all Roman Catholic priests, was 
originally employed as the designation of all 
bishops. It was first used as a specific title 
of the Bishop of Rome in the latter part of 
the fifth century, nor was it until a much 
later period that it lost its original significa- 
tion. The title is now applied exclusively 
to the head of the Roman Catholic Church. 

Formerly, the pope was elected by the 
clergy and people ; but, owing to the violence 
and even bloodshed with which these elec- 
tions were attended, the right of election was 
in 1059 vested in the cardinals, and has ever 
since been exercised by them. Preparatory 
to an election, the cardinals are shut up in 
what is called " the conclave," all commu- 
nication with the outer world being put an 
end to until the election shall have been 
made. A majority of the cardinals is neces- 
sary to an election. The greater Continent- 
al Catholic powers — France, Austria, Ger- 
many, and Spain — were formerly understood 
to have the privilege, through one of their 
cardinals, of placing a veto upon the election 
of a candidate ; and it is generally believed 
at the time of this writing (1872) that, on 
the death of Pope Pius IX., the empire of 



POPE, PAPACY 



757 



POPE, PAPACY 



Germany will claim this right, in order to 
prevent the election of the candidate of the 
Jesuits. Long usage requires that the can- 
didate he an Italian. The coronation and 
consecration ceremonies attending the inau- 
guration of the pope are of a very solemn and 
impressive character. 

The pope is the supreme head of the Ro- 
man Catholic Church. He is held to be the 
successor of St. Peter, and the vicar of Christ, 
and to he invested with all power necessary 
for the government of the Universal Church. 
This embraces authority to examine and de- 
cide authoritatively all controversies, to con- 
voke councils, to revise and confirm their 
decrees, to issue general decrees, whether 
upon discipline and morals or upon doc- 
trine, to appoint bishops in all parts of the 
Church, to confirm the election when made 
by the Clergy or by the civil authorities, no 
matter how it may have been made ; he can 
also depose bishops, and set others in their 
place, and even, in cases of great emergency, 
suppress bishoprics, and change their eccle- 
siastical limits according to his judgment of 
the existing requirements of the Church ; he 
is also to judge of the doctrines tanght in 
particular books or by particular individuals, 
and to pronounce infallibly as to their con- 
formity with the Catholic faith, or the con- 
trary. In addition to these powers, which 
we do not understand are denied to him by 
any party in the Roman Catholic Church, it 
is still further claimed by the Ultramontanes 
that he is endowed by God with infallibility ; 
so that what he says ex cathedra, i. e., official- 
ly and as pope, is of divine authority, and 
can not be questioned or denied; and that 
also, as the vicar of Christ, he has a supreme 
authority over all civil rulers and civil ju- 
risdiction, the allegiance of all the faithful 
to him being superior to that which is due 
to their respective governments.^ 

The principal Scriptural authority for the 
papacy relied upon by the Roman Catholic 
Church is Matt, xvi., 18, 19. Without enter- 
ing into a discussion of the meaning of this 
famous passage, I may here quote from my 
Commentary on the New Testament a state- 
ment of the Roman Catholic interpretation, 
and the grounds on which that view is re- 
jected by all Protestants : 

''The ordinary Roman Catholic view of 
this passage is, that Christ declared his pur- 
pose to found a great ecclesiastical organiza- 
tion ; that this organization was to be built 
upon Peter and his successors as its true 
foundation ; that they were to represent to 
all time the authority of God upon the earth, 
being clothed, by virtue of their office, with 
a continuous inspiration, and authorized by 
the Word, and fitted by the indwelling Spirit 
of God, to guide, direct, illumine, and com- 
mand the disciples of Christ, with the same 
force and effect as Christ himself. This 

1 See Infallibility ; Koman Catholic Cuueou. 



view is untenable for the following reasons : 
1. Christ does not, as we have seen, refer to 
a definite ecclesiastical organization by the 
word church, and would not be so understood 
by his disciples. 2. Peter was not by nature 
rock-like ; he was, on the contrary, charac- 
teristically impulsive and unstable.^ There 
must be, therefore, some other significance 
in the words, ' Thou art a rock,' which the 
Roman Catholic interpretation loses. 3. 
Neither he nor the other disciples under- 
stood that Christ invested him with any such 
authority and position. He did not occupy 
any such place in the Church while he lived. 
In the first council at Jerusalem'^ he was 
simply an adviser, the office of chief, or pres- 
ident, being apparently held by James ; Paul 
withstood Peter to his face, as no disciple 
ever withstood Christ, or would have with- 
stood his acknowledged representative;^ and 
throughout the N. T. the apostles are all 
treated as co-equals.* 4. There is neither 
here nor anywhere else in the N. T. any hint 
of a successor to Peter, or of any authority 
in him to appoint a successor, or of any such 
authority vested in any of the apostles, or 
exercised, or assumed to be exercised, by any 
of them. 5. The N. T. throughout, and the 
O. T. in all its prophecies, recognizes Christ 
as the chief corner-stone, the foundation on 
which the kingdom of God can alone be 
built.^ 6. Mark and Luke omit from their 
account this utterance of Christ ; if it really 
designated Peter as the foundation of the 
visible Church, and was thus essential and 
not incidental to the right understanding of 
the whole incident, it would not be omitted 
from their accounts." 

The origin of the papacy is lost in the 
mists of antiquity. The Roman Catholic 
writers claim that Peter came to Rome, 
founded the Church, was himself the first 
primate, and established the succession, 
which has never since failed. How slight 
are the historical grounds on which this 
claim rests, we have considered elsewhere.^ 
It is certain, however, that at a very early 
period in the history of the Church a dio- 
cesan supervision was exercised over Catho- 
lic churches by bishops, either appointed by 
the apostles and their successors, or exercis- 
ing their authority by common consent, by 
reason of their age and experience. It is 
equally certain that these bishoprics or dio- 
ceses were, to a certain extent, united under 
metropolitans or patriarchs, whose authori- 
ty was not probably very clearly defined, but 
whose existence is recognized as early as the 
Council of Nice (a.d. 325). It is equally cer- 
tain, however, that for a long while subse- 
quent to that council no supreme power was 
recognized in the pope or patriarch of Rome. 



1 See art. Petee.— 2 Acts xv., 7-11.— 3 Gal. ii., 11-14 
— * Matt, xviii., 1; xix., 28; xxiii., S; John xv., 1-5; 
Rev. xxi., 14.— 5 1 Cor. iii., 11 ; Ephes. ii., 20.— ^ See 
Petee, 



POPLAR 



758 



POSITIVISM 



Co-equal authority was exercised over the Af- 
rican churches by the bishop or patriarch of 
Alexandria, and over the Eastern churches 
by the bishop or patriarch of Constantinople ; 
and Bingham, in his "Christian Antiqui- 
ties," states that for 600 years the Britan- 
nic churches acknowledged no allegiance to 
Eome, while for 800 the French synods al- 
lowed no appeal to the pope. The real 
power of the papacy probably dates from 
the accession of Gregory the Great, near the 
close of the sixth century. To him the Ro- 
man Catholic Church is declared to be in- 
debted, not only for her consolidation and 
unification, but also for the organization of 
her public services, the details of her ritual, 
and the regulation of her sacred chants. 
Under his auspices Britain was converted, 
if not to genuine Christianity, at least to 
the Church. And Spain, long Arian, was 
reunited to it. Contemporaneous with him 
was Augustine, the father of modern theolo- 
gy, to whom the Church universal is indebt- 
ed for the systemization of her doctrines, 
and the Church of Rome for most of what 
is pure and true in her teachings. Since 
that time the claim of the Pope of Rome 
to the supreme authority in the Church, 
though often clouded and obscured, has 
never been abandoned. At times the papal 
chair has been occupied by men of notori- 
ously evil and corrupt character; nor is it 
claimed by the most devout Roman Catho- 
lic that infallibility prevents the pope from 
falling into sin, or even into errors of doc- 
trine, except as he is called on to speak offi- 
cially as the head of the Church. At times, 
also, the Church has been rent by the claims 
of contending popes, on more than one occa- 
sion three different persons claiming the su- 
preme authority, and supporting their claims, 
not only by plentiful anathemas, but also by 
fire and sword; and Roman Catholic theo- 
logians are not themselves fully agreed as 
to -either the number of the popes or the 
true line of succession. For a view of the 
present state of the papacy, see Roman Cath- 
olic Church. For some account of the dis- 
sensions between the popes, see Ecumenical 
Council ; see also Infallibility. 

Poplar, the rendering of the Hebrew word 
libneh, Avhich occurs in Gen. xxx., 37, and Hos. 
iv., 13. Several authorities are in favor of 
the rendering of the English version, and 
thitik the "white poplar" is the tree de- 
noted ; others understand the " storax-tree" 
(Styrax officinale). Both poplars and styrax, 
or storax, trees are common in Palestine, 
and either would suit the passages where 
the Hebrew term occurs. The Stijrax of- 
ficinale is a shrub from nine to twelve feet 
high, with ovate leaves, which are white 
underneath, and with white or cream-col- 
ored flowers. 

Porch. The porch, though common in 
Egypt, was a very unusual feature in the 



houses of ancient Palestine. That of the 
high-priest's palace^ was probably the vesti- 
bule or passage from the street to the first 
court of the house. It is plain that the five 
porches, stoas, of the pool of Bethesda^ bore 
no resemblance to the porch of a dwelling- 
house. The stoa was either a colonnade or 
cloister attached to a temple, or a distinct 
building used as a place of resort in the 
heat of the day. See Narthex. [Judg. 
iii., 23 ; 1 Kings vii., 6, 7 ; 2 Chron. xv., 8 ; 
Ezek. xl., 7.] 

Porter. This word, when used in our Bi- 
ble, does not signify a bearer of burdens, but 
denotes in every case a gate or door keeper. 
See Door-keeper. . [2 Kings vii., 10, 11 ; 1 
Chron. xxiii., 5 ; John xviii., 16.] 

Positivism. It is not easy to give a 
definition of Positivism, since its advocates 
are not agreed in any common declaration 
of their belief, and the term is constant- 
ly applied, in controversy, to writers such 
as Herbert Spencer and J. Stuart Mill, who 
disown it. If Auguste Comt^, who was the 
founder of Positivism, be accepted as an au- 
thoritative expounder of the system, it may 
be defined as that system of philosophy 
which denies that man can know any thing 
concerning the causes or essences of things, 
and restricts itself to an observation of phe- 
nomena and their relations of succession and 
similitude. The Positivists can not be said 
to deny the existence of a Divine Being ; 
their creed is rather that "the wonder is 
that human intelligence should ever have 
grown to the height of affirming or denying 
the existence of a God." Neither do they 
deny the existence of a soul in man, but 
they deny that any thing can be known 
respecting it ; all our knowledge of God, ac- 
cording to them, being confined to a knowl- 
edge of the operations of nature, all our 
knowledge of the soul to an observation 
of the material organization and conduct 
of man. To this general doctrine, which 
has many advocates at the present day, M. 
Comt6 added a worship of Humanity, not 
of any one man, but of the ideal man, or of 
ideal manhood. But in this part of his sys- 
tem he is without followers. Positivism is 
often taken for Materialism and for Athe- 
ism ; but it differs, at least in theory, from 
both, iu that it does not deny the existence 
of an unknown and unseen world, but only 
asserts that if there be any such world, it 
is not and can not be an object of human 
knowledge. The Christian religion is found- 
ed on faith in the invisible, and employs ar- 
guments from the external world to sustain 
that faith, which is the very essence of Chris- 
tianity; hence Positivism, in denying that 
the invisible world is a subject of recogni- 
tion by the human mind at all, by this one 
negative denies the fundamental doctrines 
of the Christian's belief, his faith in God, im- 



Matt. xxvi., 71.— 2 John v., 2. 



POSTILS 



759 



PK^TOEIUM 



mortality, prayer, and, in a word, all that re- 
lates to the soul, and the unseen and eternal 
world. See Atheism. 

Postils, a name anciently given to ser- 
mons or homilies. The name s^jrung from 
the fact that these 
were usually deliv- 
ered immediately af- 
ter reading of the 
Gospel, and explan- 
atory of it. It was 
also given to printed 
expositions of Scrip- 
ture, from the fact 
that the text was 
first exhibited, and 
post ilia (after the 
words of the text) 
the comments of the 
writer. 

Potiphar {belong- 
ing to the sun), an 
Egyptian officer of 
Pharaoh's court, to 
whom Joseph was 
sold as a slave by 
the Midianites. In 
Gen. xxxvii., 36, he 
is described as " cap- 
tain of Pharaoh's 
guard." There is 
some uncertainty re- 
specting the proper 
translation of the 
original ; if, howev- 
er, we accept the 
English version as a 
correct rendering, as 
we are inclined to 
do, Potiphar fulfilled 
the double office of 
captain of the guard 
and chief of the exe- 
cutioners. The lat- 
ter is a high office in the East, and is intrust- 
ed to an officer of the court, who has necessa- 
rily under his command a body of men whose 
duty it is to preserve the order and peace 
of the palace and its precincts, and to at- 
tend and guard the royal person on public 
occasions, and, under the direction of their 
chief, to inflict such punishment as the king 
awards upon those who incur his displeas- 
ure. He therefore, in this sense, may be 
called captain of the guard, or chief mar- 
shal. It appears that this officer had ad- 
joining to, or connected with, his house a 
round building, in which the king's prison- 
ers — those who had incurred the royal sus- 
picion or displeasure — were detained in cus- 
tody till their doom should be determined. 
The " keeper of the prison " referred to in 
Gen. xxxix., 21-23, was probably a sub-offi- 
cial under Potiphar; but the " captain of the 
guard," referred to in chap. xL, 3, 4, must 
have been Potiphar's successor. 



Potter, Pottery. The art of pottery is 
very ancient. Earthenware vessels were 
used by the Israelites iu the wilderness; 
and we find the employment of them com- 
mon afterward for both culinary and other 




The Potter and Wheel. 

purposes. The potter and his wheel are 
often referred to in Scripture. The x>ot- 
ter's wheel is a simple machine, depicted on 
Egyptian monuments, of the same kind as 
is now in use. It consists of a horizontal 
wheel, fixed on the top of an axis, the lower 
part of which is sometimes in a pit in which 
the potter stands. Sometimes he sits at his 
work at a kind of table : he gives the neces- 
sary motion with his feet to another wheel 
at the bottom of the axis, and moulds the 
clay with his hands. After the vessel was 
fashioned, it was then smoothed and coated 
with a glaze, and finally burned in a fur- 
nace. There was at Jerusalem a royal es- 
tablishment of potters,^ from whose employ- 
ment, and from the fragments cast away in 
the process, the Potter's Field perhaps re- 
ceived its name.^ 

Praetorium, the head-quarters of the Ro- 
man military commander, wherever he hap- 
' 1 Chron. iv., 23.-2 jga. xxx., 14. 



PRAISE-MEETING 



760 



PEAYER-BOOK 



pened to be. Hence the word is variously 
rendered "common hall/' "hall of judg- 
ment," "Herod's judgment hall/' and "the 
palace."^ At Ceesarea, the palace of Herod 
the Great was occupied by Felix, and at Je- 
rusalem the new palace erected by the same 
prince was the residence of Pilate. After 
the Roman power was established in Judea, 
a Roman guard was always maintained in 
the tower of Antonia. The praetorian camp 
at Rome, to which St. Paul refers in Phil, 
i., 13 (margin), was erected by the Emperor 
Tiberius, and stood outside the walls. 

Praise-meeting, a meeting recently inau- 
gurated in this country, chiefly in New En- 
gland, for a service of song by the congre- 
gation. The people gather, and, under the 
lead of some competent precentor, unite in 
a service which is wholly or almost wholly 
musical, and in which all participate. 

Prayer is defined in the dictionaries as 
the act of asking, and is treated as synony- 
mous with petition, request, or supplication. 
Prayer, however, as defined and illustrated 
in the Bible, embraces not merely petition, 
but all communion between the soul and 
God. Referring the reader to the theolog- 
ical treatises for the fuller discussion of the 
Bible doctrine of prayer, and for arguments 
by which the Christian belief in prayer is 
sustained, it must suffice here to say that it 
involves the truths, that God is our heavenly 
Father and is accessible to the requests of 
man ; that he hears and heeds them, and is 
iufluenced and affected by them ; that nature 
is subject to his will, and that he is both able 
and willing to modify its operations in com- 
pliance with the needs and the expressed 
wishes of his praying people ; that he oper- 
ates directly on the hearts and consciences 
of men ; and that it is in this realm that 
prayer is the most efficacious, as it is the 
spiritual blessings that are of the most tran- 
scendent importance, and that our prayers 
affect not only ourselves, by making us ready 
to receive the gifts of grace, but that they 
also are the means of affecting others who 
are unconscious of our prayers. For the 
truth of these general principles the reader 
is referred to Matt, vi., 9 ; vii., 9-11 ; Luke 
xi., 13 ; Eph. vi., 18 ; Jas. v., 14-18, and other 
parallel passages. It is declared that, to be 
acceptable, prayer must be offered in faith, 
i. e., in a real belief that God is and is the 
rewarder ol them that diligently seek him, 
and in a devout and humble submission to 
his will — that is, with a recognition of the 
truth that he knows best, and with a will- 
ingness that he should do what he deems 
best.^ Standing, bowing, sitting, kneeling, 
and lying on the ground, are all represented 



1 Matt, xxvii., 27; Mark xv., 16; John xviii., 2S, 
33; xix., 9; Acts xxiii., 35.-2 Matt, xxvi., 42; John 
iv., 10 ; XV., 7 ; Acts viii., 22 ; Heb. x., 22 ; xi,, 6 ; Jas. 
i., 6, 7; iv., 2, 3, and parallel passages for spirit of 
prayer. 



in the Bible as postures in prayer.' The true 
spirit of prayer receives no clearer illustra- 
tion than is afforded by Christ's precepts 
in Matt, vi., 5-15, and in his example in the 
prayer of Gethsemane, recorded in Matt, 
xxvi., 39, 42, 44, and the Last Supper, as 
given in John xvii. 

Protestants maintain that prayer may only 
be addressed to God, and with the single ex- 
ception of the Spiritualists, who can hardly 
be termed Protestants, they do not recognize 
any communion with the spirit-world except 
with God. The Roman Catholics recognize 
prayers to the saints, and especially to the 
Virgin Mary, whose intercessions with God 
they are accustomed to implore.^ The Ro- 
man Catholic Church also maintains prayers 
for the dead, a practice which was certainly 
in existence among the Jews to some extent 
prior to the N. T. times, and which is based 
by the Roman Catholics partly on the Apoc- 
ryphal books and partly on Luke xvi., 19-31, 
aud 1 Cor. xv., 29. It has been in vogue in 
the Church from a very early period, found- 
ed, however, upon the doctrine of purgatory 
(q. V.) : the object of prayers for the dead 
being to secure their early release from the 
pains of purgatory. As Protestant theology 
believes in a full and free pardon, and in no 
disciplinary estate after death, it recognizes 
no place or occasion for prayers for the dead. 
For a discussion of the question whether 
public prayers should be extemporaneous or 
liturgical, see Liturgy ; see also Worship. 

Prayer-book. All ritualistic or liturgical 
churches have collections of prayers for pub- 
lic aud sometimes for private use. Under the 
titles Breviary and Missal, we give some 
account of the Roman Catholic prayer-books. 
Under this title we give briefly an account 
of the Book of Common Prayer of the Epis- 
copal Church. This book comprises not only 
the forms for public worship on the Sabbath, 
but also various forms for other services, such 
as baptism, marriage, the burial of the dead, 
the visitation of the sick, and family prayers. 
It also contains an arrangement of the Psal- 
ter for every day of the year, and a collec- 
tion of Psalms and hymns for singing. It is 
largely composed of translations of such por- 
tions of the services of the ancient church as 
were considered by the Reformers, who or- 
ganized the Church of England, to be free 
from all doctrinal objection. While some 
steps were taken toward the formation of a 
new service under Henry VIII., in 1540-45, 
the present prayer-book may be said to date 
from the reign of his successor, Edward VI. 
The collection first made was, however, re- 
vised from time to time under Edward, 
Elizabeth, and the Stuarts. Since 1662 no 
very material changes have been introduced 
into it. The prayer-book of the American 



1 Gen. xvii., 3 ; 1 Kings viii., 14; 1 Chron. xvii., 16; 
2 Chron. xxix., 29 ; Psa. xcv., 6.-2 See Invooation of 
Saints; Image-woksuip; Maeiolatky. 



PEAYER-MILL 



761 



PREACHING 



Episcopal Church is copied from that of the 
English Church, with some slight modifica- 
tions, of which the most important are the 
changing of the prayer for the king or queen 
to a prayer for the President of the United 
States, and the omission of the Athanasian 
Creed. An agitation is now (1872) going on 
in England for the omission of the latter 
from the English prayer-book. Since this 
article was in type, a Reformed Protestant 
Episcopal Church has been organized in this 
country, under the leadership of Bishop Cum- 
mins, formerly of Kentucky, with a prayer- 
book from which all language that seems 
to justify the ritualism of the High-Church 
party has been expunged. 

Prayer-mill, or Prayer-'wheel. This is an 
instrument used by the Buddhist priests, and 
often seen standing before Buddhist monas- 
teries in Thibet and elsewhere. One form is 
a small wheel with flies which move either 
by wind or water. On these flies are writ- 




A Praying Machine. 

ten prayers, and the motion of these is sup- 
posed to confer all the merit of the recita- 
tion of the prayers upon him that sets it in 
motion. The other is a huge egg-shaped 
barrel, upou an upright spindle, composed 
of endless sheets of paper pasted one over 
the other, and on each sheet is written a dif- 
ferent prayer. At the bottom of this paste- 
board barrel is a cord which gives a rotary 

The 



priests make this spin rapidly, and acquire 
the merit of the repetition of all the prayers 
written on all the papers at every revolution 
of the barrel, and spend much of their time 
in plying the prayer-mill by way of inter- 
ceding for the people, receiving a small com- 
pensation for their trouble. The monks have 
portable ones, on which they perform their 
devotions wherever they may be. 

Preaching. The earliest religious instruc- 
tion was given in the family by the father, 
who was at once prophet, i)riest, and king. 
With the organization of the Jewish Church 
there was established an order of prophets 
(q. v.), of whom Moses was himself the first. 
These, during all the history of the Jews 
down to the time of Christ, were the preach- 
ers of the Holy Land. . Their instruction 
was given on the Sabbath and other holy 
days, usually in the streets or open fields, fre- 
quently in poetic forms, sometimes accom- 
panied with musical instruments. While 
the books of the law were their authority, 
by which their preaching was to be tested, 
yet they do not seem ordinarily to have 
preached from texts, nor to have been mere 
expounders of the Word. The first histor- 
ical account which is given us of preaching 
in the modern sense of the term is that re- 
corded in Neh. viii. A pulpit of wood was 
provided, the people were assembled before 
it, and Ezra, assisted by a number of the Le- 
vites, "read in the book in the law of God 
distinctly, and gave the sense, and caused 
them to understand the reading." At the 
time of Christ, the order of the prophets 
had given place to scribes and doctors (q.v.) 
of the law, who were more careful to repeat 
to the people the traditions which they had 
received from their teachers than to ex- 
pound and apply the principles of the Word 
of God. There does not seem to have been, 
however, any regular, constituted order of 
preachers; and in the synagogue service 
any man seems to have been privileged to 
address the congregation, though it would 
appear that he generally took the Scripture 
of the day as his text.^ Christ, early in 
his ministry, commissioned the twelve to go 
forth and preach the Gospel in the towns 
and villages of Judea. He subsequently 
gave a similar commission to the seventy; 
and after his death and resurrection he re- 
peated the commission, commanding them 
now, however, to go into all the world and 
preach the Gospel to every creature.^ In 
accordance with this commission, not only 
the twelve apostles, but all the disciples 
of Christ, became preachers of the GosjDel. 
Their preaching was, however, necessarily 
different from that of modern ministers in 
Christian communities. Their function was 
that of heralds, who proclaimed salvation to 
a people to whom the story of the cross was 



1 Luke iv., 16-21 ; Acts xiii., 15, 16.— 2 Com p. Matt, 
xii., 5, and Luke x., 1, with Matt, xxviii., 19, 20. 



PEEACHING 



762 



PREDESTINATION 



literally good news. It is unmistakably ev- 
ident that their preaching was customarily 
extempore, and equally clear that no eccle- 
siastical ordination was required in order 
to authorize the Christian to preach. But 
it seems certain that from a very early age 
there were official preachers appointed.^ 

As the heathen world became nominally 
converted to Christianity, and the Gospel 
ceased to be news, preaching changed in its 
character. Preachers were no longer mere- 
ly heralds ; their congregations were largely 
composed of professed disciples and of cate- 
chumens, and their preaching ceased to be a 
proclamation of glad tidings, and became an 
exposition and application of Scripture. At 
first, preaching was an important part of the 
service. At times, as in Lent, sermons were 
preached every day, sometimes twice a day, 
sometimes two or three, by different preach- 
ers in the same assemblage. Neither in re- 
spect to form or length was there any uniform 
habit. They varied from eight minutes to 
an hour, were sometimes with a text and 
sometimes without. The preacher generally 
spoke sitting, as with the Jews, while the 
people seem generally to have stood. At 
times the preacher called upon the people 
to repeat with him a passage of Scripture, 
or suddenly stopped in his discourse, leaving 
them to complete his half- finished quotation ; 
in short, he did not hesitate to employ those 
arts, in addressing adult congregations from 
the pulpit, which are now bauiehed to the 
Sunday-school-room. On the other hand, it 
was not deemed indecorous for the people to 
manifest their approval, either by their ex- 
clamations or their applause. With the cor- 
ruption of the Church, preaching fell into 
disuse; it was either supplanted by cere- 
monies, or devoted to a repetition of legends 
and ecclesiastical miracles, or the discussion 
of puerile and insignificant topics. The 
Church was never without some earnest 
preachers, but they were too few in number 
to counteract the tendencies of the age. 
The Reformation gave a new impetus to 
preaching. In the age of Luther it was 
rightly considered that instruction was of 
even greater importance than public wor- 
ship, and though the peculiar exigency which 
gave to preaching its special importance 
in the days of Luther has passed away, the 
sermon continues to hold, in most of the Re- 
formed churches, the place of prominence. 

The question whether laymen may proper- 
ly preach seems to have agitated the Church 
from a very early period. While it may be 
very proper, from considerations of expedi- 
ency and church order, to set apart a class 
of preachers and confine the religious in- 
struction of the congregation on the Sab- 
bath-day chiefly to them, yet it is difficult 
to see how any one, who recognizes no oth 



i..5. 



' Acts viii 



dii.,4; xi.,19; Eph. iv., 11, 12; comp, Titus 



er authority than that of the Scripture, can 
doubt the right of any person to proclaim 
the Gospel of Christ as he has opportunity. 
The prophets of the O. T. dispensation were 
not an ordained class. It is evident that 
the disciples in the time of the apostles were 
accustomed to preach the Gospel without 
consecrating themselves to the ministry, and 
Christ expressly recognizes the right of any 
one to cast out devils in his name.-* It 
would be easy to demonstrate, by compar- 
ing the number of preachers in the United 
States with the population, that the Church 
has no hope of reaching the entire people of 
the United States except by employing more 
largely in the work of Christian evangeliza- 
tion its lay element, and the propriety of do- 
ing so, within proper limits, is now generally 
recognized by most Protestant churches. 

Precentor, the leader of a choir in the 
cathedrals of England, and very generally 
on the Continent. He was the first digni- 
tary in the chapter, ranking next to the 
dean. He superintended the choral service 
and the choristers. In modern times the 
name is applied to those who, in non-ritu- 
alistic churches, lead the congregation in 
singing. This office, lately revived, appears, 
from Bingham's "Antiquities," to be of a 
very early date ; the precentor either leading 
the congregation in the early churches, or 
singing one part of the verse, the other part 
being sung by the congregation in response. 

Predestination (determination before), the 
doctrine that, in the words of the Westmin- 
ster Assembly's Confession of Faith, " God 
from all eternity did, by the most wise and 
holy counsel of his own will, freely and 
unchangeably ordain whatsoever comes to 
pass : yet so, as thereby neither is God the 
author of sin, nor is violence offered to the 
will of the creatures, nor is the liberty or 
contingency of second causes taken away, 
but rather established." The more special 
phase of this general doctrine, that God has 
chosen some for eternal life, of his own good 
pleasure, and not dependent on their virtue, 
goodness, or act, is the doctrine of election; 
the assertion that he has fore-ordained oth- 
ers to everlasting death is the doctrine of 
reprobation. It ought not to be forgotten, 
though it often is, that those who hold these 
doctrines insist that the free-will of man is 
not violated by God, though they confess 
their inability to harmonize the sovereign- 
ty of God and the free-will of man. It was 
in the discussions between Pelagius and Au- 
gustine that the predestinarian views of the 
divine '' decree" were first fully evolved ; and 
since their time opinion in the Church has 
run in two great currents — the one perpetu- 
ating the influence of Pelagius, who regard- 
ed that decree as subordinated to the divine 
foreknowledge of human character; the oth- 
er that of Auffustine, who maintained that 



Luke ix., 49, 50. 



PRE-EXISTENCE 



f63 



PRESBYTERIAKS 



God's decrees are absolute, and independent 
of all prior human conditions. Pelagius 
recognized a possibility of good in buinan 
nature ; Augustine denied any such possi- 
bility, apart from the influences of divine 
grace. The one view underlies Calvinism, 
although in the modern Church it is often 
materially modified ; the latter view under- 
lies the theology of the Methodist Church. 
But the tendency of modern inquiry seems 
to be to abandon the discussion of a point 
so obviously incapable of being determined 
by human intelligence, and to pursue in- 
stead examination into the moral and prac- 
tical bearing upon our human conditions of 
that which we are able to learn concerning 
God and his will. The moral meaning of 
that will is of vital moment to men ; the na- 
ture and extent of its power, and the meth- 
od of its exercise over their own wills, they 
apparently can not determine. 

Pre-existence. " The theory of pre-exist- 
ence," says Dr. Shedd, '^ teaches that all hu- 
man souls were created at the beginning of 
creation, not that of this world simply, but 
of all worlds. Men were angelic spirits at 
first. Because of their apostasy in the an- 
gelic sphere, they were transferred, as a pun- 
ishment for their sin, into material bodies in 
this mundane sphere, and are now passing 
through a disciplinary process, in. order to 
be restored, all of them, without exception, 
to their pre-existent and angelic condition. 
These bodies to which they are joined come 
into existence by the ordinary course of 
physical jjropagation ; so that the sensuous 
and material part of human nature has no 
existence previous to Adam. It is only the 
rational and spiritual principle of which a 
pre- Adamite life is asserted." 

This theory, which was perhaps borrowed 
from the speculations of the ancient Greeks, 
found its chief advocate and defender in the 
Christian Church in Origen. It has since 
been revived, in a modified form, by Dr. Ed- 
ward Beecher,in his book entitled ''The Con- 
flict of Ages." It has never secured any gen- 
eral assent in the Christian Church. 

Prefaces, certain short occasional forms 
in the Communion-service of the Church of 
England, which are introduced in particular 
festivals, more especially Christmas, Easter, 
Ascension, and seven days after; also, Whit- 
sunday and six days after, together with 
Trinity -Sunday. They were composed by 
Gelasius, in memory of our Lord's singing a 
hymn with his disciples after the Last Sup- 
per. The Preface is a thanksgiving before 
the act of consecration, to which it is the 
preparation. 

Prelate (promoted), an ecclesiastic who 
has direct authority over other ecclesiastics. 
The term is a general one, and includes not 
merely bishops of various degrees, but also 
in Roman Catholic countries the heads of 
religious houses or orders. The same root 



underlies other ecclesiastical terms. Thus 
we have prelacy, i. e., a church governed by 
prelates as distinguished from one — as the 
Congregational and Presbyterian — in which 
all the clergy are on an equality, and are 
governed by a representative body or by the 
local church ; prelatic and prelatical, i. e., 
pertaining to a prelacy or a prelate, as pre- 
latical authority. Prelates are confined to 
those churches which recognize in the bish- 
op (q. V.) a distinct and superior order of 
clergy. See Church ; Episcopacy. 

Presbyterians, the name of a large de- 
nomination of Protestant Christians, or, rath- 
er, to speak more accurately, of a certain 
class of denominations. For, as the term 
Congregationalist embraces not merely the 
denomination which assumes that title, but 
also those whose principles of government are 
the same, as the Baptists, the Christians or 
Campbellites, the Unitarians, etc., so the 
term Presbyterian properly embraces not 
only those who are united in the system 
which bears that name, but all others who 
embrace the Presbyterian principles of gov- 
ernment. All Protestant or Reformed church- 
es may in general be said to be divided into 
three classes — those who hold to government 
by or through bishops, i. e., to an Episcopal 
government; those who hold to government 
directly by the members of the Church 
without the mediation of any representa- 
tives, i. e., to a Congregational or Independ- 
ent form of government; and those who hold 
to government by a board of elders or pres- 
byters, i e., to a Presbyterian form of gov- 
ernment. The latter view is entertained by 
the great majority of the Reformed church- 
es in France, Holland, Germany, Switzer- 
land, and Scotland, and by a large propor- 
tion of those in England and the United 
States of America.^ 

I. Form of Government — The term Presby- 
terian is derived from the Greek word Pres- 
tyteros, meaning elder. According to the 
belief of those who embrace the Presbyte- 
rian form of government, there should be in 
the church two classes of officers, and only 
two, elders and deacons. The former are 
divided again into two classes, i. e., the cler- 
gy and ruling elders. There is usually but 
one of the former to each church ; of the 
latter there are from two to eight or ten, 
or even more. They are usually elected for 
life, though sometimes for a term of years. 
The latter method appears to be increasing 
in this country. Their qualifications are 
piety, wisdom, a knowledge of the Scrip- 
tures, and a practical prudence in the man- 
agement of ofiices. With the teaching eld- 
er or minister they constitute a Session, to 
whose care is intrusted the general govern- 
ment of the local church. This body has 
the power to admit and discipline members, 
to regulate times of service, and generally to 
1 See Chtjkch ; Pkotestants. 



PRESBYTEEIANS 



764 



PEESBYTERIANS 



adjust and govern in all the spiritual affairs 
of the churcli. It may, and often does, con- 
sult the cougregation or the members of the 
church, either informally, or by calling a 
special meeting for that purpose ; but such 
meetings have no power over the Session, 
which is answerable for its acts not to the 
congregation, but to the Presbytery. The 
pastor, however, is called by a vote of the 
church ; but he can be installed, and can be 
dismissed only with the sanction of the Pres- 
bytery to which the church belongs. 

The Presbytery is composed of the teach- 
ing elders of the churches of a given geo- 
graphical district, together with one of the 
ruling elders elected for that purpose by 
the Session from each church. Any church 
member who feels himself aggrieved by the 
act of the Session may appeal from its de- 
cisions to the Presbytery. Superior in au- 
thority to the Presbytery is the Synod, which 
is composed of the teaching elders and one 
ruling elder from each church of a larger 
district than that represented by the Pres- 
bytery. Still above the Synod is the General 
Assemhly. This embraces representatives, 
both lay and clerical, from every Presbytery, 
and is the supreme authority in all ecclesias- 
tical matters. To it an appeal lies from the 
Presbytery in all ecclesiastical proceedings 
of a disciplinary character, and its decision 
is final. Its authority, however, though su- 
preme, is not unlimited. In legislating for 
the churches it is required to refer the laws 
which it passes to the Presbyteries for their 
approval ; and the law does not become of 
binding force upon the churches until it 
receives the sanction of at least a majority ; 
in certain cases two - thirds are required. 
Such, in brief, is the constitution of the Pres- 
byterian Church in the United States, and 
it may be regarded as a type of the Presby- 
terian form of government the world over, 
though there are differences in detail which 
distinguish the various Presbyterian church- 
es from each other. Thus, certain of the 
smaller Presbyterian churches have no Gen- 
eral Assembly ; the earliest Presbyterian 
Church of Scotland had no Synod. The 
elders of the Reformed Church of Germany 
and Holland are always elected for a term 
of years only, and the name given to the 
body of elders is Consistory, not Session; and 
the bodies answering to the Presbytery, Syn- 
od, and General Asseynhly are respectively en- 
titled Classes, Synod,' aiid General Synod, The 
duties of the deacons in the Presbyterian 
churches do not differ materially from those 
which belong to the same offices in the Con- 
gregational bodies, ''to whose office," ac- 
cording to the Presbyterian standard, " it 
belongs not to preach the Word or to ad- 
minister the sacraments, but to take special 
care in distributing to the necessities of the 
poor." In many churches, however, this 
duty is performed by one or more of the 



elders, and the office of the deacon is either 
not retained, or is a merely nominal one. 

II. Doctrine. — The Presbyterians are for 
the most part Calvinistic in doctrine. They 
generally accept the Westminster Assem- 
bly's Confession of Faith as their symbol of 
belief, and every clergyman in the Presbyte- 
rian Church of the United States is required 
tQ declare his personal belief in it as an em- 
bodiment of the truths taught in the Scrip- 
tures. They do not agree, however, in their 
interpretation of that standard, and are di- 
vided, as are the Congregationalists, accord- 
ing to their views, into strict Calvinists and 
moderate Calvinists, or Old School and New 
School.^ 

This division in sentiment combined with 
other circumstances to divide the Presby- 
terian Church of the United States into two 
bodies for a time, as we shall presently see ; 
but the division has been healed and a re- 
union effected, though the theological differ- 
ences still remain. We have said that the 
Presbyterian Church is Calvinistic ; we are 
not aware that there are any Armenian Pres- 
byterians, unless it be the small sect of Ar- 
menians in Holland. There was at one time, 
however, a serious defection in England, 
many of the churches becoming Socinian in 
doctrine ; but we believe that the Unitarian 
churches in England at the present day are 
nearly, if not quite, all Congregational in 
their polity. 

III. Origin and History. — It is hardly nec- 
essary to say that the Presbyterians claim 
that their form of church government is 
'' founded on and agreeable to the Word of 
God," and some among them hold that it 
was divinely instituted, and that its origin 
is to be traced back to the O. T. In the 
elders of Israel under Moses, in the elders 
who are believed to have constituted the 
governing body of the Jewish synagogue, 
and in the various references to the elders 
which abound in the N. T. they think they 
find sufficient authority for believing that 
their form of church government is cer- 
tainly in accordance with Bible teachings, 
if not absolutely conformed to that of a Bib- 
lical model.'^ It is unquestionably true that 
government by a board of elders has been 
maintained by certain bodies, as the Wal- 
denses, from a very early age, and that Cal- 
vin, who is sometimes regarded as the found- 
er of Presbyterianism, borrowed his form of 
church government from them. He may be 
regarded as the founder of Presbyterianism, 
in the sense that he was the first to organ- 
ize the Reformed Church on a Presbyterian 
model, as he was the first to frame the Re- 
formed faith in a clear, distinct, and affirma- 



iTS.— 2 The principal Scripture author- 
Presbyterianism are the following: 



1 See Calvinists. 

ities quoted for Vi-^...j.^ ^ — - »- 

Exorl. iii., 16; 2 Chron. xix., 8-10; Acts xi., 30; xiv., 
23 ; Rom. xii., 6-8 ; 1 Coj. xii., 28 ; 1 Tim. v., 17 ; Jas. 
v., 14. 



PRESBYTERIANS 



765 



PRESBYTERIANS 



tive form. American Presbyterianism, how- 
ever, is traceable rather to England and 
Scotland than to the Continent. 

The organization of the Episcopal Church 
in England did not satisfy the more radical 
and pronounced reformers. In 1572 a Pres- 
bytery was formed at Wandsworth, in Sur- 
rey, by ministers of London and its neigh- 
borhood, separating from the Church of En- 
gland ; and other Presbyteries were soon 
formed, notwithstanding the extreme hostil 
ity of Queen Elizabeth. The long contest 
between Charles I. and the Puritans was im- 
bittered by a religious controversy between 
the Episcopalians and the Presbyterians. 
The Westminster Assembly, which framed 
the creed that has ever since been accepted 
as an authoritative declaration of the faith 
of the Presbyterian Church, was one of the 
results of the Revolution. Another was 
a fruitless attempt by Parliament (1647) to 
make Presbyterianism the State religion. 
The Restoration of Charles II. re-establish- 
ed the Episcopal as the State Church ; the 
Non-conformists very generally became Inde- 
pendents or Congregationalists. Presbyte- 
rian churches, partly from feebleness, part- 
ly from spiritual decay, ceased to maintain 
their principles of government, and that 
unity which constitutes their ecclesiastical 
strength, and many of them lapsed into the 
Unitarian faith. During the last half cen- 
tury they have been gradually recovering 
the power then lost, and there are now in 
England, chiefly in the northern counties, 
between 150 and 200 orthodox Presbyterian 
places of worship. 

A history of the Presbyterian Church in 
Scotland would be, in effect, a history of that 
land; for, since the sixteenth century, its 
political and its religious history have flow- 
ed on in one and the same channel. It must 
be enough here to say that the Reformation, 
which penetrated England in the sixteenth 
century, was even more victorious in Scot- 
land, where, under the leadership of John 
Knox, the Presbyterian Church was made 
the Established Church in 1560. Confes- 
sions of faith, drawn up by John Knox, pro- 
vided for three orders of officers in the 
Church — teaching elders or ministers, ruling 
elders, and deacons, of whom the two latter 
were elected annually. The creed and forms 
of worship conformed to those of the Gene- 
van Church established by John Calvin. 
Changes were subsequently introduced in 
the form of church government, and the 
ecclesiastical courts, the Synods, and Pres- 
byteries were later introduced, but the Gen- 
eral Assembly was organized by Knox him- 
self. It constituted a sort of ecclesiastical 
parliament, in which the churches were di- 
rectly represented. After various vicissi- 
tudes and some years of bitter persecution, 
the first occasion for a schism arose in 1712, 
when, after the union of England, Scotland, 



and Ireland in one kingdom, the British Par- 
liament gave to lay patrons in Scotland the 
same right to present a clergyman to a vacant 
benefice which was possessed by lay patrons 
in the Established Church of England. Scot- 
tish independence rebelled at this, the peo- 
ple claiming the right to elect their own 
clergy, or at least to exercise a vote over the 
appointment of an unsatisfactory one, and 
the controversy which ensued led to two se- 
cessions, the first seceders assuming the name 
of Associate Preshyterians, though generally 
known as Seceders, the second taking the 
name of the Preshyterians of Belief. These 
have since been united, and constitute the 
United Presbyterian Church of Scotland. Those 
who remained in the Established Church 
were divided in sentiment on the subject 
of lay patronage ; the sentiment against it 
grew stronger and stronger, until at length, 
in 1843, there was a third secession under 
the leadership of Dr. Chalmers, and the Free 
Church of Scotland was organized. The Free 
Church carried off about one-half the com- 
municants of the Established Church, and 
became a rival communion in most of the 
parishes of Scotland. Meanwhile, at the ac- 
cession of William and Mary to the throne, 
the Established Church, which had suffer- 
ed bitter persecution during the preceding 
reigns of the Stuarts, emerged from its ad- 
versity and became once more the recog- 
nized ecclesiastic establishment of the king- 
dom, and many of those who had been her 
persecutoi-s flocked to her standard, accept- 
ed her doctrinal symbols, and became mem- 
bers of her communion. Many of the more 
earnest descendants of the Covenanters (q. 
V.) protested against the reception of such 
men into the Church, and finding their pro- 
test in vain, withdrew, and organized the 
Reformed Presbyterian Church. Though this 
secession took place in 1681, the churches 
were not finally organized into a Presbytery 
till 174,3. These four denominations — the 
Established Presbyterian Church, the United 
Presbyterian Church, the Free Church, and the 
Eeformed Presbyterian Church — constitute the 
chief Presbyterian churches of Scotland at 
the present time. The Irish Presbyterian 
Church is an offshoot of Scottish Presbyte- 
rianism, and originated in a settlement of 
Ulster, Ireland, by Scottish colonists during 
the reign of James I. 

The first Presbyterian congregations in 
the United States were organized in Mary- 
land, a little before the close of the sev- 
enteenth century, the oldest, that of Snow 
Hill, dating about 1690 ; and the first Pres- 
bytery, that in Philadelphia, in 1705. A 
Synod, consisting of four Presbyteries, was 
constituted in 1716. In 1758 the American 
Presbyterian churches were united in one ; 
and in 1789 a General Assembly was insti- 
tuted, the whole number of congregations 
being then 419, with 188 ministers. The in- 



PRESBYTERIANS 



766 



PRIEST 



crease of the Clinrcli was rapid, and in 1834 
it contained 22 Synods, 111 Presbyteries, and 
about 1900 ministers. A controversy about 
that time sprang up in the Church, which 
several causes conspired to produce. In 
general, it may perhaps be said that the di- 
vision was one of sentiment between the 
more progressive and the more conservative 
members of the Church. The one party 
Avished to bear a decided testimony against 
slavery; the other thought that duty did 
not require any action of the Church on 
that subject ; the one party wished to unite 
with other denominations in Christian work 
through voluntary societies; the other be- 
lieved that such work could be more effi- 
ciently and economically conducted by their 
denomination through boards which should 
be under its own control; the one were mod- 
erate Calvinists in theological opinion ; the- 
other were strict Calvinists, and laid great 
stress on divine sovereignty, and less on hu- 
man agency in regeneration, conversion, and 
Christian work. The result was a separa- 
tion, in 1838, into two bodies, the Old School 
and the New School, both retaining, howev- 
er, the same official title, the '' Presbyterian 
Church in the United States of America," 
and both adhering to the Westminster Con- 
fession of Faith as their symbol of doctrine. 
The New School Presbyterian Church never 
had any considerable number of churches in 
the Southern States, and later the Old School 
Church was rent by the slavery question 
into two bodies, the Church North and the 
Church South. This removed one cause of 
the original separation. Though it did not 
settle all theological controversy, it removed 
all bitterness therefrom, and enabled those 
who had before differed widely in their con- 
structions of the Bible and the symbols of the 
Church, though still differing,to work togeth- 
er. Thus a reunion was effected in 1869, after 
thirty years of separation. At the time of our 
writing, a movement has been inaugurated 
by the Presbyterian Church as thus formed, 
of the New and Old School branches, for a re- 
union with the Presbyterian Church, South. 
Prior to the separation of the Church in 
1838, a secession had taken place from it in 
Kentucky (1810), in consequence of a dispute 
between the Presbytery of Cumberland, in 
that State, and the Kentucky Synod of the 
Presbyterian Church in America, concerning 
the ordination of persons who had not pass- 
ed through the usual educational curricu- 
lum, but whose services the Presbytery re- 
garded as demanded for the ministry by the 
exigencies of the times. In doctrine this 
l)ranch of the Church does not very mate- 
rially differ from the New School Presbyte- 
rian Church, but its symbols of faith are a 
modification of the Westminster Confession 
of Faith. It still exists as a separate or- 
ganization, though the question of a reunion 
with the parent body is now under consid- 



' eration. The Scottish Presbyterian denomi- 
: nations have also been brought to the United 
States by emigration, and exist here as sep- 
: arate ecclesiastical bodies. 

ly. Statistics. — It will thus be seen that 
the chief Presbyterian churches in the United 
States are the Presbyterian Church [North], 
the Presbyterian Church [South], the United 
Presbyterian Church, and the Cumberland 
Presbyterian Church. In addition to those 
are the Associate Presbyterian Church, an 
offshoot from the Associate Presbyterians or 
Seceders of Scotland ; and the Reformed Pres- 
byterian Church, an offshoot of the Reform- 
ed Presbyterian Church of Scotland ; the As- 
sociate Reformed Church, the result of an 
attempt made in 1782 to combine the Asso- 
ciate Presbyterian and the Reformed Pres- 
byterian churches. These churches are all 
substantially alike in government and in 
their symbols of doctrine ; but they differ 
more or less widely in the interpretation 
which they put upon them, embracing all 
views, from those of the most moderate Cal- 
vinists to those of the most extreme high 
Calvinism. The statistics of the four chief 
branches of the Presbyterian Church in the 
United States are thus given in the "New 
YorJc Observer Year-book for 1872 :" 

Presbyterian Cimrch [Xortfi]. 

Synods 85 

Presbyteries 167 

Ministers 4,667 

Churches 4,616 

Coramnuicants 455,378 

Contributions 



.$38,155,572 



Presbyterian Church iSouth']. 

Synods 11 

Presbyteries 55 

Ministers and Licentiates 912 

Churches 1,518 

Communicants 87,529 

Contributions $1,034,890 

United Presbyterian Church. 

Synods 8 

Presbyteries 55 

Ministers 566 

Churches 781 

Communicants 71,804 

Contributions $800,001 

Ctimberland Presbyterian Church. 

Synods 1 

Presbyteries 102 

Ministers and Licentiates 1,309 

Churches 1,863 

Communicants 96,335 

Contributions (not reported) 

Presentation, in England, the act of a pa- 
tron (q. V.) nominating an individual to be 
instituted by the ecclesiastical authorities to 
a benefice (q. v.) in his gift. 

Priest. Nearly all religions agree in 
teaching that there is a separation between 
man and God that renders not only an 
atonement (q. v.) necessary, but also a priest- 
hood, who are set apart to a religious life, 
and through whose instrnmentality alone it 
is taught that men can approach accepta- 
bly to God. This idea, which is found in 
most organized heathen religions, even in 
those which in their origin disavowed the 



PEIEST 



767 



PEIEST 



idea, as in the religion of Bnddlia and Confu- 
cius, has its counterpart in the truth taught 
in the Christian religion, that Jesus Christ 
is our great High -priest, through whom 
alone we have access to the Throne of Grace. 
This truth, that there is need of a mediator 
between God and man, coupled with the er- 
rors that God is a vengeful being, and that 
the priesthood are the mediators between 
him and the sinner, have in all ages and 
all countries given to the priests a remark- 
able power over the common people. Yet, 
w^hile this power has often been exercised to 
keep the people in ignorance and supersti- 
tion, it must not be forgotten that it has 
kept alive the religious sentiment, and often 
been the only means for preventing the utter 
decay of the conscience and the extinction 
of all sense of duty toward either God or 
man. Referring the reader to the respective 
articles on the various religions of the world 
for an account of the priestly system of hea- 
then nations, we must confine ourselves in 
this article to a brief account of the priest- 
hood, 1st, under the Jewish dispensation ; 2d, 
in the Christian Church. 

I. The Jewish Priesthood. — Prior to the 
Exodus the only recognized priest was the 
father, as the only recoguized Church was 
the family. Thus we find, in the patriarchal 
age, Noah, Abraham, and others officiatiug 
as priests, and the ofiice and dignity was re- 
garded as descending to the first-born son.^ 
But with the Exodus came the organization 
of the Jewish people as a nation and as a 
Church, and with this came the necessity 
for the creation of a definite order of priests. 
Such an order we find, therefore, early con- 
stituted by divine appointment.^ By God's 
direction the sons of Aaron and their gener- 
ations were to constitute the priesthood, an 
order intermediate the high-priest (q. v.) on 
the one hand, and the Levites (q. v.) on the 
other. The.ir chief duties were to watch over 
the fire on the altar of burnt-offerings, and to 
keep it burning evermore, both by day and 
night ; to feed the golden lamp outside the 
veil with oil ; to offer the morning and even- 
ing sacrifices, each accompanied with a meat- 
offering and a drink-offering, at the door 
of the tabernacle. They were also to teach 
the children of Israel the statutes of the 
Lord. During the journeys in the wilder- 
ness it belonged to them to cover the ark 
and all the vessels of the sanctuary with a 
purple or scarlet cloth before the Levites 
might approach them. As the people start- 
ed on each day's march they were to blow 
" an alarm " with long sih'^er trumpets. 
Other instruments of music might be used 
by the more highly-trained Levites and the 
schools of the prophets, but the trumpets 
belonged only to the priests.^ The cere- 



1 Gen. viii., 20, 21; xxii., 13; xxxv., 14.— 2 Exod. 
xxvil.,20, 21; xxviii., 1-4.— 3 Exod. xxix., 28-44; Lev. 
vi., 1-2 ; X., 2 ; xxiv., 2 ; Numb, x., 1-8. 



mony of their consecration is described in 
Exod. xxix.. Lev. viii. The dress^ which 
they wore during their ministration con- 
sisted of linen drawers, with a close-fitting- 
cassock, also of linen, white, but with a dia- 
mond or chess-board pattern on it. The 
white cassock was gathered round the body 
with a girdle of needle - work, into which, 
as in the more gorgeous belt of the high- 
priest, blue, purple, and scarlet were inter- 
mingled with white, and worked in the form 
of flowers. Upon their heads they were to 
wear caj^s or bonnets in the form of a cup- 
shaped flower, also of fine linen. In all 
their acts of ministration they were to be 
barefooted.^ Before they entered the tab- 
ernacle they were to wash their hands and 
their feet. During the time of their minis- 
tration they were to drink no wine or strong 
drink. Except in the case of the nearest 
relationships they were to make no mourn- 
ing for the dead. They were not to shave 
their heads. They were to go through their 
ministrations with the serenity of a rever- 
ential awe, far removed from the orgiastic 
wilduess which led the priests of Baal in 
their despair to make cuttings in their flesh. 
They were forbidden to marry an unchaste 
woman, or one who had been divorced, or 
the widow of any but a priest.^ Their func- 
tions were clearly incompatible with the or- 
dinary activities of men; special provision 
was, therefore, made for their support, con- 
sisting chiefly of certain special taxes,^ and 
certain of the contributions brought for sacri- 
ficial purposes to the Temple.^ They had, in 
addition, thirteen cities assigned them, with 
suburbs or pasture grounds for their flocks.^ 
By these provisions the Jewish priesthood 
were guarded, on the one hand, from that 
poverty which would render them unable 
to preserve their religious independence, and 
so make them liable to become the serfs of 
the civil authorities, and, on the other, from 
that acquisition of wealth which corrupted 
the priests of the Church of the Middle Ages, 
and, by rendering them independent of the 
people, conferred upon them the power of 
spiritual and civil despotism. It should be 
added, to.o, that they had no power to pro- 
nounce sentence for offenses, either civil or 
ecclesiastical, until the accused had been 
regularly tried before the courts of the land ; 
rarely or never worked, or pretended to work, 
miracles ; made no pretense of a life of pro- 
fessional austerity, but mingled with the 
people; knew nothing of the doctrine of 
celibacy, but freely intermarried with the 
other tribes ; and were constantly checked 
in any tendencies toward spiritual usurpa- 
tion by the prophets, who constituted an en- 



1 See illustration under article High-priest.— 2 Exod. 
xxviii., 39, 40; xxxix., 2; Ezek. xliv., 17-19.— ^ Exod. 
XXX., lT-21; xl., 30-32; Lev. x.,9; xix., 28; xxi., 1-5, 
7,14.-4 Numb, xviii., 26-28 ; Deut. xiv., 28; xxvi.,12. 
—5 Lev. vi., 26-29 ; vii., 6-10; x., 12-15 ; Numb, xviii., 
8-14.— 6 Josh, xxi., 13-19. 



PRIEST 



768 



PROCTOR 



tirely separate order of religions teachers, 
if the term order may be applied to these 
itinerant lay preachers of the Jewish chnrch/ 

The earliest historical trace of any divis- 
ion of the priesthood and corresponding cy- 
cle of services belongs to the time of David. 
The priesthood was then divided into the 
four-and-twenty " courses," or orders, each 
of which was to serve in rotation for one 
week, while the further assignment of spe- 
cial services during the week was deter- 
mined by lot. Each course appears to have 
commenced its work on the Sabbath, the 
outgoing priests taking the morning sacri- 
fice, and leaving that of the evening to their 
successors. In this division, however, the 
two great priestly houses did not stand on 
an eqality. The descendants of Ithamar were 
found to have fewer representatives than 
those of Eleazer; and sixteen courses, ac- 
cordiugly, were assigned to the latter, eight 
only to the former. On the return from the 
captivity there were found but four courses 
out of the twenty-four, each containing, in 
round numbers, about a thousand. Out of 
these, however, to revive, at least, the idea 
of the old organization, the four-and-twen- 
ty courses were re-constituted, bearing the 
same names as before, and so continued till 
the destruction of Jerusalem. 

II. The Christian Priesthood. — The priest- 
hood as a religious order perished with Ju- 
daism. The priesthood was the shadow, and 
disappeared when the substance came. As a 
mediator, Jesus Christ is our only priest ; as 
a servant of God, whose duty it is to conse- 
crate his full time and energies and thoughts 
to the divine service, every Christian is a 
"priest unto God." The N. T., therefore, 
contains no hint of any priest, nor of any 
officer answering to a priest, in the early 
Church, and, on the contrary, contains many 
passages which teach more or less directly 
and distinctly that the priesthood of the class 
is merged in the priestly character of Jesus 
Christ and that of the whole discipleship.^ 
The modern minister answers rather to the 
ancient prophet than to the ancient priest. 
At least this is the universal opinion of near- 
ly all Protestant Christendom, though some 
relics of the old priestly idea of a special 
sacerdotal order, with peculiar privileges 
and prerogatives, and possessing peculiar ho- 
liness, still lingers in the Christian Church. 
In some portions of the Episcopal Church the 
idea is maintained that the modern clergy- 
man is the successor of the ancient priest, 
and this term is used in the Prayer-book to 
designate the clerical office. Much weight 
can not be placed upon this circumstance, 



1 See Dent, xii., 17-19; xiv., 20-29; and for an illus- 
tration of the prophetic denunciation of priestly vices, 
Mai. i., 6-8. That such a denunciation was possible, 
shows that the Jewish priesthood possessed no such 
power as that of the Roman Catholic priesthood in 
the Middle Ages.— 2 Heb. ii., 17; iii., 1 ; iv., 14; v., 5- 
10 ; vii., 27, 28 ; X., 11, 12 ; Rev. v., 10. 



however, since the word is only a contrac- 
tion of the term presbyter, and does not 
necessarily mean any thing more or other 
than elder. According to the Roman Cath- 
olic theology, the priesthood is a permanent 
office, changed, but not abolished. Regard- 
ing the Lord's Supper as a proper sacrifice, 
the Roman Catholics hold, of course, that 
it can only be offered up by a regularly or- 
dained priest, and his presence and benedic- 
tion is regarded by this Church as equal- 
ly necessary to the other sacraments. The 
Roman Catholic priest can only be ordain- 
ed by a bishop ; his distinguishing vestment 
is the chasuble. In the Roman Catholic 
Church celibacy (q. v.) is enjoined on the 
whole priesthood; but this is not the case 
in the Greek Church, where, however, no 
one is permitted to marry after ordination. 

Primate. In the ancient Church bishops, 
venerable for age or personal dignity, some- 
times received the name of primates. The 
title was often the same in signification as 
archbishop (q. v.), metropolitan (q. v.), and 
patriarch (q. v.). Thus the Archbishop of 
Canterbury receives the title of Primate of 
all England. 

Prison. Very frequent reference is made 
in Scripture to prisons ; but nowhere is there 
any description given of the sort of build- 
ing denoted by the term. There can be 
little doubt that in the generally despot- 
ic kingdoms of antiquity prisons existed in 
great variety ; and, in the worst times of 
the Hebrew commonwealth, if we may judge 
from the case of Jeremiah and some others, 
the doom of imprisonment involved at least 
all that the term can suggest to modern 
ears. Imprisonment was not, however, one 
of the punishments prescribed by the He- 
brew law ; we therefore read little of it in 
the earlier parts of the sacred history. In 
Ahab's reign there was a prison in Israel, 
possibly attached to the king's palace, and 
prisons also existed in Judah. [1 Kings 
xxii., 26, 27 ; 2 Cliron. xvi., 10 ; Neh. iii., 25 ; 
Jer. xxxii., 2 ; xxxvii., 21.] 

Processions. Solemn religious proces- 
sions are an important element in the serv- 
ice of the Roman Catholic Church. They 
sometimes take place through the streets of 
the city ; more frequently, perhaps, are con- 
fined to the aisles of the church. Banners, 
crosses, and images are generally carried in 
front ; the clergy follow ; the people make 
up the rear, either singing hymns or recit- 
ing prayers. They w^ere common among the 
Greeks and Romans ; were practiced, though 
less extensively, among the Jews ; and are a 
prominent feature in Buddhist ceremonials. 
Processions in the Christian Church first 
took place about the time of Chrysostom, in 
the fourth century. They are rarely prac- 
ticed by any Protestant denomination, and 
only among the ritualists. 

Proctor (formed, by contraction, from 



PROPAGANDA 



769 



PROPHETS 



Latin procurator, one who cares for anoth- 
er) is tlie name given to the practitioners 
in tlie ecclesiastical courts. It corresponds 
to attorney or solicitor in the other courts. 
It is also the name of certain officers in the 
universities of Oxford and Cambridge, whose 
duties are to preserve the peace of the uni- 
versities, and to repress disorders among the 
students. 

Propaganda, the name of a congregation 
and also of a college in Rome. Its full ti- 
tle is De Propaga7ida Fide, i. e., concerning the 
propagation of the faith. Its object is to 
direct and forward the propagation of the 
Roman Catholic religion, especially among 
the heathen. The congregation was organ- 
ized in 1622, and answers somewhat to a 
Protestant Missionary Board; the college 
was added five years later, for the purpose 
of educating missionaries for the work. It 
contains nearly two hundred pupils, who are 
gratuitously educated, equipped, and sent to 
their allotted field, and contains a valuable 
library and museum. The congregation con- 
sists of a number of cardinals aj)pointed for 
life, one of whom is prefect, and who are as- 
sisted by a secretary, and by a number of 
consulters, clerks, and other officials. This 
congregation conducts the affairs not only 
of the missionary countries, properly so call- 
ed, but also of those in which the hierarch- 
ical organization is not or has not been full 
and formal. To this organization no small 
part of the aggressive power of the Church 
of Rome is due. It has complete military 
power, under the pope, over the whole mis- 
sionary field, not only to send missionaries 
wherever it is the interest of the Church to 
send them, but to give them special training 
adapted to their special work. There are 
nowhere to be found better modern maps 
of the newly -settled States of the United 
States than in the college of the Propagan- 
da, and nowhere men better informed as to 
the probable points of future importance 
than the cardinals who compose the con- 
gregation of the Propaganda. The work 
of this congregation is greatly aided by sev- 
eral subordinate associations for the propa- 
gation of the faith, among the most impor- 
tant of which are those at Lyons (France), 
Vienna, and Bavaria. 

Prophets. The Hebrew word translated 
prophet is derived from a root signifying to 
boil, or bubble over, and is thus taken from 
the idea of a fountain bursting forth from 
the heart of man, into which God has pour- 
ed it. It simply conveys the idea of an in- 
terpreter of the divine will. Originally, the 
English words " prophet," " prophecy," and 
''prophesy" kept tolerably near this Bibli- 
cal use of the word. Thus, in the reign of 
Elizabeth, Jeremy Taylor wrote a treatise on 
the " Liberty of Prophesying," i. e., the lib- 
erty of preaching ; but gradually the word 
was narrowed in its usage to indicate mere- 
49 



ly foretelling, and it is so defined by both 
Worcester and Webster. The Biblical proph- 
ets were not, however, merely or necessarily 
foretellers. They were the divinely inspired 
teachers of the Jewish nation, as apx^ears 
from their titles and their history. The 
word prophet itself signifies one who speaks 
for another. The Biblical synonyms are " the 
interpreter," "the messenger of Jehovah," 
"the man of spirit," "the man of God;" and 
it is declared that the "Spirit of Jehovah" 
enters into him and "clothes him."^ The 
detailed descriptions of prophesying by St. 
Paul are hardly distinguished from what 
we should call preaching, and the word ex- 
hortation or consolation is used as identical 
with it.^ Two points thus distinguish the 
prophet from first to last. The first is their 
consciousness of deriving their gift from a 
divine source, of speaking under an irresist- 
ible divine impulse f the second, that the 
divine communication is made through the 
persons of men. The rustling leaves of Do- 
dona, the symptoms of the entrails in the 
Roman sacrifices, even the Urim and Thum- 
mim on the Hebrew high -priest's breast, 
though oracular, or thought so to be, were 
never termed prophetic. Strictly speaking, 
the name and office of prophet was not con- 
fined to the Jewish people. Balaam, the 
prophets of Baal, Epimenides the Cretan, 
Enoch the author of the apocryphal book 
which bears his name, are all recognized 
as prophets, as well as the numerous false 
prophets which abounded during the histo- 
ry of the Jewish monarchy.* The term is 
incidentally applied to Abraham,^ but Mo- 
ses is the first of the true order of Jewish 
prophets, and the type of all that follow, 
even to the last and greatest. The poetical 
gift displayed by him in the three songs of 
the Pentateuch and the 90th Psalm is char- 
acteristic of the prophetic order. ^ Aaron 
and Miriam shared, in a less degree, the 
same peculiar power as, on one occasion, 
did the seventy elders who constituted his 
counselors.'^ An occasional prophet appear- 
ed in the interval between the death of Mo- 
ses and the re -organization of the Jewish 
state under Samuel;^ but it is Samuel who 
is to be regarded as the true founder of the 
order of the prophets. He established the 
schools of the prophets (q. v.) on a firm 
foundation, if he did not originate them, 
and from the time of Samuel the line con- 
tinued in every generation unbroken down 
to Malachi. Nathan, David, Saul, and He- 



1 lea. xliii.,27 (translated teacherft) ; Jndg. ii., 1 ; vi., 
34; ISam. ii., 27; ix.,6; 1 Kings xii., 22; xiii.,1,2; 1 
Chron. xii., IS; 2 Chron. xxiv., 20; Ezek. ii., 2; Hos, 
:x., 7 ; marg. Hag. i., 13 ; Mai. i., 1.— ^ 1 Cor, xiv., 3, 4, 
24, 25, Bar-uabas, literally the son of prophesying, 
is translated the "son of consolation," Acts iv., 36. — 
3 Numb, xxiv., 1 ; 1 Cor. ix., 6, — * 1 Kings xviii., 13, 
with verse 19 ; xxii., 11, 24 ; Jer, xxviii., 17 ; xxix., 21 ; 
Tit. i., 12 ; Jude 14.— s Gen. xx., 7.— « Exod. xv., 1-19 ; 
Deut, xviii., 15-18 ; xxxii. ; xxxiii. See Mobes,—''' Exod. 
iv., 16 ; vii., 1 ; xv., 20 ; Numb, xi., 25, — « Judg. ii., 1 ; 
iii., 20; iv.,4; v., 7; vi., 8; ISam. ii.,27. 



PROPHETS 



770 



PROPHETS 



man, if not actually educated by him, all 
marked the epoch of his appearance. From 
the time of the division of the Hebrew na- 
tion into the rival kingdoms of Judah and 
Israel, the priesthood and the prophets came 
into marked contrast, the priests taking ref- 
uge in Judah, the prophets, for the first two 
centuries, residing for the most part in Is- 
rael, which, with the possible exception of 
Ramah, contained all the seats of prophetic 
instruction — Bethel, Jericho, Gilgal, Carmel. 
To Israel belonged not only Elijah and Eli- 
sha, but others of less note — Ahijah, Jehu, 
son of Hanaui, Obadiah, Micaiah, and Oded, 
and perhaps Iddo, the seer.^ Not till a later 
period did the great prophets of Judah ap- 
pear — Isaiah, Jeremiah, Ezekiel, and most 
of the minor prophets. We may, perhaps, 
say that to Israel belong those of the order 
who were men of affairs, to Judah those who 
were men of ideas. Elijah and Elisha were 
more influential in their own times, but have 
left no writings; the influence of Isaiah, Jer- 
emiah, and Ezekiel was ineffectual to stem 
the degeneracy of their age, but it has been 
felt through their writings in subsequent 
ages. With Malachi the unbroken succes- 
sion of prophets came to an end, to be re- 
vived in the person of John the Baptist, and 
to receive its culmination in the person of 
Jesus Christ, himself at once the great Proph- 
et and the fulfillment of prophecy. In the 
apostolic age, some remnants of the Jewish 
order appeared for a time in the Christian 
Church ; but with the close of the N. T. can- 
on the prophetic order also came to its close, 
the N. T. appropriately ending with the most 
sublime of all the prophetic books of the Bi- 
ble, the Revelation of St. John the divine. 

Although the most remarkable prophets 
belonged to the later days of Jewish his- 
tory, the epoch of its degeneracy and disas- 
ter, yet the order, as an order, was most 
characteristic of tiie earlier years of the 
monarchy, and the historical books contain 
intimations from which we may gather not 
a little concerning their methods of life and 
the principles of their organization. In the 
times of the kings they were a numerous 
and influential class. In the darkest days 
of the Church, Obadiah hid a hundred of 
them in a single cave.^ In the reign of Je- 
hoshaphat, four hundred were gathered by 
the king for counsel.^ They were set apart to 
their office by no public ordination.* Who- 
ever felt his soul burdened with a message 
of truth was ordained thereby to proclaim 
it. They were taken from every tribe and 
every occupation. Women occasionally, 
though exceptionally, filled the sacred office. 
Miriam, Deborah, Huldah,^ were among the 
prophets — the latter apparently at the head 



1 1 Kings xi., 29 ; xvi., 7 ; xviii., 3 ; xxii., 13 ; 2 Chron. 
ix., 29 ; xxviii., 9.-2 1 Kings xviii., 4.-3 1 Kings xxii., 
6.-4 The only case of ordination mentioned is that in 
1 Kings xix., 16.-5 Exod. xv., 20 ; Judg. iv., 4; 2 Kings 
xxii., 14. 



of the prophetic school in Jerusalem, and 
recognized by the court as the chief theo- 
logian of her time.^ David and Saul Avere 
prophet - kings ; Amos was a herdsman;'^ 
Elijah a wanderer of the desert;^ Elisha 
was called from the plow ;* Isaiah and Jer- 
emiah were, perhaps, children of prophets.^ 
These preachers had neither church, pulpit, 
nor salary ; they gathered their congrega- 
tions wherever they could find them — in 
the street, the field, the highways. They 
depended on the hospitality of the pious for 
their support.^ They wore a simple dress 
of sheep-skin;'' lived plainly ; abstained from 
wine f dwelt sometimes in Jerusalem, in 
chambers of the Temple, sometimes in the 
country, in rude huts of their own construc- 
tion.^ They generally lived in companies of 
from twenty to thirty, and traveled through 
the country, couching their instruction in 
the form of poems, which they chanted to 
simple music, accompanying themselves on 
the rude instruments of their age.^° A few 
more leading spirits lived alone, either in the 
cities, as Isaiah and Jeremiah, or in the wil- 
derness, as Elijah, preaching the truth, still 
generally in poetic forms, though not with 
musical accompaniment. All the earlier 
prophecies were delivered orally. At a later 
date they were written down by disciples, 
or in some cases by the prophet himself.^^ 
Even the apostles seem generally, however, 
to have employed scribes, who wrote at their 
dictation.^^ The class was far from pure or 
perfect. Like the ministry in all ages, 
there were time-servers and false prophets 
among them. But those whose addresses 
have been preserved were bold, courageous, 
patriotic, devout men, fearing God, and, 
therefore, not fearing man ; denouncing 
alike the sins of the court, the corruptions 
of the Church, and the vices of the people. 
Their teaching was not, as we have said, a 
mere foretelling. It ax)plied sometimes to 
the past, sometimes to the present, some- 
times to the future. They were "the sacred 
historians of the Jewish nation. Not only 
do we have history interwoven with fore- 
telling in the books of Isaiah, Jeremiah, 
Daniel, and Jonah, but the books of Joshua, 
Judges, Samuel, and Kings are all, probably, 
the product of prophetic pens, while other 
historical books of the prophets are men- 
tioned that are now lost.^^ It must be ac- 
counted among the mysteries of Divine 
Providence that the biography of David, by 
the prophet Nathan, should be among these 
lost books of the past. The historians of 
Israel, they were also its theologians, moral- 



' See art. HuLBAii.— 2 Amos i.,1.— ^ 1 Kings xvii., 1. 
— 4 1 Kings xix., 19-21. — 5 Isa. i., 1; Jer. i., 1.— « 1 
Kings xvii., 8-16; 2 Kings iv., 8-10.— ^ 2 Kings i., 8; 
Zech. xiii., 4.— « 2 Kings iv., 38; Dan. 1., 8, 12-16.— 
9 2 Kings vi., 1-5; Jer. xxxv., 4.-1° 1 Sara, x., 5.— 
11 Jer. xxsvi. See Barcoh, Isa. viii., 1.— i^ Rom. xvi., 
22 ; 1 Cor. xvi., 21 ; Gal. vi., 11 ; 2 Thess. iii., 17 ; 1 Pet. 
v., 12.— 13 1 Chrou. xxix., 29 ; 2 Chron. ix,, 29 ; xii., 15 ; 
xiii., 22; XX., 34. 



PROPHETS 



771 



PROPHETS 



ists, and political instructors. They assert- 
ed the spirituality and unity of God against 
the materialistic and idolatrous conceptions 
of their age, and the religion of practical 
duty and pure-hearted love against that of 
a meaningless ceremonialism. " What doth 
the Lord require of thee, but to do justly, 
and to love mercy, and to walk humbly with 
thy God ?" this was the essence of their re- 
ligious teaching.' But to them religion was 
a comprehensive term. They were, in the 
highest sense of the term, " political preach- 
ers." They were not men of the closet and 
the study alone, but men of action, counsel- 
ing the State, not by expedients of policy, 
but by immutable principles of truth and 
justice. Whenever their interference was 
called for, they appeared, to encourage or to 
threaten ; Elijah before Ahab, like the ghost 
of the murdered Naboth, in the vineyard of 
Jezreel ; Isaiah before Ahaz at the Fullers' 
Gate, and before Hezekiah as he lay panic- 
stricken in the palace ; Jeremiah before Zed- 
ekiah ; John before Herod ; the Greatest of 
all before the Pharisees in the Temple.^ 
Whatever public or private calamity had 
occurred was seized by them to move the 
national or individual conscience. Thus 
Elijah spoke on occasion of the drouglit; 
Joel, on occasion of the swarms of locusts ; 
Amos, on occasion of the earthquake. Thus, 
in the highest degree, our Lord drew his 
parables from the scenes immediately about 
him. Thus he, too, denounced national in- 
iquity, warned of national judgments, and 
wept over national sin and degradation.^ 
A pure, a divine patriotism was characteris- 
tic of them, and in none more characteris- 
tically displayed than in Jesus Christ him- 
self. They were preachers of justice, of 
liberty, of humanity to the poor and the 
suffering, of certain judgments to the proud, 
the imperious, and the selfish.* Inspired by 
God, they looked also into the future, and 
used so much of it as God was pleased to 
disclose for the warning or the encourage- 
ment of his people. They were watchmen 
stationed on a lofty tower, and announcing 
what the people below, in their narrower 
horizon, could not see.^ Their foresight did 
not stop with events in the near future 
which human wisdom might perceive. It 
reached into the far-distant future, and de- 
clared what the birth of coming ages should 
be. It did not reflect the anticipations of 
their own age. It often directly contra- 
vened that anticipation. It perceived, in the 
suffering and crucified Messiah, the glory 
which the people saw only in one enscep- 
tred and encrowned, and in every temporary 
deliverance recognized a type of the great- 



1 Mic. vi., 8.-2 1 Kings xxi., 18-22; Isa. vii., 3; 2 
Kings XX. ; 2 Chron. xxxvi., 12; Mark vi., 18; Matt. 
xxi., 12-16.— 3 1 Kings xviii. ; Joel ii. ; Amos i. ; ii. ; 
iii. ; Matt, xi., 15-24; xii., 1-45; xxiii.— * Isa. iii., 14; 
Iv. ; Jer.vii.,1-7; Amos vi., 1-6.— ^ Isa. xxi., 2; Hab. 
ii.,1,3. 



er deliverance of all mankind, of which the 
Hebrews never dreamed, and which they re- 
fused to recognize and receive when at last 
it came.' They were, indeed, the Christian 
teachers of mankind ages before Christ ap- 
peared to fulfill their hopes ; and to a world 
lying in darkness and sin they preached the 
same Gospel which Christ preached on the 
shores of the Sea of Galilee and Paul among 
the cities of Greece.'* 

The methods in .which the divine will was 
communicated to the prophets have been the 
subject of much discussion, and are involved, 
with the whole subject of inspiration, in no 
little obscurity. Some hints, however, the 
Bible affords us. Sometimes God spoke to 
them in an audible voice and under circum- 
stances in which there could be no doubt as 
to the fact, as in the well-known case of 
Samuel.^ Sometimes the divine will was 
communicated by dreams.* Sometimes the 
prophets were brought into an ecstatic state 
by the overpowering influence of God's Spir- 
it, and while in that condition they perceived 
truths which under ordinary circumstances 
were holden from them, or received direct 
communication from God or his angel mes- 
sengers.^ That this condition was partly 
physical, or at least that it affected the 
physical condition in a marked degree, is 
very clear.^ Sometimes the truth was made 
known to them by a vision. They were 
told nothing ; they smv what they were to 
disclose. This appears to have been the 
case with Paul when caught up into the 
third heaven, and with John when in the 
spirit on the Lord's day he saw the vision 
of the future.'' In interpreting the writings 
of the prophets, these methods of their in- 
spiration are to be borne in mind. It is not 
to be expected that they always compre- 
hended themselves the full import of what 
they uttered. They spoke for God what 
future events would interpret. They de- 
scribed what they saw, often without ref- 
erence to time, describing things future as 
though they were past, things remote from 
each other as though they were contiguous. 
Thus in the book of Revelation the language 
is historical, though the book is almost, if 
not entirely, prophetical. Transitions are 
accordingly abrupt, and often picture suc- 
ceeds picture with but very little apparent 
connection. Add to this, that in many cases 
the object of the prophecy is rather to awak- 
en hope by a general promise of succor, or to 
arouse conscience by a general warning of 
punishment, than to make the future clear 
and plain, and it will not appear strange 



1 For prophecies of Messiah, see note to art. Jestts 
Christ. — 2 Comp. Isa. i., 18, with Luke vii., 47, and 1 
John i., 9; Isa. Iv., 6, 7, with Matt. iv., IT; Mic. vii., 19, 
with Rom. iii., 25, and Jas. v., 15.— ^ 1 Sam. iii., 4-10 ; 
comp. Exod. iii., 2-6 ; Isa. vi., 8 ; Jer. i., 4 ; Ezek. i., 3 ; 
Amos i., 1 ; Jon. i., 1 ; Mic. i., 1.—* Numb, xii., 6 ; Joel 
ii., 28. See Dreams.— ^ Ezek. i., 3.— « Dan. viii., 2T; 
X., 8 ; comp. 2 Kings ix., 11 ; Jer. xxix.— "^ 2 Cor. xii,, 
1-4 ; Rev. i., 10, 12 ; v., 1 ; vi., 1. 



PROPHETS 



772 PEOPHETS (SCHOOLS OF THE) 



.that the prophecies are often obscure, and 
that the iinfalfilled prophecies are the sub- 
jects of the most diverse and contradictory 
explanations to the present day. 

The divine object of prophecy, using that 
word in its most restricted sense as synon- 
ymous with foretelling, is declared by our 
Lord himself: "Now I have told you before 
it came to pass, that when it is come to 
pass, ye might believe."^ Prophecy is, in 
other words, a divinely appointed argument 
against infidelity. The argument is very sim- 
ple and very conclusive. Let it be granted 
that the prophecy was uttered before the 
event took place, that it applies to the event, 
and that it is such a prophecy as no human 
foresight could have foreseen and foretold, 
and a presumption amounting to demonstra- 
tion arises that it is the utterance of Him 
who alone knows the future as the past. 
So conclusive is this argument that skep- 
tics have tried very hard to show that all 
the prophecies are either so obscure as to be 
capable of various meanings, or are of such 
a character that a shrewd observer might 
utter them, or were written at or after the 
time of the occurrence. But though all the 
prophecies which are subject to any doubt 
on these points were omitted from the Bi- 
ble, there remains page upon page of clear, 
unmistakable, and detailed disclosures of 
future events, which no human mind could 
have anticipated ; disclosures which at the 
time were received with indifference or with 
mocking, but which have since received a 
singularly literal fulfillment. The follow- 
ing comparison of the words of prophecy 
and the description of the infidel Volney, 
though they illustrate but a single chapter 
in the Biblical proi)hecy, will suffice to indi- 
cate the nature of an argument which our 
space forbids us to carry out in detail : 



Prophecy. 
"Wherefore hath the 
Lord done this thing unto 
this land ?" 

" What meaneth the heat 
of this great anger?" (Deut. 
xxix., 22-24). 

"Every one thatpasseth 
by shall be astonished" 
(Jer. xviii., 16). 

" Your highways shall be 
desolate" (Lev. xxvi., 22). 

" The wayfaring man 
shall cease" (Isa. xxxiii., 
8). 

"All the merry- hearted 
shall sigh" (Isa. xxiv., T). 

"The mirth of the land 
shall depart" (Isa. xxiv., 
11). 

"Upon the land of my 
people shall come up thorns 
and briers" (Isa. xxxii., 
13). 

"Because they have 
transgressed the law shall 
the curse devour the earth" 
(Isa. xxiv., 5, C). 



Volney. 

"I wandered over the 
country. Great God ! from 
whence proceed such mel- 
ancholy revolutions ?" 

"Why are so many cit- 
ies destroyed ?" 

"So feeble a population 
in so excellent a country 
may well excite our aston- 
ishment." 

" There are neither high- 
ways nor bridges." 

" Nobody travels alone." 

" To hear their plaintive 
strains it is almost impos- 
sible to refrain from tears." 

"The inhabitants never 
laugh." • 

"The earth produces 
only briers and worm- 
wood." 

" God has doubtless pro- 
claimed a secret maledic- 
tion against the earth." 



1 John xiv., 29 ; see also xvi., 4. 



Prophecy. i Volney. 

" I will bring your sanc-j "The templesare thrown 
tuaries into desolation " down." 
(Amos vii., 9). 



The palaces shall be 
forsaken " (Isa. xxxii., 14). 

" I will destroy the rem- 
nant of the sea -coast" 
(Ezek. XXV., 16). 

" I will make your cities 
waste" (Lev. xxvi., 31). 

" Few men are left " (Isa. 
xxiv., 6). 



" The palaces are demol- 
ished." 

"The ports are filled 
up." 

" The towns are destroy- 
ed." 

"The earth is stripped 
of inhabitants." 



Let it be remembered that when most of 
these prophecies were uttered, there was as 
little reason to anticipate their fulfillment 
as there would be to-day the fulfillment 
of similar prophecies concerning the United 
States, and that this testimony to the con- 
dition of the once prosperous land of Pales- 
tine is borne by an infidel, who employs un- 
consciously almost the very words of the 
Holj^ Writ, and the evidence they contain 
of a more than human foresight becomes ir- 
refragable. For a list of the prophets whose 
books have been preserved to us, and the 
probable date of their ministry, see Jews. 
For au account of them and their work see 
under respective titles. 

Prophets (Schools of the). The first no- 
tice which is taken in Scripture of the schools 
of the prophets is in the book of Samuel.^ 
By some, Samuel is thought to have founded 
these institutions ; by others, to have simply 
reorganized the schools which had been pre- 
viously established by the Levitical order. 
He, at all events, gave to the prophetic or- 
der a position of importance it never held be- 
fore. So important was the work wrought 
by him that he is classed in Scripture with 
Moses.^ One such school we find in his life- 
time at Eamah ; others afterward at Bethel, 
Jericho, Gil gal, and elsewhere.^ Their con- 
stitution and objects were similar to those 
of theological seminaries and colleges. Into 
them were gathered promising students, and 
here they were trained for the office which 
they were afterward destined to fill. Wom- 
en were admitted to the privileges afford- 
ed by these schools.^ So successful were 
these institutions, that from the time of 
Samuel to the closing of the canon of the 
O. T., there seems never to have been want- 
ing a due supply of men to keep up the line 
of official prophets ; but the apocryphal 
books of the Maccabees and of Ecclesiasticus 
represent them as extinct. The colleges ap- 
pear to have consisted of students differing 
in number. Sometimes they were very nu- 
merous.^ One elderly or leading prophet 
presided over them,® called their father,"' or 
master,^ who was apparently admitted to 
his office by the ceremony of anointing.^ 
They were called his sons. Their chief sub- 



1 1 Sam. X., 10 ; xix., 20.— ^ Psa. xcix., 6 ; Jer. xv., 1 ; 

Acts iii., 24.-3 2 Kings ii., 3, 5; iv., 38; vL, 1.— 
•* 2 Kings xxii., 14. — ^ j Kings xviii., 4; xxii., 6; 2 
Kings ii., 16. — ^ 1 Sam. xix., 20.— ^ 1 Sam. x., 12.— 
8 2 Kings ii., 3.-9 1 Kings xix., 16 ; Psa. cv., 15; Isa. 
Ixi., 1. 



PROSELYTE 



773 



PROTESTANTS 



ject of study was, no doubt, the law and its 
interpretation ; oral, as distinct from sym- 
bolical, teaching being henceforward tacitly 
transferred from the priestly to the prophet- 
ical order. Subsidiary subjects of instruc- 
tion were music and sacred poetry, both of 
which had been connected with prophecy 
from the time of Moses^ and the judges.'^ 
A hymn, or sacred song, is found in the 
book of Jonah.^ And it was probably the 
duty of the prophetical students to compose 
verses to be sung in the Temple. Having 
been themselves trained and taught, the 
prophets, whether still residing within their 
college, or having left its precincts, had the 
task of teaching others. From the question 
addressed to the Shunammite by her hus- 
band, " Wherefore wilt thou go to him to- 
day ? it is neither new moon nor Sabbath,"^ 
it appears that weekly and monthly meet- 
ings were held as an ordinary practice by 
the prophets. Thus we iind that "Elijah 
sat in his house," engaged in his official oc- 
cupation,^ " and the elders sat with him,"® 
when the king of Israel sent to slay him. 
It was at these meetings probably that many 
of the warnings and exhortations on morality 
and spiritual religion were addressed to their 
countrymen, and in them, perhaps, may be 
seen the germ of the subsequent Sanhedrim. 
Proselyte (a stranger), the name given by 
the Jews to those heathen who became con- 
verts to Judaism. The term does not oc- 
cur in the O. T., and not frequently in the 
N. T., but its equivalent is of frequent oc- 
currence. The "devout men" and " devout 
Greeks" mentioned in the book of Acts were 
undoubtedly proselytes ; and of this class 
a large proportion of the early Christian 
Church was composed. Such was proba- 
bly Stephen, the first martyr, and Cornelius, 
and many of the Christian converts in the 
church at Antioch, and perhaps Timothy, 
whose father was a Gentile. They brought 
into the Christian Church a freer spirit, and 
minds less entangled by the erroneous prin- 
ciples of a technical and ritual religion 
which the Jewish converts had imbibed 
from their Pharisaic teachers. In the Tal- 
mud a distinction is made between prose- 
lytes of the gate and proselytes of righteous- 
ness. The term proselytes of the gate was 
derived from the frequently -occurring de- 
scription in the law, " the stranger that is 
within thy gates." Converts of this class 
were not bound by circumcision and the 
other special laws of the Mosaic code. It 
is doubtful, however, whether the distinc- 
tion, as described in the Talmud, had any 
real historic existence. All that can be said 
is, that in the time of the N. T. we have in- 
dependent evidence of the existence of con- 



1 Exod. XV., 20.— 2 Judg. iv., 4 ; v., 1. Comp. 1 Sam. 
X., 5 ; 2 Kings iii., 15 ; 1 Chron. xxv., 1-6.— 3 Jon. ii. ; 
Isa. xii., 1 : xxvi., 1; Hab. iii. — « 2 Kings iv.. 23.— 
5 Ezek. viii., 1 ; xiv., 1 ; xx., 1.— « 2 Kings vi., 32. 



verts of two degrees, and that the Talmudic 
division is the formal systematizing of an 
earlier fact. The proselytes of righteous- 
ness, known also as proselytes of the cove- 
nant, were perfect Israelites. We leai;n from 
the Talmud that, in addition to circumcision, 
baptism by immersion was also required to 
complete their admission to the faith. The 
baptism was fallowed, as long as the Temple 
stood, by the offering, or corbau. This was 
supposed to effect, or at least to symbolize, 
a complete change in the subject of the bap- 
tism. He was said to be " born again," a 
form of language which Christ borrowed 
from the Jewish theology, and employed for 
the purpose of teaching that not only the 
Gentile but also the Jew must undergo a 
radical change before he could be prepared 
for the kingdom of God. 

Protestants, a term applied to the adher- 
ents of Luther, from their protesting against 
the decree passed by the Catholic States at 
the second Diet of Spires, in 1529. This de- 
cree had forbidden any further innovations 
in religion, and enjoined those States that 
had adopted the Reformation so far to re- 
trace their steps as to re-introduce the mass, 
and order their ministers to avoid disputed 
questions, and to use and explain the Scrip- 
tures only as they had hitherto been used 
and explained in the Church. The essential 
principles involved in the protest against this 
decree were : 1. That the Catholic Church can- 
not be the judge of the Reformed churches, 
which are no longer in communion with her ; 
2. That the authority of the Bible is supreme, 
and above that of councils and bishops ; 3. 
That the Bible is not to be interpreted and 
used according to tradition, or use and wont, 
but to be explained by means of itself. As 
this doctrine, that the Bible, explained inde- 
pendently of all external tradition, is the sole 
authority in all matters of faith and disci- 
pline, is really the foundation-stone of the 
Reformation, the term Protestant was ex- 
tended from those who signed the Spires 
protest to all who embraced the fundament- 
al principle involved in it. Thus the essen- 
tial principle of Protestantism is the suffi- 
ciency and authority of the Scriptures as a 
religious rule of faith and practice. Those, 
on the one hand, who deny its sufficiency 
are not in principle Protestants. The for- 
mer include not only the Roman Catholics, 
but all those who maintain the autlwritij of 
the Church to speak for God, either in add- 
ing to the doctrines of the Bible or in giv- 
ing them a binding and authoritative in- 
terpretation ; and those, on the other hand, 
who deny its divine authority are not prop- 
erly Protestants; and the latter embrace all 
those who hold that man's unaided reason 
is the all-sufficient guide and standard in 
religious faith and practice, and that the 
Bible is only to be used like other books, as 
a light but not as an authority. Of course^ 



PROTESTANTS 



774 



PROTESTANTS 



since Protestantism recognizes the right of 
private judgment in the interpretation of 
Scripture, it allows for a wide divergence 
of theological views, and such a divergence 
actually exists. At the same time, the dif- 
ferences in belief of the various Protestant 
sects generally relate to minor points, as of 
worship, ceremonial, and form of ecclesias- 
tical government, nearly all tjie great Prot- 
estant denominations being substantially 
agreed respecting the fundamental points of 
doctrine as taught by the Word of God. Of 
these Protestant denominations, the chief 
are the following : The Lutherans, the Re- 
formed churches of Germany and Holland, 
the Presbyterians, the Episcopalians, the 
Congregatioualists, the Baptists, the Meth- 
odists, the Arians, and the Socinians. We 
give here a brief narrative of the })rocess of 
their separate formation, referring the read- 
er for better information to the respective 
titles of these and other minor Protestant 
denominations. 

The Lutherans took the name and accept- 
ed the teachings of Luther, who, while main- 
taining the doctrine of justification by faith 
alone, and the authority and sufficiency of 
the Scriptures, also maintained, in a modi- 
fied form, the doctrine of the real presence 
of Christ in the communion,^ and allowed 
the use of images and pictures in the church- 
es.'^ Zwingle, the Swiss reformer, denied 
that the Lord's Supper was any thing more 
than a commemorative ordinance. Many 
of the Reformers in other countries shared 
his views, and out of the controversy be- 
tween him and Luther sprang the Reformed 
churches of Germany and Holland.^ Mean- 
while John Calvin had commenced his la- 
bors as the organizer of the Reformation. 
The product of his literary labor was the 
Institutes ; of hi-s executive labor, the Pres- 
byterian form of government. For both he 
found, eventually, a free field in Geneva, 
and his labors there not only gave to the Re- 
formed churches of Switzerland their final 
character — a character which they bear to 
this day — but furnished the model of doc- 
trine and government which the Presby- 
terian churches of Great Britain and the 
United States have since largely adopted.^ 
This, also, is substantially the form of gov- 
ernment of the Reformed Church of France. 
Certain tenets peculiar to this form of the- 
ology were repudiated by other leaders 
among the Reformers. Arminius, in Hol- 
land, denied that the Scriptures taught the 
doctrine of predestination and others con- 
nected intimately, if not necessarily, with 
it. From him sprang the Arminiaus, who, 
as a sect, are reduced to an insignificant 
number, but whose doctrines are accepted 



* See CoNSunsTANTiATiON ; Communion ; Lutherans. 
— 2 See Lutherans. —3 See Heformed Churoii; also 
German United Evangelical Cuurcii. — ^ See Cal- 
viNiBTs : Presbyterians. 



in the main by the Methodists, by most of 
the Episcopalians, and by many in other 
denominations. The Socinians denied that 
the doctrines of the Trinity, the atonement, 
and the proper deity of Jesus Christ were 
to be fo^und in the Bible. They thus re- 
vived th^ views of the earlier Arians, while 
at the same time they carried their denials 
much further. Their views have found ex- 
pression in one wing of the Unitarian and 
Universalist churches of the present day. 
Their most general acceptance is in New 
England and in parts of Great Britain ; but 
there are Socinian churches in nearly if not 
quite all Protestant communities. The Ref- 
ormation in England was partly religious, 
partly political. Henry VIII. did not in- 
tend to modify the doctrine of the Church, 
but only its government, and its govern- 
ment only so far as to secure its independ- 
ence of the papacy. The movement was 
too deep and popular for him to control; 
but the royal and ecclesiastical influence 
combined to retain the Episcopal form of 
government and the union of Church and 
State. Both are still preserved in the 
Church of England, and the former in the 
Episcopal Church of this country. Its sym- 
bols of doctrine allow equal liberty to Ar- 
miniaus and to Calvinists. The civil and 
religious controversies which, a few centu- 
ries later, plunged England into civil war, 
gave impetus and organization, though not 
birth, to the idea of absolute ecclesiastical 
independence. The result was the organ- 
ization of churches which were mainly Cal- 
vin istic in belief, but in which the absolute 
right of the j)eople of each Church to man- 
age their own affairs was maintained. In 
England they took the name of Independ- 
ents, in the United States that of Congrega- 
tioualists. As early as the days of Luther, 
the Reformers were divided on the question 
of baptism ; those who maintained that bap- 
tism should be administered only by immer- 
sion and to adults took the name of Baptists, 
which they retain to this day. The eight- 
eenth century witnessed a general revival 
of religious spirit, especially in England and 
the United States, differing from that which 
characterized the Reformation in that it was 
less a battle against error in doctrine, and 
more a simple awakening of Christian zeal 
to use for the redemption of the masses the 
truths which the Reformation had brought 
to light. Out of this awakening grew Meth- 
odism, which is substantially Arminian in 
doctrine and Episcopal in government, and 
differs from the Episcopal Church, from 
Avhich it came out, rather in the spirit and 
character of its adherents than in theology. 
These churches represent the chief forms 
of Protestantism. The Lutherans occupy 
Norway and Sweden, and divide Germany 
with the Reformed churches ; the Presbyte- 
rian is the form most common in Scotland, 



PROVERBS 



775 



PROVERBS 



France, and Switzerland ; the Episcopalian 
is the State Church of England, but other 
forms are largely influential there, while all 
denominations stand on an equal footing in 
the United States. There are also a large 
number of minor denominations, but most of 
them are offshoots from these great branch- 
es. The total Protestant population of the 
world is estimated to be between ninety-five 
and ninety-six millions, a little more than 
half the Roman Catholic population. It is 
thus divided — we quote from Johnson's " Il- 
lustrated Family Atlas :" 

United States 25,000,000 

British America 2,590,000 

South America 50,000 

Dutch American Possessions 32,600 

Danish and Swedish Possessions 55,000 

Hayti 10,000 

Spain T, 000 

Portugal 10,000 

France 1,561,250 

Austria and Venetia 3,233,448 

Prussia 11,287,448 

Rest of Germany Proper 11,075,502 

Italy, without Venetia 50,000 

Switzerland 1,482,848 

Holland 2,023,000 

Belgium 25,000 

Great Britain and Ireland 23,000,000 

Denmark 2,670,000 

Sweden and Norway 5,463,000 

Russia 3,940,000 

Turkey 10,000 

Ionian Islands 2,000 

Asiatic Russia 40,000 

China 30,000 

East and Farther India 300,000 

Archipelago 50,000 

Persia. 1,000 

Arabia 2,000 

English African Possessions 650,000 

Algeria 10,000 

Egypt 2,000 

Liberia 50,000 

Madagascar 7,000 

Australia and Polynesia 1,100,000 

Proverbs. This book derives its Hebrew 
name, as usual with the Jewish writers, 
from its first word, masJial. Its common ti- 
tle among the ancient Christian fathers was 
a Greek phrase sometimes interpreted as all- 
virtuous icisdom, but rather to be understood, 
perhaps, as indicative of precepts or direc- 
tions for all virtues. The original meaning 
oimashal, or proverl), would seem to be a com- 
parison of two resembling things. Hence it 
came to signify poetry, or song, which is 
very commonly of a figurative character. 
Such comparisons were commonly made in 
the East by short and pithy sayings, and 
hence the proverb is often brief and concise, 
though this is by no means essential to its 
composition. The term is sometimes trans- 
lated parable in our Bible, and sometimes 
proverb; and this depends in part upon 
whether it takes the form of a lengthened 
story or of a short and sententious saying.^ 
In Job we find it applied to the entire ar- 
gument of Job against the unjust assertions 
of his friends, and he himself calls their ar- 
guments against him literally " proverbs of 

1 See for comparison of allegory, fable, parable, and 
proverb, art. Paeables. 



ashes."^ But in all cases the idea of com- 
parison is dominant. Either a story is re- 
lated, the leading circumstances of which 
are meant to apply to those of the particu- 
lar case in question, or a pithy saying is 
quoted meant to have the same application. 
In conformity with this leading idea we 
find the Proverbs of Solomon. There is 
throughout the idea of comparison ; but the 
genius of the man led him to the short, 
pointed saying, rather than to the figura- 
tive story. He did not intend to compose 
a pithy sentence for every circumstance of 
human life and conduct. That would have 
been impossible. He meant to draw out a 
number of short, pointed sayings, pregnant 
with meaning, adapted to a multitude of 
similar circumstances. The proverb, or par- 
able, formed one of the most characteristic 
features of Eastern literature ; and of all 
collections of proverbs, in whatever tongue 
uttered, none can stand comparison with 
those which have been handed down to us 
in connection with the name of Solomon. 
In the depths of their religious and moral 
tone they stand alone, while as a treasure- 
house of pithy, pregnant, pointed sayings, 
easily remembered, and capable of adapta- 
tion to the diversified circumstances of daily 
life in every age and country, they are of 
incalculable value. 

The book of Proverbs has always been 
ascribed to Solomon, whose name it bears ; 
but he appears to have been only the prin- 
cipal author, not the composer of every max- 
im it comprises. Several divisions of its ma- 
terials have been made by different writers. 
The most natural of these seems to be a 
fourfold division, with a subdivision of the 
first part. The first and main division, con- 
stituting a whole and perfect work within 
itself, extends from chap. i. to the end of 
chap. xxiv. ; the second, third, and fourth 
parts are mere appendices to this main part- 
The second, embracing chaps, xxv.-xxix., is 
professedly a collection of Solomon's prov- 
erbs made in the time of Hezekiah, and 
thought worthy of being added to the orig- 
inal collection. Chap, xxx., the third divis- 
ion, contains " the words of Agur, the son 
of Jakeh ;" and chap, xxxi., the fourth divis- 
ion, contains " the words of King Lemuel." 
Who Agur and Lemuel were and when they 
lived is shrouded in mystery. It seems cer- 
tain that the whole collection of Proverbs 
was arranged in its present order by differ- 
ent hands ; but it is not therefore to be 
concluded that they were not, for the most 
part, the productions of Solomon, who, we 
are informed, spoke no less than three thou- 
sand proverbs.^ As it is nowhere said that 
Solomon himself made such a collection, the 
general opinion is that several persons gath- 
ered them together, perhaps as they were 



1 Job xiii., 12 ; xxvii., 1 ; xxix., 1 ; comp. Isa. xiv., 4 ; 
Ezek. xii., 22, 23 ; xvii., 2 ; xxiv., 3.-2 1 Kings iv., 32. 



PEOVIDENCE 



776 



PSALMS 



uttered by him ; Hezekiah, for one, as stated 
in chap, xxv., and possibly Agur, Isaiah, 
and Ezra. The Jewish writers affirm that 
Solomon wrote the Song bearing his name 
in his youth, the Proverbs in his riper years, 
and Ecclesiastes in his old age,^ 

The book of Proverbs is mentioned in all 
the Jewish lists of the sacred writings, and 
is also frequently quoted and referred to in 
the N. T. It therefore ranks beyond ques- 
tion among those Holy Scriptures recog- 
nized by our Lord and his apostles as in- 
spired and divine. It holds a conspicuous 
rank among the metrical books of the O. T. 
Not only do its contents afford us a noble 
specimen of the didactic poetry of the He- 
brews, the nature of which they help us to 
understand by means of the antithetic par- 
allels with which they abound ; but they 
are admirably adapted, by the treasures of 
practical wisdom which they open to us, to 
instruct men in the deepest mysteries of 
true wisdom and understanding ; the height 
and perfection of which is the true knowl- 
edge of the divine will and the sincere fear 
of the Lord.' 

Providence, the doctrine that God not 
only possesses absolute power over all the 
works of his bauds, but also that he exer- 
cises it. It thus differs from the doctrine 
of omnipotence, which only attributes to 
him the power, but does not necessarily im- 
ply that he uses it. It is opposed to the 
doctrine of so-called natural religion or the 
philosophy of the rationalists (q. v.), who 
generally maintain that nature is governed 
by natural laws which God has, perhaps, 
organized and set in operation, but with 
which he never interferes. The believer 
in the doctrine of Providence, on the con- 
trary, maintnins that God actually retains 
control of all his creatures, and rules, not 
only the course of nature, compelling it to 
serve his will, but also the course of nations 
and the hearts and conduct of men. On 
this doctrine depends belief in the miracles 
and in divine answer to prayer, since on 
the naturalistic theory that God no longer 
acts directly on nature and man, it is im- 
possible to believe that he supernaturally 
interferes to give authority to divinely in- 
spired teaching, or to afford an answer to 
the petitions of his children. Some attempt 
has been made to discriminate between gen- 
eral and special Providence, but the distinc- 
tion is not a very definite or clear one. If 
it be once conceded that God acts upon and 
through nature and the human soul, it is 
impossible to draw any line and say how 
far he carries this work, and where it stops. 
The argument for the doctrine of Provi- 
dence is briefly, 1st. The fact that man has, 
in a limited degree, a power both to direct 
the forces of nature — as electricity, for ex- 
ample, to carry his messages, or gravitation 
i^See SoLOiioN.— 2~iProv. i., 2-7 ; Is., 10^ 



and heat to perform his work — and also an 
influence on other men, and that it is incon- 
ceivable that God should not possess this 
power in an infinite degree ; and, 2d. That 
it is the plaiu teaching of Scripture, whose 
declarations on this subject are so numer- 
ous that it is hardly necessary to refer to 
them. Indeed, those who deny the doctrine 
of Providence necessarily deny the doctrine 
of inspiration, and therefore the authority 
of Scripture ; but no sect or school which 
accepts the Bible as an authority in relig- 
ious truth doubts the doctrine of Divine 
Providence. For a fuller discussion of this 
doctrine see Miracles ; also Omnipotence ; 
Prayer. 

Province, a division of the ancient king- 
doms. The word meets us in the O. T., chief- 
ly in describing the division of the Chal- 
dean and Persian kingdoms. In Persia each 
province had its governor, its treasurer, its 
system of finance, and, apparently, a postal 
system. The principal Scriptural references 
are Ezra iv. ; v. ; vii., 22 ; Esther i., 1, 22 ; 
iii., 13 ; viii., 9. In the N. T. its use is more 
important. It there denotes a division of 
the Roman empire. The Roman provinces 
were of two Muds, imperial and senatorial; 
the former ruled over by a proconsul or dep- 
uty, the latter by a procurator or govern- 
or. This distinction dates from the reign 
of Augustus. Under show of administering 
a republic, he organized a military empire. 
As a part of this plan, he made a division be- 
tween such provinces as required military 
control and such as only required civil au- 
thority ; the latter he left to the senate, the 
former he assumed the care of himself. His 
avowed object was to relieve the senate of 
all the anxiety of military proceedings, his 
real object to secure the unlimited control 
of the army. See Deputy, 

Psalms. This book is entitled in the He- 
brew Sepher Tehillim (book of hymns or pj^aises), 
because the greater part of them treat of the 
praise of God, while the remainder consist 
either of the complaints of an afflicted soul, 
or of penitential effusions, or of the prayers 
of a heart overwhelmed with grief. By the 
Septuagiut translators the book was called 
Psalmoi, whence our name, " The Psalms." 
The book of Psalms presents every possible 
variety of Hebrew poetry. All the Psalms, 
indeed, may be termed poems of the lyric 
kind, i. e., adapted to music, but with great 
variety in the style of composition. Thus 
some are simply odes, others are ethic or di- 
dactic, delivering grave maxims of life, or 
the precepts of religion in solemn, but for 
the most part simple, strains. To this class 
we may refer the alphabetical Psalms, which 
are so called because the initial letters of 
the successive lines or stanzas follow the 
order of the alphabet. Nearly one-seventh 
part of the Psalms is composed of elegiac, or 
pathetic, compositions on mournful subjects. 



PSALMS 



777 



PSALMS 



Some are enigmatic, delivering the doctriues 
of religion in sentences contrived to strike 
the imagination forcibly, and yet easily un- 
derstood. A few may be referred to the class 
of idyls, or short pastoral poems. Some have 
the strophic form, with a regular refiain, 
sung by alternating choirs, and others the 
antiphonal structure, to be chanted respon- 
sively. Yet the design of the collection of 
Psalms was not a merely literary one. The 
Psalter does not profess to be an anthology 
which was to gather together the monu- 
ments of Israel's sacred lyric poetry exist- 
ing at the time of the collection ; it has a 
practical design. It is Israel's hook of song 
and prayer for jjuhlic icorship, serving for the 
worship of God and for the edification of the 
Church. It is true there have been admitted 
into the Psalter such songs also as were orig- 
inally composed not for public worship, but 
owed their origin to quite individual occa- 
sions. But yet their contents are of such a 
kind that what the singer expresses accord- 
ing to his personal experiences, the Church 
may also appropriate according to her spirit- 
ual need. 

This Psalter comprehends one hundred 
and fifty Psalms, which are divided into 
five books : 1. I.-XLI. ; 2. XLII.-LXXII. ; 
3. LXXIIL-LXXXIX.; 4. XC. - CVI. ; 5. 
CVII.-CL. Each of the first four books 
is concluded with a doxological formula, 
which belongs, not to the Psalm with which 
it stands, but to the whole book ; at the end 
of the tiufth book Psalm CL. fills the x^lace 
of this doxology. In the numbering of the 
Psalms the Septuagint and the Vulgate 
differ from the Hebrew Bible in this, that 
Psalms IX. and X., and likewise CXIV. and 
CXV., are merged into one ; on the other 
hand, Psalms CXVI. and CXLVII. are split 
up, so that from Psalm CXLYIII. onward 
the numbering again coincides with the 
Hebrew. With the exception of thirty- 
four, which on this account are called in 
the Talmud orplians, all the Psalms are fur- 
nished with titles, which indicate partly 
the author, partly the occasion, partly the 
poetic and liturgical character of the sepa- 
rate Psalms, and give also, according to the 
view of many writers, enigmatical hints re- 
specting their contents. 
• The right of the book of Psalms to a place 
in the sacred canon has never been disputed. 
It is frequently alluded to in the O. T., and 
its contents are often cited by our Lord and 
his apostles as the work of the Holy Spirit. 
They are generally termed the Songs of Da- 
vid, that Hebrew monarch being their chief 
author. Many of the ancient fathers, in- 
deed, were of opinion that he was their sole 
author. But this notion is manifestly erro- 
neous, for an attentive examination of the 
Psalms will immediately prove them to be 
the compositions of various authors in vari- 
ous ages, some much more ancient than the 



time of David, some of a much later age ; of 
the latter there are a number which were 
evidently composed during the Babylonish 
captivity. Altogether they embrace a pe- 
riod of about nine hundred years. 

The earliest composer of sacred hymns 
was unquestionably Moses; the next who 
are mentioned in the Scriptures are Debo- 
rah and Hannah ; but it was David himself, 
an admirable composer and performer in 
music, who gave a regular and noble form 
to the musical part of the Jewish service, 
and carried divine poetry and psalmody to 
perfection ; therefore he is called the sweet 
Psalmist in Israel. He, doubtless by divine 
authority, appointed the singing of Psalms 
by a select company of skillful persons in 
the solemn worship of the tabernacle, which 
Solomon continued in the first Temple, and 
Ezra re-established as soon as the founda- 
tions of the second Temple were laid. Hence 
the Jews became well acquainted with these 
songs of Zion, and, having committed them 
to memory, were celebrated for their melo- 
dious singing among the neighboring coun- 
tries. The continuance of this branch of 
divine worship is confirmed by the practice 
of our Lord and the instructions of Paul, 
and the practice of divine psalmody has ex- 
isted through every succeeding age to our 
own time. 

According to the titles, one Psalm is at- 
tributed to Moses; seventy-three bear the 
name of David; twelve, the name of Asaph, 
David's master of song ; to the " sons of Ko- 
rah" are attributed eleven, one of which 
bears also the name of Heman, the Ezrah- 
ite ; one is ascribed to Ethan, the Ezrahite ; 
and two bear the name of Solomon. Crit- 
ics differ very much as to how far these ti- 
tles may be relied on ; e. g., some attribute 
more Psalms to David than are ascribed to 
him, others less. Many have been the con- 
jectures as to the authorship of the orplian, 
or anonymous Psalms, but upon that point 
nothing can be adduced but uncertain con- 
jecture. 

Some modern critics have imagined that 
a few of these untitled Psalms were com- 
posed so lately as the time of the Maccabees. 
This, however, is impossible, in the opinion 
of the best critics, the canon of the O. T. be- 
ing closed by Ezra nearly three centuries 
before that time. But whether David or 
any other prophet was employed as the in- 
strument of communicating to the Church 
this or that particular Psalm, is a question 
which, if it can not always be satisfactori- 
ly answered, need not disquiet our minds. 
When we discern in an epistle the well- 
known hand of a friend, we are not solicit- 
ous about the pen with which it was writ- 
ten. 

At what time and by whom the book of 
Psalms was collected into one volume we 
have no certain information. Many are of 



PSALMS 



778 



PSALMS 



the opinion that David collected such as 
were extant at his time into a book for the 
use of the national worship. This is not 
unlikely ; but it is manifest that such a col- 
lection could not include all the Psalms, be- 
cause many of David's odes are scattered 
through the entire series. For several cen- 
turies, perhaps, new songs were from time to 
time grafted on the stem planted by David, 
without a formal close of the collection be- 
ing made. That Hezekiah employed his zeal 
for the music of public worship in prepar- 
ing a collection of Psalms, may be regarded 
as probable, though nothing is reported to 
us on the subject. It is rendered probable, 
however, by an examination of their con- 
tents, that the Psalms were collected togeth- 
er at different times and by different indi- 
viduals. The period of their last editing 
must be placed at a considerable time af- 
ter the Babylonish captivity ; but in respect 
to fixing the matter more exactly, opinions 
differ widely from each other. According 
to a very widely - spread view, the Psalter 
obtained the form in which we have it in 
the time of Ezra andNehemiah, and we may 
draw the inference from 1 Chron. xvi., 7-36 ; 
2 Chron. vi., 41 seq., that it was closed at the 
time of the composition of the Chronicles — 
still within the Persic period, at least be- 
fore B.C. 330. The hypothesis that it un- 
derwent a considerable enlargement so late 
as the second century before Christ is un- 
tenable. At most, a couple of songs were 
added to it at that time. 

The titles of the Psalms contain many sorts 
of formulas, which are considered as guides 
in the musical treatment of the Psalms. The 
probable meaning of most of these very ob- 
scure terms is given in the article Musical 
Instruments (q.v.). 

The word Selah, which occurs as a mar- 
ginal addition seventy-one times in thirty- 
nine Psalms, and besides only in Hab. iii., 
3, 9, 13, is variously interpreted. Even the 
Jewish tradition is not at one respecting its 
meaning. Some suppose it to be an abbre- 
viation composed of initials. Many derive 
it from a verb signifying " to raise up ;" but 
while some of these understand that a rais- 
ing of voice in response to the instruments 
is intended, others, accepting the same deri- 
vation, interpret it to mean pause, rest. A 
very probable view is, that it denotes eleva- 
tion, namely, of the voice ; i. e., loud, clear, in 
distinction from the softer tones of the ordi- 
nary musical accompaniment. It is not in- 
tended to be read. 

In one passage — Psa. ix., 16 — Selali is join- 
ed to Higgaion. The obscurity of the ex- 
pression thus formed is evident from the 
fact that while one scholar supposes it to 
signify a louder strain, another believes that 
it is synonymous with our term piano, i. e., 
that it directs a softening of the music. 

The classification of the Psalms in refer- 



ence to their contents has been attempted 
in very diverse ways. In earlier times they 
were divided according to the seven peti- 
tions of the Lord's Prayer. Others arranged 
them according to the topics of Christian 
dogmatics — a very forced classification. We 
attempt to rank the Psalms according to 
points of view which are not superinduced 
upon them from without, but are taken from 
their own contents ; indicating, at the same 
time, the leading features of their theology. 
Sacred lyric poetry has for its subject not 
merely the theocratic relation into which 
Jehovah has entered with his people, but it 
at the same time celebrates the God of Is- 
rael as tlie Creator and Upholder of the ivorld, 
the Lord of Nature, and the Governor of the 
nations; and some Psalms deal especially 
with this general relationship of God to the 
world. This class of Psalms have been des- 
ignated as hymns of more general religious 
import. Yet this designation must not be 
misunderstood. In the sense in which ra- 
tionalistic poets have composed hymns of 
general religious import, i. e., hymns dealing 
merely with the abstract facts and verities 
of revelation, the sacred singers have com- 
posed no hymns ; for the religious contem- 
plation of the O. T. can never place the gov- 
ernment of God in the universe, in nature, 
and the history of mankind, out of relation- 
ship to his revelation to the covenant peo- 
ple and to his kingdom on earth. This we 
see, evidently, in the Psalms, whose contents 
we may briefly designate God's praise from 
Nature. Thus in Psalm XIX. the praise of 
the God who manifests his glory in the heav- 
ens, especially in the course of the sun, pass- 
es over into the praise of the revelation of 
God in the law as the spiritual light. Psalm 
XXIX., which celebrates Jehovah as the god 
of thunder, closes in laudation of him who 
gives strength to his people and blesses 
them with peace. With especial beauty the 
unity of the arrangements of nature and of 
the covenant appears in Psalm LXV., the 
glorious harvest-hymn. The beautiful pic- 
ture of creation, Psalm CIV., also points in 
its conclusion to the goal of the holy ways 
of God's kingdom, when the contradiction 
which exists between this beautiful world 
and the dominion of sin upon it forces upon 
the singer the wish, '' Let the sinners be 
consumed out of the earth, and let the wick- 
ed be no more. Bless thou the Lord, oh my 
soul." Nowhere is an abstract deity cele- 
brated ; but everywhere the living God, who 
is both Creator and Lord of the world, and 
Zion's everlasting king,^ and who stands 
opposed to the worthless gods of the hea- 
then as one able to do all things. 

The second class of Psalms refers to the 
rule of God in his kingdom upon earth. 
They are the so-called theocratic Psalms. 
As, however, the O. T., as has been shown 



1 Psa. cxlvi. 



PSALMS 



779 



PSALMS 



above, knows no abstract deity, no panthe- 
istic god, so also it knows no special, local, 
or national deity. The sacred hymn cele- 
brates Jehovah's rule in his kingdom always 
in such a way that it at the same time ap- 
pears that the God of Israel is also the God 
of heaven and earth, the Lord and Judge of 
all nations. Especially instructive in this 
respect is the hymn of David at the intro- 
duction of the ark of the covenant to Zion, 
Psalm XXiy. God is made known in its 
commencement as one whose the earth is 
and its fullness, and in its close as the Lord 
of Hosts. Of these theocratic Psalms there 
are three prominent kinds. When the sing- 
er turns backward to the past, Israel's divine 
guidance presents to him an inexhaustible 
fullness of material for praise and thanks, as 
well as for consolation and for warning to 
the people. A second kind starts from the 
present condition of Israel, from the distress 
and trouble which impels the people to call 
upon the Lord, to keep before them his elect- 
ing purpose and his promises, and to implore 
his saving help. A third kind is turned to- 
ward the future, to the perfecting of the di- 
vine kingdom when the Lord will assume 
Ms kingship over all nations, and these are 
to obtain citizenship in Jerusalem. The 
grace which God shows to his people cul- 
minates in the choice of David and his house 
to an everlasting kingdom. Hence, in the 
theocratic Psalms we find a series of royal 
Psalms concerning David as a king, and 
concerning his kingdom. Among these are 
Psalms n., XLV., LXXIL, CX., in regard to 
which a twofold interpretation is current. 
According to the one, these Psalms have ref- 
erence, in. the first place, to a king of Israel 
who has appeared in history ; but inasmuch 
as they look at his lordship in the light of 
the divine destiny of the Israelitish king- 
dom, and thus transfer to him declarations 
which have not yet found their realization 
in him, they point beyond, typically, to the 
perfecter of the kingdom — to the Messiah 
yet to come. According to the other inter- 
pretation, the singer is really raised in spirit 
to the contemplation of the great Son of 
David, and speaks directly of the Messiah. 
While the first view has the most probabil- 
ity in the case of Psalm XLV., the second 
view is decidedly the more natural one in 
the case of the other three Psalms. These 
bring forward a twofold idea of a king. 
Psalm II. presents the picture of the Prince 
of Victory, who, by virtue of his divine son- 
ship, receives the whole earth and its na- 
tions as his rightful inheritance ; Psalm CX. 
presents the picture of the Priest-Mng, ex- 
alted at the right hand of God, who in un- 
conquerable might follows out his conflict, 
until the hostile world lies as his footstool ; 
while Psalm LXXIL prays for the coming 
of the Messiah as the great Prince of Peace, 
who in divine righteousness bears dominion 



without end, and to whom all nations and 
all kings of the earth do homage. 

The third class of Psalms starts from man 
and Ms relationshij) to God. They depict the 
importance of man as the lord of earthly 
creatures, and yet his dependence on an ev- 
erywhere-present and all-seeing God. They 
hold up the perfect law, teach the demands 
which it imposes upon those who belong to 
God's house, and show that those demands 
require the breaking of sinful self-will, the 
surrender of the heart to God in willing 
obedience, an obedience which is succeeded 
by pleasure in worship and the longing af- 
ter the sanctuary, such as is expressed in 
Psalms XLIL, XLIIL, LXIIL, LXXXIV. In 
the light of the revelation of God's holy will 
they discover to the pious man not only 
the power of the corruption reigning in the 
world and the depth of his own sinfulness, 
but also his inability to begin a new life 
without the assistance of the Holy Spirit. 
Thus they teach him in all things, especially 
in suffering, to humbly give honor to God, 
and to seek from him forgiveness of sins. 
Hence arise the seven penitential Psalms — 
VL, XXXIL, XXXVIIL, LL, GIL, CXXX., 
CXLIIL 

Yet they teach not merely the conscious- 
ness of guilt, but also the consciousness of 
rectitude before God, in virtue of which the 
righteous man may expect the fulfillment 
of God's promises. The doctrine of recom- 
pense is placed in Psalm I. at the head of 
the Psalter. Out of the conflict of the ex- 
perience of life with this divine ordinance 
of recompense, out of the sufferings and op- 
pression of the righteous while the ungodly 
are happy and triumph, comes that pleading 
of the saints with God, that entreaty for 
help against the oppressors, for judgment 
on the wicked, which runs through a great 
number of Psalms, especially of David's. 
The sentiment of these Psalms is usually that 
the contradiction between the divine right- 
eousness and the lot of the pious and the 
ungodly is overcome alone in faith. The 
righteous man who appears already given 
over to destruction must nevertheless be 
saved; the wicked man who thinks him- 
self so secure must nevertheless be given 
over to the judgment ; otherwise Jehovah 
would not be Jehovah. Some of these 
Psalms have been called imprecatory, or vin- 
dictive Psalms, because in them the Psalmist 
calls down the vengeance of God upon his 
enemies and persecutors. The strongest 
are Psalms LIX., LXIX., and CIX. Instead 
of being shocked at them, and drawing 
from them, as is often done, attacks upon 
the divinity of the O. T., we must under- 
stand them rightly. That it is not private 
passion, as many allege, which there breathes 
itself forth in cursing and threatening, but 
jealousy for the house of God and his hon- 
or put to shame in his servants, it is easy 



PSALMS 



780 



PSALMS 



to perceive. Compare, for example, the far 
from vindictive conduct of David when Saul 
was completely in his power (1 Sam. xxiv.), 
and the terrible language of one of those 
Psalms arising out of that occasion (e. g., 
Psalm LVIII.), and we find the key to them 
all. David can forget the wrongs done to 
himself as a man, and, in the spirit of true 
forgiveness, suffers him who is seeking his 
life to depart unharmed. But he can not 
forget the wrongs of his God, and, going into 
his presence, he pours out his indignation at 
the enemies of Jehovah. Restraining his 
passion before men, he unbosoms himself 
completely to his God, as a child to his fa- 
ther. The imprecatory Psalms are through- 
out the utterance of the spirit expressed 
in Psalm CXXXIX. : " Do not I hate them, 
oh Lord, that hate thee? and am not I 
grieved with those that rise up against 
thee ? I hate them with perfect hatred ; I 
count them mine enemies." 

Others of the third class of Psalms offer 
to the pious man, in those assaults of doubt 
which threaten to shipwreck his faith, a con- 
solation in the eternity of God surviving the 
vicissitudes of the generations of men. They 
show that the communion of the pious man 
with God is in itself indissoluble and inde- 
structible, and hence must survive death. 
They give the solution of the riddle of earth- 
ly life in the certainty of everlasting life. 
To grasp this certainty, to be raised mo- 
mentarily above the grave and the kingdom 
of death, is given to David in Psalm XVI., 
to Asaph in Psalm LXXIII. But what the 
Psalmists here express goes beyond the O. 
T., and finds its realization in Him who has 
taken away the power from death, in Him 
in whom is harmoniously fulfilled what the 
Psalms testify of the Prince of Victory and 
of Peace presenting himself in willing obe- 
dience as a living sacrifice, glorified through 
suffering. Hence the Lord, when, after his 
resurrection, he opened his disciples' under- 
standings with respect to the O. T., showed 
them in the Psalms also what ivas written 
of him. [ Luke xxiv. , 44 . ] 



The book of Psalms is, above all other 
portions of the O. T. Scripture, that which 
from the first has been most used by the 
Christian Church, and which she has cher- 
ished as one of her noblest inheritances. 
From this Israelitish book of song and prayer 
not only have the liturgies of the Christian 
Church drawn many of their parts, but from 
it also has the sacred hymnology of the 
Church proceeded. How can we suitably 
express the benefit which believers of all 
time have received from these songs? The 
Psalter is a source never to be exhausted, 
from which we are ever called to draw 
anew. . The Psalms acquaint us with the 
manifold situations in life in which the 
servants of God were placed, and show us 
how, in these circumstances, their heart 
stood with God, and how they spake with 
him. All pains, griefs, fears, doubts, hopes, 
cares, anxieties, the stormy impulses by 
which the minds of men are driven hither 
and thither, are here placed by the Holy 
Ghost in a living manner before our eyes. 
Hence it is that the Psalter is the book 
of all the saints ; and every one, in what- 
ever circumstances he is, finds Psalms and 
words therein which exactly suit his cir- 
cumstances, and make him certain that he 
is in the fellowship of the saints, and that 
it has happened to all the saints as it hap- 
pens to him, because they sing one song 
with him. 

The annexed table, which we have taken 
from a similar one in the Appendix to Town- 
send's " Notes on the Old Testament," while 
it is l)y no means founded upon certain knowl- 
edge, is perhaps as satisfactory a statement 
as can be arranged. It indicates the proba- 
ble occasion on which each Psalm was com- 
posed, and the Scripture which illustrates it 
and after which it should be read ; and there 
is, perhaps, no commentary which throws so 
much light on the true rendering and inter- 
pretation of the Psalms as a knowledge of 
the circumstances under which they were 
respectively composed, and the experiences 
out of which they respectively sprang. 



Psalm. 


After what Scripture. 


I. 


Neh.xiii.,3 


11. 


2Sara.vii.,29 


III. 


2 Sam. XV., 29 


IV., V. 


2 Sam. xvii., 29 ... . 


VI. 


1 Chrou. xxviii., 21 


VII. 


2 Sam.xvi.,14 


VIII. 


1 Chron. xxviii., 21 


IX. 


1 Sam. xvii)., 4 .... 


X. 


Dan. vii.,28 


XI. 


1 Sam.xix., 3 


XII. 


1 Chron. xxviii., 1 . 


XIII.-XV. 


Dan. vii.,28 


XVI. 


2 Sam.vii.,29 


XVII. 


1 Sam.xxii.,19.... 


XVIII. 


2 Sam. xxii., 51 


XIX. 


1 Chrou. xxviii., 21 


XX., XXL 


2 Sam. X., 19 


XXII. 


2 Sam.vii., 29 


XXIII., XXIV. 


1 Chron. xviii., 21 . 


XXV.-XXVII. 


Dau. vii., 28 



Probable occasion on which 



Written by Ezra, as a preface to the book of Psalms 

fOu the delivery of the promise by Nathan to David) 

( —a prophecy of Christ's kingdom / 

On David's flight from Absalom 

Dnring the flight from Absalom 

Inserted toward the end of David's life 

On the reproaches of Shimei 

Inserted toward the end of David's life 

On the victory over Goliath 

Daring the Babylonish Captivity 

When David was advised to flee to the mountains 

Inserted toward the end of David's life 

During the Babylonish Captivity 

On the delivery of the promise by Nathan to David 

On the murder of the priests by Doeg 

On the conclusion of David's wars 

Inserted toward the end of David's life 

On the war with the Ammonites and Syrians 

On the delivery of the promise by Nathan to David .... 

Inserted toward the end of David's life 

Daring the Babylonish Captivity 



444 

1044 

1024 
1023 

1024 

1063 
539 
1002 



539 

1044 I 
1060 I 
1019 j 

1038 1 
1044 I 

53'J 



PSALMS 



781 



PSALMS 



Psalm. 


After what Scripture. 


Probable occasion on which composed. 


Date 

B.C. 


XXVIII., XXIX. 

XXX. 

XXXI. 

XXXIT., XXXIII. 

XXXIV. 

XXXV. 

XXXVL, XXXVII. 

XXXVIII.-XLI. 

XLIL, XLIII. 

XLIV. 

XLV. 

XLVL 

XL VII. 

XLVIIL 

XLIX., L. 

LI. 

LII. 

LIIL 

LIV. 

LV. 

LVI. 

LVIL 

LVIII. 

LIX. 

LX. 

LXI. 

LXIL 

LXIIL 

LXIV. 

LXV. 

LXVI. 

LXVII. 

LXVIII. 

LXIX. 

LXX., LXXL 

LXXIL 

LXXIIL 

LXXIV. 

LXXV., LXXVL 

LXXVII. 

LXXVIIL 

LXXIX. 

LXXX. 

LXXXL 

LXXXIL 

LXXXIIL 

LXXXIV. -- 

LXXXV. 

LXXXVI. 

LXXXVII. 

LXXXVIIL 

LXXXIX. 

XC. 

XCL 

XCII., XCIIL 

XCIV. 

xcv. 

XCVE. 

XCVII.-C. 

CL 

CIL 

CIIL 

CIV. 

CV., CVI. 

CVII. 
CVIII. 
CIX. 

ex. 

exi.-cxiv. 

cxv. 

ex VI., CXVIL 

CXVIII. 
CXIX. 
CXX.-CXXIL 
CXXIII. 
CXXIV. 

cxxv. 

CXXVL 
CXXVIL, CXXVlU. 

CXXIX. 

exxx. 

CXXXL 

CXXXIL 
CXXXIIL 
CXXXIV. 

CXXXV., exxxvi. 


1 Chron.xxviii., 21 
1 Chron. xxi., 30 . . 

1 Sam. xxiii., 12... 

2 Sam. xii., 15 

1 Sam. xxi., 15 

1 Sam. xxii., 19.... 
Dan. vii., 28 

1 Chron. xxviii., 21 

2 Sam.xvii., 29 

2 Kings xix., 7 

2 Sara, vii., 29 

2 Chron. xx., 26 . . . 

2 Chron. v., 10 

Ezra vi., 22 

Dan. vii., 28 

2Sam. xii., 15 

1 Sam. xxii., 19. . . . 
Dan. vii., 28 

1 Sam. xxiii., 23. . . 

2 Sam. xvii., 29 

1 Sam. xxi., 15 

1 Sam. xxiv., 22 ... 
1 Sam. xxiv., 22 . . : 

1 Sam. xix., 17 

1 Kings xi., 20 

1 Chron. xxviii., 21 

2 Sam. xvii., 29 

1 Sam. xxiv., 22 ... 
1 Sam. xxii., 19.... 

1 Chron. xxviii., 21 

Ezra iii., 13 

Dan. vii., 28 

2 Sam. vi., 11 

1 Chron. xxviii., 21 

2 Sam. xvii., 29 

1 Chron. xxix., 19 . 

2 Kings xix., 19 ... 

Jer. xxxix., 10 

2Chron.xxxii.,23. 
Dan. vii., 28 

1 Chron. xxviii., 21 

Jer. xxxix., 10 

Dan. vii., 28 

Ezra vi., 22 

2 Chron. xix., 7 ... 

Jer. xxxix., 10 

Ezra iii., 13 

Ezra i:, 4 

1 Chron. xxviii., 21 

Ezra iii., 7 

Exod. ii.,25 

Dan. vii., 28 

Numb, xiv., 45 

1 Chron. xxviii., 10 

Dan. vii., 28 

Jer, xxxix., 10 

1 Chron. xxviii., 21 

1 Chron. xvi., 43... 

2 Chron. v., 10 

1 Chron. xxviii., 21 

Dan.ix.,27 

2Sam. xii., 15 

1 Chron. xxviii., 21 

1 Chron. xvi., 43 . . 

Ezra iii., 7 

1 Kings xi., 20 

2 Sam. xxii., 19 

2 Sam. vii., 29 

Ezraiii.,7 

2 Chron. XX., 26... 

Ezraiii.,7 

2 Sam. vii., 29 

Neh.xiii., 3 

1 Chron. xxviii., 21 

Dan. vii., 28 

1 Chron. xxviii., 21 

Ezraiii.,7 

Ezrai., 4 

Ezra iii., 7 

Ezraiv., 24 

Dan. vii., 28 

1 Chron. xxviii., 21 
1 Chron. XV., 14 ... 

1 Chron. xxviii., 21 
Ezra iii., 7 

2 Chron. v., 14 


Inserted toward the end of David's life 

On the dedication of the thresliing-floor of Araunah 


1017 
1060 
1035 
1060 
1060 
539 

1023 

710 
1044 

896 
1004 

515 

539 
1034 
1060 

539 
1060 
1023 
1060 
1058 
1058 
1061 
1040 

1023 
1058 
1060 

535 

539 

1045 

1023 
1015 
710 
588 
710 
539 

588 
539 
515 
897 
588 
535 
536 

536 
1571 

539 
1489 
1015 

539 

588 

1044 
1004 

538 
1035 

1044 

536 

1040 

1060 

1044 

536 

896 

536 

1044 

444 

539 

536 
536 

536 

535 
539 

1051 

536 
1004 


On the pardon of David's adultery 


On David's persecution by Doeg 

During the Babylonish Captivity 

Inserted toward the end of David's life 


(On David's resting by the river Jordan in his flight) 
\ from Absalom j" 


On the blasphemous message of Eab-shakeh 

On the delivery of the promise by Nathan to David 

On the victory of Jehoshaphat . 


On the removal of the Ark into the Temple 


On the dedication of the Second Temple 


During the Babylonish Captivity 

Confession of David after his adultery 




Durino" the Babylonish Captivity 




During the flight from Absalom 


When David was with the Philistines in Gath 

On David's refusal to kill Saul in the cave . . . 


Continuation of Psalm Ivii 


On the soldiers of Saul surrounding the house of David. 
Ou the conquest of Edom by Joab 


Inserted toward the end of David's life . . . 




Prayer of David in the Wilderness of Engedi 

On David's persecution by Saul ! 




On laying the foundation of the Second Temple 

During the Babylonish Captivity 

Ou the first removal of the Ark 


Inserted toward the end of David's life 






On the destruction of the city and Temple 


On the destruction of Sennacherib 

During the Babylonish Captivity 

Inserted toward the end of David's life 


On the destruction of the city and Temple 

During the Babylonish Captivity 


On the appointment of judges by Jehoshaphat 


On laying the foundation of the Second Temple 

On the decree of Cyru.s for the restoration of the Jews. . 
Inserted toward the end of David's life 


During the aSliction in Egypt 


On the shorteuino" of man's life etc 




Durino' the Babylonish Captivity . . . • ... 




Inserted toward the end of David's life 

(On the removal of the Ark from the house of Obed-) 

( edom j 

On the removal of the Ark into the Temple 

Inserted toward the end of David's life 

On the near termination of the Babylonish Captivity... 

On the pardon of David's adultery 

Inserted toward the end of David's life 

(On the removal of the Ark from the house of Obed-) 

\ edom / 

On the return from the Babylonish Captivity 

On the conquest of Edom by Joab 

On David's persecution by Doe"" . . . 




On the return from the Babylonish Captivity 




On the return from the Babylonish Captivity 


Manual of devotion by Ezra 




During the Babylonish Captivity .... 


Inserted toward the end of David's life 


On the decree of Cyrus for the restoration of the Jews.. 

On the return from the Babylonish Captivity 

(On the opposition of the Samaritans to the rebuilding) 
\ of the Temple j 




Inserted toward the end of David's life 


InsertejJ toward the end of David's life 

On the return from the Babylonish Captivity 

On the dedication of the Temple 



PSALTER 



782 



PUL 



Psalm. 


After what Scripture. 


Probable occasion on which composed. 


Date 

B.C. 


CXXXVII. 

CXXXVIII. 

CXXXIX. 

CXL. 

CXLI. 

CXLII. 

CXLIII., CXLIV. 

CXLV. 

CXLVI.-CL. 


Dan. vii., 2S 

Ezravi., 13... 

1 Chron. xiii.,4 

1 Sam. xxii., 19 

1 Sara, xxvii., 1.... 

1 Sam. xxii., 1 

2 Sam. xvii., 29.... 
2 Cliron. xxviii., 10 
Ezravi., 22 




539 

519 
1(148 
1060 
1055 
1060 
1023 
1015 

515 


Ou the rebuilding of the Temple 


Prayer of David when made king over all Israel 


Prayer of David when driven from Judea 


Prayer of David in the cave of Adullam 


During the war with Absalom 


David, when old, reviews his past life 


On the dedication of the Second Temple 



Psalter. The word Psalter is often used 
by ancient writers for the book of Psalms, 
considered as a separate book of Hol\^ Scrip- 
ture. It afterward obtained a more technical 
meaning, as the book in which the Psalms 
are arranged for the service of the Church. 
The Roman Catholic Psalter, for instance, 
does not follow the Scriptural order of the 
Psalms ; but they are arranged for the dif- 
ferent services in a different manner. In 
the English Psalter, as it exists in the Book 
of Common Prayer, the Psalms are arranged 
in such a way as to give a reading for every 
day in the month, and there are also special 
selections to be used in the discretion of the 
minister. The translation is not that of the 
King James version (i e., our common Bible), 
but the earlier version of Cranmer's Bible ; 
which accounts for the difference between 
the Psalms of the Prayer-book and those of 
the ordinary version of the Bible. 

Publicans. The Greek word translated 
publican describes the inferior officers em- 
ployed as collectors of the Roman revenue ; 
though the Latin word puhlicani, from which 
the English has been taken, was applied to 
a higher order of tax officers. The Roman 
Senate farmed the direct taxes and the cus- 
toms to capitalists, who undertook to pay a 
given sum into the treasury. Contracts of 
this kind fell naturally into the hands of 
the richest class of Romans. These sold or 
let out their contract to managers or direct- 
ors in the province, and under them were 
the actual cnstom-house officers, the publi- 
cans of the N. T., who were commonly na- 
tives of the province in which they were 
stationed. The system was essentially a 
vicious one. The publicans were encour- 
aged in the most vexatious and fraudulent 
exactions. They overcharged whenever they 
had an opportunity.^ They brought false 
charges of smuggling, in the hope of extort- 
ing hush-money.^ The employment brought 
out all the besetting vices of the Jewish 
character. The strong feeling of many Jews 
as to the absolute unlawfnlness of paying 
tribute at all made matters worse. In ad- 
dition to their other faults, accordingly, the 
publicans of the N. T. were regarded as trai- 
tors and apostates, defiled by their frequent 
intercourse with the heathen — willing tools 
of the oppressor. They were classed with 
sinners, with harlots, with the heathen. To 
eat and drink " with publicans " seemed to 



1 LukQ iii., 13.— 2 Luke xix., 8. 



the Pharisaic mind incompatible with the 
character of a recognized rabbi.^ These N. 
T. references are confirmed by the Talmud, 
which classes the publicans as thieves and 
assassins, and treats them as impostors ; and 
it accords also with what is known of the 
mode of tax -gathering in the East, where 
this same system is still kept up, and where 
the tax-gatherers are as odious as their all 
but universal practice of fraud, falsehood, 
and extortion can make them. 

Pudens, a Christian at Rome whose salu- 
tation St. Paul sent to Timothy. He is sup- 
posed to be the husband of Claudia men- 
tioned in the same place. A Pudens and 
Claudia, husband and wife, are mentioned by 
Martial, Claudia being described as a wom- 
an of British birth, of remarkable beauty 
and wit, and the mother of a flourishing 
family. A Latin inscription, found in 1723 
at Chichester, connects a Pudens with Brit- 
ain and with the Claudian name. There is 
some evidence, also, connecting this Claudia 
with the Christians, which has led many 
scholars to entertain the opinion that the 
Pudens and Claudia referred to by Paul are 
those referred to by the classical writers. 
[2 Tim. iv., 21.] 

Pul. The Biblical Pul— the " king of As- 
syria," who came up against the land of Is- 
rael, and received from Men ahem a thou- 
sand talents of silver, '^ that his hand might 
be with him to confirm the kingdom in his 
land," is unnoticed in the native inscrip- 
tions, and even seems to be excluded from 
the royal lists by the absence of any name 
at all resembling his in the proper place in 
the Assyrian canon. Pul appears in Scrip- 
ture to be the immediate predecessor of Tig- 
lath-pileser, and some portion of his reign 
must necessarily fall into the period assign- 
ed to Shalmaneser HI., Asshur-dumim-il II., 
and Asshur-lush. But no one of these names 
can possibly be regarded as an equivalent 
of Pnl, who thus is excluded from the As- 
syrian records. Some would regard him as 
a general of Tiglath-pileser, or some earlier 
Assyrian king, mistaken by the Jews for 
the actual monarch. Others would identify 
him with Tiglath-pileser himself. But the 
most probable supposition is, that he was a 
pretender to the Assyrian crown, never ac- 
knowledged at Nineveh, but established in 
the western and soutliern provinces so firm- 
ly that he could venture to conduct an ex- 



Matt, ix., 11 ; xi., 19 ; xviii., IT ; xxi., 31, 32. 



PUNISHMENTS 



783 



PURGATORY 



pedition into Lower Syria, and to claim 
there the fealty of Assyria's vassals. Or, 
possibly, he may have been a Babylonian 
monarch, who in the troublous times of the 
Northern Empire possessed himself of the 
Euphrates Valley, and thence descended into 
Syria and Palestine. The time of Pul's in- 
vasion may be fixed by combining Assyrian 
and Hebrew chronologies between B.C. 751 
and B.C. 745, within the eight years of the 
reign of Asshur-hush, Tiglath-pileser's im- 
mediate successor. [2 Kings xv., 19, 20.] 

Punishment, Punishments. There are a 
variety of penalties prescribed by the Mosa- 
ic law ; others, though not specially enacted, 
seem to have grown out of circumstances, or 
to have been adopted from foreign nations ; 
still others are alluded to in Scripture which 
were not inflicted by any Hebrew law or cus- 
tom, but which were used by foreigners with 
whom the Israelites had been brought into 
contact. 

Punishments may be distributed into those 
of a secondary or inferior kind, which did not 
touch the life, and those which were capital. 

I. Of the former class may be enumerated : 

1. Whijijnng. This was specially ordered 
for certain oifenses; and magistrates seem 
to have had a discretionary power of inflict- 
ing it in other cases. The number of stripes 
w^as never to exceed forty. Consequently, 
as a whip with three thongs was generally 
used, thirteen strokes were given ; so that 
the actual punishment was "forty stripes 
save one."^ 

2. Retaliation. This was frequently order- 
ed, with a particular minuteness of specifica- 
tion, " breach for breach, eye for eye, tooth 
for tooth," etc. It must be remembered, 
however, that this was a rule for judicial 
procedure, that it really limited the punish- 
ment, preventing excessive and unreasona- 
ble penalties, and that it did not sanction 
private revenge.^ 

3. On a similar principle, restitution and 
compensation were to be made. Hence the 
trespass-offering comprised amends and an 
addition by way of fine ; and theft, fraud, 
or carelessness was compensated for by a 
fine, varying from double to fivefold the 
amount of injury inflicted by the wrong- 
doer.^ 

4. Banishment, in the form of shutting up 
a person to his own estate, or to some speci- 
fied locality, or by exclusion from the sov- 
ereign's presence, was practiced under the 
monarchy.'' 

5. PlucMng out the hair, the stoclcs, and im- 
jprisonment were introduced as punishments 
at a later date.^ The latter was usual among 
the Egyptians.® The Romans, also, inflict- 
ed imprisonment, the stocks, whipx)ing with 



1 Deut. XXV., 1-3 ; 2 Cor. xi., 24.-2 Exod. xxi., 23-25 ; 
Deut. xix., 18-21.— 3 Exod. xxi., 33-36 ; xxii., 1-15 ; Lev. 
v., 14^16; vi., 1-7; Dent, xxii., IS, 19.—* 2 Sam. xiv., 
24; 1 Kings ii., 26, 36, 37.— ^ Neh.xiii,, 25; Jer. xx., 2; 
xxxvii., 15 ; xxxviii., 6.—^ Gen. xxxix., 20-23 ; xl., 2-4. 



rods, and a modified form of confinement, the 
prisoner being allowed a certain degree of 
freedom, but being chained to a Roman sol- 
dier.^ 

II. Of capital punishments. 

1. Stoning was the general mode of execu- 
tion. The two witnesses who were required 
in order to the condemnation of any accused 
person were, on the infiiction of the sentence, 
to cast the first stones ; afterward the people 
generally were to join.^ After a criminal had 
been stoned or otherwise executed, his body 
was sometimes hung, but not for a longer 
time than till sunset.^ Occasionally, how- 
ever, hanging was the mode of execution.* 
Sometimes the body was burned after death, 
and sometimes, apparently, as a means of ex- 
ecuting the death-sentence.^ 

2. Beheading is not mentioned in the law, 
but in later times it was a frequent method 
of execution.® 

3. There were other methods of capital 
punishment which were practiced by the 
populace in a sudden passion, or were bor- 
rowed from foreign nations, or are mention- 
ed in the Bible as practiced by them. Such 
were casting the accused down from some 
eminence, cutting in pieces, sawing asunder, 
casting to wild beasts, and drowning.'' The 
punishment of crucifixion was introduced by 
the Romans, and is separately treated of un- 
der that title. 

There was no recognized executioner, 
though sometimes some high officer of state 
was charged with the task of putting crim- 
inals to death, as Potiphar in Egypt, and 
Benaiah in Solomon's court ; and sometimes 
soldiers were employed. And in case of 
murder, the avenger of blood inflicted the 
penalty himself.^ For an account of ec- 
clesiastical punishments, see Discipline ; 
Excommunication; for a consideration of 
divine punishments, see Future State, and 
articles there referred to ; and Everlasting. 

Purgatory, a place in which, according to 
the Romish Church, souls are purged by fire 
from carnal impurities after death before 
they are received into heaven. This doc- 
trine is intimately interwoven with its doc- 
trine of repentance and forgiveness of sins. 
The Romanists hold, in opposition to the 
Protesant faith, that Christ does not bring 
a full and perfect pardon, but only affords 
a way whereby eternal punishment may be 
escaped; and that while contrition (q. v.) 



1 Acts xvi., 22-24; xxii., 24; xxviii., 16; 2 Cor. xi., 
23, 25; 2 Tim. i., 16.-2 Deut. xiii., 9, 10; xvii., 5-7.— 
3 Deut. xxi,, 22, 23 ; Josh, x., 26, 27.—* Numb, xxv., 4 ; 
2 Sam. iv., 12.— ^ Gen. xxxviii., 24; Lev. xx., 14; xxi., 
9 ; Josli. vii., 25.-6 Judg. viii., 20, 21 ; ix., 5 ; 1 Sam . xv., 
33 ; xxii., 18 ; 2 Sam. i.", 15; xx., 22 ; 1 Kings ii., 25, 34, 
46; xviii., 40; xix., 1; 2 Kings vi., 31, 32; x., 6, 7; 2 
Chron. xxi., 4; Jer. xxvi., 23; Matt, xiv., 8-11; Acts 
xii., 2.-7 2 Kings ix., 30-33 ; 2 Cliron. xxv., 12 ; Dan. 
ii., 5 ; iii., 29 ; vi., 7, 12, 16, 24 ; Matt, xviii., 6 ; Mark ix., 
42 ; Luke iv., 28-30 ; 1 Cor. xv., 32 ; Heb. xi., 37.-8 Gen. 

I xxxvii., 36, and see Potiphar; 1 Sam. i., 15; iv., 12; 
1 Kings ii., 25-46 ; John xix., 23 ; Acts vii., 57-60; xxvi., 

[ 11. See Cities of Refuge ; Tbial. 



PURIFICATION 



784 



PUEITANS 



secures forgiveness of sins, the ordinary ex- 
periences of penitence, attrition, must be sup- 
plemented by penance. In other words, it 
is necessary, according to Eomish tlieology, 
to complete salvation and j)urification, that 
the soul should suffer a part of the penalty 
of its sins, and if these are not voluntarily 
borne in penances in this life, they will be 
inflicted in purgatory in the life to come, 
except when special suft'ering, inflicted by 
divine Providence, serves the same purify- 
ing purpose. The doctrine of purgatory 
does not, therefore, involve the idea of the 
future redemption of the impenitent. ^' The 
souls who go to purgatory are only such as 
die in the state of grace, united to Jesus 
Christ. It is their imperfect works for 
which they are condemned to that place 
of suffering, and which must all be there 
consumed, and their stains purged away 
from them before they can go to heaven." 
The passages of Scripture which the Ro- 
manists quote in support of this doctrine 
are Matt, v., 25 (the " prison " therein refer- 
red to being interpreted by them to mean 
purgatory) ; Isa. iv., 4 ; xxii., 14 ; Mai. iii., 3 ; 
1 Cor. iii., 13-15 ; Rev. xxi., 27. Their prin- 
cipal authority, however, is a passage in the 
Apocrypha.^ The doctrine of purgatory has 
led to others more directly injurious and cor- 
rupting. By the terror which it inspires it 
gives the priesthood power to impose pen- 
ances; it leads to indulgences (q. v.) and 
prayers for the dead ; for it is held that the 
sufferings in purgatory may be greatly mit- 
igated and shortened by the prayers, the 
services, the masses, the charities, and oth- 
er works of supererogation of their friends 
upon the earth. The extent to which this 
doctrine has been employed in increasing the 
income of the Church receives a significant il- 
lustration in one singular fact. There exists 
a purgatorial insurance company which, for 
a certain premium paid annually, insures the 
payor a given number of masses for his soul 
in the event of his death, and the certificates 
of this insurance company may be seen hung 
up on the walls in hundreds of rooms in the 
tenement-houses of our great cities, especial- 
ly of New York. 

Purification. In its legal and technical 
sense, purification is applied to the ritual 
observances whereby an Israelite was form- 
ally absolved from the taint of uncleanness 
(q. v.). In all cases the essence of purifica- 
tion consisted in the use of water, whether 
by way of ablution or aspersion ; but in the 
majority of cases of legal uncleanness, sac- 
rifices of various kinds were added, and the 
ceremonies throughout bore an expiatory 
character. The purifications of the law fall 
under three heads ; first, those for defilement 
arising from secretions; second, those for 
the leprosy; third, those for pollution from 
corpses. The first and second classes are 
' i"2 Mace, xii., 32-46. 



described in Lev. sii.-xv. ; the third, as re- 
lates to human bodies, in Numb, xix., and 
as relates to bodies of animals, in Lev. xi., 
24-28, 31-40. The Pharisees of the N. T. 
age extended the necessity of purifications 
to a variety of unauthorized cases. See 
Washing. 

Purim (?ofs),the annual festival instituted 
to commemorate the delivery of the Jews by 
Esther from the massacre with which they 
were threatened. Haman spent a full year 
in casting lots to determine an auspicious 
time for the destruction of the Jews ;^ this 
gave time for the development of plans for 
their delivery, and the Jews, in derision of 
Hamau's lot -casting, named their festival 
the Feast of Lots. It is observed in the 
month of Adar — nearly answering to our 
March'^ — by a strict fasting on the 13th, 
and by a festival of unbounded rejoicing on 
the 14th and 15th. All — men, women, chil- 
dren, cripples, and even idiots — are obliged 
to attend the synagogue service, at which 
the book of Esther is read. These services 
are followed by feasting, dancing, games, 
and sometimes a quaint dramatic entertain- 
ment, celebrating the national triumph over 
Haman. It is also made an occasion of mu- 
tual presents and of gifts to the poor.^ It 
is held in very high esteem. "The Temple 
may fail, but Purim never," is a Jewish 
proverb. But it is not always celebrated 
with decorum. The Rabbinical teachings 
recommend that on that day the pious Jew 
"make himself so mellow that he shall not 
be able to distinguish between ' Cursed be 
Haman' and ' Blessed be Mordecai ;' " and in 
their evening merry-making men frequently 
put on female attire, declaring that the fes- 
tivities of Purim suspend, for the time, the 
law of Dent, xxii., 5, which forbids one sex 
to wear the dress of another. The question 
whether the feast spoken of in John v., 1, is 
that of Purim or the Passover, is uncertain. 

Puritans. We have already elsewhere de- 
scribed briefly the history of the Reforma- 
tion in England.* The compromise, which 
resulted in the Established Church of En- 
gland, gave great dissatisfaction to the more 
advanced and radical reformers, whose ideas 
respecting theology and church government 
were the same as those of Calvin, with whom 
the Reformation involved not only a change 
of ecclesiastical authority, but a radical re- 
form in doctrine, and a personal liberty in 
matters political as well as religious, which 
was as little consonant to the aims of Henry 
VIII. and his advisers as it was with those 
of the pope himself. These more radical 
reformers increased in numbers during the 
reign of Queen Elizabeth, by whom they 
were rigorously persecuted. This very per- 
secution at once intensified their convic- 
tions, and organized them into a party whose 



1 Esth. iii., T.— 2 See Month.— 
I * Episcopalians ; REFOEiiATiON. 



Esth. Ls., 19, 22.— 



PUEITAl^S 



785 



PURITANS 



avowed fundameutal principles were an en- 
tire separation from tlie Church of Rome 
and from every thing which was historical- 
ly connected with it, and an acceptance of 
the Bible as the sole authority in the regu- 
lation of church order and discipline, as well 
as in doctrinal standards. Their name of 
Puritans was first given, probably in deris- 
ion, about the middle of the sixteenth cen- 
tury, to all who claimed to hold exclusive- 
ly to " the pure Word of God " as the only 
standard of faith and practice. The name, 
howcA'^er, was not confined to the members 
of any well-defined ecclesiastical party, but 
was applied popularly "to all that were 
staid and serious in a holy life." This is 
the sense in which the Elizabethan drama- 
tists use the word. From this very breadth 
of usage one sees that there were different 
degrees of Puritanism. Some would have 
been content with a moderate reform in the 
rites, discipline, and liturgy of the Church ; 
others wished to abolish Episcopacy alto- 
gether, and to substitute Presbyterianism ; 
while a third party maintained the doctrine 
of absolute independency in Church, and of 
a pure democracy in government. The bat- 
tle which culminated in the death of Charles 
I. was not less religious than political, the 
extreme absolutism of the Stuarts driving 
into the Puritan party for a time many who 
did not share their principles, while their 
extreme views when intrusted with power 
drove these middle-men back again, and so 
brought about, after the brief protectorate 
of Cromwell, the Restoration, and the final 
re-establishment of Episcopacy as the State 
religion. Since that time the old element of 
Puritanism in England, modified by changes 
in public sentiment, has found its expression 
among the Independents and Presbyterians. 
Before the civil war between Charles I, and 
his people broke out, many of the Puritans 
emigrated to America, where they became 
the founders of the New England States. 
The influence of their principles there upon 
the country is a part of the history of the 
United States. If it can not with justice be 
claimed that they gave shape and character 
to the institutions of freedom — a claim which 
ignores the work of the other colonies, and 
particularly of Virginia — it can not be doubt- 
ed, on the other hand, that their sturdy re- 
sistance to usurpation gave impetus to the 
Revolution, whose first clash of arms took 
[)lace in New England, and their religious 
and political principles exercised an impor- 
tant influence in giving stability to Ameri- 
can institutions when subsequently founded. 
The estimates which have been formed of 
the Puritans as a class have been very vari- 
ous. This is partly due to the fact that the 
term itself includes men of widely different 
character. The general principle on which 
they all professed to stand was the supreme 
authority of the pure Word of God. But 
50 



there was no agreement in the application 
of that principle ; some seeking in the Bible 
only for the general principles of morality 
and religion ; others, regarding it as a set of 
inflexible rules, seeking to conform their leg- 
islation to the laws of Moses, condemning all 
music except the chanting of the Psalms of 
David, and accounting it even unseemly to 
go anywhere else save to a Bible for names 
for their children. In their days of perse- 
cution they included fanatics ; in their pros- 
perity hypocrites joined them. They abol- 
ished Christmas because the papal Church 
celebrated saint days ; they rejected the fine 
arts because it employed painting and stat-, 
uary in a sensuous worship ; condemned all 
poetry because the popular poetry of their 
age was licentious; discouraged the study 
of the Latin grammar because certain of the 
Latin plays are heinously immoral. Never- 
theless, one w^ho studies the history of their 
times, and traces the course of the reforma- 
tion they set on foot, may well be surprised 
to observe how few and venial were the 
errors into which even excessive reaction 
pushed them. They sought for principles 
of jurisprudence in the Mosaic law. The 
fundamental principles of that law have 
been incorporated in the American constitu- 
tion. They looked askance on the study of 
the classics, because they were indifferent 
concerning the fabled exploits of the hea- 
then gods. Science in our modern schools 
usurps the place of the classics, because the 
world is now more interested to study what 
the true God does than what false gods 
were imagined to have done. They con- 
demned the garlanded May-pole and the vil- 
lage dance ; and this scene of hilarity, which 
oftened ripened into drunkenness and licen- 
tiousness, has made way for the lyceum and 
the library. They forbade bear-baiting ; the 
last remnant of this inheritance of heathen- 
ism has disappeared from American soil. 
They made cruelty to animals a civil of- 
fense. Mr. Bergh has revived in the nine- 
teenth century the Puritan legislation of 
the sixteenth. They banished from their 
society the music of Ben Jonson's masques 
and the poetry of King Charles's court. Nei- 
ther find a place in modern society outside 
of the French opera bouffe. They resolute- 
ly condemned the art of their age. Their 
statutory enactments are repeated in mod- 
ern legislation, which makes it a penal of- 
fense to sell or exhibit any obscene pictures. 
They put off the flowing robes and rainbow 
colors of the cavalier for sober garments of 
gray and black. Gray is the business hue, 
and black the society color of gentlemen's 
attire in all polite society in England and 
America to-day. They cropped their hair 
short, and were called Roundheads in deris- 
ion. We are all Roundheads. The man 
who wears the flowing curls of the cavalier 
is an object of well-deserved ridicule by men 



PUSEYITES 



786 



PYRAMID 



who little think what an unconscious compli- 
ment they are paying to Puritan taste. The 
world is loath to give credit to those to whom 
credit is due ; and that we owe even the cut 
of our hair and the color of our garments to 
the sober-dressed Puritans, is probably sus- 
pected by very few of those who have really, 
though unconsciously, borrowed from them 
even their fashions. 

Puseyites, a name given to those who 
maintain in the Episcopal Church High- 
church principles,^ but properly descriptive 
of the followers of Rev. E. B. Pusey, profess- 
or of Hebrew at Oxford, England. In the 
movement to which his name has been given 
he was, however, by no means alone. Asso- 
ciated with him were John Keble, author of 
the " Christian Year," Professor J. H. New- 
man, P. H. Froude, and others. The move- 
ment began with the publication of a series 
of Tracts, anonymously ; hence the adherents 
to the principles therein advocated are some- 
times called Tractarians. In these Tracts the 
doctrines of Apostolical Succession, Priest- 
ly Absolution, Baptismal Regeneration, the 
Real Presence, the authority of the Church, 
and the value of Tradition were taught ; the 
study of the fathers and the old divines, 
of Church history and ancient liturgies, was 
greatly revived in the universities and among 
the clergy ; and a host of publications, in- 
culcating with more or less extravagance 
the same views, issued from the press. The 
movement proceeded till it culminated in 
the publication by the Rev. J. H. Newman 
of the Tract No. 90, which was designed to 
show that much Roman doctrine might be 
held consistently with subscription to the 
Thirty -nine Articles. This led to the ter- 
mination of the series, to the resignation by 
Mr. Newman of the vicarage of St. Mary's, 
Oxford, and subsequently to his secession, 
in 1845, to the Church of Rome. In this 
step he was followed by many of his friends 
and associates, though the other leaders of 
the movement have continued in the En- 
glish Church. With Mr. Newman's seces- 
sion the Tractarian movement terminated ; 
but its effect remains in several visible re- 
sults : the revival and strengthening of the 
High-church party, which still maintains, to 
a great extent, the principles advocated in 
the Tracts ; the introduction of various al- 
terations in the mode of performing divine 
service, such as the use of the surplice in- 
stead of the gown, intoning the prayers and 
smgiug the responses, the elevation of the 
communion-table into an altar, the substi- 
tution of low, open benches for high pews, 
a remarkable impulse given to the building 
and restoration of churches, and the revival 
of Gothic architecture in all parts of En- 
gland ; the secession of many English cler- 
gy and laity, some of them men of consid- 
erable ability and distinction, to the Church 
* See Episcopalians. 



of Rome ; and the establishment of colleges, 
and sisterhoods, and other religious and 
charitable institutions, under Episcopal au- 
spices. 

PuteoH is the most sheltered part of the 
Bay of Naples. It was the principal port of 
Southern Italy, and, in particular, formed the 
great emporium for the Alexandrian wheat 
ships. Commerce brought many Jews to Pu- 
teoli. Thus it was that when the great 
apostle of the Gentiles landed here on his 
way to Rome, he found brethren ready to 
receive him and to speed him on his jour- 
ney. It is now called Puzzuoli. [Acts 
xxvii., 13; xxviii., 13, 14.] 

Pygarg, a clean animal, not described in 
Scripture, but simply mentioned in the Mo- 
saic law. It is called " bison " in the mar- 
gin, but for this there is no authority. From 
the connection it is evident that an ante- 
lope of some kind is intended, but it is im- 
possible to determine the species. As the 
nomenclature is exceedingly loose, it is not 
improbable that more than one species was 
included in the word. Modern commenta- 
tors have selected the large, handsome ante- 
lope known to naturalists as the addax, as 
the animal specially intended. [Deut. xiv., 
5.] 

Pjrramid,' a structure of the shape of the 
geometric figure, erected in different parts 
of the Old and New World, the most impor- 
tant being the Pyramids of Egypt and Mex- 
ico. Those of Egypt were considered one 
of the Seven Wonders of the World ; and 
they are seventy in number, and of different 
sizes. The most remarkable and finest are 
those of Gizeh, situated on a level space of 
the Libyan chain at Memphis, on the west 
bank of the Nile. The three largest are the 
most famous. The first, or Great Pyramid, 
covers at present an area of between twelve 
and thirteen acres, the side of its square 
measuring 746 feet; its height is 450 feet. 
Its dimensions have been reduced from a 
base of 764 feet and a height of 480 feet by 
the removal of the outer portions to furnish 
stone for the building of Cairo. The stones 
of which these enormous piles were con- 
structed are huge blocks of red or syeuitic 
granite, varying in thickness from two to 
four feet, and their transportation to the 
Pyramids and adjustment in their proper 
places indicate a surprising degree of me- 
chanical skill. Herodotus states that the 
Great Pyramid was built by Cheops, who 
stopped all other works connected with re- 
ligious rites, and compelled his people, to the 
number of ten thousand at a time, to labor 
at this vast undertaking ; at the end of ev- 
ery three months their places were supplied 
by the same number of fresh workmen. To 
facilitate the transportation of stone from 
the quarries a causeway was built 3000 feet 
long, 60 feet wide, and 48 feet in height. 

1 For picture of Egyptian Pyramids, see Egypt. 



PYTHAGOREANS 



787 



QUIVER 



Ten years were required for its completion. 
Twenty years more were consumed in the 
construction of the Pyramid itself. Although 
various opinions have prevailed as to the 
use of Pyramids, as that they were erected 
for astronomical purposes, for resisting the 
encroachment of the sand of the desert, for 
granaries, reservoirs, or sepulchres, the last- 
mentioned hypothesis has been proved to be 
correct, modern investigations showing that 
they were all the tombs of monarchs of 
Egypt. Their date is about 2500 B.C. Each 
one was commenced over a sepulchral cham- 



ber in the rock ; and during the lifetime of 
the monarch for whom it was intended the 
work of building the structure went on, a 
very low and narrow passage-way being kept 
open. On the death and burial of the king, 
the last layers were finished off and the 
passage-way closed up. 

Pythagoreans, the followers of Pythag- 
oras, a celebrated Greek philosopher, who 
flourished about five hundred years before 
the Christian era. His distinguishing doc- 
trine was that of the transmigration of 
souls. See Future State. 



Q. 



Quail. In every case where this word 
occurs in the Bible it is used with reference 
to the same event — namely, the providing 
of flesh-meat to the Israelites while in the 
wilderness. And it is remarkable how close- 
ly the Scripture narrative agrees with the 
habits of the quail. The Psalmist, describ- 
ing the manner of their coming, says that 
the Lord ^' caused an east wind to blow in 
the heaven, and by his power brought in 
the south wind." The Israelites had just 
passed the Red Sea, and the quails, flying 
northward in their usual migrations, would 
come to the coast of the Red Sea, and there, 
since they are birds of weak flight, must 
wait until a favorable wind enabled them 
to cross the water. The south-east wind af- 
forded just the very assistance which they 
needed. In Exodus it is mentioned that " at 
even the quails came up and covered the 
camp." When possible, quails always fly 
by night, and in this manner escape many 
of the foes which would make great havoc 
among their helpless columns if they were 
to fly by day. On account of their short 
wings, they never rise to any great height, 
even when crossing the sea ; and evidently 
the expression, "two cubits high upon the 
face of the earth," may refer to the low flight 
of the immense flock, exhausted by their 
flight across the sea, and hence easily taken 
in great numbers. The Arabs at the pres- 
ent day preserve these birds for future use 
by drying them in the sun, precisely as the 
Israelites are said to have done. [Exod. 
xvi., 13 ; Numb, xi., 32 ; Psa. Ixxviii., 27.] 

Quaternion, a company of four soldiers. 
According to the Roman habit, the night was 
divided into four watches, and each com- 
mitted to four soldiers, to two of whom the 
prisoner was chained, the other two keeping 
watch before the doors of the prison. To 
such a guard reference is made in Acts xii., 
4. The latter of them formed the first and 
second guards referred to in verse 10. 



Queen. As the Hebrews practiced polyg- 
amy, there was no woman exactly in the po- 
sition denoted by our term queen. General- 
ly speaking, the queen was merely the chief 
wife, who took precedence in her husband's 
harem, or who was one of his consorts, as dis- 
tinguished from concubines.^ The mother 
of the reigning sovereign, or Queen-mother, 
was in dignity and power superior to any 
of his wives. The extent of her influence 
is well illustrated by the narrative of the 
interview of Solomon and Bath-sheba, as 
given in 1 Kings ii., 19. 

Quicksands. The quicksands referred to 
in Acts xxvii., 17, were the Syrtes, two exten- 
sive banks of dangerous shallows or quick- 
sands, stretching along the African coast, 
between Carthage and Cyrene. They were 
commonly divided into the Greater and 
Smaller Syrtes, and belong respectively to 
what are now called the gulfs of Sidra and 
Cabes. A wind blowing from the north- 
east naturally threatened to drive the ship 
in which Paul was on to these banks. See 
Paul. 

Quiver. The form of the Jewish quiver 
is not known with certainty. There is noth- 
ing in Scripture to indicate its character or 
material, or the manner in which it was car- 
ried. The quivers of the Assyrians are rare- 
ly indicated in the Scriptures. When they 
do appear they are worn at the back, with 
the top between the shoulders of the wear- 
er, or hung at the side of the chariot. The 
Egyptian warriors, on the other hand, wore 
them slung nearly horizontal, drawing out 
the arrows from beneath the arm. The quiv- 
er was about four inches in diameter, sup- 
ported by a belt passing over the shoulder 
and across the breast to the opposite side. 
When not in actual use, it was shifted be- 
hind. Quivers were sometimes attached to 
the war chariots. [Gen. xxvii., 3 ; Isa. xxii., 
6; xliv., 2; Lam. iii., 13.] 



1 2 Chron. xi., 21. 



EABBAH 



788 



EAHAB 



R. 



Rabbah (much, great), a city of the Am- 
monites, called Bal)hatli-heni-Ammon in Deut. 
iii., 11, and Ezek. xxi., 20. The allusion to 
it in Deuteronomy is quite incidental, and 
is made in connection Tvith Israel's conquest 
of the kingdom of Og, king of Bashan, whose 
territory lay to the north of the Ammonites, 
but whose huge bedstead had somehow come 
to be placed in Eabbah. Eabbah itself, how- 
ever, sustained no attack from the children 
of Israel w^hen on the way to Canaan ; they 
merely met with certain incivilities from 
Ammon, but no actual conflict ensued. But 
a hostile spirit continued to animate the 
people of Ammon, leading to occasional out- 
breaks, and at last Eabbah was besieged 
and taken by David for the ill-treatment of 
his ambassadors by the Ammonites. Noth- 
ing is said, however, of the extent of the 
demolitions made upon Eabbah ; but when 
we next hear of it, two or three centuries 
later, it appears again as an important place, 
and the capital city of the Ammonites. In 
later times it received the name Philadel- 
phia, from Ptolemy Philadelphus, and by 
this name was known in Greek and Eoman 
writers and in Josephus. It must not, how- 
ever, be confounded with the Philadelphia 
(q. V.) mentioned in Eev. i., 11. The name 
by which the ruins are now known is Am- 
man ; they are of large extent, and indicate 
a place that once had been populous and 
powerful. The site of them is twenty-two 
miles east from the Jordan, on the banks of 
a stream, the Moret Amman, the chief source 
of which rises near the south-western end 
of the to^Ti, and itself forms one of the trib- 
utaries of the Zerka. [Josh, xiii., 25 ; 2 Sam. 
xi., 1 ; xii., 27-29 ; xvii., 27 ; 1 Chron. xx., 1 ; 
Jer. xlix., 2, 3; Ezek. xxi., 20; xxv., 5-7; 
Amos i., 14.] 

Rab-shakeh, one of Sennacherib's milita- 
ry officers. The word, which signifies chief 
cup-hearer, is probably an official epithet, and 
not a personal name. He was sent against 
Jerusalem in the reign of Hezekiah. Some 
have imagined, from the familiarity of Eab- 
shakeh with Hebrew, that he was either a 
Jewish deserter or an apostate captive. [2 
Kings xviii., 18-36 ; xix., 4-8 ; Isa. xxxvi., 
2-22; xxxvii., 4-8.] 

Rachel (a ewe), the younger and more 
beautiful daughter of Labau, the best -be- 
loved wife of Jacob (q. v.), who, for love of 
her, served her father (who was also his 
uncle) seven years, " and they seemed unto 
him but a few days." By a cruel decep- 
tion,^ Leah was given to him in Eachel's 
stead, and he served for her yet seAxn years 
more. Leah bore to Jacob several sons, and 
1 Geu. sxix., 15-30. 



Eachel, who had none, besought the Lord 
for a son, that her reproach might be taken 
away, and Joseph was given to her in an- 
swer. When Jacob left Padan-aram, Eachel 
stealthily carried away her father's images, 
or household gods,^ and deceitfully secreted 
them ; indicating not only that she shared 
the prevalent idolatry, but also had some- 
what of the cunning which was a character- 
istic of her father's family. She died imme- 
diately after giving birth to a second son, 
whom she called Benoni (son of my sorrow), 
but whom Jacob called Benjamin (q. v.). 
She was buried near Ephrath, or Bethlehem, 
Although the pillar which Jacob set up on 
her grave has long since disappeared, its 
memory has remained. The territory of the 
Benjamites was extended by a long strip far 
into the south, to include the sepulchre of 
their beloved ancestress.^ As late as the 
Christian era, when the infants of Bethle- 
hem^ were slaughtered by Herod, it seemed 
to the Evangelist as though the voice of 
Eachel were heard weeping for her children 
from her neighboring grave. On the spot 
indicated by the sacred narrative, a rude 
cupola, under the name of Eachel's tomb, 
still attracts the reverence of Christians, 
Jews, and Mussulmans. 

Radicals. This word, taken from a Latin 
word signifying root, strictly speaking means 
root men. It would thus indicate, as applied 
to reformers, all those who desire thorough 
measures of reform, measures which go to 
the root of things, and apply the cure there, 
not merely at the branches. In this sense, 
however, all Christian philosophers would 
claim to be radicals. In this sense it has 
been truly said that both Jesus Christ and 
Paul were intense radicals. It is, in com- 
mon language, more ordinarily used to in- 
dicate those who disregard wholly the old 
methods and the common opinions of man- 
kind, and in their reformatory views and 
measures seem to the judgment of most men 
to lack prudence and practical wisdom. In 
religion the term is applied, chiefly in the 
United States, to those who, formerly con- 
nected with the Unitarian Church, have be- 
come extreme in their views, and, from deny- 
ing the proper deity of Christ, have passed 
on to deny his divine mission and his su- 
perhuman character, and to substitute their 
own conscience and reason as superior to the 
Bible. They do not constitute any organ- 
ized sect, however, and the term more prop- 
erly descriptive of their views is Eationalism 
(q. v.). 

Rahab (large), a woman of Jericho, who 
received into her house the two spies who 



See Tebaphim.— 3 1 Sam. s., 2.-3 Matt, ii., 18. 



EAHAB 



789 



EAMOTH-GILEAD 



Tvere sent by JosTma into that city; con- 
cealed them under the flax laid out upon 
the house-top when they were sought after ; 
and, having given them important informa- 
tion, which showed that the inhabitants were 
much disheartened at the miracles which 
had attended the march of the Israelites, 
enabled them to escape over the wall of the 
town, upon which her dwelling was situa- 
ted. For this important service Rahab and 
her kindred were saved by the Hebrews from 
the general massacre which followed the 
taking of Jericho. As a case of casuistry, 
her conduct, in deceiving the king of Jeri- 
cho's messengers with a false tale, and above 
all, in taking part against her own country- 
men, has been much discussed. With regard 
to the first, strict truth, either in Jew or 
heathen, was a virtue so utterly unknown 
before the promulgation of the Gospel, that, 
as far as Rahab is concerned, the discussion 
is quite superfluous. With regard to her 
taking part against her own countrymen 
it is fully justified by the circumstances that 
fidelity to her country would, in her case, 
have been infidelity to God, and that the 
higher duty to her Maker eclipsed the lower 
duty to her native land. If her own life of 
shame was in any way connected with that 
idolatry, one can readily understand what a 
further stimulus this would give, now that 
her heart was purified by faith, to her desire 
for the overthrow of the nation to which she 
belonged by birth, and the establishment 
of that to which she wished to belong by a 
community of faith and hope. And this 
view of Rahab's conduct is fully borne out 
by the references to her in the N. T.^ Some 
Christian interpreters, following the ancient 
Jewish writers, have endeavored to efface 
the stain cast upon Rahab's character by the 
Scriptural declaration that she was a harlot, 
by substituting the word hostess or inn- 
keeper ; but it is now universally admitted 
by every sound Hebrew scholar that the 
translation of our English Bible is correct. 
There were no inns ; and when certain sub- 
stitutes for inns eventually came into use, 
they were never, in any Eastern country, 
kept by women. On the other hand, stran- 
gers from beyond the river might have re- 
paired to the house of a harlot without sus- 
picion or remark. The Bedouins from the 
desert constantly do so at this day, in their 
visits to Cairo and Bagdad. If we are 
concerned for the morality of Rahab, the 
best proof of her reformation is found in the 
fact of her subsequent marriage to Salmon : 
this implies her previous conversion to Ju- 
daism, for which, indeed, her discourse with 
the spies evinces that she was prepared. 
Rahab subsequently became the mother of 
Boaz, Jesse's grandfather, and so the mother 
of the line from which sprung David, and 
eventually Christ ; for that the Rachab men- 
1 Heb. xi., 31 ; Jas. ii., 25. 



tioned by St. Matthew is Rahab the harlot 
is as certain as that David in the genealogy 
is the same person as David in the books of 
Samuel. [Josh, ii., 1 ; Josh, vi., 23.] 

Rainbo"w. The question has been raised 
whether the rainbow first appeared at the 
time of God's covenant with Noah.^ It ap- 
pears, at first sight, as if the words of the 
sacred record implied that this was the first 
rainbow ever seen on earth. But it would 
be doing no violence to the text to believe 
that the rainbow had been already a famil- 
iar sight, but that it was newly constituted 
the sign or token of a covenant, just as af- 
terward the familiar rite of baptism and the 
customary use of bread and wine were by 
our Lord ordained to be the tokens and 
pledges of the New Covenant ; and this we 
think is the better opinion. 

Rameses (son of the sun). There can be 
no reasonable doubt that the same city is 
designated by the Rameses and Raamses of 
the Hebrew text, and that this was the chief 
place of the land of Rameses, since all the 
passages refer to the same region. The 
name is Egyptian, and the same as that of 
several kings of the eighteenth, nineteenth, 
and twentieth dynasties. When it first oc- 
curs it is most probably the province, iden- 
tical with Goshen. It next occurs as the 
name of one of the store-cities built by the 
Israelites in their servitude. In the narra- 
tive of the Exodus, Rameses is mentioned as 
the starting-point of the journey, and seems 
to correspond to the western part of the land 
of Goshen, since two full marches and part 
of a third brought the Israelites to the Red 
Sea ; and the narrative appears to indicate 
a route for the chief part directly toward 
the sea. [Gen. xlvii., 11, comp. verses 4, 6 ; 
Exod. i., 11 ; xii., 37, comp. Numb, xxxiii., 
3,5.] 

Ramoth-gilead (Jieiglits of Gilead), a town 
of considerable importance on the east of 
Jordan. It seems probable that it was iden- 
tical with Ramath-mizpeh,^ which again is 
thought to be identical with the spot on 
which Jacob made his covenant with La- 
ban.^ If this hypothesis be correct, it was 
the spot where, in after years, the Israelites 
assembled and decided to offer Jephthah the 
office of leader in their campaign against the 
Ammonites ; here that he was formally in- 
augurated ; here, apparently, that he made 
his rash vow that required him to make an 
offering of his child.'* (See Jephthah.) It 
had previously been selected as the city of 
refuge for the tribe of Gad, and in years 
long after became the residence of one of 
Solomon's commissariat officers. In the 
wars between the Syrians and the Israel- 
ites in the early history of the separate 
kingdom of Israel, it played an important 
part. It was captured by the Syrians, per- 

J Gen. ix., 13-17.— » Josh, xiii., 26.-3 Gen. xxxi., 
43-55._4 Judg. X., 17, 18; xi., 29-31, 37-40. 



EATIONALISM 



790 



RATIONALISM 



haps in Benliadad's expedition against Baa- 
sha.^ In an attempt to recapture it, Ahab 
was slain. Joram, his son, seems to have re- 
covered possession of it, but was wounded 
in attempting to defend it against Hazael; 
and Jehu, who was left in command of the 
army, seized the opportunity to proclaim 
himself king, and complete the prophesied 
destruction of the house of Ahab. He was 
anointed at Ramoth-gilead. The place is 
not mentioned again in Scripture, unless the 
reference in Amos vi., 8, to Gilead refers to 
this city. Its site was east of the Jordan, 
and about midway between the Sea of Gali- 
lee and the Dead Sea. See Mizpah. [Deut. 
iv., 43 ; Josh, xx., 8 ; xxi., 38 ; 1 Kings iv., 
13 ; xxii. ; 2 Kings ix., 1-15.] 

Rationalism, that system of philosophy 
which denies the existence of any authori- 
tative revelation of religious truth, and ac- 
cepts only the results obtained by the in- 
vestigations and intuitions of the human 
mind. It is a philosophy which leads to so 
many beliefs and to none at all, and is so 
variously stated by those who maintain it, 
that it is exceedingly difficult of accurate 
and impartial definition. In order to un- 
derstand its spirit and character correctly, 
we must compare it with the other religious 
systems which it opposes and endeavors to 
supplant. 

The religious opinions of Christendom may 
be conveniently and perhaps accurately di- 
vided into four classes, not according to the 
opinions actually entertained, but according 
to the source or authority from which they 
are derived. It is evident that in some 
sense the opinion which one entertains con- 
cerning the source from which he is to re- 
ceive religious truth is more important, be- 
cause more fundamental, than the truths or 
supposed truths which he actually derives 
therefrom. At all events, while the individ- 
ual opinions of mankind are inextricably 
intermixed and incapable of classification, 
the sources whence they derive their relig- 
ious opinions may be easily classified. First, 
there are those thinkers who believe that 
God has ordaiued an inspired and infallible 
Church on the earth, which is the tabernacle 
of God and the revealer of his will. The 
divine authority of this Church being once 
established, its decrees have all the force of 
special revelation, and are binding upon the 
individual, whether he perceives the reason- 
ableness of them or not, just as the com- 
mands of a father are binding on the child, 
though the child may be wholly unable to 
understand the reason of the command. 
This is the view of all Roman Catholic di- 
vines, and of some in the Episcopal Church. 
Second, are a class of thinkers who deny the 
inspiration and authority of the Church, but 
hold that there is such an inspiration and 
authority in the Bible. This is the view en- 
^ 1 Kings XV., 20. 



tertained by the Protestant churches gener- 
ally. While they maintain the right and 
duty of each individual to use his reason in 
interpreting the Word of God, they hold its 
declarations on all religious matters to be 
the declarations of God himself, and abso- 
lutely binding, as the words of their Heav- 
enly Father, on the individual believer. He 
may not see the reason of the declaration, 
but he is to accept it humbly and in a docile 
spirit, because his Heavenly Father says it. 
A third class, while they admit that the Bi- 
ble contains the Word of God, and that its 
writers acted frequently under the divine 
inspiration, deny that it is an absolute or 
infallible authority. They assert, on the 
contrary, that God not only still acts in a 
similar manner on the hearts and minds of 
all his children, guiding and instructing 
them by his Holy Spirit, but that, while the 
counsels of the Church and the maxims and 
precepts of the Bible are very useful and 
important in arriving at the truth, the only 
infallible guide is the Spirit of God in the 
heart — the "Inner Light," as they term it. 
This view, held by the mystics of the Mid- 
dle Ages, is maintained by the Progressive 
Friends of our own country, and in a modi- 
fied form by many Unitarians, and by many 
outside the Christian Church altogether. 
Still a fourth class deny that there is or can 
be any direct communication between God 
and the human soul. Man has been endow- 
ed, they say, with faculties, chief of which 
is reason, and has been left to ascertain the 
truth for himself. There is no more reve- 
lation in religious than in scientific truth. 
All truth is ascertained by investigation, 
and each man must study and think and 
judge for himself. These last are Ration- 
alists, so called because they make the only 
authority in religion the individual reason. 
It is true, in a sense, that all men regard 
reason as a final authority. That is, the 
Roman Catholic considers that his reason 
must be satisfied of the divine authority of 
the Church; the Protestant is convinced by 
investigation of the infallibility of the Bi- 
ble ; the mystic by reason convinces him- 
self of the purity and safety of the Inner 
Light. But the Rationalist holds there is 
no other authority than reason, no voice of 
God in the world, no test and standard of 
religious truth other than that which the 
natural faculties of man afford him. Thus 
the Roman Catholic believes in reason, spir- 
itual insight, and the Bible, but holds the 
authority of the Church practically para- 
mount. He tests the seeming instructions 
of the others by its decrees. The Protest- 
ant disavows the authority of the Church, 
but tests the conclusions of reason and the 
j Inner Light by the Word of God. The mys- 
■ tic denies the authority of either church or 
, Bible, but accounts the voice of God in his 
I soul as superior to his reason, and an infal- 



EATIONALISM 



791 



EAVEN 



lible guide to some truths wliich tlie reason 
could uever give him. The Rationalist re- 
gards belief in the Church, the Bible, and 
the inner voice of God as all alike an illu- 
sion, and rests his religious philosophy whol- 
ly upon the intellectual processes of his own 
mind. Thus, his religious belief is one at 
once unauthoritative and purely intellect- 
ual. It incites to ceaseless investigation, 
but also to perpetual doubt. It provokes 
to tireless mental activity, but never aifords 
spiritual or mental rest. Purely intellect- 
ual, it is generally coldly intellectual ; and 
it is often complained of, even by its adher- 
ents, for this very reason. There is a crav- 
ing in the human heart which it can not 
satisfy. It differs from the religion of faith 
more than by a creed's breadth. It is a sci- 
ence : the Christian religion is a life. 

The Rationalists, of course, differ very 
widely among themselves in their individ- 
ual views of truth. They are, however, di- 
vided into two general classes or schools — 
the intuitive and the scientific. The in- 
tuitive Rationalists believe that there are 
certain truths which are, so to speak, axi- 
omatic; or, in other words, that there are 
certain truths which do not need to be dem- 
onstrated, but that the human mind is so 
constituted that it can not but believe them. 
The existence of a God and the immortali- 
ty of the soul are such truths in their opin- 
ion. The scientific school, on the other 
hand, believe that every religious truth 
must be proved by processes similar to those 
employed in scientific investigation. They 
accordingly hold that the existence of a God 
and the immortality of the soul are only 
probable opinions ; that as yet science has 
given no clear and definite and final an- 
swer to the question whether there be a Su- 
preme Being, and whether " if a man die 
shall he live again ?" and that until that 
answer is given the human race must pa- 
tiently wait the result of further investi- 
gations. The larger class of Rationalists, 
however, hold, whether on demonstration or 
intuition, or simply from habit and educa- 
tion, that there is a God, though " not a God 
who listens to private prayers and takes an 
interest in private fortunes," and that the 
soul is immortal; though whether it lives 
in itself or is perpetuated in others, whether 
it retains its personality, or " its individual- 
ity may be extinguished," is a matter of un- 
certainty. In general, it may be safely said 
that Rationalism as a system is negative 
rather than positive, remarkable for what 
it denies rather than for what it affirms. In 
other words. Rationalists differ from Chris- 
tians rather in what they disbelieve than in 
what they assert. Repudiating the author- 
ity of the Bible, they of course repudiate all 
those doctrines which depend upon the au- 
thority of the Bible — the fall, the miracles, 
prophecy, the divinity of Christ, the personal- 



ity and presence and power of the Holy Spir- 
it, the atonement, and regeneration. But 
generally they believe in the existence and 
perfection of God, and in the immortality of 
the soul ; and to this simple creed many add 
belief in Christianity as the best of all eth- 
ical systems, and in Jesus as the noblest of 
men and the most instructive of human 
teachers. 

The Rationalists do not constitute any- 
where an independent organization. They 
are without any common belief upon which 
they can cohere as a party, and without any 
common aim which they can pursue with 
united energies. In Germany they are gen- 
erally attached, ecclesiastically, to the State 
Church, and many of the professors in the 
theological seminaries there are more or less 
rationalistic in their views. In England 
they remain, to a large extent, connected 
with the Church of England, though some 
recent decisions of the ecclesiastical courts 
of England have condemned their views as 
inconsistent with the tenets of the Church. 
In this country they are more or less con- 
nected with the radical wing of the Unita- 
rian Church,^ and are known by various 
names, such as Liberals, Free Religionists, 
and Radicals. 

Raven. It is more than probable that 
while the Hebrew word oreh primarily sig- 
nifies the bird which is so familiar to us un- 
der the name of raven, it was also used by 
the Jews in a more general way, and served 
to designate any of the crow tribe, includ- 
ing the raven, the crow, the rook, the jack- 
daw, and the like. This seems to be im- 
plied in the form of the prohibition in the 
Mosaic law of "Every raven after his kind." 
The raven is still plentiful in Palestine. 
It was the first bird sent out at the abate- 
ment of the flood, and the account of its be- 
havior presents some well-known character- 
istics of the bird. The confinement of the 
ark had evidently been irksome to its bold 
and restless disposition, and as it could find 
plenty of food in the bodies of the various 
animals which had been drowned and were 
floating on the surface of the waters, it did 
not return to remain in the ark, but " went 
forth to and fro" (going and returning) " un- 
til the waters were dried up from off the 
earth." 

Various explanations of the feeding of Eli- 
jah by ravens^ have been attempted. Some 
have suggested that he was fed not by the 
oreb (raven), but by Arabs, while others have 
maintained that he simply found the nests 
of ravens and took from them a daily sup- 
ply of food; but the repetition of the words 
"bread and flesh" shows that the sacred ' 
writer had no intention of signifying a mere 
casual finding of food which the ravens 
brought for their young, but that the proph- 
et was furnished with a constant and re<ju- 



1 See Unitakians.— '^ 1 Kings xvii., 4-6. 



READER 



792 



REDEMPTION 



lar supply of bread and meat twice a day. 
The statement is one clearly intended as a 
narrative of a miracle, and must be so ac- 
cepted, if at all. A curious idea respecting 
the raven prevailed anciently. Tbe bird 
was supposed to be a cruel parent, which, 
after its eggs were hatched, cared nothing 
for the young until they were full fledged. 
The passages which speak of God as feeding 
the young ravens seem to refer to this pop- 
ular belief. The desert-loving habit of the 
raven is noticed in Isaiah, and its black 
plumage in Solomon's Song, and its supposed 
custom of commencing its meal by picking 
out the eyes of the dead in Proverbs. [Lev. 
xi., 15; Deut. xiv., 14; 1 Kings xvii., 1-6; 
Job xxxviii., 41 ; Psa. cxlvii., 9 ; Sol. Song 
v., 11 ; Isa. xxxiv., 11 ; Luke xii., 24. 

Reader, an officer in the ancient Chris- 
tian Church, whose duty it was to read the 
Scriptures in the audience of the people. 
There is no mention of readers as existing 
in the Church till about the year 200 ; but 
when appointed they were solemnly ordain- 
ed, and ranked among the number of the 
clergy. Such officers still exist, not only 
in the Roman Catholic Church, but also in 
several Protestant churches. The Westmin- 
ster Assembly of Divines abolished the office 
of readers as not being an office of divine ap- 
pointment, yet they allowed that, with the 
consent of the presbytery, pastors and teach- 
ers might employ in that work probationers, 
or such as intend the ministry. In the Greek 
Church readers are said to have been ordain- 
ed by the imposition of hands. It has been 
the practice of the Church of England to ad- 
mit readers in those churches or chapels 
where the endowment is so small that no 
regular clergyman will take the charge. 

Rebekah {ensnarer), daughter of Bethuel, 
sister of Laban, and wife of Isaac. Her mar- 
riage, narrated in Gen. xxiv., is of special in- 
terest as an illustration of ancient marriage 
customs. Her beauty is evident from Gen. 
xxvi., 7; but her character is stained by her 
participation in the deception of her hus- 
band, as narrated in Gen. xxvii. Of her death 
no direct mention is made ; her burial is in- 
cidentally referred to in Gen. xlix., 31. 

Rechabites, a Kenite tribe, descended from 
Rechab. Jonadab, one of their chiefs, prob- 
ably on some observed occasion of contami- 
nation by intercourse with the luxurious and 
idolatrous inhabitants of cities, laid an in- 
junction on his posterity to drink no wine 
and to build no houses, but to dwell in tents. 
This injunction they obeyed fully for three 
himdred years ; but upon the Chaldean in- 
vasion they were forced to quit the open 
country and live in Jerusalem; afterward 
they probably withdrew into the desert. 
They are spoken of as scribes in 1 Chron. 
ii., 55, some of them devoting themselves, it 
is likely, to learned x>ursuits. For their obe- 
dience a promise was given them that their 



family should never be extinct. There is 
said to be still extant an Arabian tribe who 
claim a descent from Rechab, and profess a 
modified Judaism. [ Jer. xxxv.] 

Recorder, an officer of high rank in the 
Jewish state, exercising the functions, not 
simply of an annalist, but of chancellor or 
president of the privy council. In David's 
court, the recorder appears among the high 
officers of his household. In Solomon's, he 
is coupled with the three secretaries, and is 
mentioned last, probably as being their pres- 
ident. [2 Sam. viii., 16 ; xx., 24 ; 1 Kings 
iv., 3 ; 2 Kings xviii., 18, 37; 1 Chron. xviii., 
15 ; 2 Chron. xxxiv., 8.] 

Rector. In English ecclesiastical law a 
rector is a clergyman who has the charge 
and care of a parish, and possesses all the 
tithes, or ecclesiastical dues, within his par- 
ish. He differs from the vicar in that the 
latter is entitled only to a certain propor- 
tion of the ecclesiastical income specially set 
apart to the vicarage. The latter, again, 
differs from the curate, whose salary is de- 
termined, not by the law, but by the patron 
of the benefice. In the United States the 
term rector is in common use to designate 
the clergyman in charge of an Episcopal 
church. 

Recusant. This term first came into use 
in the time of Henry VIIL, when that mon- 
arch, abjuring the creed and supremacy of 
the Catholic Church, usurped the papal at- 
tribute of spiritual head of the Church. In 
the next century, when dissent began to 
creep into the Established religion, the term 
recusant was applied to any dissenter or per- 
son who declined to accept the communion 
as administered by the Church of England, 
and hence signified any Non-conformist, from 
a Covenanter to a Friend. 

Redemption. The terms redemption and 
salvation, and the titles Redeemer and Sav- 
iour, are very nearly if not quite synony- 
mous. Like nearly all spiritual terms, the 
word redemption is metaphorical in its char- 
acter. It involves the idea of a prisoner or 
captive who, through the intervention of an- 
other, is purchased, and so released, and in 
certain mediaeval forms of theology this met- 
aphor was literally interpreted. Mankind 
were regarded as literally the bond-servants 
of Satan, and released from their bondage 
by an agreement or compact by which God 
gave his Son to death for their release. The 
metaphor, though it can not be literally in- 
terpreted, nevertheless is an apt one to ex- 
plain the need of humanity and the work 
of Christ. The doctrine of redemption is 
embodied in the promise with which the 
angel of the Lord accompanied his prophecy 
of the birth of Christ : " Thou shalt call 
his name Jesus, for he shall save his people 
from their sins." The doctrine of redemp- 
tion, then, is that the human race have come 
into bondage to sin and sinful habits and 



EED SEA 



793 



EEED 



propensities, and at the same time under just 
condemnation of God's law because of them ; 
and that God has sent his son into the 
-world, not only by his death to atone for 
their past sins, so that they may be freely 
forgiven for the past, but also by his present 
power as a risen Saviour, spiritually dwell- 
ing in the hearts of his people, to deliver 
them from the power of sin, and enable 
them to become followers of him in their 
lives, and conformed to him in their charac- 
ter. The doctrine of salvation or redemption 
thus includes those of atonement, regenera- 
tion, and sanctification, to which titles the 
reader is referred for further information. 

Red Sea.^ In places in the Scripture 
where there could be no danger of confound- 
ing it with the Mediterranean, the Red Sea 
is not unfrequeutly called simply the sea; but 
its special name in Hebrew is Yam Siq)h — sea 
of water-weed. Yam is used to denote any 
large body of water — as a part of the ocean, 
an inland lake, or the broad reach of a great 
river. Siqjh seems to be a generic name for 
aquatic plants of a tangled kind, such as are 
to this day plentifully found on the shores 
of the Red Sea. The Greeks gave the name 
of the Erythraean, or Red Sea, not only to 
that Arabian gulf which we now so denomi- 
nate, but also to the wide sweep of the 
ocean between the Indian and Arabian pen- 
insulas. "Whence that name was derived is 
not very certain. By some it has been as- 
cribed to some natural phenomenon, such as 
the singularly red appearance of the mount- 
ains of the western coast, the red color of 
the water, sometimes caused by the presence 
of the zoophites, the red coral of the sea, 
the red sea -weed, and the red storks that 
have been seen in great numbers in its vi- 
cinity. Others have endeavored to find an 
etymological origin, and derive the epithet 
from the Idumseans, the name of whose an- 
cestor, Edom, means red ; or, with perhaps 
greater reason, explain the name as the sea 
of the red men, the Phoenicians or Himyar- 
ites. From the straits of Bab el-Mandeb to 
its most northerly point at Suez, the Red 
Sea is about 1400 miles in length, extending 
from 12° 40' to 30° N. lat., its greatest width 
being about 200 miles. It is divided at Ras 
Mohammed by the Sinaitic peninsula into 
two large arms, or gulfs, the easternmost, or 
Sinus ^laniticus, now Bahr el-AJcahali, run- 
ning north-east, or northerly, about 100 miles, 
with an average width of 15 miles; while 
the westernmost, Sinus Heroopoliticus, now 
Bahr el-Suez, runs north-west near 180 miles, 
with an average width of 20 miles. There 
is reason to believe that anciently this last 
gulf extended much farther northward to 
the lake of Heroopolis, now BirTcet el-Timsah, 
and was connected by a canal with the Nile. ; 
Now the country at the head of the gulf is ! 
a waste and desert region, and the prophecy ' 
1 See map iu art. Wildeb^jess of the Wandeklng. , 



of Isaiah has been fulfilled in the drying up 
of "the tongue of the Egyptian Sea."^ 

The superficial area of this sea is about 
180,000 square miles. On both sides of it 
chains of mountains rise, at some distance 
from the shore, to a considerable height, and 
many peaks are upward of 6000 or 7000 feet 
high. The Arabian plains are parched, but 
the uplands are fertile. The African coast 
is for the most part barren and sandy, with 
but a scanty population. This coast is es- 
pecially interesting in a religious j)oint of 
view; for here were some of the earliest 
monasteries of the Eastern Church, and in 
those secluded and barren mountains in very 
early times lived Christian hermits. Though 
the sea is of great depth, and measures 
more than 1000 fathoms in its deepest sound- 
ings, the navigation is rendered difficult by 
groups of islands, coral reefs, sand -banks, 
and th6 i)revailiug winds. Owing to these 
dangers and its sterile shores, the sea is en- 
tirely destitute of boats. Passing by the 
prehistorical Phoenicians, the earliest navi- 
gator was Sesostris, Rameses II., who, pass- 
ing the Arabian Gulf in a fleet of long ves- 
sels, reduced under his authority the inhab- 
itants of the coast bordering the Erythraean 
Sea. Three centuries later, Solomon's navy 
was built " in Ezion-geber, which is beside 
Eloth, on the shore of the Red Sea, in the 
land of Edom" (q. v.). Jehoshaphat also 
" made ships of Tharshish to go to Ophir 
for gold : but they went not ; for the ships 
were broken at Ezion-geber."^ The princi- 
pal Scriptural interest of the Red Sea, how- 
ever, centres in the Heroopolite Gulf, or Gulf 
of Suez, " the tongue of the Egyptian Sea," 
and the scene of the passage of the Israelites.^ 
It was also the seat of the Egyptian trade' in 
this sea and to the Indian Ocean. Heroopo- 
lis was doubtless the same as Hero, and its 
site is probably identical with the modern 
Aboo Keshed at the head of the old gulf. 

Reed. Under this name may be proper- 
ly considered the Hebrew words agmdn, 
gome, 'ardth, and kaneh. Agmon is trans- 
lated in our Bible, in Job xli., 2, hooJc; xli., 
20, caldron; and Isa. ix., 14, inish. In Isa. 
xix., 15, it is mentioned as an Egyptian 
plant, and from Isa. Iviii., 5, we learn that 
it had a pendulous panicle. There can be 
no doubt that it denotes some aquatic, reed- 
like plant, probably the Phragmitis commu- 
nis, which, if it does not occur in Palestine 
and Egypt, is represented by a closely allied 
species. The drooping panicle of this plant 
will answer well to the " bowing down the 
head" of which Isaiah speaks. The read- 
ing in Job xli., 2, " Canst thou put a hook 
(an agmon) into the crocodile's nose?" is in- 
terpreted as an allusion to the mode of pass- 
ing a reed, or rush, through the gills of fish 
in order to carry them home. The agmon of 

1 Isa.xi., 15; xix,, 5.-2 1 Kings ix., 26; xxii., 48.— 
3 See Exodus of the Israelites. 



EEED 



794 



REFORMATION 



Job sli., 20, seems to be derived from an Ara- 
bic root, signifyiug to "be burning," hence 
"caldron." (rome, translated "rush" and 
"bulrush" in our Bible, denotes, without 
doubt, the celebrated paper reed of the an- 
cients which formerly was common in some 
parts of Egypt. The ark of Moses and the 
transit boats of the Ethioi)ians were made 
of this paper reed, which is mentioned in 
but two other places in the Bible.^ The pa- 
per reed, or papyrus, is a plant of the sedge 
family, which was formerly a common and 
important plant in Egypt. It was stewed 
and eaten as a delicacy, boats were made of 
its stalks, and from it the famous paper was 
manufactured. But it is no louger found 
there; the reeds have well-nigh perished.^ 
It is very abundant in a swamp at the north 
end of the plain of Gennesaret, covers many 
acres on the marshy shores of Ruleh, the an- 
cient Merom, and has been found in a small 
stream two miles north of Jaffa. These 
three are the only places where this plant 
is known to exist at the present day. It 
grows from three to sis, though occasionally 
fourteen, feet high, and has no leaves. The 
flowers are in very small spikelets, which 
grow on the thread-like flowering Tbranch- 
lets which form a bushy crown to each 
plant. It has an angular stem, and when 
found in running water one of its angles is 
always opposed to the current. 'Aroth oc- 
curs in Isa. xix., 7 — "the ^ paper reeds' by 
the h'ooJcs^' — which is probably a mistrans- 
lation for the ''meadows by the rivei',^' i. e., 
the Nile. Edneh, the generic uame of a reed 
of any kind, occurs frequently in the O. T., 
and sometimes denotes the " stalk" of wheat 
or the " branches " of the candlestick.^ It 
is translated by " stalk," " branch," " bone," 
"calamus," "reed." Its N. T. equivalent, 
"calamus," may signify the "stalk" of 
plants, or a "reed," or a " measuriug-rod," 
or a " jjen." The Arimdo donax is common 
on the banks of the Nile, and may, perhaps, 
be " the staft' of the bruised reed," to which 
Sennacherib compared the power of Egypt 
(2 Kings xviii., 21 ; Ezek. xxix., 6, 7). The 
thick stem of this reed may have been used 
as walking-staves by the ancient Orient- 
als, and perhaj)S the measuring -reed was 
this plant. At present the dry culms of 
this huge grass are in much demand for 
fishing-rods and other like purposes. Some 
kind of fragrant reed is denoted by the word 
kmeh (Isa. xliii., 24 ; Ezek. xxvii., 19; Cant. 
iv., 14), or more fully by keneh hosem (Exod. 
XXX., 23) ; or Mneh hattob ( Jer. vi., 20), which 
the A. V. renders "sweet cane" and "cala- 
mus." Whatever may be the substance de- 
noted, it was a valuable importation " from 
a far country,"* and may be represented by 
the lemon-orass of India and Arabia. 



1 Exod. ii., 3 ; Job viii., 11 ; Isa. xviii., 2 ; xxxv., 7. 
—2 Isa, xix., 7.-3 Gen. xli., 5, 22 • Exod. xxv., xxxvii. 
-.4 Jer. vi., 20. 



Refiner. The refiner's art was essential 
to the working of the precious metals. It 
consisted in the separation of the dross from 
the pure ore, which was eftected by reducing 
the metal to a fluid state by the application 
of heat and by the aid of solvents, such as 
alkali or lead,^ which, amalgamating with 
the dross, permitted the extraction of the 
unadulterated metal. The instruments re- 
quired by the refiner were a fining-pot, or 
melting-pot, and a bellows, or blow -pipe. 
The notices of refining are chiefly of a fig- 
urative character, and describe moral puri- 
fication as the result of chastisement. [Isa. 
i., 25; Zech. xiii., 9 ; Mal.iii.,2,3.] 

Reformation. This term is given histor- 
ically to that great spiritual and ecclesias- 
tical movement which took place in Europe 
in the sixteenth century, and as the result of 
which the national churches of Great Britain, 
Sweden, Denmark, Norway, and Holland, and 
of many parts of Germany and Switzerland, 
became separated from the Church of Rome. 
In other countries, such as Hungary and 
France, the same movement detached large 
portions of the population from the Roman 
Catholic faith, yet without leading to a na- 
tional disruption with the papacy. In giv- 
ing, very briefly, a history of this movement, 
it is hardly necessary to say that we write 
from a Protestant stand-point. The theme 
can not be treated in a manner which will 
appear just and truthful to members of both 
communions, since to the one it appears to 
be the emancipation of the Church from the 
despotism of the priesthood, to the other it 
appears to be an apostasy and rebellion 
against the vicar of God and the only true 
Church of Christ. To the one the Reforma- 
tion is, as it were, a resurrection of a long- 
buried Gospel, to the other a disclosure and 
manifestation of the Antichrist. We hold 
to the first of these opinions, and write in 
that belief. 

We have elsewhere'* traced very briefly a 
history of the Church of Rome, and shown 
how gradually its system of doctrine, of 
worship, and of church government grew, 
until it assumed the form which it possess- 
ed in the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries. 
During all these years there had not been 
wanting pure spirits, both in and out of the 
Church, who had protested against its errors 
and corruptions, and some of whom had at- 
tested their principles by their martyrdom 
and death. Such were the Waldenses, the 
Albigenses, and the Arnoldists.^ Such re- 
formers, too, were Wycliffe in England, and 
Huss in Bohemia. But though a few in- 
trepid spirits denounced the corruptions of 
the Church, more mourned them in secret, 
and no eftectual measures of reform were 
inaugurated ; on the contrary, the power of 
the ecclesiastical system of Rome appeared 



1 Isa. 1., 25 ; Jer. vi., 29.-2 gee Pope ; Kosian Cath- 
OLio CflUEon.— 3 See under these titles. 



REFORMATION 



795 



REFORMATION 



to grow stronger and stronger. Indeed, it 
may with truth be said that no single man 
or body of men could have broken its bonds ; 
nothing was competent to do that but a gen- 
eral awakening of the people and reviyal of 
intelligence and activity. Such a revival 
characterized the close of the fifteenth and 
the beginning of the sixteenth century. The 
invention of the printing-press, the discovery 
of America, the first wood-engraving in Eu- 
rope, the first manufacture of watches, the 
proclamation of the true system of astrono- 
my by Copernicus, all belong to the same 
age — that which gave birth to the Reforma- 
tion. They characterize an era in which hu- 
manity began to think for itself. The same 
activity, also, was now for the first time dis- 
played in the literary and religious world. 
The seeds of the Reformation were sown in 
the Church by sons of the Church. Eras- 
mus demanded a reformation in religion, and 
inaugurated one iu literature. Thomas -a- 
Kempis, a monk, who still clung to monastic 
habits, yet represented, iu his " Imitation of 
Christ" (a work whose purity and beauty, 
despite its defects, time has done nothing 
to dim), a reaction from the purely pietistic 
tendencies of the past and a demand for a 
religion of a more practical type, while at 
the same time the Church, whose cardinal 
doctrine is that it has always been infalli- 
ble, and therefore can never improve, clung 
to the traditions of the past, or modified 
them only to insist more strenuously on 
that priestly power which the people were 
all ready to throw oif, and to employ more 
vigorously those appeals to, their supersti- 
tious fears which in the past had proved 
so effective, but which, in the dawning of 
a better age, were beginning to lose their 
power. Such was the state of public senti- 
ment at the beginning of the sixteenth cen- 
tury. It needed only two conspicuous causes 
to perfect the Reformation and make irrep- 
arable the breach between the hierarchy and 
the growing spirit of liberty and thoughtful- 
ness — a leader for the people, and an occa- 
sion for their revolt. Luther furnished the 
one, Tetzel the other. 

Martin Luther was bom at Eisleben, No- 
vember 10, 1483, of humble parents. He 
commenced the study of the law, and took 
his degree of Master of Arts at the age of 
twenty-one, but instead of commencing the 
practice of the law, consecrated himself to a 
religious life, entering for that purpose a con- 
vent at Erfurt. Here he devoted himself, 
with intense conscientiousness, to monastic 
penances and to the study of theology, and 
especially of the Bible. In 1507 he was 
ordained a priest in the Roman Catholic 
Church, and two years later commenced to 
lecture on the Holy Scriptures to the stu- 
dents of the University of Wittenberg. One 
or two years subsequent he undertook a mis- 
sion to Rome. The corruptions of the Church, 



as there exhi]jited, aroused his intense indig- 
nation ; and on one occasion, while climbing 
on his knees up Pilate's Staircase — a cus- 
tomary act of devotion on the part of Ro- 
man Catholic pilgrims — he heard, as it were, 
a voice at his side repeating the text, " The 
just shall live by faith." He rose from 
his knees and fled from the spot. The text 
was one already familiar to him ; the truth 
it contains he had already begun to learn 
by his constant study of the Scriptures; 
but this event may be regarded as a turn- 
ing-point in his own life and almost as the 
birth-hour of the Reformation. It needed 
only an occasion to turn him from a zealous 
son to a zealous assailant of the Church. 
An occasion was furnished by John Tetzel 
and the sale of indulgences. 

Money was needed at the Papal Court ; to 
provide it, ecclesiastical peddlers of indul- 
gences were sent throughout Europe. A 
chief of these dealers in the grace of the 
vicar of God was one John Tetzel, a Do- 
minican monk. That he was a bold, bad, 
unscrupulous man is, we suppose, as unques- 
tionable as any fact in history. A regular 
scale of prices was affixed for different sins ; 
polygamy cost six ducats; sacrilege and 
perjury, nine ducats ; witchcraft, two. All 
sins were thus allowed for, alike those that 
had been committed in the past and those 
that the applicant desired to commit in the 
future. There were enough people, suffi- 
ciently ignorant and superstitious, to fill the 
coffers of this peddling priest ; but there was 
also a deep indignation at the monstrosities 
which this man committed in the name of 
the Papal Church. The bull under which 
he acted required repentance and confession ; 
but of these Tetzel said nothing. ''Even 
repentance," said he, "is not indispensable. 

Only pay largely, and whatever the 

sin, it shall be forgiven." To that indigna- 
tion Luther gave voice : '' God willing," he 
exclaimed, '' I will beat a hole in his drum.". 
He drew out ninety-five theses on the doc- 
trine of indulgences, which he nailed up on 
the gate of the church at Wittenberg, and 
which he offered to maintain in the univer- 
sity against all impugners. The general pur- 
port of these theses was to deny to the pope 
all right to forgive sins. If the sinner was 
truly contrite, he received complete forgive- 
ness. The pope's absolution had no value in 
and for itself. This sudden and bold step of 
Luther was all that was necessary to awaken 
an almost universal excitement. The news 
of it spread rapidly far and wide. Tetzel 
was forced to retreat from the borders of 
Saxony to Frankfort-on-the-Oder, where he 
drew out and published a set of counter 
theses, and publicly committed those of Lu- 
ther to the flames. The students at Wit- 
tenberg retaliated by burning Tetzel's the- 
ses. The elector refused to interfere, and 
the excitement increased as new combat- 



REFORMATION 



796 



REFORMATION 



ants entered the field. From^his time the 
battle never abated. Attempts were made 
to silence Lnther by blandishments and by 
threats. Neither were effectual. The more 
he examined the papal system, the more he 
tried it by the Scriptures as his staudard, 
the further he seceded from it. A papal 
bull was at length fulminated against him, 
and he consummated his revolt from the 
Church by publicly burning it at one of the 
gates of Wittenberg, December 18, 1520. 

About the same time, and without concert 
of action, the sale of indulgences was opposed 
in Switzerland by Zwingli, a preacher of Zii- 
rich. His opinions were pronounced heret- 
ical by the two great universities of Cologne 
andLouvain,but he remained unmoved. The 
result was the active spread of the reform- 
ing spirit throughout Ziirich, including both 
magistrates and people, and also throughout 
several neighboring cantons. The interpo- 
sition of Charles the Fifth, crowned Emper- 
or of Germany in 1521, soon after interrupt- 
ed the progress of the Reformation. The 
Diet of Worms, summoned by him, was so 
far influenced by the papal leaders that un- 
der its guidance the Emperor issued an edict 
for the destruction of the Reformer's writ- 
ings ', but the estates refused to publish it 
unless a fair hearing before the Diet were 
allowed to Luther. He was accordingly 
summoned to meet that august assemblage. 
He gladly availed himself of the opportu- 
nity thus afforded him to defend his faith. 
His jouruey is described as a kind of tri- 
umphal procession. The people enthusiast- 
ically cheered him, and a number of priests, 
even, along his route, it is said, gave him 
their greetings. He entered Worms singing, 
^' Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott " (a strongJiold 
is our God). The same night, under an over- 
whelming sense of the awful solemnity of 
his circumstances, the intrepid monk was 
overheard, agonized in prayer. On making 
his appearance before the Diet, confronted 
by assembled statesmen and princes, he was 
urged to retract; but he was immovable. 
" I neither can nor dare retract any thing," 
he said, "unless convinced by reason and 
Scripture ; my conscience is captive to God's 
word, and it is neither safe nor right to go 
against conscience. There I take my stand. 
I can do no otherwise, so help me God. 
Amen." It was evident that he was nei- 
ther to be intimidated nor persuaded, and 
he was allowed to depart ; but so great were 
the dangers which threatened him, that to 
avoid them he was seized, by the friendly 
violence of his sovereign, Frederick of Sax- 
ony, and confined in comparative obscurity 
for nearly a year. 

The Reformation continued, in spite of 
some excesses by its adherents,^ and some 
controv^ersies among them which neither re- 
flected honor on nor added strength to the 
1 See Akabaptists. 



movement. At the Diet of Spire, 1526, it 
was resolved that the various princes of the 
German Empire should have authority to 
regulate the religious affairs of their prov- 
inces as they thought proper. A new diet, 
in 1529, required the sanction of a General 
Council to all changes in religion. Against 
this decision the princes who had embraced 
the principles of the Reformation united in 
a solemn protest, a circumstance which gave 
rise to the name of Protestants, which has 
since attached to all followers of the Re- 
formers. To recount the history of the wars 
and political entanglements and negotiations 
which resulted would carry this article far 
beyond our limits. They ended in the treaty 
of Augsburg, by which both Protestants and 
Roman Catholics were secured the right to 
maintain their own religious convictions and. 
methods of worship, neither molested by the 
other. This event, which occurred in 1555, 
may be regarded as the close of the Ref- 
ormation as a distinct movement in Ger- 
many. 

It had, meanwhile, made corresponding 
progress in other countries. In Switzerland, 
after a famous conference at Bern, 1528, the 
supremacy of the pope was abolished, and 
the Reformed doctrines were declared to be 
those of Scripture. A serious difference 
arose between the Reformers of Germany 
and those of Switzerland concerning the na- 
ture of the Lord's Supper ; the dispute proved 
to be a bitter one, and impeded for a time 
the progress of the Reformation. The differ- 
ence still exists between the Lutherans and 
the Calvinists, though it is no longer a cause 
of contention.^ 

In the countries of Denmark and Sweden 
the progress of Reformed opinions proceed- 
ed still more rapidly. At an assembly of the 
states at Westeras, in 1527, while the Re- 
formers in Germany were still struggling for 
bare existence, it was unanimously resolved 
that the Lutheran doctrines should be adopt- 
ed in Sweden, and a Reformed Church, en- 
tirely independent of Rome, was established. 
The same result occurred in Denmark, in 
1539. In France, as early as 1523, the new 
doctrines had spread with even more decided 
character, under the countenance of Marga- 
ret, queen of Navarre, sister of Francis I. 
The University of Paris became " strongly 
infected with the new leaning," and many 
of the nobility as well as the people were 
strongly inclined to throw aside the super- 
stitions of Rome, and embrace a more Scrip- 
tural form of faith. But the violent and in- 
consistent policy of Francis I. prevented the 
Reformation from obtaining in that country 
any thing of the same national recognition 
that it obtained in Germany and elsewhere. 
If, however, Germany gave the world its Lu- 
ther, it is not to be forgotten that to France 



1 For statement of these different opinions, see art 
Communion. 



REFORMED CHURCH 



797 



REFORMED CHURCH 



it owes John Calvin. In Spain and in Italy 
the spread of the Reformation, which in both 
countries had taken an active and hopeful 
start, was almost entirely suppressed by the 
power of the Inquisition. The same policy 
was attempted in the Netherlands, and with 
the most atrocious cruelty, under Charles V. 
and his son Philip II. But the Reformation 
was at length established in the United Prov- 
inces, along with the political supremacy of 
the House of Orange. In England the Ref- 
ormation may be said to have antedated its 
origin in Germany. It really began with 
the labors of Wycliffe^ (1324-1384), but did 
not assume an organized and definite form 
until the reign of Henry VIII. The imme- 
diate occasion of his breach with the Church 
was not theological; it refused him a di- 
vorce, whereupon he repudiated its authori- 
ty. But his repudiation would have amount- 
ed to little or nothing if the way had not 
been prepared for it by public sentiment, 
which in succeeding reigns carried the move- 
ment far beyond the issue to which he had 
intended to conduct it.^ 

The Reformation, which began with the 
sixteenth century, may be said to have closed 
with that or the succeeding century, since 
which time the history of the movement 
has been identical with that of the various 
churches into which the Reformers respect- 
ively organized, and to the titles of the va- 
rious Protestant or Reformed churches the 
reader is referred for further information. 
For an account of the religious and theo- 
logical principles which underlaid the Ref- 
ormation, see Protesta:s"ts. 

Reformed Church. This name is as- 
sumed by two important denominations in 
the United States, besides beiug employed 
by a branch of the Presbyterian Church.^ 
These two denominations were formerly 
known respectively as the Dutch Reform- 
ed Church and as the German Reformed 
Church ; but recently these national titles 
have been dropped, and the former is known 
simply as the Reformed Church in Ameri- 
ca, the second as the Reformed Church in 
the United States. For the convenience of 
our readers we shall preserve the original ti- 
tle, which is still preserved in popular use, 
ancf treat of these two denominations sepa- 
rately. 

I. Reformed (German) Church. — At an 
early period in the history of the Reforma- 
tion, differences in doctrine began to appear 
between Zwiugli and Martin Luther. The 
former was for abolishing in public worship 
many things which Luther was disposed to 
treat with toleration, such as images, altars, 
wax-tapers, the form of exorcism, and pri- 
vate confession. He aimed at establishing 
in his country a method of divine worship 
remarkable for its simplicity, and as far re- 



1 See Bible.— 2 See Episcopalians.— ^ See Pbesby- 

TBEIAN8. 



mote as could be from every thing that 
might have the smallest tendency to nour- 
ish a spirit of superstition. Nor were these 
the only circumstances in which he differed 
from Luther ; for his sentiments concerning 
several points of theology, and more espe- 
cially his opinions relating to the sacrament 
of the Lord's Supper, varied widely from 
those of Luther, Luther alleging a materi- 
al presence in and Mith the elements, while 
Zwingli taught that to eat the flesh of 
Christ and drink his blood was symbolic- 
ally to express our faith in the Lord Jesus 
Christ. This historical difference between 
these two eminent leaders has issued in two 
branches of the Protestant Church in Ger- 
many, the Lutheran and the Reformed Ger- 
man Church; while an attempt to unite the 
two has given rise to a third more impor- 
tant in its present position and numbers 
than either, the German United Evangelical 
Church (q. v.). 

The first Synod of the German Reformed 
Church was organized in America in 1793, 
when it resolved no longer to transmit its 
proceedings for revision to the Classis of 
Amsterdam. From this time it has main- 
tained an independent organization, though 
always in close sympathy with the Reform- 
ed Church of Germany. In government the 
Church is Presbyterian. Every congrega- 
tion is governed by a Consistory, which is 
composed of the pastor, elders, and deacons. 
They are chosen by the communicant mem- 
bers for a term of two, three, or four years, 
and ordained by the laying on of hands, 
and installed. The Consistory is subject to 
the Classis, which consists of the ministers 
and an elder from each parish within a 
given district. The Classes are subject to 
the Synod. The Synod is a delegated body, 
and consists of a given number of ministers 
and elders chosen by four or more adjacent 
Classes. The Synods are subject to the 
General Synod. This body consists of min- 
isters and elders chosen by all the Classes 
of the Church. It is the highest judicatory, 
and the last resort in all cases respecting 
Church government. Every judicatory has 
legislative authority within its own sphere ; 
every minister and member possesses the 
right of appeal from a lower to a higher 
court. There is a liturgy, shorter and sim- 
pler than that of the Episcopal Church, but 
its use is not obligatory, and is not univers- 
al. In doctrine the Church is Calvinistic, 
its authoritative symbol being the Heidel- 
berg Catechism.^ It embraces 31 Classes, 526 
ministers, 1179 congregations, 217,910 commu- 
nicants ; and, in 1870, contributed $76,453 15 
for benevolent purposes. It maintains two 
theological seminaries, one mission -house, 
two colleges, two reviews, four weekly pa- 
pers, and two magazines. For a full ac- 
count of its history and doctrine, see an 



1 See Ckeeds. 



REFORMED CHURCH 



798 



REGENERATION 



article by Professor E. V. Gerhart, D.D., in 
M'Clintock and Strong's " Cyclopsedia," enti- 
tled Germajn" Reformed Church in Amer- 
ica. 

II. Reformed (Dutch) Church. — Long 
before the Lutheran Reformation in Germa- 
ny, there had for several centuries existed 
in the Netherlands a spirit of religious in- 
quiry, and calm but firm resistance to the 
domination of the Romish Church. Through 
the greater part of the Middle Ages we can 
trace a succession of free spiritual associa- 
tions, which were often oppressed and per- 
secuted by the hierarchy, but which steadi- 
ly aimed at the cultivation and diffusion of 
a pure practical Christianity. Thus the 
Netherlands were prepared for the Reforma- 
tion (q. V.) and its doctrines. It was for a 
long time doubtful whether those who left 
the Church of Rome would join the party 
of the Lutheran or that of the Swiss Re- 
formers. But at length the preference was 
publicly given to the Swiss. The Belgic 
Confession, composed in the Walloon lan- 
guage, in 1563, by Guido de Bres, a French 
teacher at Valenciennes, was approved by 
the Synod at Antwerp in 1566, and two 
years later by another Synod; and from 
that time it has continued, down to this 
day, to be the standard confession of the 
Reformed (Dutch) Church. About the same 
time, also, the Belgians adopted the Heidel- 
berg Catechism, which was prepared by or- 
der of Frederick III., Elector Palatine, who 
had removed from their offices the Luther- 
an clergy, and filled their places with Cal- 
vinistic teachers. Moreover, in assuming 
the name of the Dutch Reformed Church, 
the Belgian Protestants not less declared 
that, on the great points in which the Re- 
formed differed from the Lutherans, they 
coincided in opinion with the former. In 
government the Reformed (Dutch) Church 
is substantially Presbyterian, having, as the 
Reformed (German) Church, four sorts of 
ecclesiastical councils — a Consistory in each 
congregation, a Classis, a Provincial Synod, 
and a General Synod, the latter being the 
supreme judicatory of the Church. From 
the parent church there has sprung up a 
vigorous offshoot at the Cape of Good Hope, 
and the Reformed (Dutch) Church of this 
country. 

The latter dates as far back as 1614, when 
a colony of Dutch emigrants began to settle 
on the banks of the Hudson, and laid the 
foundation of New York. For more than 
a century the Dutch Reformed Church in 
America formed only a branch of the moth- 
er church in Europe, and was under the im- 
mediate jurisdiction of the Classis in Am- 
sterdam, which to this day has the charge 
of the churches in the Dutch colonies. But 
at length the Church assumed an independ- 
ent organization, with the consent of the 
Classis of Amsterdam and the Synod of North 



Holland, in 1771. From this period nearly 
all communication with the parent church 
in Holland ceased, and even the Dutch lan- 
guage rapidly passed away from the pulpit 
and the school. At the commencement of 
the war of the Revolution there were about 
eighty churches in the State of New York, 
which were divided into three Classes or 
Presbyteries ; and in New Jersey there were 
forty churches, which were divided into two 
Classes. The denomination is still chiefly 
found in the States of New York and New 
Jersey, and the city of Philadelphia. In its 
form of government and method of worship 
it substantially accords with the Presbyteri- 
an Church, except that the elders are chosen 
for two years. It maintains a Board of Ed- 
ucation, a Board of Publication, and Boards 
of Domestic and Foreign Missions. It em- 
braces 33 Classes, 467 churches, 510 minis- 
ters, 63,483 communicants, and in 1871 con- 
tributed for religious and benevolent pur- 
poses $326,039 95. 

III. Reformed Church of France. — In 
France two Protestant churches are recog- 
nized and aided by the State, or were, at 
least, under the Empire — the Lutheran and 
the Reformed ; but at the time of our writ- 
ing ecclesiastical affairs are in such a state 
of hopeless confusion in France that it is 
difficult, if not impossible, to say how long 
this recognition and support will continue. 
The highest judicatory of the Reformed 
Church is the Central Council at Paris. 
Under this are the Consistories, Synods, and 
Presbyterial councils. The Church has a 
theological seminary at Montauban, and in 
1868 reported 104 consistories, 508 parish- 
es, and 506 pastors. See M'Clintock and 
Strong's ** Cyclopaedia," art. France. 

Regeneration {new Mrtli). '' Except a 
man be born again," said Jesus Christ to 
Nicodemus, '^ he can not see the kingdom of 
God."^ On this and other similar passages 
of the Bible, especially the N. T., is founded 
the doctrine of regeneration, which is, that 
man is so estranged from God by nature 
that he needs a radical change., such as can 
be produced only by the omnipotent power 
of the Holy Spirit acting upon and in him. 
Regeneration differs from conversion in that 
the latter is regarded as the iudividual's'vol- 
untary act in turning from sin to seek the 
Spirit of God and divine pardon, while re- 
generation is the divine act exerted by the 
Spirit of God upon the soul of man. There 
has been a great deal of discussion among 
the theologians as to which operation in re- 
generation precedes, i. e., whether the sinner 
first turns to God and seeks divine grace 
and pardon, and is then regenerated, or is 
first changed by the Spirit of God, and then 
turns from his sin to enter upon a life of 
true holiness. Exactly how the Spirit of 
God operates in the heart, and what is the 



1 See J ohn iii., 1-13. 



EEGISTER 



799 



REHOBOAM 



nature of the change, has also been the sub- 
ject of much controversy. 

Without entering into these discussions 
herCj'we may safely say that the wliole Chris- 
tian Church, almost literally without excep- 
tion, agrees that for the salvation of the soul 
mere reform, or improvement, or develop- 
ment is not sufficient, but that the soul must 
undergo a radical spiritual change, one that 
shall affect its desires and inclinations, as 
-well as its external life, and that this change 
can only be effected by the power of the 
Spirit of God acting in accordance with the 
laws of the human soul, and in compliance 
with the free-will of the individual. This 
belief rests not merely upon isolated pas- 
sages of Scripture (such as John i., 12 ; iii., 
1-13 ; 2 Cor. v., 5 ; Eph. ii., 5, 10 ; iv., 24 ; 
Col. ii., 13), but also on the whole tenor of 
the teaching of the N. T., which represents 
the human race as dead in trespasses and 
sins, and true religion a new life, called 
into being by the power of God, a new birth, 
a new creation, a resurrection from the 
dead. It should be added that, however the 
theological question be decided, whether the 
act of God or the act of man precedes in re- 
generation, the common statement that the 
soul is saved by faith is not philosophical- 
ly accurate, and sometimes leads to serious 
practical errors. The Bible declaration is, 
that we are '' saved by grace through faith ;" 
that is, that we are saved by the divine mer- 
cy working in us to will and to do of God's 
good pleasure, but that this becomes our sal- 
vation only as we by faith receive it. The 
distinction is important, because, if recog- 
nized, men would cease trying to produce in 
themselves faith or penitence, or indeed any 
grace or experience as a ground or cause of 
salvation, and would simply and humbly re- 
ceive the salvation which nothing but the 
all-powerful grace of God freely offered to ev- 
ery man can bestow. For a statement of the 
doctrine of baptismal regeneration, see Bap- 
tism. 

Register (parish), a record of births and 
marriages and deaths kept by the officia- 
ting minister. By various statutes, run- 
ning back as far the reign of Henry VIII., 
these registers are required to be kept in 
every parish of the Established Church of 
Great Britain. Marriages, when not solem- 
nized in the Established Chiirch, are required 
to be duly registered by an officer called a 
registrar. In certain States of the Union 
laws exist for the registration of births, 
deaths, and marriages, which the clergyman, 
physician, or other official is required to re- 
port to an officer for the public record. 

Regium Donum (Lat. royal gift), an an- 
nual grant of public money in aid of the 
maintenance of the Presbyterian and other 
dissenting ministers in Ireland. It began 
in 1672, when Charles II. gave £600 of se- 
cret-service money to be distributed annu- 



ally among the Presbyterian clergy in Ire- 
land, on hearing they had been loyal to him, 
and had even suffered on his account. The 
grant was discontinued in the latter part of 
the reign of that monarch, as well as in the 
time of James II., but was renewed by Wil- 
liam III. By act of Parliament (1869) the 
Regium Donum was to cease January, 1870, 
provision having been made for compensa- 
ting the Presbyterians who were in receipt 
thereof. 

Rehoboam (Tie ivho sets the people at liber- 
ty), the first king of Judah, B.C. 975-958. He 
was the son of Solomon by the Ammonite 
princess, Naamah' — the only son of whom 
any mention is made. He certainly did not 
inherit his father's wisdom, and it is possi- 
ble that his father's knowledge of his imbe- 
cility may have given rise to the singular 
expression in Ecclesiastes ii., 18, 19. Both 
Saul and David had taken the throne un- 
der restrictions, and with mutual pledges 
interchanged between them and the peo- 
ple.'^ This formality was dispensed with iu 
the case of Solomon. The oppressive taxes 
he levied led to a popular demand for a re- 
vival of the constitutional guarantees. On 
the death of Solomon, Rehoboam went to 
Shechem to be crowned. There Jeroboam, 
exiled by Solomon a few years before, met 
him as the chief and spokesman of the peo- 
ple, in a demand for relief from the exac- 
tions of his father. Rehoboam, who had 
neither the independence which acts bold- 
ly, nor the wisdom which accepts wise coun- 
sels, demanded time for consideration. His 
father's councilors advised him to concede 
to the popular demand, adding that he might 
afterward do as he would. The counsel of 
his more youthful associates was more con- 
genial, and he returned an insulting reply 
that Israel never forgot or forgave. He fol- 
lowed up his response by sending Adoram,^ 
who had been the chief receiver of the trib- 
ute during the reigns of Solomon and Da- 
vid, to enforce the service of the people. 
The indignant Israelites stoned the unfor- 
tunate tax-gatherer to death ; whereat the 
king, bold in words and cowardly in action, 
fled to Jerusalem. There he gathered an 
army of one hundred and eighty thousand 
men to march against Jeroboam, who had 
been meanwhile crowned king of the north- 
ern tribes ; but the Judeans had little heart 
for a battle with their brethren, and when 
the prophet Shemaiah met the army with a 
warning not to prosecute the campaign, the 
men abandoned their standards, and Reho- 
boam was obliged to surrender the largest 
part of his kingdom to his rival, without 
even a struggle to retain it. The secession 
thus peacefully accomplished was also a 
schism. The priests and Levites, cast out 



1 1 King8 xiv., 31 ; 2 Chron. xii., 13.— 2 1 Sam. x., 25; 
2 Sam. v., 3.-3 Also called Hadoram, 2 Chron. x., 18; 
and Adouiram, 1 Kiugs iv., 6 ; see also v., 14. 



EEINS 



800 



RELIGION 



of their office by Jeroboam for their real or 
supposed fidelity to Jerusalem and the dy- 
nasty of David, flocked from all parts of Is- 
rael to Judea, and helped to give to the Jew- 
ish people, and especially to the Jerusalem- 
ites, that intense religious bigotry which has 
been equaled in history only by that of the 
priesthood of Rome. Despite this fact, Re- 
hoboam had not the moral courage to abol- 
ish the heathen rites which had become so 
prevalent during the latter part of Solomon's 
reign. Meanwhile a new danger threaten- 
ed Rehoboam's diminished kingdom. The 
Egyptian king, Shishak, perhaps instigated 
by Jeroboam, x)repared to invade Judea with 
a force of twelve hundred chariots and sixty 
thousand cavalry, besides infantry. The line 
of fortresses which protected Jerusalem to 
the west and south was forced, Jerusalem 
itself was taken, and Rehoboam had to pur- 
chase an ignominious peace by delivering 
up all the treasures with which Solomon 
had adorned the Temple and palace, includ- 
ing his golden shields, two hundred of the 
larger and three hundred of the smaller size, 
and substitute brass in their place. After 
this great humiliation the moral condition 
of Judah seems to have improved, and the 
rest of Rehoboam's life to have been unmark- 
ed by any events of importance. He died 
after a reign of seventeen years, having as- 
cended the throne at the age of forty-one. 
He had eighteen wives, sixty concubines, 
twenty - eight sons, and sixty daughters. 
Abijah succeeded him. See Jeroboam; 
Shishak; Abijah. [1 Kings xii., 1-24 ; xiv., 
21-31 ; 2 Chron. x. ; xi. ; xii.] 

Reins, another term for kidneys, which 
the Hebrews regarded as the seat of various 
affections and emotions, such as we for the 
most part ascribe in common parlance to the 
heart. [Psa. vii., 9 ; Jer. xvii., 10 ; xx., 12 ; 
Psa. xvi., 7.] 

Relics, the name given in theological 
and historical nomenclature to personal me- 
morials of the distinguished dead. Under 
the same name are classed certain objects 
which are believed to be memorials of our 
Lord upon earth, and especially of his pas- 
sion and death. Such memorials have at 
all times and in all states of society been 
held in honor among men. The very ear- 
liest monuments of Christian history con- 
tain evidences of the deep and reveren- 
tial affection with which martyrs of the 
faith, their mortal remains, and every thing 
connected with their martyrdom, were re- 
garded by their fellow - Christians, and for 
which the Roman Catholics profess to find 
warrant in Exod. xiii., 19 ; Dent, xxxiv., 6, 
etc. : 2 Kings xxiii., 16-18 ; Isa. xi., 10. At 
an early period two miracles are described 
as connected with relics. The writings of 
Augustine, of Paulinus, of Nola, of Gregory 
the Great, and others, are full of examples of 
the miraculous virtues ascribed to them, and 



of the extensive variety and multiijlication 
of sacred memorials of all kinds. 

In the age of the Crusades a fresh impulse 
was given to the worship of relics in the 
West, by the novelty and variety of sacred 
objects brought home from the various 
churches of Syria, Asia Minor, and Constan- 
tinople, by Crusaders returning from Pales- 
tine, and by the Latin conquerors of Con- 
stantinople. And it is admitted by the most 
zealous Catholics that at this perod many 
false and even absurd and ridiculous relics 
were introduced. The practice of relic-wor- 
ship remained, with a few exceptions, un- 
challenged till the sixteenth century, when, 
in common with many other practices of the 
Church of Rome, it was utterly repudiated 
by the Reformers. The Roman Catholic use 
of relics, as authorized by the Church, is to 
serve as an incentive to faith and piety by re- 
calling vividly to men's minds the lives, and, 
as it were, the earthly converse of the saints, 
and thus placing before them the real or sup- 
posed virtues and examples which are held 
up for imitation. Among the most sacred 
relics of the Church is the holy coat, which 
is preserved with the greatest reverence in 
the cathedral of Treves, of which city it is 
esteemed the greatest treasure. It is alleged 
to have been the seamless coat of our Sav- 
iour, and to have been discovered in the 
fourth century by the Empress Helena in her 
memorable visit to Palestine, and by her de- 
posited at Treves. Relic-worship still forms 
a notable feature of the Mohammedan prac- 
tice of pilgrimages. The holy cities of Mecca 
and Medina, and the celebrated Mosque of 
Omar at Jerusalem, owe most of their holi- 
ness in Mohammedan eyes to the memorials 
of the prophet and other relics which they 
contain ; and the practice occupies a still 
more important place in Buddhism. 

Religion. This word is derived from a 
Latin word, meaning to " bind fast." The 
fundamental idea of religion, therefore, is 
that bond or obligation which unites all 
men to God their Creator and to their fel- 
low-men. The basis of religion is the uni- 
versal recognition — almost as universal as 
mankind — of a Divine Being, and the sense 
of right and wrong which is implanted in 
the conscience, and which manifests itself 
in every age and in every tribe and nation. 
Thus religion is itself much more wide- 
spread than that knowledge of the truth 
which comes through revelation. Hence a 
distinction is naturally drawn by all thinkers 
between natural and revealed religion. The 
truths of natural religion are those which 
are recognized by nearly all men, through 
the conscience alone; they include such 
truths as the existence of a Divine Being, 
the immortality of the soul, future rewards 
and punishments, and the obligation of obe- 
dience toward God and good-will toward 
our fellow-men. They are referred to by 



RELLYANISTS 



801 



REPENTANCE 



Paul in the opeuing chapters of his Epis- 
tle to the Eomans. Revealed religion in- 
cludes, in addition, those truths which are 
made known to us through God's written 
Word, such doctrines as the forgiveness of 
sins through Jesus Christ, the help and 
strength vouchsafed by God's Holy Spirit 
to those that seek it, and the assurance of 
eternal life to all those who accept the prof- 
fered divine grace, and seek by its aid to 
live a godly, righteous, and sober life. The 
various religions of the world are treated of 
in this Dictionary under their separate titles. 
They may be regarded as divided into four 
great classes, the Pagan, the Mohammedan, 
the Jewish, and the Christian. Of these the 
chief Pagan religions now existing are Fe- 
tichism, which prevails among the lower 
tribes of Africa; Brahmanism and Buddhism, 
which prevail in India ; Confucianism, which 
divides with Buddhism and Tao-ism the alle- 
giance of China; and the primitive religion 
of the North American Indians. The Chris- 
tian world is again divided into three great 
parties, the Greek Church, the Roman Cath- 
olic Church, and the Protestant Church. In 
addition to these the Rationalists should be 
referred to, though the more advanced among 
them disclaim the idea that Christianity is 
the'true religion, which they declare is to be 
made up by a comparison of all the religions 
of the world, and by selecting what is good 
from each. 

The following tabular summary of the re- 
ligious statistics of the world is taken from 
" Johnson's Atlas :" 

America: 

Protestants 27,737,000 

Eoman Catholics 38,759,000 

Greek Church 10,700 



66,506,700 



Europe : 

Protestants 65,850,000 

Eoman Catholics 138,103,000 

Greek Church 74,633,300 



278,586,800 



Protestants 428,000 

Roman Catholics 7,167,000 

Greek Church 3,000,000 

Other Christians 7,853,000 



Africa : 

Protestants 719,000 

Roman Catholics 1,113,000 

Greek Church 5,000 

Other Christians 3,191,000 



Australia and Polynesia : 

Protestants 1,100,000 

Roman Catholics . . 280,000 



18,448,000 



5,028,000 



1,380,000 



Total Christians 

Mohammedans. 



Pagans. 
3,899,000 



949,000 
Jews. 



America 

Europe 9,823,000 

Asia 50,000,000 666,251,000 6,000,000 

Africa 100,000,000 94,972,000 

Australia and Pol-' 



ynesia. 



1,000,000 100,220,000 



Total 160,823,000 766,342,000 6,000,000 

Rellyanists, or Rellyan UniversaUsts, 
the followers of Mr. James Relly. He first 
51 



commenced his ministerial career in connec- 
tion with Mr. Whitefield, and was received 
with great popularity. Upon a change of 
his views, he encountered reproach, and was 
pronounced by many as an enemy to godli- 
ness. The Rellyanists believe that Christ 
as a mediator was so united to mankind 
that his actions were theirs, his obedience 
and suffering theirs ; and, consequently, that 
he has as fully restored the whole human 
race to the divine favor as if all had obey- 
ed and suffered in their own persons. They 
are not observers of ordinances, such as wa- 
ter-baptism and the sacrament; profess to 
believe only in one baptism, which they call 
an immersion of the mind or conscience into 
truth by the teaching of the Spirit of God ; 
and by the same Spirit claim that they are 
enabled to feed on Christ as the bread of 
life, professing that in and with Jesus they 
possess all things. In general they appear 
to believe that there will be a resurrection 
to life, and a resurrection to condemnation; 
that believers only will be among the for- 
mer ; that unbelievers are after raised, and 
must wait the manifestation of the Saviour 
of the world, under that condemnation of 
conscience which a mind in darkness and 
wrath must necessarily feel ; but that ulti- 
mately every knee shall bow, and every 
tongue confess that in the Lord they have 
righteousness and strength ; and thus every 
enemy shall be subdued to the kingdom and 
glory of the Great Mediator. 

Remphan. This word occurs only in 
Acts vii., 43, where Stephen cites Amos v., 
26, substituting the Greek word Bemphan 
for the Hebrew CMun. In doing this he 
follows the Septuagint. Why the authors 
of that version made this change is not 
known. It was probably, however, either 
because the word Chiun in Hebrew meant 
the same as Bemplian in the language of 
Egypt, where the translation was made, or 
because the object of worship called CMun 
in Hebrew was called Eemphan in the lan- 
guage of Egypt. It has been generally sup- 
posed that the object of their worship was 
the planet Saturn, or Mars, both of which 
planets were worshiped as gods of evil in- 
fluence. Recent discoveries in Egypt, how- 
ever, indicate a different explanation. There 
is an Egyptian tablet in the British Muse- 
um, on which are represented a group of 
gods. Of these, two bear the names of 
Renpu (pronounced Rempu) and Ken. Their 
worship was probably similar to that of Baal 
and Ashtoreth. It is not improbable that 
the worship of these deities is referred to. 

Repentance. The most casual reader of 
the N. T. can hardly fail to recognize the 
fact that the two conditions of salvation 
everywhere insisted on are repentance and 
faith. We have elsewhere^ discussed the 
meaning of the latter term. The former is 
^ See Faith. 



EEPHAIM 



802 



KESURRECTION 



used to translate a Greek word signifying 
a change of mind, or, rather, of mental pur- 
pose. It signifies not merely a change of 
opinion, nor yet a change of action or con- 
duct, but rather a change of mental and 
spiritual habit, so thorough and radical as 
to result in a change of the entire course 
and current of the life. It includes, says 
Dr. D wight, in his definition of it, just 
views of sin, a consequent hatred of sin, a 
sincere sorrow for it as indulged in by him- 
self, a full and free confession of it to God, 
and a hearty and genuine reformation, i. e., 
abandonment of it. It is this last which is 
the true test of repentance. A sorrow for 
sin and the just view of sin often practical- 
ly follow the change in life, and grow deep- 
er and truer as the character grows more 
and more in holiness. That sorrow for Sin 
is not repentance is evident by the course 
and fate of Saul in O. T. history, and by 
that of Judas in N. T. history. The experi- 
ence of the prodigal son affords the clearest 
possible exemplification of its true nature. 
It is such a sorrow for sin as leads the peni- 
tent to go humbly to God, acknowledging 
his sin, asking forgiveness, and purposing 
within himself to return to his allegiance to 
his Father. This we believe to be, in brief, 
the doctrine of repentance, as generally held 
by Evangelical Protestant Christendom. For 
an account of Roman Catholic doctrine of 
repentance, see Penance. 

Rephaim (probably giants). This word 
seems to have been a proper name, and it 
has even been matter of doubt whether it 
was ever used otherwise. In Gen. xiv., 5 ; 
XV., 20, the Rephaim are mentioned as a dis- 
tinct race or tribe, holding possessions, along 
with other tribes, in the land of Canaan. 
At the period of the conquest, Og, king of | 
Bashan, is said to have remained alone (prob- ' 
ably meaning to the east of Jordan) of the 
remnant of the Rephaim ; and then, in proof j 
of this connection with the Rephaim, men- 
tion is immediately made of his enormous : 
bedstead, which was nine cubits long and 
four broad. The word was hence very natu- 
rally taken in a general sense for giants; I 
and the Septuagint, though not in this pas- 
sage of Deuteronomy, yet in those of Genesis, 
and also where the word occurs in Joshua, 
renders it by the common word for giants. 
But the descendants of the Philistine giants, 
who are elsewhere associated with the Ana- 
kim, were also called Rephaim ; and so also 
were some, probably of the same stock, who ' 
dwelt about Mount Ephraim. In these lat- 
ter cases the word is probably used as a gen- 
eral designation for giants. The name orig- 
inally of a tribe that were peculiarly dis- \ 
tinguished for size and strength, the word 
came, in the course of time, to be applied to 
those who were remarkable for these prop- 
erties, whether they were descended from 
that tribe or from some other similarly dis- : 



tinguished. [Deut. iri., 2 ; Josh, xvii., 15 ; 2 
Sam. xxi., 15,22.] 

Rephaim (Valley of), a valley near Beth- 
lehem, noted for its fertility, where David 
twice defeated the Philistines. Since the 
latter part of the sixteenth century the 
name has been attached to the upland plain 
which stretches south of Jerusalem. But 
this, though appropriate enough as regards 
its proximity to Bethlehem, does not answer 
at all to the meaning of the Hebrew word 
Efnek, which appears always to designate an 
inclosed valley, never an open upland plain. 
The valley is probably that of the Wady Der 
Jasin. [1 Chron. xi., 15, 16; xiv., 9-16; 2 
Sam. v., 17-25 ; xxiii., 13 ; Isa. xvii., 5.] 

Rephidim (refresliments, rests), a station 
of the Israelites on their way to Sinai, 
where the people murmured against Moses 
because there was no water; and Moses was 
commanded to go, with some of the elders, 
and smite the rock that was in Horeb, from 
which there should then flow waters in 
abundance. The proximity of Rephidim to 
Horeb is thus evident, though travelers are 
not agreed as to its exact position. There is 
a singular rock still to be seen high up in 
the Wady Leja, which tradition declares to 
be the identical one which Moses struck. It 
is an isolated mass of granite, nearly twenty 
feet square, with its base concealed in the 
earth. In the face of the rock are a number 
of horizontal fissures, at unequal distances 
from each other. The color and whole ap- 
pearance of the rock are such as would be 
produced by water flowing from these fis- 
sures. They are such as would be extreme- 
ly difficult to form by art. It is not less 
difficult to believe that a natural fountain 
should flow at a height of a dozen feet out 
of the face of an isolated rock. Eye-wit- 
nesses who put no faith in the tradition 
have expressed an opinion that it is not at 
all incredible that this may be the identical 
rock, and that these fissures and the other 
appearances may not improperly be regard- 
ed as evidences of the fact. [Exod. xvii., 1, 
8 ; xix., 2 ; Numb, xxxiii., 14, 15.] 

Resurrection is the translation of two 
Greek words in the N. T. One (egersis), 
found only in Matt, xxvii., 53, properly 
means a ivaWmg ^ip (or rising up), namely, 
from sleep — in the N. T., from the sleep of 
death; the other, anastasis, means a raising 
up (or rising up), namely, to a new life ; and 
in theology is applied chiefly to the body, 
and is used in lieu of the fuller phrase, the 
resurrection of the body. 

Belief in a bodily resurrection is very gen- 
eral. It is by no means confined to Christen- 
dom. The Egyptian habit of embalming 
grew, probably, out of a desire to preserve 
the body for the resurrection. And a simi- 
lar faith underlies the practice of the In- 
dians, who bury the arms of the deceased 
warrior in the grave with him, that, on his 



EESURRECTION 



803 RESUREECTION OF JESUS CHRIST 



awakiug, he may have them to use in the 
other world. In the Christian world the 
doctrine of the resurrection of the body is 
held in three forms. 

1. One view is, that the identical hody 
laid in the grave at death will be raised 
again with all its members. This literal 
and material conception was carried so far 
in the Middle Ages that it was even main- 
tained that cripples would rise maimed, to 
be restored by Christ to a perfect condition 
immediately^ upon their resurrection. This 
was the view generally held by the Church 
from the time of Augustine (a.d. 354-430) to a 
comparatively recent period. It is now gen- 
erally agreed to be alike inconsistent with 
Scripture and with science, and is supplant- 
ed by a more rational and less material view. 
2. According to the view now more gen- 
erally entertained, it is taught in the Scrip- 
ture that in the future life the soul will be 
united to a body which will be analogous to 
the present body, though far from the same 
either in substance or qualities. *^It shall 
be changed," and, though here a material, 
shall be in the other life a spiritual, body.^ 
At the same time its identity will be pre- 
served, though exactly how we do not know. 
But as the wheat in the stalk is in a sense 
identical with the wheat sown, though not 
composed of the same particles, so the body 
raised will be in some manner identified 
with the body buried, though it will not be 

literally the same body. 3. Swedeuborg 

taught that every man is possessed of two 
bodies, a natural or physical, and a spiritual 
body, the one within the other. At death 
the natural or physical body is laid aside, 
and the soul, with its spiritual body, enters 
at once upon its perfected spiritual exist- 
ence. This, according to him, is the resur- 
rection; it takes place immediately upon 
death, and the spiritual body referred to by 
Paul is this inner or unsubstantial body. 

The resurrection of the body is denied by 
some, but at the present time by very few 
in the Christian Church, though there are 
not a few, probably, who hold it in doubt, 
believing heartily in the immortality of 
the soul, but holding that the nature of the 
future body, if it has any, is entirely un- 
known. In the early and middle ages the 
doctrine was denied wholly by those of 
Gnostic tendencies, who held that the body 
was the seat and occasion of sin. The doc- 
trine in its general form rests chiefly upon 
Scriptural evidence. It is directly taught by 
the apostles, especially by Paul, in 1 Cor. xv., 
which is the fullest statement of the doc- 
trine in the Bible, and is largely the foun- 
dation of the Christian faith on the subject. 
It is also incidentally taught by the resurrec- 
tion of those who were miraculously raised 
from the dead, and, above all, by the resur- 
rection of Jesus Christ himself, who is call- 
1 1 Cor. xv7, H 5L 



ed the "first-fruits of them that slept." But 
while the doctrine of a real though myste- 
rious resurrection rests chiefly upon Scrip- 
ture, it is confirmed by other considerations. 
The general belief in the doctrine outside 
of Christendom has already been adverted 
to. If we are to suppose that the future 
home of the blessed is this world, purified 
by fire, it is clear, from analogy, that a bodily 
form and bodily organs would be necessary 
to existence. If it is to be any one or all of 
the stars above, astronomy teaches that the 
same substances exist there as here, and 
would require the same or similar organs 
for their full enjoyment. To lose the sense 
of sight and hearing, or even of taste, would 
be an absolute deprivation which it is at 
least needless to assume. And, finally, it is 
difficult, if not impossible, for the human 
mind to conceive a purely spiritual exist- 
ence without any corporeal form. So that 
it may almost be said that the human mind 
necessarily conceives of some bodily resur- 
rection, accompanying the restoration of the 
soul to the full enjoyment of its life and 
employment of its powers. As to second 
resurrection, see Millenaeians ; as to time 
and incidents accompanying resurrection, 
see Judgment (Day of). 

Resurrection of Jesus Christ. The res- 
urrection of Jesus Christ was regarded by the 
apostles as the central truth in the Christian 
system. It was regarded of even greater im- 
portance, in some respects, than his suffer- 
ings and death. This was partly, it is prob- 
able, because the latter was a fact so fresh 
and indubitable that it could not be made 
the subject of controversy, and the need of 
an atonement, for which it provided, was 
too universally acknowledged, both by the 
Jewish and the heathen religions, to require 
to be demonstrated. It was partly, also, be- 
cause the acceptance of Christ's resurrection 
carried with it, necessarily, the acceptance 
of his miraculous character and his Messiah- 
ship. Hence Paul declared that if Jesus 
did not rise from the dead the faith of the 
Christian was in vain ; hence it is on this 
central truth of the resurrection Peter chief- 
ly dwelt in his address to the Jews at the 
Pentecost, and Paul in his sermons at Anti- 
och and Athens.^ In all arguments with in- 
fidelity it still continues to be the central 
fact. If, on the one hand, the resurrection 
of Jesus Christ be admitted, the miracles, 
the divine character, and mission, and work 
of Jesus Christ, and the unquestionable truth 
of all he taught, necessarily follows. If, on 
the other hand, he did not rise, then we may 
still say, with Paul, that our faith is vain. 
If this doctrine of the N. T. be not true, 
then uncertainty is cast upon all the rest. 
In considering the truth of this one great 
central fact, there are three important con- 
siderations to be borne in mind : 
1 Acts ii., 24-36 : xiiL, 30-41 ; xvii., 22-31 ; 1 Cor., xv. 



RESURRECTION OF JESUS CHRIST 804 RESURRECTION OF JESUS CHRIST 



1. The fact of the resurrection is attested, 
not by persons predisposed to believe in it, 
but by skeptical critics hard to be convinced. 
Nothing is more clear, from the whole tenor 
of the Scriptural narrative, than that the 
disciples were utterly disheartened by the 
death of their Master, and had as little ex- 
pectation of his resurrection as they had 
previously entertained of his death. It is 
true that both had been foretold by Jesus, 
but it is also. true that they did not com- 
prehend the prophecy.^ When the women 
came to the tomb to finish their prepara- 
tion of the body for the burial, they were 
surprised to find the body gone. When they 
carried back to the other disciples the an- 
gel's message concerning his resurrection, 
" their words seemed to them as idle tales, 
and they believed them not." Mary thought 
the body had been removed, and taxed the 
supposed gardener with being privy to the 
abduction. When Christ was revealed to 
her, and she repeated the revelation to the 
other disciples, they received it with utter 
incredulity. The disciples who walked with 
the hidden Christ to Emmaus had given up 
all faith in him as the Redeemer of Israel, 
and were surprised beyond measure when 
he disclosed himself to them. Their story, 
albeit it confirmed the tidings of the other 
witnesses, was still disbelieved. When at 
length he appeared to the ten, Thomas, who 
was absent, refused to assent to their united 
testimony, and yielded his skepticism only to 
the most convincing proof. In a word, not 
until Jesus had appeared to his disciples half 
a score or more of times, talked with them, 
partaken of their hospitality, and showed 
them, as indubitable evidences of his iden- 
tity, the wounds in his hands and feet and 
side, did they really believe he was risen 
from the dead. So marked and so stub- 
born was their incredulity that Christ more 
than once tenderly upbraided them with 
their unbelief.^ 

2. Another not less significant fact is the 
marvelous change wrought in the disciples 
by the resurrection of their Lord. While he 
lived they had clearly formed no accurate 
conception of his mission. They supposed, 
with all the rest of the Jews, that he was 
coming to afford his nation a political deliv- 
erance. They were eager for office in the 
new kingdom about to be established, and 
quarreled for precedence in it, even at the | 
last Passover. Up to the latest moment, 
they looked for a miraculous deliverance ! 
from the Roman soldiery. When this hope I 
was crushed by Christ's surrender of himself, j 
they forsook him and fled. And in all the | 
subsequent scenes of his trial and crucifix- 



1 Luke xviii., 31-34.— 2 Mark xvi., 10, 11, 13, 14 ; Luke 
xxiv., 11, 13-35, 38, 30, 44; John xx., 11-18, 24-29; 
compare also the following additional references to 
Christ's appearance after his resurrection : Matt. 
xxviii., 9, 10, 16, 17; Luke xxiv., 50, 51; John xxi., 
1-24; Acts i., 9-11 ; 1 Cor. xv., 5-7. 



ion they stood afar off, only one of them, ap- 
parently approaching the cross. After his 
death they gave up all idea of his being the 
Messiah, and prepared to return to their 
old avocations as fishermen.' But the resur- 
rection completely transformed them. They 
gained a new conception of their Lord's char- 
acter and kingdom. The Peter that denied 
him at the Passover preached him publicly 
at the Pentecost. The disciples who for- 
sook him and fled in the garden thought it 
all joy to be counted worthy to suffer for 
him after his resurrection. So marvelous a 
change was never before wrought in any 
men as was wrought in the character of 
these fishermen of Galilee, after the death 
of their Master, by their faith in his resur- 
rection. 

3. The third, and, in some respects, yet 
more singular and significant circumstance, 
because it is one about which there can be 
no doubt, is the change in the Sabbath-day. 
To change a day which had been observed, 
perhaps, from the creation — certainly for 
fifteen hundred years — must have required 
some extraordinary event, not merely to 
justify but to have occasioned it. Yet, by 
an almost universal consent, the seventh 
day has been changed to the first day of the 
week, in order that it might commemorate, 
not the creation of the world, but the res- 
urrection of Jesus Christ from the grave. 
Thus, by a provision so marvelous as to be 
almost miraculous, every recurring week 
brings a new witness to the sublimest fact 
of history. In a word, the resurrection of 
Jesus Christ may be fairly regarded as be- 
ing as well attested as any fact in history, 
secular or profane — a fact so well attested 
that it can be denied only by him who as- 
serts that no evidence whatever is sufficient 
to justify belief in a miracle. 

Arguments concerning the resurrection of 
the body have been sometimes deduced from 
Christ's body ; and because it was tangible, 
and bore the marks of the nails and the 
wound of the spear, it has been supposed 
that the bodies of the dead will be literal- 
ly restored as they were buried. It would 
appear, however, from Luke xxiv., 39, that 
Christ did not appear to his disciples in his 
spiritual but in his natural body, and it cer- 
tainly is not inconceivable that it under- 
went, at the time of the ascension, the same 
marvelous change which, according to Paul, 
the bodies of those living at the time of the 
general resurrection will all undergo.^ On 
the whole, it may at least be safely asserted 
that we are not warranted in drawing any 
conclusions respecting the " spiritual body" 
with which we shall be clothed in another 
life from the facts recorded in the N. T., re- 
specting Christ's bodily appearances after 
his resurrection. 



1 Matt. XX., 20-24 ; xxvi., 51-56 ; Luke xix., 11 ; xxii., 
24-30 ; Johia xxi., 3.-2 1 Cor. xv., 51, 52 ; Phil, iii., 21. 



REUBEN 



805 



EEVELATION 



Reuben (behold a sow), Jacob's first-born 
child, the son of Leah, apparently not born 
till an unusual interval had elapsed after 
the marriage. The notices of the patriarch 
Reuben in the book of Genesis and the ear- 
ly Jewish traditional literature are unusual- 
ly frequent, and, on the whole, give a favor- 
able view of his disposition. To him, and 
him alone, the preservation of Joseph's life 
appears to have been due. His anguish at 
the disappearance of his brother and the 
frustration of his kindly artifice for deliv- 
ering him ; his recollection of the minute 
details of the painful scene many years af- 
terward ; his ofi'er to take the sole responsi- 
bility of the safety of the brother who had 
succeeded to Joseph's place in the family — 
all testify to a warm and (for those rough 
times) a kindly nature. Of the repulsive 
crime which mars his history, and which 
turned the blessing of his dying father into 
a curse — his adulterous connection with Bil- 
hah — we know from the Scriptures only the 
fact. These traits, slight as they are, are 
those of an ardent, impetuous, unbalanced, 
but not ungenerous nature ; not crafty and 
cruel, as were Simeon and Levi, but rather, 
to use the metaphor of the dying patriarch, 
boiling up like a vessel of water over the rap- 
id wood-fire of the nomad tent, and as quick- 
ly subsiding into apathy when the fuel was 
withdrawn.^ At the time of the migration 
into Egypt, Reuben's sons were four." At 
the first census in the wilderness the num- 
ber of Reubenites was 46,500. Their en- 
campment was to the south of the taber- 
nacle ; and on march they were to head the 
second division of the host, Simeon and Gad 
being joined with them. At the second cen- 
sus they had decreased to 43,730 ; for of their 
tribe many had rebelled and fallen with Da- 
than and Abiram.^ In the last year of the 
wandering in the wilderness, when the king- 
doms of Og and of Sihon had been conquer- 
ed, the tribes of Reuben and Gad requested 
that they might be allowed to settle east of 
the Jordan. This table -land was rich in 
pasture and forest, and they had "a very 
great multitude of cattle," which had ac- 
companied them in their flight from Egypt. 
Moses was at first disposed to refuse; but 
when they professed their readiness to aid 
their brethren in the conquest of Canaan 
westward, he consented. And the land was 
given to them, '• that they might build cities 
for their little ones, and folds for their sheep J' 
Under its modern name, it is still the favor- 
ite tract of the Bedouin shepherds. " Thou 
canst not," they say, " find a country like 
the Balka." Here Reuben and Gad formed, 
with half the tribe of Manasseh, a large di- 
vision of the whole people, cut off in some 
measure from the rest of the nation. From 



1 Gen. xxix., 31, 32 ; xxxv., 22 ; xxxvii., 22 ; xlii., 22, 
37.-2 Gen. xlvi., 9 ; 1 Chron. v., 3.-3 Numb, i., 20, 21 ; 
ii., 10-16; xvi. ; xxvi., 5-11. 



first to last, they alone of all the tribes nev< 
er emerged from the state of their patriarch- 
al ancestors. When Joshua bade them re- 
turn to their possessions, it was not to their 
"houses," but to their "tents." When, on 
their return, they reached the Jordan, the 
boundary between themselves and their 
more settled brethren, like true children of 
the desert, they erected, to mark the front- 
ier, a huge stone of division, which their 
more civilized kinsmen mistook for an al- 
tar.' It w^as an act identical with that of 
Jacob and Laban, who, in earlier times, 
raised a similar cairn on the heights of Gil- 
ead, and with that which is constantly per- 
formed by the Bedouins of the present day. 
Reuben is to these Eastern tribes, of whose 
subsequent history this roving life is still 
the prevailing feature, w^hat Simeon is to 
the Western. The most purely nomadic, he 
is, therefore, the most transitory. The name 
of no judge, no prophet, no hero of the tribe 
of Reuben, is handed down to us. In the 
great struggles of the nation he never took 
part. The complaint against him in the song 
of Deborah is the summary of his whole his- 
tory. The distant distress of his brethren 
could not move Reuben, He lingered among 
his sheep-folds, and preferred the shepherd's 
pipe and the bleating of the flocks to the 
clamor of the trumpet and the turmoil of 
battle. He was content with debating the 
news among the streams of the Mishor — 
" by the ' streams ' of Reuben " — the fresh 
streams that descend from the eastern hills 
into the Jordan and the Dead Sea, on whose 
banks the Bedouin chiefs then, as now, met 
to debate.^ Reuben's individuality fades 
more rapidly than Gad's. "Unstable as 
water," he vanishes away into a mere Ara- 
bian tribe; it is all that he can do "to live 
and not die." We hear of nothing beyond 
the multiplication of "their cattle in the 
land of Gilead," their wars with the Bed- 
ouin sons of Hagar, their spoils of "camels 
fifty thousand, and of sheep two hundred 
and fifty thousand, and of asses two thou- 
sand." No person, no incident, is recorded 
to place Reuben before us in any distinct- 
er form than as a member of the communi- 
ty (if community it can be called) of "the 
Reubenites, the Gadites, and the half- tribe 
of Manasseh." Being remote from the cen- 
tral seat of the national government and of 
the national religion, it is not to be wonder- 
ed at that Reuben relinquished the faith of 
Jehovah. The last historical notice which 
we possess of the tribe, while it records this 
fact, records also, as its natural consequence, 
that the Reubenites and Gadites and the 
half- tribe of Manasseh were carried off by 
Pul and Tiglath-pileser. [1 Kings iv., 19; 
1 Chron. v. ; xii., 37 ; xxvii., 16.] 

Revelation. In its general sense this 
word is used to signify that disclosure which 



1 Josh, xxii.— 2 Judg. v., 15, 16. 



REVELATION (BOOK OF) 



806 



REVELATION (BOOK OF) 



God makes of himself and his will to his 
creatures. In the fact that such a revela- 
tion is made, nearly all mankind are agreed ; 
indeed there is probably no doctrine of faith 
concerning which there is more absolute 
unanimity. The only persons who deny it 
are those who also deny the existence of a 
God, or hold at best that his existence is 
problematical, and that of his character 
nothing can be known. But when we come 
to consider the question, By what means does 
God reveal himself? this unanimity disap- 
pears. There are four principal media of rev- 
elation : 1. Nature. The character and attri- 
butes of God, and to some extent his laws, can 
be understood by a study of his works. 2. His- 
tory. All those who recognize a Divine Prov- 
idence overruling the events of human life 
also recognize that the course of that Provi- 
dence, whether it affects the affairs of na- 
tions or only their individual lives-, affords 
to the devout student some revelation of 
God's character and purposes. 3. Self-con- 
sciousness. That God has implanted in the 
human soul certain faculties and powers 
which perceive necessarily the great funda- 
mental laws of right and wrong, is general- 
ly, though not universally, believed. Thus 
an outer revelation is not necessary in order 
to teach the sinfulness of falsehood, of cru- 
elty, of theft. These laws, as the apostle 
expresses it, are written in the heart.^ 4. 
The Bihle. In the preceding media of revela- 
tion nearly all men believe, but with them 
few men are satisfied. There is an almost 
universal reaching out after something more, 
a heart hunger for direct communication 
with God. Nearly every nation has its 
prophets, oracles, seers, or sacred writings, 
which profess to afford a direct and verbal 
communication from God to man. In Chris- 
tian theology the term revelation is applied 
to the sacred writings of Christendom, the 
books of the Old and New Testaments ; or 
rather to that information concerning the 
Divine Being and his law which they afford ; 
for revelation, which is the disclosure to the 
human mind of something before unknown, 
differs from inspiration, which is the influ- 
ence of the Divine Spirit over the mind. 
Thus the Bible, while it is the inspired Word 
of God, contains the revelation of his will. 
See Inspiration. 

Revelation (Book of), the last book of 
the N. T. It is also sometimes called Apoca- 
lypse, the English form of the original Greek 
word signifying revelation, or, more literal- 
ly, uncovering. 

Autho7'ship, etc. — The author of this book 
calls himself in more places than one by the 
name of John.^ The general view has been 
that this name represents the apostle John, 
the writer of the gospel and of the three 
epistles which bear his name. While this 
view has been impugned, both on external 
1 Rora. ii., 14, 15.— 2 Rev. i., 1, 4, 9 ; xxii., 8. 



and internal grounds, it is the best judgment 
of Christian critics that there is no sufficient 
reason to doubt it. The opinion rests upon 
the firmest traditional grounds, is assured by 
Irenseus himself, a hearer of Polycarp, who 
was a disciple of John, has been held in con- 
tinuous succession by fathers in all parts of 
the Church, and is not contradicted by any 
early tradition on the subject. When we 
turn from external to internal evidence, we 
find the writer describing himself as John, 
evidently well known to the churches of 
Asia, and apparently suffering exile in the 
island of Patmos,^ which notices correspond 
with the primitive traditions in respect to 
the apostle John. Against these considera- 
tions is the undoubted fact that the Greek 
construction of the gospel and epistles, 
though peculiar, is smooth and unexception- 
able, while that of the book of Revelation 
is not elegant, nor indeed always accurate; 
yet there are some startling similarities in ' 
thought and expression, and the differences 
in style are not, perhaps, greater than such 
as exist in the different works of other well- 
known writers. The place in which the 
book was written is unknown ; the vision 
itself, however, was vouchsafed to John 
while on the isle of Patmos, though it may 
have been reduced to writing after he was 
released from exile. There is some differ- 
ence of opinion in respect to the time of the 
writing, some scholars placing it earlier than 
others. On the whole, there appears to be 
AO sufficient reason for doubting the testi- 
mony of primitive tradition that it was writ- 
ten toward the end of the reign of Domitian, 
i. e., about the year 95 or 96 a.d. There has 
also been some question respecting the par- 
ties for whom this book was more particu- 
larly written. It is addressed to the ^' Seven 
churches which are in Asia,"^ and the sec- 
ond and third chapters are occupied with 
messages addressed to those churches by 
name. An examination of those epistles or 
messages shows that they cover a variety of 
experiences in church life, and the number 
seven is regarded as symbolically intended 
to represent somewhat completely the vari- 
ous phases of religious life in the Christian 
Church. All Christian scholars, therefore, 
are agreed in regarding these seven church- 
es as types of the general Church of Christ, 
and in accepting the instruction which is 
addressed to them as intended for the uni- 
versal Church. Some writers have even 
gone so far as to regard the seven churches 
of Asia as symbolical only, i. e., imaginary 
churches, intended prophetically to repre- 
sent the future experiences of the Church of 
Christ ; but this view is not accepted by any 
modern scholars of note. We may, then, dis- 
miss this branch of our subject with the 
conclusion that the book of Revelation was 
written by John the apostle, near the close 
1 Rev. i., 9.— 2 Rev. i.,4. 



EEVEREND 



807 



REVIVALS 



of the first century, for the universal Church, 
though immediately addressed to the church- 
es within the district over which he exer- 
cised an apostolic supervision. 

Interpretation. — To enter into any thing 
like a detailed interpretation of the book of 
Revelation would carry us far beyond our 
limits ; for this the reader must be referred 
to the commentaries. The schools of inter- 
pretation are of three principal kinds, and it 
is not even possible to give a general synop- 
sis of the book without entering into a dis- 
cussion respecting the merits of these three 
schools, of which the last two claim for their 
advocates able and distinguished scholars. 
The first school, that of the Prseterists, em- 
braces those who hold that the whole, or by 
far the greater part, of the prophecy of this 
book has been fulfilled. They regard it as 
intended merely to describe events then 
passing, and they limit its denunciations to 
the destruction of Pagan and persecuting 
Rome. This view finds few modern defend- 
ers outside of Germany, and may be safely 
disregarded by the reader. The second is 
that of the historical interpreters, or those 
who hold that the prophecy embraces the 
whole history of the .Church and its foes, 
from the time of its composition to the end 
of the world. The expositors of this school, 
while they differ among themselves in de- 
tail, agree in regarding the book of Revela- 
tion as a continuous prophetic history of the 
Church, describing in symbolical language 
the various phases through which it was or- 
dained to pass ; and they look for the proper 
interpretation of the book largely to the 
events which have occurred in the history 
of the Church thus far. The third view is 
that of the Futurists, or those who maintain 
that the prophecy, with perhaps the excep- 
tion of the first three chapters, relates en- 
tirely to events which are to take place at 
or near to the comiug of the Lord. Of these 
last two views, we think that the first, which 
regards the book as speaking of things past, 
present, and future, as containing prophe- 
cies, some already fulfilled, some now fulfill- 
ing, and- others awaiting their fulfillment in 
the yet unknown future, is that which most 
accords with the spirit of the book itself, 
and is entertained, though in somewhat dif- 
ferent forms, by the greatest number of 
evangelical scholars. 

Reverend (Lat.reverendus, to he respected), 
a title of respect given to the clergy. In 
Roman Catholic countries it is applied to 
the members of the different religious or- 
ders. Different modifications of the title are 
employed to indicate different ecclesiastic 
positions, especially in England, where deans 
are "Very Reverend," bishops "Right Rev- 
erend," and archbishops "Most Reverend." 
In Scotland the clergy in general are " Rev- 
erend," while it is the practice to apply 
"Very Reverend" to the moderator of the 



General Assembly. The style reverend is 
generally adopted by, and given to, the cler- 
gy of the different Protestant bodies in the 
United States; but there have been instances 
in which some of them have repudiated it. 

Revivals. This word is popularly used 
in religious phraseology to describe a spirit- 
ual awakening, in which both the professed 
disciples of Jesus Christ are brought into 
closer communion with their Lord and more 
active service for him, and in which those who 
are not his professed disciples are brought 
in considerable numbers to accept him as 
their Saviour, and consecrate themselves to 
his service as their Master. It is, perhaps, 
true that in a perfect state, as there will be 
no decadence in religion, so there will be no 
occasion for a revival of religious spirit, 
yet the analogies of nature apjiear to point 
to eras in growth and life, and to seasons of 
sleep and seeming inaction ; and the revivals 
of religion find their symbol still more clear- 
ly marked in the course of the development 
of the human mind. Progress in literature, 
art, science, and architecture has generally 
proceeded by a series of decadences and re- 
vivals, and that progress in religious life 
should proceed in the same way is not to be 
accounted unnatural or extraordinary. The 
most remarkable revivals in the history of the 
Christian Church are three : first, the great 
revival at the Pentecost, when at the de- 
scent of the Holy Spirit three thousand were 
converted and added to the Church in a sin- 
gle .day ;^ second, when at the preaching of 
Luther and his co- laborers spiritual relig- 
ion was revived throughout all Europe, aud 
Protestantism, not only as a form of doc- 
trine, but yet more as a type of piety, was 
born ; for the Reformation was more than a 
re-formation of the creed and the ecclesias- 
tical organization of Christendom ; it was a 
revivification of healthful piety — a resur- 
rection of true religion in the hearts of the 
people ; third, the great revival which ac- 
companied the preaching of Whitefield and 
the Wesleys and their co- laborers in En- 
gland and the United States, and led to the 
establishment of the Methodist Church, and 
to the purification and quickening of other 
churches, both in Great Britain and Ameri- 
ca. The lesser revivals, which have some- 
times spread over a whole country, like that 
in the United States in 1857-58, and some- 
times been confined to local communities, or 
even to particular churches, are in nature 
analogous to these great awakenings. In 
them all certain characteristic features have 
appeared, such as a period of preceding spir- 
itual decadence and death ; a craving on the 
part of the people, more or less distinctly 
marked, for better spiritual food ; and earnest 
prayer and vigorous Christian effort by a 
few, who have been led by the Spirit of God 
to feel the need of a higher spiritual life. 



1 Acts ii,, 41. 



EEZIN 



EIGHTEOUSNESS 



In the progress and promotion of revivals 
special measures have been introduced by 
those who have been active in carrying on 
the work. Among these may be mentioned 
the employment of other preachers than the 
stated minister ; the holding of protracted 
meetings, continuing from day to day with 
as little intermission as possible ; the gath- 
ering, by various means, of large congrega- 
tions ; the ignoring of sectarian differences, 
and union of all evangelical Christians in 
the common work; the providing special 
seats for such as desire the prayers or the 
sympathies of others in their endeavors after 
the Christian life, or a higher form of it, or 
the invitation to them to express that desire 
by rising or by other signs ; the visiting of 
families from house to house for religious 
conversation ; and inquhy meetings for per- 
sonal conversation with such as desire guid- 
ance in spiritual matters. These measures 
undoubtedly may be unwisely employed ; 
and the excitement which is naturally at- 
tendant upon any similar continued and 
concentrated action of great numbers, who 
are greatly interested in a common cause, 
is unquestionably sometimes an occasion of 
evil ; the excitement produced by sympathy 
is liable to be mistaken for a time for a true 
spiritual life. But these measures all rest on 
well-recognized principles of human nature. 

The object of the protracted meeting is to 
secure a concentration and a union of effort, 
and to prevent the dissipation of religious 
interest by the interposition of other con- 
cerns ; the object of gathering many togeth- 
er in single meetings is to secure the effect 
produced by mutual sympathy and co-oper- 
ation in a common cause ; the object of the 
inquiry meeting, and visitation from house 
to house, is to secure a personal application 
of the truth, and a personal knowledge of 
the wants of individuals ; and the object of 
the invitation to inquirers and others to ex- 
press their religious desires by rising and 
coming forward to a special seat, is to give 
to them something definite to do, for the pur- 
pose of crystallizing that desire into a well- 
defined purpose, at the same time giving to 
their before-concealed aspirations the char- 
acter of a public profession of a religious 
desire, if not of a true religious resolution. 
For a further discussion of revivals of relig- 
ion, and a fuller consideration of the meth- 
ods and measures by which they may be le- 
gitimately promoted, the reader is referred 
to " Lectures on Revivals,'' by President Fin- 
ney, of Oberlin College ; '^ Lectures on Preach- 
ing," vol. ii., by Rev. Henry Ward Beecher ; 
and " Hand-book of Revivals," by Rev. Hen- 
ry C. Fish, D.D. 

Rezin, a king of Damascus, contemporary 
with Pekah in Israel, and Jotham and Ahaz 
in Judah. He waged war against Judah, 
with the avowed design of overthrowing the 
kingdom, and for this purpose made a league 



with Pekah, king of Israel. The war was 
chiefly carried on in the reign of Ahaz, and 
though Rezin was temporarily successful in 
the early part of it, he was finally defeated 
and slain by Tiglath-pileser, king of Assyria, 
whom Ahaz had called to his assistance. [2 
Kings XV., 37; xvi., 5-10; Isa. vii., 1-8.] 

Rezon {prince), an officer of Hadadezer, 
king of Zobah, who fled from him when 
David subdued the Syrians, and collected a 
band, at the head of which he led a preda- 
tory life, till at length he seized Damascus, 
and established himself as sovereign there 
during the reign of Solomon, to whom he 
was a bitter enemy. [1 Kings xi., 23-25.] 

Rhegium, a city of Italy, situated at the 
southern extremity of the peninsula, oppo- 
site the coast of Sicily, now called Reggio, 
where St. Paul landed in his journey to 
Rome. Reggio is at present one of the most 
flourishing towns in Southern Italy. It is 
well and regularly built, and carries on a 
considerable commerce. It is the see of an 
archbishop, and the population amounts to 
nine thousand. [Acts xxviii., 13.] 

Rhodes, a well-known island off the coast 
of Asia Minor, over against Caria. The city 
of Rhodes was built in the fifth century be- 
fore Christ. The Rhodians were skillful 
sailors ; and for a -long time their fleets 
ruled the seas. They retained a degree of 
liberty under Roman supremacy; and it 
was not till the reign of Vespasian that 
Rhodes became a Roman province. The 
present population of the island is about 
twenty thousand. St. Paul touched there 
on his voyage from Miletus to Palestine. 
[Acts xxi., 1.] 

Riblah. It is somewhat uncertain wheth- 
er the Bible makes mention of one or two 
places of this name. One such place is de- 
scribed as on the north-east frontier of Pal- 
estine, in the territory of Hamath, on the 
great line of road which led from Babylonia 
into Judea. It was here that Jehoahaz was 
put in bonds by Pharaoh-nechoh ; and here 
afterward were the Chaldean head-quarters 
in Nebuchadnezzar's invasion. Traces of 
this city exist about twenty miles south- 
west of Hums, on the Orontes, still called 
Ribleh. The Riblah designated by Moses 
as a boundary-place of the Israelitish terri- 
tory,^ is regarded by some scholars as iden- 
tical with the forementioned place, while 
others think that this must have been a dif- 
ferent place near Banias. [Numb, xxxiv., 
11 ; 2 Kings xxiii., 33 ; xxv., 6, 20, 21 ; Jer. 
xxxix., 5, 6 ; lii., 9, 10, 26, 27.] 

Righteousness, properly speaking, the be- 
ing and doing right. In this sense it signi- 
fies an actual state of character, a condition 
of the soul. It is clearly used in this sense 
by Christ, in the Sermon on the Mount,^ and 
by Paul in his address before Felix.^ But 



1 Nnmb. xxxiv., 10, 11. 
xxiv., 25. 



Matt, v., 6, 10, 20.— 3 Acts 



RIMMON 



809 



RIVER 



in Ms epistle to the Romans the apostle 
gives a somewhat different significance to 
the word ; or, rather, he undertakes to show 
that no man j)ossesses actual righteousness, 
no man can plead that his character and con- 
dition possess the quality of perfect right- 
eousness in the sight of God, and to point 
out how righteousness, or, to speak more ac- 
curately, its equivalent, comes through faith 
and not through the perfect observance of 
the law. As used here and subsequently, 
in many places in his epistles, he employs 
the term righteousness to signify that sense 
of acquittal from guilt, and that cheerful- 
ness of conscience and peace of mind which 
is or would be the result of a right life and 
character, but which can be obtained by 
sinful man only by the free grace of God 
through faith in Jesus Christ. In this sense 
of the term righteousness is nearly equiva- 
lent to justification (q. v.). The term is also 
occasionally used, as in Titus ii., 12, in the 
sense of right conduct toward our fellow- 
men, and in distinction from godliness, or the 
maintenance of right relations toward God. 
In such passages its equivalent would be 
perhaps justice, or possibly morality. Thus 
the passage in Titus would perhaps be clear- 
er if it were to read, "live a life of self-con- 
trol, of justice, and of piety." 

The school -men have distinguished be- 
tween the passive and active righteousness 
of Christ. By the former they mean his ex- 
piatory sufferings by which he made atone- 
ment for the sins of the world ; by his act- 
ive righteousness they mean his obedience 
to the law as a rule of life and conduct — 
a righteousness which, in the peculiar lan- 
guage of theology, is said to be imputed to 
the believer, so that not only his sins are 
pardoned, but also, for Christ's sake, he is 
regarded as himself obedient to the law, 
and righteous because of Christ's righteous- 
ness. See Imputation. 

Rimmon, the name, apparently, of the 
principal deity of the Syrians in the time of 
Naaman. The name is found nowhere else 
in connection with the Syrian idolatry, and 
all attempts at explanation are mere conjec- 
tures. It is not, however, improbable that 
he was substantially identical with Baal (q. 
v.). [2 Kings v., 18.] 

Rite, Ritualism. A rite is defined by 
Webster as " a formal act of religion or oth- 
er solemn duty." But this definition is in 
so far inadequate that a rite differs from a 
ceremony, in that the latter may be tempo- 
rary or occasional, while the essential idea 
of a rite is a regular and established, as well 
as formal, method of public worship. Ritu- 
alism is that system of public worship which 
consists in regular and established forms, as 
distinguished from that which is extempo- 
raneous, and therefore variable, in its char- 
acter, and is left largely dependent upon the 
mood or feeling of the worshiper. In the 



strict sense of the term, nearly all public 
worship has a certain element of ritualism 
in it ; that is, some prescribed order is neces- 
sary in any common act of worship in which 
a considerable number of persons partici- 
pate. Popularly, however. Christian church- 
es are divided into two classes — the ritual- 
istic and the non-ritualistic ; the former in- 
cluding all those churches whose form of 
service — prayers, praise, religious ceremo- 
nies, and Scripture. readings — are prescribed 
by ruje ; the latter include all those church- 
es which leave the instruments and methods 
of worship, and its order, to the discretion 
of the leader. The Greek, Roman Catholic, 
Lutheran, and Episcopal churches are in this 
general sense ritualistic ; all other Christian 
churches are non-ritualistic. Another and 
more important difference between churches 
relates to the importance or value attached 
by the Church to rites and ceremonies. The 
Greek and Roman Catholic churches regard 
them as possessing inherent religious power, 
and as conferring in and of themselves spir- 
itual grace upon those who participate in 
them ; and this view is also entertained by 
the High-church party in the Lutheran and 
Episcopal churches. Of course, those who 
hold this view lay great stress upon the 
proper observance of rites and ceremonies, 
their efficacy being believed to be dependent 
upon the punctilious accuracy with which 
they are observed. Most Protestants, how- 
ever, regard rites and ceremonies as merely 
the vehicles or instruments of religious wor- 
ship, and wholly dependent for their effica- 
cy upon the religious spirit which employs 
them. The use of rites and ceremonies in 
religious worship is as ancient as worship 
itself. The service of the Jewish Church 
was an elaborate ritual, while, at the same 
time, the Jewish prophets constantly ad- 
monished the people not to place any reliance 
upon mere rites and ceremonies.^ Christ at- 
tended without objection upon the ritualist- 
ic services of the synagogue and the Temple, 
and the apostles at first did the same. The 
distinctive Christian services of the early 
Church were unmistakably very simple in 
their character, being held in private houses.^ 
As the Church grew in numbers, wealth, and 
influence, it naturally employed more and 
more of ritualism, the service being partly 
borrowed from that of the ancient syna- 
gogues and the ancient Temple, and partly 
modified from forms to which the heathen 
converts had been accustomed. 

River. In the sense in which we employ 
the word, namely, for a perennial stream of 
considerable size, a river is a much rarer ob- 
ject in the East than in the West. The ma- 
jority of the inhabitants of Palestine at the 
present day have probably never seen one. 
With the exception of the Jordan and the 
Litany, the streams of the Holy Land are 



See Psa. 1., S-14; Isa. i., 10-15, etc.— ^ Acts ii., 46. 



EIZPAH 



810 



EOMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 



either entirely dried up in the summer 
mouths, and converted into hot lanes of 
glaring stones, or else reduced to very small 
streamlets sunk in a narrow bed, and con- 
cealed from view by a dense growth of 
shrubs. The cause of this is twofold: on 
the one hand, the hilly nature of the country 
— a central mass of highland descending on 
each side to a lower level ; and on the other, 
the extreme heat of the climate during the 
summer. There is little doubt that in an- 
cient times the country was more wooded 
than it now is, and that, in consequence, the 
evaporation was less, and the streams more 
frequent ; yet this can not have made any 
very material difference in the jjermanence 
of the water in the thousands of valleys 
which divide the hills of Palestine. For 
the various aspects of the streams of the 
country which such conditions inevitably 
produced the ancient Hebrews had very ex- 
act terms, which they employed habitually 
with much precision ; but this precision is 
not preserved in our translation. When the 
word is used with the definite article, " the 
river," the Euphrates is indicated.^ But 
when employed indefinitely it often signi- 
fies simply the fleeting, frequent torrents of 
Palestine ; and the terms '' valley," '' brook," 
and ^' river" are indiscriminately used in 
translating the same term, used by the He- 
brews to designate at once the dry valley 
and the stream which at certain seasons 
flows through it. Unfortunately, our lan- 
guage contains no analogous word, though 
we have borrowed for that purpose the Ara- 
bic term wady, which does not, indeed, occur 
in our Bible, but is of frequent occurrence 
in works of Eastern travel. See Brook. 

Rizpah (a coal), a concubine of Saul, 
memorable for the touching example of ma- 
ternal affection which she afforded in watch- 
ing the dead bodies of her sons, and driving 
the birds away from them, when they had 
been gibbeted by the Gibeouites. See Ab- 
NER. [2 Sam. iii., 7 ; xxi., 8, 10, 11.] 

Robbery. Whether in the larger sense 
of plunder or the more limited sense of theft, 
systematically organized, robbery has ever 
been one of the principal employments of 
the nomad tribes of the East. Night forays, 
predatory inroads on a large scale, frequent 
and prolonged invasion by spoilers, and, on 
the other hand, reprisals by the Hebrews, are 
characteristic of the O. T. history.^ Similar 
disorder in the country, complained of more 
than once by the prophets, continued more 
or less through Maccabjean down to Roman 
times, favored by the corrupt administration 
of some of the Roman governors.^ It ap- 
pears probable that the two thieves crucified 



1 Gen. xxxi., 21; Exod. xxiii., 31; Numb, xxiv., 6; 
2 Sam. X., 16. — 2 Gen. xxxiv., 28, 29; Numb, xxxi., 
32-54; Jndg. ii., 14; vi., 3, 4; 1 Sam. xi. ; xv. ; xxii., 
1,2; xxiii., 19-25; xxvi., 1, 6-12; xxvii.,6-10; xxx.,1; 
2 Sara. viii. ; x. ; 2 Kings v., 2 ; 1 Chron. v., 10, 18-22 ; 
Job i., 15, 17.— 3 Hosea iv., 2 ; vi., 9 ; Micah ii., 8. 



with Christ were brigands or robbers be- 
longing to the lawless bands which then 
and later infested Palestine. The Mosaic 
law on the subject of theft is contained in 
Exod. xxii., and provides for restitution, a 
law which, from Prov. vi., 30, seems to have 
been in force as late as the days of Solomon. 

Rod. In the East the shepherd invaria- 
bly carries a staff or rod with him when he 
goes forth to feed his flock. It is often bent 
or hooked at one end, which gave rise to the 
shepherd's crook in the hand of the Christian 
bishop. With this staff he rules and guides 
the flock to their green pastures, and de- 
fends them from their eneihies. With it, 
also, he corrects them when disobedient, 
and brings them back when wandering. 
This staff is associated as inseparably with 
the shepherd as the goad is with the plow- 
man. This use of the shepherd's rod ex- 
plains the allegorical references to it in 
Scripture. [Psa. ii., 9; cxxv., 3; Prov. x., 
13; Isa. X., 5; Micah vi., 9.] 

Roe. The word roe is used in the Bible 
to translate two Hebrew words. In Prov. 
v., 19, it signifies the female of the wild goat.^ 
In the other passages it indicates some spe- 
cies of antelope. It is described as fit for 
food, fleet of foot, and famous for its beauty. 
[Deut. xii., 15, 22; 2 Sam. ii., 18; 1 Chron. 
xii., 8 ; Prov. vi., 5 ; Sol. Song ii., 9, 17 ; viii., 
14; Isa. xiii., 14.] 

Rogation Days, a name given to the 
three days immediately before the festival 
of Ascension. They were called Rogation 
Days, from the rogations or litanies chant- 
ed in the processions on these days. In the 
Church of England they are kept as private 
fasts, abstinence being commanded, and ex- 
traordinary acts and exercises of devotion. 

Roman Catholic Church. The proper 
title of the largest religious denomination 
of Christendom. The former word is de- 
rived from the fact that its ecclesiastical 
head, the pope, resides at, and is the bishop 
of, Rome ; the latter word signifies " univer- 
sal," and is employed by the Romanists to 
indicate that their Church is the one univer- 
sal Church. The adherents of this Church 
are variously designated Romanists, Catho- 
lics, and Papists, the latter term in reference 
to their belief in the supreme authority of 
the pope as the head of the Church. In 
treating of this Church we shall describe, 
first, its organization ; second, its theologic- 
al doctrines; third, its rites and ceremonies; 
fourth, its history ; fifth, its present condi- 
tion. Though writing as a Protestant, fully 
accepting the right of private judgment, and 
the doctrine that the Scriptures constitute 
the all-sufficient and only rule of faith and 
practice, we shall endeavor not to put our 
readers in possession of the arguments 
against Romanism, but simply to tell them 
what it is, and briefly what has be en the his- 
1 See Goat. 



ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 



811 



ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 



tory of its growth and work in the world. 
In describing its organization and doctrines, 
we employ, as far as practicable, the lan- 
guage of its own scholars.^ 

I. Organization. — The government of the 
Catholic Church may be considered mo- 
narchical, inasmuch as the pope is held in 
it to be the ruler over the entire Church ; 
and the most distant bishop of the Catholic 
Church holds appointment from him, and 
receives from him his authority. No bishop 
can be lawfully consecrated without his ap- 
probation. The office of pope is inherent in 
the occupant of Rome, because the suprema- 
cy over the Church is believed to be held in 
virtue of a commission given to St. Peter, 
not as his own personal prerogative, but as 
a part of the constitution of the Church, for 
its advantage, and therefore intended to de- 
scend to his successors, as the episcopal pow- 
er did from the apostles to those who suc- 
ceeded them in their respective sees. The 
election of pope, therefore, devolves upon the 
clergy of Rome, as being their bishop ; and 
it is confided to the college of cardinals, who, 
bearing the title of the eldest churches in 
that city, represent its clergy, and form their 
chapter or electoral body. The meeting or 
chapter formed for this purpose alone is call- 
ed a conclave. The cardinals are in turn 
appointed by the pope, and compose the 
executive council of the Church. They pre- 
side over the various departments of eccle- 
siastical government, and are divided into 
boards, or congregations (q. v.) as they are 
called, for the transaction of busiuess from 
all parts of the world ; but every decision is 
subject to the pope's revision, and has no 
value except from his approbation. The 
whole territory over which the Roman Cath- 
olic Church extends is divided into dioceses, 
each having its own bishop ; and these are 
in turn combined with larger districts, each 
presided over by an archbishop. There are 
also missionary bishops. The appointment 
of the bishops and archbishops varies in dif- 
ferent countries. In some they are elected 
by the clergy of the diocese ; in others they 
are appointed by the civil government ; but 
in both cases the approbation of the pope is 
a prerequisite to their ordination.^ 

The inferior clergy, considered in refer- 
ence to the government of the Church, con- 
sists mainly of the parochial clergy, or those 
who supply their place. Where the Roman 
Catholic Church has a well-defined organi- 
zation, the country is divided into parishes, 
each provided with a curate. The appoint- 
ment to a parish is vested in the bishop, who 
has no power to remove again at will, or for 
any cause except a canonical offense juridi- 



1 Our account of its organization is for the most 
part condensed from one by Cardinal Wiseman, pub- 
lished in the "Penny Cyclopsedia." Our statement of 
its faith is mainly a transcript of its official creed, as 
promulgated by Pius IV. — 2 -p^j- further information 
respecting their duties, see Bishop. 



cally proved.^ In missionary lands the cler- 
gy generally bear the title of apostolic mis- 
sionaries, and have missions or local districts 
with variable limits placed under their care, 
but are dependent upon the wiU of their ec- 
clesiastical superiors. 

Besides the parochial clergy, there is a 
considerable body of ecclesiastics who do 
not enter directly into the governing part 
of the Church, although they help to dis- 
charge some of its most important func- 
tions. A great number of secular clergy are 
devoted to the conduct of education, either 
in universities or seminaries ; many occupy 
themselves exclusively with the pulpit, oth- 
ers with instructing the poor, or attending 
charitable institutions. A certain number 
also fill prebends, or attend to the daily serv- 
ice of cathedrals, etc. Besides this auxili- 
ary force, the regular clergy, or monastic or- 
ders, take upon them many of these func- 
tions. The clergy of the Catholic Church in 
the West are bound by a voW of celibacy, not 
formally made, but implied in their ordina- 
tion as suh-deacons. This obligation of ce- 
libacy is only reckoned among the discipli- 
nary enactments of the Church. The clergy 
of that portion of the Greek and Armenian 
churches w^hich is united in communion with 
the see of Rome, may be married, that is, 
may receive orders if married, but are not 
allowed to marrj^ after having taken orders. 

The supreme authority of the Church is 
vested in a general or ecumenical council; 
that is, an assembly of all the bishops of the 
Churchj who may attend either in person or 
by deputy, under the presidency of the pope 
or his legates. When once a decree has 
passed such an assembly, and received the 
approbation of the Holy See, there is no fur- 
ther appeal. It is the fundamental princi- 
ple of the Church that this body represents 
the apostles, that it has, as it were, inherit- 
ed their divine inspiration, that to it the 
promise of the Saviour's presence^ was pe- 
culiarly made, and that in it is vested the 
authority of acting as the official represent- 
ative of God upon the earth. The Church, 
therefore, as represented in its ecumenical 
or general councils, is regarded by Roman 
Catholic divines as possessing that divine 
and infallible authority which Protestants 
attribute to the Bible alone, and the decrees 
of such councils are given equal weight with 
the written Word of God. The claim has 
been lately made that an equal authority 
rests in the pope, and that when he speaks 
ex cathedra, i. e., officially as the head of the 
Church, he is inspired and infallible; but 
this dogma is denied by a large body in the 
Church.^ 



' The absolute right of removal has, however, been 
claimed and exercised in this country recently, and its 
exercise has led to bitter contentions, and in at least 
one case to a lawsuit before the civil courts. — 2 Matt, 
xxviii., 19, 20.— 3 See Infallibility. See also below, 
under the sub-title History of thk Chcech. 



ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 



812 



ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 



It should be added that a distinction is 
recognized by the Church between doctrinal 
and disciplinary decrees. For example, when 
in the Council of Trent it was decreed to be 
the doctrine of the Church that marriage is 
indissoluble, this decree is considered bind- 
ing on the belief and on the conduct, nor can 
its acceptance be refused by any one with- 
out his being considered rebellious to the 
Church. But when it is ordered that mar- 
riages must be celebrated only in the pres- 
ence of the parish priest, this is a matter of 
discipline not supposed to rest on the revela- 
tion of God, but dictated by prudence ; and 
consequently a degree of toleration is allow- 
ed regarding the adoption of the resolution 
in particular dioceses. 

In addition to the general or ecumenical 
councils, there are also provincial and diocesan 
synods, the first composed of the bishops of a 
province under the archbishop or metropoli- 
tan ; the other, consisting of the clergy of the 
diocese, under the superintendence of the 
bishop of the diocese. By these bodies the 
discipline of the various districts of the 
Church is conducted. It should be added 
that in the United States, and we believe in 
most non-Catholic countries, the property of 
the Church is vested in the bishop, except in 
those States where the state law requires it 
to be vested in a board of trustees. Its in- 
come is derived chiefly from three sources, 
private masses for the living and the dead, 
for which a regular scale of prices is fixed, 
pew rents, and voluntary contributions. The 
latter are given by all, rich and poor, young 
and old, and in most churches are taken up 
at every Sabbath church service. 

Theological Doctrines. — In the sixteenth 
century the Reformation not only involved 
all Europe in the discussion of the claims of 
the Papacy, and the doctrines "and practices 
of the papal or Roman Catholic Church, it 
also gave rise to long and protracted discus- 
sions in the Church itself. There were many 
Roman Catholics who were not prepared 
to follow Luther out of the Church, who 
yet recognized the abuses which had crept 
into it, and who desired to reform them, 
while others clung with tenacity, bred some- 
times of genuine conviction, sometimes of 
self-interest, to the tenets and the customs 
under which they had been bred. The re- 
sult was that a general or ecumenical coun- 
cil was called, which, after years of discus- 
sion, promulgated officially the faith of the 
Church in a body of doctrines known as the 
decrees of the Church of Trent ; and these 
were subsequently embodied in a condensed 
form by Pope Pius the Fourth, in a formu- 
lary of faith which is known as the creed 
of Pius the Fourth, and which is recognized 
as an authoritative symbol of the Roman 
Catholic faith by the Church. Persons on 
becoming members of the Church are ex- 
pected to recite it, and it is subscribed to by 



all candidates on taking a degree or being 
appointed to a chair in a university. This 
creed is as follows : 

I. I most steadfastly admit and embrace the apos- 
tolical and ecclesiastical traditions, and all other ob- 
servances and constitutions of the Church. 

II. I also admit the Sacred Scriptures according to 
that sense which the Holy Mother Church has held, 
and does hold, to whom it appertains to judge of the 
true sense and interpretation of the Holy Scriptures ; 
neither will I ever take and interpret them otherwise 
than according to the unanimous consent of the Fa- 
thers. 

III. I also profess that there are, truly and properly, 
seven sacraments of the new law, instituted b^ Jesus 
Christ our Lord, and necessary for the salvation of 
mankind, though not all for every one ; to wit, Bap- 
tism, Confirmation, Eucharist, Penance, Extreme Unc- 
tion, Orders, and Matrimony, and that they confer 
grace ; and that of these Baptism, Confirmation, and 
Orders can not be reiterated without sacrilege ; and I 
also receive and admit the received and approved cer- 
emonies of tlie Catholic Church used in the solemn 
administration of all the aforesaid sacraments. 

IV. I embrace and receive all and every one of the 
things which have been defined and declared in the 
Holy Council of Trent concerning original sin and 
justification. 

V. I profess, likewise, that in the Mass there is of- 
fered unto God a true, proper, and propitiatory sacri- 
fice for the living and the dead ; and that in the most 
holy Sacrament of the Eucharist there are truly, real- 
ly, and substantially the body and blood, together 
with the soul and divinity, of our Lord Jesus Christ; 
and that there is made a conversion of the whole sub- 
stance of the bread into the body, and the whole sub- 
stance of the wine into the blood ; which conversion 
the Catholic Church calls Transubstantiation. 

VI. I also confess that under either kind alone 
Christ is received whole and entire, and a true sacra- 
ment. 

VII. I constantly hold that there is a Purgatory, and 
that the souls therein detained are helped by the suf- 
frages of the faithful. 

VIII. Likewise, that the saints, reigning together 
with Christ, are to be honored and invocated; and 
that they offer prayers to God for us, and that their 
Kelics are to be venerated. 

IX. I most firmly assert that the images of Christ, 
and of the Mother of God, ever Virgin, and also of 
other saints, are to be had and retained ; and that due 
honor and veneration are to be given to them. 

X. I also afiirm that the power of Indulgences was 
left by Christ in the Church, and that the use of them 
is most wholesome to Christian people. 

XI. I acknowledge the Holy Catholic and Apostolic 
Roman Church to be the mother and mistress of all 
churches ; and I promise and swear true obedience to 
the Bishop of Rome, successor to St. Peter, Prince of 
the Apostles, and Vicar of Jesus Christ. 

XII. I likewise undoubtedly receive and profess all 
other things delivered, defined, and declared by the 
said canons and general councils, and particularly by 
the Holy Council of Trent ; and I condemn, and reject, 
and anathematize all things contrary thereto, and all 
heresies which the Church has condemned, rejected, 
and anathematized. 

The attentive reader will readily recog- 
nize the principal points of difference be- 
tween the doctrines of the Roman Catholic 
Church, as embodied in this creed, and those 
of Protestant Christianity. The one gives 
to tradition the same force as to the Scrip- 
tures; the other recognizes in tradition no 
other authority than such as belongs to the 
judgment of great and good men : the one 
accepts the Scriptures only as interpreted 
by the Church ; the other maintains that the 
Scriptures are addressed to the individual 
soul, and that to every soul belongs the right 
and duty of interpretation and application : 
the one recognizes seven sacraments of equal 
validity and binding obligation ; the other 
recognizes but two : the one holds that they 



ROMAN CATHOLIC CHUECH 



813 



EOMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 



"confer grace;" the other that they are 
means of grace only to such as receive them 
in faith and repentance, and are by them 
brought into loving and direct communion 
with God in Christ : the one regards justi- 
fication and sanctification as synonymous 
terms, and maintains that the soul is justi- 
fied only as by its own progress in righteous- 
ness it becomes worthy of the divine favor ; 
the other maintains that the sinner is justi- 
fied by faith alone :^ the one regards the 
communion, or Lord's Supper, as a veritable 
sacrifice of the real body and blood of Jesus 
Christ ; the other sees in it only a service in 
commemoration of his death : the one holds 
that the righteous are detained after death 
in a purgatory where they are fitted for 
heaven ; the other holds that they are made 
clean in the blood of the Lamb alone : the 
one offers veneration, though not in the 
strictest sense worship, to the saints, and 
especially to the Virgin Mary ; the other al- 
lows no semblance of worship save to God 
alone, and recognizes no intercessor with the 
Father save Jesus Christ his Son : the one 
employs images as a- means of stimulating the 
imagination and promoting pious thoughts ; 
the other holds that they tend to make the 
worship sensuous, and are directly forbidden 
by the Word of God : the one acknowledges 
the power of the Church to grant a remis- 
sion of sins, and by indulgences to relieve 
the soul from divine penalties which would 
otherwise attach to it ; the other acknowl- 
edges no power to pardon sin save in God 
alone : the one recognizes but one holy Cath- 
olic and Apostolic Church, its ecclesiastical 
superiors consisting of the successors of the 
apostles, and vested with a divine authority 
transmitted from generation to generation ; 
the other recognizes in the whole body of 
believers the one invisible Church of Christ, 
and in every separate body of believers or- 
ganized to carry on the work of Christ, and 
imbued with his Spirit and trusting in his 
grace, a true branch of the great invisible 
Church : the one recognizes in the j)ope or 
bishop of Rome the head of the Church, the 
vicegerent of God on the earth, and the vicar 
of Jesus Christ ; the other recognizes no head 
but Jesus Christ himself, and acknowledges 
no vicar, and no representative save that 
unseen spirit of the Lord which dwells in. 
the heart of all who love and follow him.^ 

III. Bites and Ceremonies. — The service of 
the Roman Catholic Church is one of elabo- 
rate ritualism. It is borrowed in part from 
the Jewish, in part from the heathen relig- 
ions which preceded it; that is, in many 
cases, the Roman Catholic Church took the 
heathen feast - days and heathen customs, 



1 See this distinction more clearly drawn out under 
Justification.— 2 For further consideration of special 
points of Roman Catholic doctrine, see under special 
titles, as Teapition ; Church ; Saokaments ; Mass ; 
Transubstantiation ; Justification ; Purgatory ; 
Image - worship ; Indulgences ; Infallibility, etc. 



and, modifying them and adapting them to 
Christian uses, employed them in the Church, 
partly, perhaps, with the definite purpose of 
thus attracting the heathen ; partly, perhaps 
insensibly, because ,the heathen, in coming 
into the Church, brought their customs with 
them. Preaching does not form, as with 
the Protestants, an essential, or even per- 
haps a very important, part of the service. 
According to Protestant theology, each soul 
must judge for itself of the truth, each soul 
must therefore be carefully instructed in the 
truth ; hence the great reliance of the Prot- 
estant for the salvation of souls is on the 
preaching of the Gospel. According to the 
Roman Catholic theology, on the other hand, 
the Church is the infallible and authori- 
tative interpreter of the divine will ; the 
Church has, therefore, but to proclaim the 
truth and the people to accept. Moreover, 
according to Roman Catholic theology, the 
Church is a divinely organized institution 
through which grace is supernaturally be- 
stowed upon men through the sacraments ; 
he who partakes of the blessed wafer eats 
of the real body of Christ, and is, in the very 
act of eating, blessed ; he Avho is baptized 
has by the very ceremony of baptism his sins 
washed away ; extreme unction has in itself 
power to confer virtue upon the dying. Ac- 
cordingly, in the Roman Catholic system, 
great importance is attached to the rites and 
ceremonies of the Church, and comparative- 
ly little to the sermon. The central feature 
in the worship of the Church is the Mass, 
which is recognized as the real sacrifice of 
Christ for the sins of the world, and as exer- 
cising a real efficiency in securing the par- 
don of those who partake of it. The church- 
es are ordinarily decorated with pictures 
and images; candles are kept burning on 
the altar, which is ordinarily very ornate ;^ 
processions form a peculiar feature of the 
Church services, more so abroad than in 
America ; and the musical parts of the serv- 
ice are as important a portion of the serv- 
ice as the prayers or the sermon. To those 
ignorant of the meaning of the elaborate 
ritualisms of the Church service, it appears 
often not only useless but senseless ; in fact, 
while it is sometimes called an unmeaning 
ceremony, every feature in the service, ev- 
ery color and figure in the priestly vestments, 
has a symbolic signification ; though how far 
they do in fact carry any meaning to the or- 
dinary worshipers is very doubtful. To en- 
ter in detail into a description of the compli- 
cated ritual of the Church would carry us 
beyond the limits of this article ; for illus- 
trations of it the reader is referred to the ar- 
ticles Baptism and Mass. 

History. — The Roman Catholic Church 
claims to be as old as Christianity ; to be the 
ecclesiastical institution organized and ap- 
pointed by Christ for the redemption of the 
^ For a picture of a Roman Catholic altar, see Altae. 



EOMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 814 EOMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 




Carrying the Holy Sacrament. 



world, from whicli all other sects have come 
out, aud, in the coming, have put themselves 
in antagonism to the "svill of God, and to the 
principles of his government. It denies 
the possibility of progress in religious truth; 
and as it claims for itself infallibility, so it 
is unable to concede that it has ever erred, 
or ever lacked any necessary measure of di- 
vine truth. Impartial history does not sus- 
tain this claim. On the contrary, it shows 
very clearly that Romanism, both as a hie- 
rarchy and as a theology, both, i. e., as a 
Church organization and as a system of doc- 
trine, is a growth. New elements have been 
added from time to time to its priesthood, 



new ceremonies to its ritual, and new doc- 
trines to its creed. It is in vain one looks 
in the New Testament for any indications 
of the exercise by Peter of that supreme 
power which Pius IX. claims to exercise over 
all the faithful, or for any parallel to the 
modern Mass, with its magnificent music 
and its costly vestments, in the simple serv- 
ice of the apostles, ^' breaking bread from 
house to house " and "praising God," or for 
any suggestions of the doctrines of purga- 
tory and indulgences, and extreme unction, 
or for any authority for the practice of pen- 
ance and image - worship. Tlie origin of 
some of these additions to the simple service 



EOMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 



815 



ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 



and organization of the primitive Church is 
so far back that it is ditficult to give the 
dates with any approach to accuracy; but 
the origin of others is a matter of unques- 
tioned history. 

For a considerable time not only the titles 
vicar of Christ and vicar of God were claim- 
ed by all bishops, but the title papa, or pope, 
was also constantly given to them ; nor was 
it apparently till the fourth century that 
the Bishop of Rome began to claim authority 
over his peers/ 

Papal infallibility was not directly or pos- 
itively claimed till about the eleventh cen- 
tury, nor finally asserted by the Church till 
the nineteenth. 

The celibacy of the clergy was not adopt- 
ed as a doctrine till after the fourth century. 
It was repudiated by the Council of Nice, 
A.D. 32.5. 

Penances appear to have been first intro- 
duced into the Church in connection with 
the Novatian schism, i. e., about the middle 
of the third century. 

Indulgences were at first simply the re- 
mission by a bishop of an ecclesiastical sen- 
tence. The doctrine that it extended into 
the other world, and released from the pains 
and penalties of purgatory, was not formally 
announced till the fourteenth century. 

There is no trace of the worship of the 
Virgin Mary prior to the fourth century. It j 
was then introduced into the Church by a ! 
small sect of women who came from Thrace, | 
and who consecrated cakes, or wafers, to 
Mary. 

The painting of images on the Church 
walls was forbidden by decree of a council 
in A.D. 303. The practice of both painting | 
and statuary was denounced by the fathers, i 
because it was thought to tend to idolatry. ' 
It was not till the seventh century that the 
use of images in the Church was permitted 
by the pope, prior to which time the prac- 1 
tice was regarded as heretical, nor until the 
eighth century that their veneration was 
recognized and allowed. j 

The very word transubstantiation had no ' 
existence till the beginning of the twelfth ; 
century, and the doctrine was not decreed as ' 
a dogma of the Church till the fourth Conn- . 
cil of Lateran, a.d. 1215. I 

These dates, which are taken, for the most ' 
part, from '' Bingham's Antiquities," are suf- 
ficient to indicate the general truth that Ro- 
manism, like all systems of doctrine and 
Church government, has been a gradual 
growth. To give even the principal features 
in its external history would take us far be- 
yond the limits of such an article as this. 
Indeed the history of the Roman Catholic 
Church is in effect the history of Europe 
from the overthrow of the Roman Empire to 
the present day; and for that history the 
reader must be referred to the larger treat- 
1 See Pope. 



ises, or for information on special eras to 
special articles, as Reformation; Hugue- 
nots ; Waldenses ; Jesuits ; Jansenists, 
and the like. 

Present State of Church. — The Roman Cath- 
olic Church has from the earliest period in 
its history contained two classes, more or less 
clearly separated : one a class of earnest, 
sincere, and spiritually - minded Christians, 
despite what we can not but regard as their 
serious errors; the other, a class of ecclesias- 
tics to whom the Church was more than hu- 
manity ; the progress and prosperity of the 
Church more than the cause of God. The 
former class received a large access both in 
numbers and influence at the time of the Ref- 
ormation, which produced a striking effect 
upon the Church, as well as a great secession 
from it. Since that time it has never been 
free from controversy, sometimes quite as 
bitter as any that have ever rent Protestant 
Christendom. That controversy is, at the 
present writing, going on in the Roman 
Catholic Church. 

On the one side, led by the Jesuit order, 
is a party whose aim it has constantly been- 
to reinstate through the Church that su- 
premacy at Rome which was lost to its arms, 
and which has therefore persistently assert- 
ed the supreme power of the Roman pontiff, 
and subordinated all other doctrines to the 
one doctrine of his supreme authority, all 
other duties to the one duty of allegiance to 
him. The members of this party, of which 
in the sixteenth century Loyola was the 
most distinguished representative, and to 
which ever since his order, the Jesuits (q. 
v.), have lent the whole force of their wide- 
spread and potent influence, are very gener- 
ally entitled the Ultramontanes, for the rea- 
son that they acknowledge a supreme alle- 
giance to a power (that of the pope) beyond 
the mountains (i. e., the Alps). The Ultra- 
I montanes are the dominant party in En- 
gland, Ireland, and the United States. They 
possess the whole prestige and influence 
which is conferred by their control of the 
' offices and patronage of the Church ; and 
; while they by no means include the best 
men of the Roman Catholic communion, 
j while they can hardly be said to be numer- 
! ically strongest, they undoubtedly embrace 
' a large majority of the higher ecclesiastics, 
i. e., of the office-holders of the Church. 
j Nearly all the higher clergy of Spain and 
Italy, and nearly all the clergy of Ireland 
and the United States, and almost without 
exception the missionary bishops, who are 
direct creatures of the pope, belong to this 
party. The clergy of France and Germany 
are more evenly divided, with probably a 
preponderance in favor of the Ultramontane 
party in France, and one adverse to it in 
Germany. The Ultramontane party is one 
of avowed reactionists. Their principles are 
1 officially embodied in a draft of a dogmatical 



EOMAN CATHOLIC CHUKCH 



816 



EOMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH 



decree submitted to the Ecumenical Council 
of the Vatican by Pope Pius IX. (1870). In 
this document he denounces and anathema- 
tizes the doctrines that the Church of Christ 
is a spiritual and invisible body; that it em- 
braces any except the members of the Ro- 
man Catholic communions ; that membership 
in this Church is not essential to salvation ; 
that the " intolerance whereby the Catholic 
Church prescribes and condemns all religious 
sects which are separate from her commun- 
ion is not prescribed by divine law ;" that the 
Roman Catholic Church may be obscured 
by darkness or infected with permanent 
moral evils, or that its infallibility is limit- 
ed to those things which are contained in 
the Divine revelation ; that it is " subject to 
secular domination ;" that it may not exer- 
cise the power of "constraining and compel- 
ling by antecedent judgments and salutary 
penalties those who wander and those who 
are contumacious ;" that the pope has not 
received by divine appointment " a full and 
supreme power over the universal Church ;" 
and that the Church has not supreme au- 
thority above that of the State, so that it 
may pronounce authoritatively on the law- 
fulness and unlawfulness of actions forbid- 
den or required by the State. In brief, this 
faction claims for the Church absolute su- 
premacy, with the right to maintain it by 
force if necessary, and in the Church an ab- 
solute supremacy for the Pope of Rome ; it 
maintains the doctrine that all things, civil 
and ecclesiastical, are subject in the last in- 
stance to the Roman pontiff, who is prevent- 
ed, not by his avowed principles, but only 
by the spiiit of the age, which it is to be 
hoped he has himself in some measure im- 
bibed, from reinstating the fagot, the rack, 
and the sword as the means of " constrain- 
ing and compelling" "those who wander 
»and those who are contumacious." 

Such are unquestionably the sentiments 
of the party, which at this writing (1872) 
controls the Church of Rome. But the 
Church of Rome is not one, though it claims 
to be, and the claim is too often allowed by 
Protestants. It includes within its commun- 
ion a large and influential party who are do- 
ing all in their power to reform abuses, and 
to bring the Church into conformity with 
the spirit of the age, and make it a means 
of promoting the cause of progress in mor- 
als, in education, in arts, in sciences, in ev- 
ery thing which concerns the welfare of 
humanity. This class is not harmonious; 
it embraces men of widely different views, 
from those who adhere to the Church with 
a devotion equal to that of the most big- 
oted Ultramontane, to that of men who 
differ from Protestants only or chiefly in 
name. Of this party Father Hyaciuthe and 
P^re Michaud may bo regarded as types in 
France, and Dr. Dollinger and his associates 
types in Germany. In France the opponents 



of the Ultramontanes are called Callicans. 
In Germany they have taken the name Old 
Catholics, indicating that they desire to re- 
tain what they believe to be the doctrines 
and usages of the early Roman Catholic 
Church dissociated from those which they 
regard as of a later date. The main point 
at issue at the present time is whether the 
infallibility, which all unite in attributing 
to the Church, is vested in the pope, as the 
Ultramontanes claim, or in the ecumenical 
council, i. e., the higher clergy in council as- 
sembled. Quite as important is the question 
whether the Church is superior to the State 
or subject to it, whether its clergy are citizens 
subject to civil laws, or masters possessing 
the right to absolve from the law, and wheth- 
er the Romanist's first allegiance is to his 
country or to his church, the Ultramontanes 
claiming the latter, the Galileans and Old 
Catholics, or Liberal Catholics, as the oppo- 
sition are sometimes called, maintaining the 
former position. In the Church the Ultra- 
montanes have perhaps never been stronger 
than to-day. They control the pope, and 
through him they controlled absolutely the 
Council of the Vatican,^ from which they ob- 
tained a decree affirming the infallibility 
and supremacy of the Pope of Rome. On 
the other hand, among the laity the indica- 
tions are unmistakable that this party is 
growing weaker and weaker with the laity. 
In spite of the influence of the pope and his 
advisers, the people of France have thrown 
off the empire, and appear to be earnestly 
endeavoring, with some promise of success, 
to establish a republic. In spite of the Ul- 
tramontane clergy, the Bourbons have been 
exiled from Spain, and every attempt to re- 
establish, by their return, the waning power 
of the priesthood has thus far proved a fail- 
ure. In Germany the sympathies of the Ro- 
man Catholic population are unmistakably 
with the Old Catholics, and even in Italy it- 
self the most vigorous denunciations and bit- 
ter anathemas by the pope have not sufficed 
to prevent the people from depriving him 
of his temporal power, establishing a united 
Italy, with its capital in Rome, confiscating, 
in many instances, the estates of the Church, 
and in others suppressing the religious or- 
ders. The final issue of the contest we shall 
not venture to predict ; but if present indi- 
cations may be trusted, either the liberal 
parties in the Roman Catholic Church will 
gain control of the papal throne, and through 
it of the Church itself, or the Church wiU 
suffer a secession greater and more irretriev- 
able than that inflicted on it by the Refor- 
mation. 

The Roman Catholic Church claims a pop- 
ulation of 185,000,000. The following table, 
showing the division of its population, is 
taken from " Chambers's Cyclopaedia." The 
Roman Catholic population of the United 



See Ecumenical Council. 



EOMANS (EPISTLE TO) 



817 



EOMANS (EPISTLE TO) 



States has increased by emigration since, and 
it is now possibly 4,000,000 or 5,000,000; and 
it should be added tliat authorities differ 
very widely as to the statistics of other 
countries, the fact that the Roman Catholic 
Church claims the entire population of all 
Koman Catholic countries, and that there 
are no statistics of communicants, or at least 
none published, involves all such tables in 
considerable doubt : 

America. 

Britisli America 1,760,000 

United States 3,000,000 

Mexico and Central America. . . 9,888,000 
Spanisli, French, Dutch, Dan-) 

ish, and Swedish posses-)- 2,911,000 

sions (including Hayti) j 

South America 21,200,000 



38,759,000 



Europe. 

Portugal 

Spain 

France 

Austria and Venetia 

Prussia 

German States (exclusive of] 
Holstein, Lauenburg, Lux-V 
emburg, and Limburg) ) 

Italian Kingdom 

Switzerland 

Holland (inclusive of Lux-\ 
emburg and Limburg) J 

Belgium 

Great Britain and Ireland 

Denmark Proper (inclusive oH 
Iceland and the Faroe Isl- I 
ands), Stevigs-Holstein, and ( 
Lauenburg J 

Sweden and Norway 

Russia, Poland, and Finland... 

Turkey 

Greece 

Ionian Islands 

Asia. 

Asiatic Eussia 

East Indies with Ceylon 

Further India and China 

Asiatic Turkey 

Asiatic Archipelago 

Arabia and Persia 



3,313,000 

16,550,813 

35,734,667 

27,503,375 

6,867,574 

5,587,473 

21,350,000 
1,023,430 

1,250,000 

4,600,000 
6,000,000 

2,000 

4,000 

7,020,000 

640,000 

15,000 

40,000 



138,103,3152 



Africa. 

English, French, Portuguese,) 
and Spanish Possessions. . . / 

Egypt, Abyssinia, Tunis, Trip-] 
oil, Morocco, and Madagas- > 
car ) 



6,000 

1,033,000 

857,000 

260,000 

2,000,000 

11,011,000 



1,041,000 
72,200 



4,167,000 



Polynesia 

Total Roman Catholics. 



1,113,200 

280,000 

182,422,532 

Romans (Epistle to). This epistle has 
been universally believed to be the genuine 
production of the apostle Paul. Neither the 
Judaizing sects of old, who rejected the Pau- 
line epistles, nor the skeptical critics of mod- 
ern Germany, have doubted this. Some at- 
tempts have been made to show that either 
the last two chapters, or parts of them, are 
later additions; but the attempt has been 
received with so little favor among candid 
scholars that it may safely be pronounced 
wholly unsuccessful. When and where this 
epistle was written we have the means of 
determining with great precision froni the 
epistle itself, compared with the Acts of the 
Apostles. Up to the date of it the apostle 
had never been at Rome.^ He was then on 



the eve of visiting Jerusalem with a pecun- 
iary contribution for the Christian poor from 
the churches of Macedonia and Achaia, after 
which his purpose was to pay a visit to Eome, 
on his way to Spain. Now we know that he 
carried this contribution with him from Cor- 
inth, at the close of his third visit to that 
city, which lasted three months.^ On this 
occasion there accompanied him from Cor- 
inth certain persons whose names are given 
by the historian of the Acts ; and four of 
these are expressly mentioned in our epistle 
as being with the apostle when he wrote it : 
Timotheus, Sosipater, Gaius, and Erastus.^ 
Of these four, the third — Gaius — was an in- 
habitant of Corinth ; and the fourth — Eras- 
tus — was " chamberlain of the city,"^ which 
can hardly be supposed to be other than Cor- 
inth. Finally, Phoebe, the bearer, as appears, 
of this epistle, was a deaconess of the church 
at Cenchrea, the eastern part of Corinth.* 
Putting these facts together, it is impossible 
to resist the conviction, in which all critics 
agree, that Corinth was the place from which 
the epistle was written, and that it was dis- 
patched about the close of the visit above 
mentioned, probably in the early spring of 
the year 58. 

The origin of the Roman Church is whol- 
ly unknown. That it owed its origin to the 
apostle Peter, and that he was its first bish- 
op, though an ancient tradition, and taught 
in the Church of Rome as a fact not to be 
doubted, is refuted by the clearest evidence, 
and is given up even by candid Romanists. 
It is all but certain that this Church owed 
its origin to no apostle, nor even any promi- 
nent Christian laborer, but to one among 
the numerous visitors to that metropolis of 
the civilized world, who, having felt the 
power of the Gospel, were unable to keep it 
to themselves, and made it their business, 
when there, to spread the knowledge of it 
among their friends and acquaintances. A 
large number of Jews and Jewish prose- 
lytes resided at this time at Rome, and 
during the periods immediately subsequent ; 
and that those of them who were at Jerusa- 
lem on the Day of Pentecost,^ and formed, 
probably, part of the three thousand con- 
verts of that day, would, on their return to 
Rome, carry the glad tidings with them, 
there can be no doubt. Nor are indications 
wanting that some of those embraced in 
the salutations of this epistle were Chris- 
tians already of long standing, if not among 
the earliest converts to the Christian faith. 
Others of them, who made the apostle's ac- 
quaintance elsewhere, seem to have charged 
themselves with the duty of cherishing and 
consolidating the work of the Lord in the 
capital. And thus it is not improbable that, 



Rom, 



i., 11, 13, 15. 
52 



1 Comp. Rom. xv., 23-28, with Acts xx., 2, 3 ; xxiv., 
17. — 2 Comp. Acts XX., 4, with Rom. xvi., 21, 23.— 
3 Rom. xvi., 23; 1 Cor. i., 14. —4 Acts xxi., 1. See 
close of Epistle to Romans.— ^ Acts ii., 10. 



ROMANS (EPISTLE TO) 



818 



EOMANS (EPISTLE TO) 



up to the time of the apostle's arrival, the 
Christian community at Rome had been de- 
pendent upon subordinate agency, both for 
its iirst beginnings and for the increase of 
its numbers. 

It only remains to speak briefly of the 
object and plan of the epistle. The object 
is interpreted by the complex nature of a 
church which was composed, to a consider- 
able extent, of Jewish converts, and yet was 
situated in the metropolis of the Gentile 
world. The apostle's immediate purpose 
may be safely presumed to be to settle some 
of the ill -adjusted questions between the 
Jewish and Gentile believers ; but the true 
settlement of these questions was to be 
found only in an explanation of the princi- 
ples of the Gospel of Christ, and according- 
ly this epistle, addressed, as it was, to the 
centre of the Gentile world, unfolds, more 
fully and systematically than any other, 
the fundamental principles of the Gospel of 
Christ as an abundant provision, adequate, 
without any additions from Judaism, for 
the salvation of all, both Jew and Gentile. 
The epistle has rightly been regarded, in all 
ages, as one containing many difficulties. 
These difficulties grow partly out of the 
peculiar style of the apostle, abounding in 
bold and fervid imagery, in impassioned ap- 
peals, in abrupt transitions and parenthe- 
ses, breaking the thread of discourse in an 
unfinished sentence and resuming it in a 
fresh one. They are partly due to the 
themes of which he treats, the grandest 
that have ever exercised the mind of man 
— themes which could not be expected to 
be fully comprehended without painstak- 
ing study. But perhaps a still greater dif- 
ficulty lies in the fact that mankind are 
generally unwilling to accept the doctrines 
which he inculcates: the hopeless sinful- 
ness of the human race, salvation by grace 
alone, and the absolute and, so far as man 
is concerned, the irresponsible sovereign au- 
thority of God over all human affairs. Un- 
doubtedly, the most difficult chapter in the 
epistle is the ninth ; and unquestionably, 
the difficulty in this case is not so much in 
understanding the meaning of the apostle 
as in accepting it. A humble spirit is the 
best interpreter to Paul's Epistle to the Ro- 
mans. 

Whatever difficulties, however, appertain 
to particular passages — and for a considera- 
tion of these we must refer the reader to the 
Commentaries — the general drift of the epis- 
tle it is not difficult to discern. The whole 
letter may be regarded as an unfolding of 
chapter i., 15, 16. The apostle first shows, 
by a graphic and powerful description, whose 
fidelity to truth finds abundant illustra- 
tion in the writings of ancient classical au- 
thors, that all the Gentile world is given 
up to sin (chap, i.) ; next, that all the Jew- 
ish world lies under the same condemnation 



(chap. ii.). Have then, he asks, the Jews no 
advantages? Yes; they possess the oracles 
of God, which, however, utter their condem- 
nation (chap, iii., 1-20). Thus there is no 
righteousness attainable by obedience ,* it is 
the gift of God through Jesus Christ (chap, 
iii., 21-31) ; a truth which finds illustration 
in the writings of David and the history of 
Abraham (chap. iv.). He then asserts that 
as sin and condemnation are universal, so sal- 
vation through Christ is offered to all (chap, 
v.). The objection, which has been made in 
all ages to the doctrine of justification by 
faith alone, occurs to his mind, and is strong- 
ly stated : " Shall we continue in sin that 
grace may abound?" The conclusive an- 
swer to the objection is afforded by a con- 
sideration of the nature of the redemption 
which Christ offers, which is a deliverance 
from the power and dominion of sin itself, 
and the gift of spiritual life (chap, vi.-vii., 
8). The doctrine thus stated in a philo- 
sophical form he now restates as a person- 
al experience, warming as he proceeds, and 
reaching the climax of his exuberant thanks- 
giving for the grace of God in that sublime 
utterance of his faith: "I am persuaded 
that neither death nor life, nor angels nor 
principalities nor powers, nor things pres- 
ent nor things to come, nor height nor 
depth, nor any other creature, shall be able 
to separate us from the love of God which 
is in Christ Jesus our Lord " (vii., 9-viii., 
39). The chapters which immediately fol- 
low are the most difficult in the epistle, and 
any attempt to explain them in detail would 
lead us too far into controversial theology. 
In general, it is safe to say that they may be 
regarded as an answer to objections which 
would be made by Jews to the universality 
of the Gospel, on the ground that it mili- 
tates against the special selection of the 
Jews as God's chosen people. In interpret- 
ing these chapters (ix.-xi.) the caution of 
Dean Alford should be borne in mind : " In 
no part of the epistles of St. Paul is it more 
requisite than in this portion, to bear in 
mind his habit of insulating the one view of 
the subject under consideration, with which 
he is at the time dealing. The divine side 
of the history of Israel and the world is in 
the greater part of this portion thus insu- 
lated; the facts of the divine dealings and 
the divine decrees insisted on, and the mun- 
dane or human side of that history kept, for 
the most part, out of sight, and only so 
much shown as to make it manifest that 
the Jews, on their part, failed of attaining 
God's righteousness, and so lost their share 
in the Gospel." The succeeding chapters 
(xii.-xv.) are mainly occupied with practi- 
cal exhortations founded upon the doctrines 
previously stated. 

Concerning the whole of this epistle, it 
may be added that it partakes of the com- 
bined nature of a letter and a treatise ; and 



ROME (CITY OF) 



819 



ROME (CITY OF) 



ROMA 



that while no one of Paul's letters contains 
so full and systematic an exposition of the 
doctrines of the Gospel, yet it is not merely 
a treatise on theology ; and he who fails 
to consider the personal experience of the 
writer, and the warmth and ardency of his 
nature, will certainly fail to appreciate the 
spirit and, therefore, to understand the true 
meaning of this epistle. 

Rome (City of), the capital of the Ro- 
man empire. The city of Rome is situ- 
ated on the Tiber, about fifteen miles from 
its mouth. The famous seven hills which 
formed the nucleus of the ancient city stand 
on the left bank. Here are still found the 
remains of many of the buildings erected by 
the Roman emper- 
ors. On the opposite 
side is what is called 
the Leonine City, 
with the Basilica of 
St. Peter's, and the 
Vatican, the palace 
of the pope. To en- 
ter into any descrip- 
tion of either the an- 
cient or modern city 
would carry us far 
beyond our limits. 
To the Christian stu- 
dent Rome is chiefly 
of interest in connec- 
tion with the visit 
of the apostle Paul, 
and the churches to 
which he addressed 
the Epistle to the 
Ephesians. His first 
visit took place be- 
tween two famous 
epochs in its history 
— the restoration by 
Augustus, who boast- 
ed that he found the 
city brick and left it 
marble, and that of 
Nero subsequent to 
the conflagration. At 
the time of this visit 
the city must be im- 
agined as a large and irregular mass of build- 
ings unprotected by an outer wall. Neither 
the nature of the buildings nor the configu- 
ration of the ground were such as to give a 
striking appearance to the city viewed from 
without. It had neither cupola nor campa- 
nile, and the hills, never lofty or imposing, 
would present, when covered with the build- 
ings and streets of a huge city, a confused 
appearance like the hills of modern London, 
to which they have sometimes been com- 
pared. Some parts of the city must have 
presented a magnificent appearance; but 
many of the principal buildings which at- 
tract the attention of modern travelers in 
ancient Rome were not built, and the streets 



were generally narrow and winding, flanked 
by densely crowded lodging-houses of enor- 
mous height. The population of the city 
has been variously estimated at from half a 
million to two millions and upward. Prob- 
ably Gibbon's estimate of one million two 
hundred thousand is nearest to the truth. 
One-half of the population consisted, in all 
probability, of slaves. The larger part of 
the remainder consisted of pauper citizens, 
supported in idleness by the miserable sys- 
tem of public gratuities. There appears to 
have been no middle class, and no free in- 
dustrial population. Side by side with the 
wretched classes just mentioned was the 
comparatively small body of the wealthy no- 




1 Roman Mile. 



bility, of whose luxury and profligacy so 
much is said in the heathen writers of the 
time. Various localities in modern Rome 
are identified by tradition with Paul, but 
the traditions are very uncertain, and for 
the most part untrustworthy. Its ruins, 
however, afford some interesting though 
incidental illustrations of the Scriptures. 
Chief among these is the Arch of Titus, 
erected to celebrate his victory over the 
Jews. It contains upon the interior a mag- 
nificent alto-relievo representing the tri- 
umphal procession. Upon the one side the 
emperor is represented in his triumphal car 
surrounded by his guards and suite; upon 
the other are portrayed a number of persons 



EOME (EMPIRE OF) 



820 



ROME (EMPIRE OF) 




Aich of Titus. 



carrying the spoils of the Jewish Temple 
iu triumph. It affords the only definite rep- 
resentation we have of the sacred vessels de- 
scribed in the Scriptures, and is invaluable 
as a historic testimony to the truthfulness 
in the minutest details of the Biblical de- 
scription of the Temple furniture. 

Rome (Empire of). At the time of 
Christ the Roman empire had already be- 
come consolidated, and Judea, which at the 
birth of Christ was tributary to Rome, 
though it possessed a king, had become, at 
the time of Christ's crucifixion, simply a Ro- 
man province. The N. T., especially in the 
gospels and the Acts, is full of reference to 



the Roman government. A brief statement 
of its character is necessary to a proper un- 
derstanding of some important events in the 
life of Christ, and the subsequent work of his 
apostles. The empire was nominally elect- 
ive, but practically the supreme power pass- 
ed by adoption, and, till Nero's time, a sort 
of hereditary right seemed to be recognized. 
The power of the emperor was practically ab- 
solute. The reigns of Caligula, Nero, and Do- 
mitian show that an emperor might shed the 
noblest blood with impunity, so long as he ab- 
stained from offending the soldiery and the 
populace. The boundaries of the empire un- 
der Augustus were, the Atlantic on the west,* 



ROOM 



821 



EUSSO-GREEK CHURCH 



the Euphrates on the east ; the desert of Afri- 
ca, the cataracts of the Nile, and the Arabian 
deserts on the south; the British Channel, 
the Rhine, the Danube, and the Black Sea 
on the north. The only independent pow- 
ers of importance were the Parthians on the 
east, and the Germans on the north. The 
population of the empire, in the time of Au- 
gustus, has been variously estimated at from 
85,000,000 to 120,000,000. This includes the 
population of the provinces (q. v.), i. e., the 
countries conquered by Rome and usually 
governed by Roman officials. The usual 
fate of a country conquered by Rome was to 
become a subject province, governed direct- 
ly from Rome by officers sent out for that 
purpose. Sometimes, however, petty sover- 
eigns were left in possession of a nominal 
independence. There were differences, too, 
in the political condition of cities within 
the provinces. Some were free cities, i. e., 
were governed by their own magistrates, 
and were exempted from occupation by a 
Roman garrison. Such were Tarsus, Anti- 
och in Syria, Athens, Ephesus, Thessalonica. 
Other cities were "colonies," i. e., commu- 
nities of Roman citizens transplanted, like 
garrispns of the imperial city, into a foreign 
land. Such were Philippi, Corinth, Troas, 
and the Pisidian Antioch. 

The social and civil condition of the peo- 
ple under the Roman empire was one of de- 
generacy and rapidly developing decay. The 
wickedness and sensuality of the age, as 
drawn by Paul in the opening chapters of 
the Epistle to the Romans, is not painted in 
characters blacker than by the Roman satir- 
ists of the period. Religion had already lost 
its hold on the people ; the philosophers were 
universally skeptics ; the only semblance of 
religious faith was an ignorant superstition. 
A large proportion of the populace were 
slaves ; wealth was very unequally dis- 
tributed; literature and manners were alike 
licentious; there were no public hospitals, 
no institutions for the relief of the poor, no 
provision for the instruction of the lower 
classes, no general practice even of private 
charity and philanthropy. Thus, while a 
general peace, a common government, and a 
common language afforded the external con- 
ditions for the progress of the Gospel on the 
one hand, the general corruption and a uni- 
versal sense of need afforded the internal 
conditions on the other. Christianity was 
the only aggressive religion, and there was 
neither philosophy nor faith left to with- 
stand its progress.-' 

Room. This word is sometimes used in 
our Bible to translate a Greek word which 
signifies not a " room," in the sense we com- 
monly attach to it, of a chamber, but a seat 
at the dinner or supper table. It is so ren- 
dered in Luke xi., 43. See House. [Matt. 



1 See, in respect to organization and increase of 
the empire, Pbovinoe ; Taxing. 



xxiii., 6 ; Mark xii., 39 ; Luke xiv., 7, 8 ; xx., 
46.] 

Rosary, an implement of devotion in use 
among Romanists (as well as among the 
Greeks, Armenians, and other Eastern com- 
munions), which enables them to pray ac- 
cording to a numerical arrangement. It 
consists of a string of beads, composed of 
fifteen decades of small beads, having a large 
bead between each ten. At each smaller 
bead the Ave Maria is repeated, and the Pa- 
ternoster at every larger bead. The cliaplet, 
a string of beads one-third the size of the 
rosary, is more commonly used. The rosa- 
ry was instituted, according to some, by St. 
Dominic ; others, however, believe it to be 
more ancient. It was originated in honor 
of the fifteen principal mysteries in the life 
of Christ and of the Virgin Mary. The first 
Sunday in October is the day on which the 
Festival of the Eosary is celebrated. 

Chaplets are also in use in China among 
the worshipers of Fo, or Buddha, and were 
probably used by them long before they 
were known in Christendom. They consist 
of one hundred smaller beads, and eight con- 
siderably larger ; and in place of the crucifix 
of the Romanist, they suspend a large bead 
fashioned like a gourd. There are also chap- 
lets of various sorts in use among the Jap- 
anese. 

Rose. There is some doubt what flower 
is indicated by the word so translated in 
our Bible; probably a plant with a bulb- 
ous root, either the narcissus or the crocus. 
[Sol. Song ii., 1 ; Isa. xxxv., 1.] 

Rubrics {ruber, red), a term used to des- 
ignate rules and orders directing how, when, 
and where various exercises in divine serv- 
ice are to be performed. Though now usu- 
ally printed in Italics, they were originally 
in a red color; hence their name. Roman 
Catholic and Episcopal clergymen pledge 
themselves to obey the Rubrics of their re- 
spective churches. 

Ruby. This word occurs several times 
in the English Bible. Its true meaning is 
quite uncertain, opinions being about equal- 
ly divided between the red coral and pearls ' 
(q. v.). [Job xxviii., 18 ; Prov. iii., 15 ; viii., 
11 ; XX., 15 ; xxxi., 10 ; Lam. iv., 7.] 

Rue, a shrubby plant, about two feet high, 
of strong medicinal virtues, and a native of 
the Mediterranean coasts. The Talmud enu- 
merates rue among kitchen herbs, and re- 
gards it as free of tithe, as being a plant not 
cultivated in gardens. In our Lord's time, 
however, rue was doubtless a garden plant, 
and therefore tithable. See Anise. [Luke 
xi., 42.] 

Russo - Greek Church, the name given 
to the Established Church of Russia. It is, 
in doctrine and in practices, substantially 
the same with the Greek Church (q. v.), of 
which, indeed, it may be said to be histor- 
ically a part; but it possesses an entirely 



RUSSO-GREEK CHURCH 



822 



RUTH 



independent organization. For its early 
history the reader is referred to the article 
Greek Church. In 1589 the patriarch of 
Constantinople consented to the establish- 
ment of a separate but dependent patriarch 
of Moscow. This dependence continued till 
the reign of Peter the Great, 1682-1725, by 
whom the patriarchate was first suspended 
and afterward abolished. The Church is 
now governed by a Holy Synod, an ecclesi- 
astical committee appointed by the Czar. 
It has three classes of higher clergy — bish- 
ops, archbishops, and metropolitans. The 
Church is divided into 52 archiepiscopal di- 
oceses. From the census of the Holy Syn- 
od, it appears that the Established, or Greek 
orthodox, Church now has 35,000 churches; 
viz., 31,000 parochial, and 4000 dependent 
(filial) churches. The clergy of these num- 
ber 37,718, besides 11,227 deans and 65,952 ac- 
olytes, clerks, beadles, choristers, etc. There 
are also 7000 or 8000 monks and nuns. The 
State pays the sum of 5,163,363 silver rubles 
(equal to a little over $3,800,000) toward the 
repairs of churches and salaries. The cler- 
gy, supported by a portion of the press, are 
moving for a rise of the salaries to the low- 
er clergy, now very scantily provided for, in 
order that they may be enabled to keep up 
the dignity of the establishment. 

Nominal religious liberty is allowed, but 
all children born of mixed marriages are 
claimed as members of the Russo- Greek 
Church, and no member is allowed to secede 
to other denominations. It differs from the 
Roman Catholic Church in many particulars, 
as indicated in the article Greek Church, 
and the articles there referred to ; but per- 
haps in nothing more than in the efforts 
wbich are made with its consent, if not its 
active co-operation, to supply the laity with 
the Scriptures. A Bible Society was organ- 
ized under Alexander I., and has been re-es- 
tablished under Alexander II., who is said 
to be a liberal contributor to its funds. 

The Russians are described as pre-emi- 
nently a religious people ; but their religion 
is one of excessive formalism. It is a re- 
ligion of the Church and of ceremonialism — 
an essentially Oriental religion. Every vil- 
lage must have its shrine. Moscow is said 
to have four hundred and thirty churches 
and chapels. In every Russian house there 
is a domestic altar and a sacred image of a 
household god. The form of prayer, if not 
its reality, is in universal vogue. Every one 
has an allotted office to recite, and an ap- 
pointed fast to keep. Every new house, e\^- 
ery new store, must be blessed by religious 
rites. Ten or twelve times 'a year the par- 
ish priest enters every house in his district 
to sprinkle it with holy water, and purify it 
with prayers and the sign of the cross. Ev- 
ery man has his guardian angel, whose pic- 
ture hangs in his bedroom ; before it a light 
should be always burning ; it must be con- 



stantly propitiated by prayers, and its day 
sacredly kept. Attendance on public wor- 
ship is enforced by the law of the land ; and 
if the Russian neglects, at least once a year, 
to confess his sins and receive the sacrament, 
he forfeits his civil rights, unless he can per- 
suade the parish priest to give him a certifi- 
cate of his exemplary attendance on church. 

The unity of the Russo-Greek Church is 
more apparent than real. Besides dissent- 
ing sects, which are numerous, there are a 
large number of what are called Old Be- 
lievers. The present litany of the Church 
dates from the days of the patriarch Mkon, 
who applied himself assiduously to correct 
errors in the Scriptures and the service- 
books, and propounded a new version. Nor 
was he satisfied to deal with the text alone. 
He changed the old cross, modified the sac- 
raments, brought in a new mode of benedic- 
tion, and altered the stamp on the conse- 
crated bread. These reforms were officially 
adopted, but they were violently opposed by 
many of the clergy and the people. Those 
who cling to the ancient forms are termed 
Old Believers, and are estimated by Hep- 
worth Dixon as high as sixteen or seven- 
teen millions.^ 

Ruth {a female friend). A severe famine in 
the land of Judah induced Elimelech, a native 
of Bethlehem Ephratah, to emigrate with his 
wife Naomi and his two sons, Mahlon and 
Cbilion, into the land of Moab, where Chilion 
married Orpah, and Mahlon married Ruth, 
both Moabitish women. After an absence 
of ten years, and the death of her husband 
and her sons, Naomi, who now changed her 
name from Naomi (pleasant) to Mara (bit- 
ter), resolved to return to her kindred, and 
expected to part from her daughters-in-law. 
Orpah was persuaded to remain in the land 
of her nativity, but, with the expression of 
unalterable attachment which is expressed 
in those touching and oft -quoted words, 
" Entreat me not to leave thee, or to return 
from following after thee ; for whither thou 
goest, I will go ; and where thou lodgest, I 
will lodge ; thy people shall be my people, 
and thy God my God: Where thou diest, 
will I die, and there will I be buried," Ruth 
signified her determination to cleave to her 
mother-in-law, and the religion of her hus- 
band. By so doing, she left her own kindred, 
and shared in a strange land the desolation 
and poverty of her mother-in-law. Their 
return to Bethlehem happened just at the 
beginning of the barley harvest, and Ruth 
went out to glean after the reapers, that from 
the portion which God commanded Moses 
to leave for the poor and the stranger^ she 
might find food for Naomi and herself. At- 
tracted by her modest demeanor and pleas- 
ing looks, the owner of the field, who proved 
to be Boaz, a wealthy kinsman of her hus- 
band, inquired who she was, and, learning 



jand, inquired who she was, and, le 
J "Free Eussia," chaps. sxvii., xxix. — "^ Lev. 



xix., 9. 



RYE 



823 



SABBATH 



the story of her fidelity, treated her with 
marked kindness, and sent her home laden 
with grain. According to Naomi's instruc- 
tions, Ruth claimed that Boaz should perform 
the part of her husband's near kinsman,^ 
purchase Elimelech's inheritance, and take 
her for his wife. A still nearer kinsman 
waived his prior right, Boaz married Ruth, 
and she bore bim a son, Obed, who was the 
grandfather of David. 

The date and authorship of the book of 
Ruth are both involved in uncertainty. In 
the ancient editions of the Hebrew Scrip- 
tures, the book is always joined with the 
book of Judges ; and it is clear, from refer- 
ences in the narrative itself, that the events 
occurred during the era of the Judges, but 
that the narrative was not penned until a 



later date.^ The story is interesting from 
the glimpses it gives us of ancient life,^ and 
for its illustration of disinterested devotion. 
It is important as an illustration of the 
source of David's line, and as a history of 
the human ancestry of Jesus Christ ; and it 
derives a special religious importance from 
the fact that it traces his genealogy back 
to one who, though a worshiper of the true 
God, was by birth a Gentile. 

Rye (Heb. Kussemetli) occurs in Exod. ix., 
32 ; Isa. xxviii., 25 ; in the latter the margin 
reads " spelt." In Ezek. iv., 9, the text has 
" fitches." It is probable that the plant in- 
tended by the Hebrew is spelt, which is 
grown in some parts of the south of Ger- 
many, and differs but slightly from our com- 
mon wheat. 



S. 



Sabbath (resi), a day maintained by the 
Jews and by all Christian denominations as 
one of rest and religious observance. In this 
article we shall first briefly sketch the his- 
tory of this day ; secondly, state, without 
however debating, the principal modern 
questions respecting it. 

I. The History of the Sabbath. — 1. The 
Jewish Sabbath. — Whatever may have been 
the origin of the Sabbath, a question to 
which we shall revert hereafter, the first 
specific precept defining the day and pre- 
scribing the duties which belong to it is to 
be found in Exod. xx., 8-11, where it has a 
place among the Ten Commandments en- 
graven by God on the tables of stone, and 
committed to the ark for safe-keeping. By 
this law and the specific statutes which ac- 
companied it, and afforded a divine and au- 
thoritative interpretation of it, every kind 
of secular labor was forbidden upon one day 
in seven. No fire could be kindled, no food 
gathered, no burdens borne, no commerce 
carried on, none of the ordinary industries 
of life maintained.'^ 

The utmost stress was laid on the scru- 
pulous observance of these regulations ; to 
them the proi^hets repeatedly pointed the 
careless people ; the reformation of the Jew- 
ish religion was accompanied by a reinstat- 
ing of the Sabbath ; a disregard of the day 
was accounted a sign of national decay, and 
a precursor of divine punishment.^ The day, 
though primarily a day of rest, was employ- 
ed also for religious services. It was a day 
of holy convocation ; the sacrifices of the 
Temple were doubled ; the shew-bread was 
changed ; the inner court of the Temple was 
opened for solemn services ; the prophets and 



1 Deut. XXV., 5-10.— 2 Exod. xxxv., 3 ; Numb, xv., 
.S2-36 ; Neh. x., 30, 31 ; xiii., 15-22; Jer. xvii., 21-27.— 
3 Lam. i., 6, T ; 2 Chron. xxix. ; Isa. Iviii., 13, 14 ; Ezek. 
xxiii., 36-39. 



the Levites took the occasion for imparting 
religious instruction to the people.^ But it 
was no season of gloom, or sadness, or rigor- 
ous restraint. Declared by one of the laws 
which enjoined its observance to be a per- 
petual memorial of the Jewish emancipator 
from Egypt, it was itself an emancipation. 
The pious Jew welcomed its return with joy 
and gladness, reflected on the works of God 
with thankfulness, and gave utterance to 
his emotions not only in songs of praise in 
the sanctuary, but also in festal scenes at 
home.* David remembered it as a day of 
joy and praise; Hezekiah reinstated it in 
the reformation, with the Passover, by a 
national feast of exuberant gladness; Nehe- 
miah dissuaded the people from their tears, 
and commanded them to keep it as a day of 
joyous feasting ; Hosea threatened the Jews 
with its deprivation, as a judgment for their 
iniquities ; and the later Jews, while setting 
apart some portion of the day to religious 
observances, spent the remainder " in festal 
cheerfulness, in receiving and returning the 
visits of friends, and in dances and games 
and juvenile exercises."^ Such, in brief, was 
the Jewish Sabbath ; so far was it from be- 
ing the day of asceticism which modern 
newspaper writers assume it to have been, 
that, according to the testimony of the early 
Christians, it was often even wasted by idle- 
ness, and degraded by sensuality and drunk- 
enness. 

2. The Pharisaic Sabbath. — The Pharisees, 
who converted every precept of the law 
into a burden by their literal and ceremo- 
nial spirit, in undertaking to rescue the 
Sabbath from the disuse into which it fell 

1 Ruth i., 1 ; iv., 22.-2 R^th ii., 2, 4; iv., 7, 11, 12.— 
3 Exod. xii., 16 ; Lev. xxiv., 8 ; Numb, xxviii., 9 ; Deut. 
xxxi., 11, 12, with Act? xv., 21 ; xiii., 14, 15; Isa. Ixvi., 
23 ; Ezek. xlvi., 1-6 ; 2 Kings iv., 23.-4 Lev. xxiii., 2, 
3; Psa. xcii., title ; cxxii., 1.— ^ 2 Chron. xxix. ; Neh. 
viiL,9-13; Hos. ii.,11; Psa. xiii., 4. 



SABBATH 



824 



SABBATH 



during the captivity, retained the form, but 
destroyed the spirit. They declared the 
Sabbath to be equal in importance to the 
whole law ; yet they made it of none effect 
by their interpretation of the ancient reg- 
ulations and by the new ones which they 
added thereto. One need look no further 
than the regulations preserved in the Tal- 
mud, to see what sort of a Sabbath it was 
which Christ undertook, by his teachings, 
to redeem, not from the desecration of for- 
getfulness, but from that of a petty and 
puerile ceremonialism. One might not walk 
upon the grass, because it would be bruised, 
which would be a kind of threshing ; nor 
catch a flea, which would be a kind of hunt- 
ing ; nor wear nailed shoes, which would 
be bearing a sort of burden ; nor, if he fed 
Ms chickens, suffer any corn to lie upon 
the ground, lest a kernel should germinate, 
"which would be a kind of sowing. And 
from Moses's command to the encamped Is- 
raelites, " Let no man go out of his place 
on the seventh day," because, despite the 
divine command, they had gone forth from 
the camp to gather the manna, Dositheus 
drew the sage conclusion that a Jew must 
not move between sunrise and sunset, and 
established a sect whose observance of the 
Sabbath consisted in their retaining for the 
day whatever posture they happened to be 
in at the rising of the sun. Nor was his 
interpretation much more absurd than the 
more orthodox one that the Jews' place in- 
cluded a radius of two thousand cubits, and 
that a Sabbath-day's journey of that length 
was, therefore, exempt from the prohibition 
of the law. Coupled with these precepts 
were others which show, quite as conclu- 
sively, how little the Pharisees apprehend- 
ed the true spirit of the Sabbath as a day 
of spiritual rest. " Meet the Sabbath with 
a lively hunger; let thy table be covered 
with fish, flesh, and generous wine." "Let 
the seats be soft, and adorned with beauti- 
ful cushions, and let elegance smile in the 
furniture of the table." "Assume all thy 
sprightliness." "Utter nothing but what 
is provocative of mirth and good humor." 
"Walk leisurely, for the law requires it, as 
it does also longer sleep in the morning." 
" Be resolute and merry, though ruined in 
debt." 

3. The early Christian SaMath. — Such was 
the Sabbath which Jesus Christ found actu- 
ally existing in Palestine. In interpreting 
his teaching and explanations, the nature of 
the Pharisaic Sabbath ought not to be for- 
gotten. The true meaning of his teaching 
has been the subject of much discussion. 
One or two things are, however, clear. On 
the one hand, there is no indication that 
he engaged in any secular toil on that day, 
or encouraged his disciples to do so. If 
they had plied their customary labor, cast- 
ing their nets, for example, on the Sab- 



bath, it would certainly have been record- 
ed against them. But not even Jewish tra- 
dition contains any such charge. On the 
contrary, Christ habitually attended the syn- 
agogue service with his disciples, and thus 
bore his testimony to the value of the day 
as one both of religious observance and of 
rest. On the other hand, it is very clear 
that his example gives no sanction to those 
who convert the Sabbath from a day of joy 
and gladness into one of asceticism. He 
preached in the synagogues, healed the sick, 
in most, if not in all instances, in cases that 
were not urgent and might as well have 
waited till the morrow, walked out with 
his disciples, justified their plucking and 
eating of the corn or wheat through which 
they passed, and attended a feast made on 
that day in his honor.^ It is true that we 
are not to confound this feast with a mod- 
ern dinner-party; it is certain, however, 
that Jewish usage in that age justified social 
gatherings on the Sabbath, and that Christ 
by his practice sanctioned thip usage, while 
by his words he never rebuked it. To this 
it should be added that his explicit teach- 
ings all pointed in the general direction of 
liberty to use the Sabbath in whatever way 
best tended to promote its divine object — 
rest from toil and preparation for future work 
for God.'^ The whole tenor of the teachings 
of the apostle Paul, whatever opinion may 
be entertained respecting the interpretation 
of particular passages, looks in the same gen- 
eral direction. 

4. Tlie Sabbath of the early Church. — At first 
the Christians observed the Jewish Sabbath, 
though with increasing irregularity as the 
Gentile element more and more predomi- 
nated ; but they also observed the first day 
of the week as a commemoration of the res- 
urrection of our Lord. This they therefore 
called the Lord's Day, and later, Sunday, bor- 
rowing this name from the heathen, by whom 
the first day of the week was dedicated to 
the sun. Gradually the Lord's Day, or Sun- 
day, supplanted the Sabbath, and traces of 
the double observance are to be found in the 
N. T. At length the change from the sev- 
enth to the first day of the week was official- 
ly recognized and embodied in an edict of 
Constantine, a.d. 321, which is doubtless the 
first species of Sabbath legislation subse- 
quent to the birth of Christ, and which is, 
therefore, worth quoting. "Let all judges, 
inhabitants of the cities, and artificers, rest 
on the venerable Sunday. But in the coun- 
try, husbandmen may freely and lawfully 
apply to the business of agriculture ; since 
it often happens that the sowing of corn and 
planting of vines can not be so advanta- 
geously performed on any other day; lest, by 



1 Matt, xii., 1-14 ; Mark i., 21-31 ; vi., 1-3 ; Lake iv., 
15, 16, 31 : xiii., 10-17; xiv., 1-6; John v., 1-18; ix., 
1-16.— 2 His principal Sabbath discourses are Matt 
xii., 1-9 ; Mark iii., 1-6 ; John vi., 19-iT. 



SABBATH 



825 



SABBATH 



neglecting the opportunity, they should lose 
the beuelits which the divine bounty be- 
stowed on us." Custom, however, added to 
this law, and the Church soon embodied 
these customs in more stringent provisions. 
Husbandry of all kinds was forbidden ; pub- 
lic games and sports were prohibited ; dan- 
cing, reveling, and excessive feasting were 
denounced ; fasting, on the other hand, was 
prohibited as not appropriate to a day that 
commemorated so joyful an occasion as the 
resurrection of our Lord ; a careful attend- 
ance npon public worship was enjoined on 
the faithful ; the evening before was often 
occupied in religious vigils ; and severe cen- 
sures were denounced against such as vio- 
lated the Sabbath, or Lord's Day, as it now 
began to be universally called. 

5. Tlie Sabbath oftlie Reformation. — The Re- 
formers of the sixteenth century opened a 
new question respecting the Sabbath. Up 
to this time the binding obligation of the 
Fourth Commandment had hardly been 
questioned ; for the Roman Catholic Church, 
which borrowed much of its ceremonial from 
the O. T., maintained the authority of the 
Mosaic law. The Reformers, however, dis- 
tinguished between Moses as a prophet and 
Moses as a lawgiver. They recognized his 
divine authority as a teacher, but maintain- 
ed that as a lawgiver his authority extend- 
ed only to the commonwealth which he was 
directed to organize, and expired with the 
destruction of the Jewish nation. They, 
therefore, denied the binding obligations of 
the Ten Commandments as laivs, while they 
recognized their value as indications or in- 
terpretations of principles true for all time 
and for all people. They declared that the 
laws of Moses were guides, but not laws to 
the Christian Church. "The Ten Com- 
mandments," says Luther, "do not apply to 
us Gentiles and Christians, but only to the 
Jews. If a preacher wishes to force you 
back to Moses, ask him if you were brought 
by Moses out of Egypt." Calvin is equally 
explicit in declaring that "the Sabbath is 
abrogated," and in denying " that the moral 
part of it, that is, the observance of one day 
in seven still remains;" while he adds, "it 
is still customary among us to assemble on 
stated days for hearing the Word, breaking 
the mystic bread, and for public prayers; 
and also to allow servants and laborers a re- 
mission from their labor." In a word, the 
early Reformers generally agreed in main- 
taining that the obligations of the Sabbath 
rest not in any specific statute, but in the 
wants of the human race, and are to be in- 
terpreted not by the ancient law, but by 
the universal spiritual and physical necessi- 
ties of humanity. Under this teaching the 
Sabbath was still retained as a day both of 
religious service and of mental and physical 
recreation ; but the Fourth Commandment, 
and the regulations and interpretations 



which followed it, were not regarded as au- 
thoritative and binding on the Christian 
Church. Moreover, the idea of rest and rec- 
reation came forth into greater prominence ; 
and this twofold idea still underlies the Sab- 
bath of the Continent even among the Re- 
formed churches, where, as well as in the 
Roman Catholic communion, the day is ob- 
served by religious services in the morning, 
and the afternoon and evening are given 
up to rest and recreation, while in some com- 
munities the holiday has so far intrenched 
upon the holy day that little or nothing of 
the latter is left. 

6. ITie Puritan Sahhath. — When the Puri- 
tans came into power in England the Sab- 
bath had degenerated from a religious into 
a merely secular festival. The same cor- 
ruptions which formerly existed among the 
Jews, and so had led the early Christians to 
prohibit public games on that day, ]5revailed 
now in the Christian Church. In protest- 
ing against these abuses the Puritans ran 
into the other extreme. Yet it must be re- 
membered, on the one hand, that the remedy 
for one vice is not always the exact truth ; 
sometimes a temporary reaction is necessa- 
ry to counteract the evil ; and, on the other, 
that even the views of the Puritans have 
been persistently misrepresented, and the 
asceticism of a few taken to represent the 
class. Even the Westminster Assembly, 
while repeating the ancient prohibition 
against public games and shows, overruled 
a proposition that there be no feasting on 
the Sabbath, and substituted a resolution 
prescribing that the diet be so ordered as 
not to keep servants unnecessarily from pub- 
lic service. But it is certain that the Sab- 
bath, as they maintained it in theory and 
practiced it j.n fact, was one almost exclusive- 
ly of religious observance, and that if the 
cavaliers erred in recognizing this day only 
as one of secular rest, they erred, on the oth- 
er hand, in ignoring, or at least paying but 
little regard to, the idea of rest. The Sab- 
bath which they instituted, however, what- 
ever be its defects, has contributed a large 
share of influence in making freedom possi- 
ble and permanent in this country; nor are 
the inveighers against the rigors of the Pu- 
ritan Sabbath to be found chiefly among 
those who have experienced its imaginary 
restraints and its real blessings. 

II. This brief history of the Sabbath may 
throw, incidentally, some light on the mod- 
ern questions respecting the day, which may 
be conveniently considered under four heads. 

1. The Origin of the Sabbath. — The first ref- 
erence to the Sabbath in the Scriptures oc- 
curs in Gen. ii., 3 : "And God blessed the 
seventh day, and sanctified it ; because that 
in it he had rested from all his work which 
God had created and made." It is next re- 
ferred to in the account given of the mirac- 
ulous supply of manna, where we are told 



SABBATH 



SABBATH 



that the people were forbidden to gather it 
on the Sabbath-day.^ The first direct com- 
mand for its observance as a general day of 
rest, however, is the Fourth Commandment. 
This law, as recorded in Exod. xx., 8-11, as- 
signs as the reason for the observance the 
fact that God rested on the seventh day, 
while the same la-^, as recorded in Deut. v., 
12-15, assigns as the reason for its observ- 
ance the fact that God had delivered Israel 
from the land of Egypt. Some writers have 
entertained the opinion that the Sabbath 
was really first instituted at the giving of 
the manna, and that the reference in Gen. ii., 
3, is simply a parenthetical explanation of 
the reason why God subsequently hallowed 
and blessed the Sabbath-day. In support of 
this position, it is argued that there is no ref- 
erence to the Sabbath intermediate between 
the Creation and the Exodus, and that subse- 
quent references, particularly those in Ezek. 
XX., 10-12 ; Neh. ix., 12, indicate that it was 
first given in the wilderness ; while other 
references, such as Exod. xxxi., 16, 17, and 
Ezek. XX., 12, indicate that it was regarded 
as a distinctively Jewish observance. Most 
evangelical writers, however, are of opinion 
that the Sabbath was instituted at the Cre- 
ation. They declare that this is the plain 
and simple meaning of Gen. ii., 3 ; that this 
is confirmed by the reference to the Sabbath 
in Exod. xvi., 25, 26, and xx., 5-11, both of 
which appear to recognize the day as a pre- 
viously existing institution ; by the promi- 
nence which subsequent passages in the Bi- 
ble attach to the proper observance of the 
day ; by the fact that among the patriarchs 
a division of time into weeks of seven days 
each is recognized f and by the fact that 
such a division was very generally recog- 
nized among other nations, who must be 
presumed to have derived it by tradition 
from Adam. This latter view is, we think, 
sustained by the greatest number of schol- 
ars, and has the most evidence in Scripture 
in its favor. The question is mainly impor- 
tant on account of its bearing on, 

2. The Nature of the JSahhath Obligation. — 
The two views on this subject have been al- 
ready hinted at. Even the casual reader of 
the N. T. will observe that Paul, in contrast- 
ing the righteousness which comes by faith 
from that which comes by the deeds of the 
law, insists that the Gospel is a substitute 
for the law ; that the latter has been fulfill- 
ed by the former ; that the specific regula- 
tions of the Mosaic code are supplanted by 
the broader and more comprehensive law 
of love toward God and man f nor does he 
himself draw any distinction between the 
moral and ceremonial law. The Puritans, 
however, who went back to the O. T. for the 
principles of their conduct, as did the Ro- 
man Catholics, though for very different 



reasons, maintained that the Ten Command- 
ments are not to be considered as a part of 
the law which Paul regarded as supplanted 
by the Gospel ; and they based this opinion 
partly on the peculiar sanctions which ac- 
companied the giving of the Ten Command- 
ments, and which distinguish them from the 
other and more specific Mosaic regulations, 
partly on the character of those command- 
ments, which embody laws written in the 
consciences of mankind, and therefore of 
universal obligation, and partly on the ref- 
erence to the Ten Commandments found in 
the teachings of both Christ and Paul.^ 
They, therefore, placed the obligation of the 
Sabbath observance primarily on the abso- 
lute and specific law of God, as implied in 
the original institution of the day at the 
Creation, and embodied in the command 
given on Mount Sinai. This law they re- 
garded as in and of itself addressed to all 
mankind, and therefore of universal obliga- 
tion ; that is, so far as the knowledge of it 
has been communicated to man. In support 
of this opinion, they refer to such declara- 
tions of Christ as " the Sabbath was made 
for man," and to his example in employing 
it as an occasion for religious worship in the 
synagogue. This view is embodied in the dec- 
laration of the Westminster Assembly's Con- 
fession of Faith, that ''As it is of the law of 
nature that, in general, a due proportion of 
time be set apart for the worship of God ; so, 
in his Word, by a positive, moral, and per- 
petual commandment, binding all men in all 
ages, he hath particularly appointed one day 
in seven for a Sabbath, to be kept holj^ unto 
him." This view is entertained by a large 
majority of Christian scholars to-day in the 
Presbyterian, Methodist, Baptist, and Con- 
gregational churches ; that is, in those which 
have more or less directly descended from 
Puritan ancestors, or have imbibed their 
principles. The continental Reformers, on 
the other hand, maintained that all the Mo- 
saic law, including the Ten Commandments, 
was addressed to the Jewish nation, and 
was binding as statutes only on that nation. 
And they placed the obligation of a Sab- 
bath observance not on any specific com- 
mand, either at the Creation or in the Dec- 
alogue, but in the fact that man's nature is 
such that he needs, and experience shows 
that he needs, one day in seven for ex- 
emption from the ordinary toil of life, and 
for religious and spiritual exercises. They 
quoted in support of this opinion such pas- 
sages as Rom. xiv., 5 ; Gal. iv., 10 ; Col. ii., 
16, 17. To quote the words of one of the 
ablest modern advocates of this view,^ the 
Sabbath is " binding on us from considera- 
tions of humanity and religious expedien- 
cy, and by the rules of that branch of the 
Church in which Providence has placed us, 



1 Exod. xvi., 25, 26.— ^^ Gen. viii,, 10, 12; xxix,, 27, 28. i For example, see Matt, xix., 17-19 > Kom. xiii., 9.— 
-3 See Law. ^ Dean Alford on Romans xiv., 5. 



SABBATH 



827 



SABBATH 



lint not in any way inheriting the divinely- 
appointed obligation of the other (i. e., the 
Jewish Sabbath), or the strict prohibition 
by which its sanctity was defended." This 
view is maintained by many scholars in the 
Lutheran, German Reformed, and Episcopal 
churches, and is the one almost universally 
accepted on the continent of Europe. What- 
ever may be thought to be the effect of such 
teaching, it should not be supposed that 
those who maintain this view intend to abol- 
ish the Sabbath or lessen the reverence for it. 
They claim, indeed, to broaden the founda- 
tion on which it rests by teaching that the 
Sabbath obligation is the result of an in- 
herent need of such a day existing in hu- 
man nature ; and that thus the duty of 
Sabbath observance, like many other du- 
ties, that of truth-telling, for example, rests 
not in a specific law — for falsehood is not 
directly forbidden by the Ten Command- 
ments — but on essential principles of hu- 
man nature. 

3. The jproper Day for the Sahhath. — Those 
who regard the Fourth Commandment as 
not of binding force on the Christian Church 
have no question in respect to the day. The 
Church is left, according to their view, to 
choose its own day. Indeed, Calvin says, 
" I do not lay so much stress upon the sep- 
tenary number that I would oblige the 
Church to an invariable adherence to it." 
Those Christians who maintain the obliga- 
tion of the Fourth Commandment are also 
generally agreed that the day is not impor- 
tant, so that one day in seven is observed, 
believing that the commandment only pre- 
scribes that after six days of labor a seventh 
should be observed as a day of rest, without 
specifying the day ; and that, at all events, 
the resurrection of our Lord and the general 
consent of Christendom are sufficient justi- 
fications for a change, times and seasons not 
being essential under the N. T. dispensation. 
The principal, if not the only Christian de- 
nomination that adheres to the Jewish Sab- 
bath, or Saturday, is that of the Seventh-day 
Baptists. 

4. Tiie Ohject and proper Observance of the 
Day. — The object of the day is implied in 
the word itself, which signifies rest, and in 
the terms of the commandment, which for- 
bids secular labor. The command is of wide 
application, forbidding work not only to the 
individual, but also to his servants and cat- 
tle. Among the Jews this part of the law is 
still observed with scrupulous care; as much 
can not, unfortunately, be said for most mod- 
ern Christians. But, while rest is the fun- 
damental object of the Sabbath, yet the 
kind of rest is also indicated very clearly 
in the Fourth Commandment in the clauses, 
" Remember the Sabbath (rest) day to keep 
it holy," and it " is the Sabbath (or rest) of 
the Lord your God." The idea embodied 
in the later N. T. title of Lord's day is thus 



found in the Fourth Commandment, and al- 
most if not quite as clearly in the reference 
to it in the account of the creation. Those, 
therefore, who accept the Fourth Command- 
ment as a law of universal obligation, are 
agreed in regarding the Sabbath as not only 
a day of rest, but also of religious observ- 
ance. This view is also entertained by those 
who base the obligation simply on the gen- 
eral need of the human race for such a day ; 
for they hold that the necessity of special 
religious instruction and public worship is 
quite as apparent as the necessity of physic- 
al and intellectual rest. Indeed Paley goes 
so far as to maintain that the religious ob- 
servance is " a law of Christianity," basing 
this opinion on the practice of the apostles, 
while the element of rest he regards as a hu- 
man institution, binding on the individual 
only because of "the beneficent purposes 
which the public and regular observance of 
it promotes." There is, however, a wide 
difference of opinion as to the proper ob- 
servance of the day, a difference which de- 
pends largely, if not chiefly, upon the ques- 
tion whether the idea of rest or that of re- 
ligious service predominates. Wherever the 
Puritan influence has predominated, the idea 
that the day is one of religious service and 
work has been prominent, and too often the 
element of rest has been almost if not en- 
tirely ignored, as it appears to be in the 
Westminster Confession of Faith, which de- 
clares that "this Sabbath is then kept holy 
unto the Lord, when men, after a due pre- 
paring of their hearts, and ordering of their 
common affairs beforehand, do not only ob- 
serve a holy rest all the day from their 
own works, words, and thoughts about their 
worldly employments and recreations; but 
also are taken up the whole time in the 
public and private exercises of his worship, 
and in the duties of necessity and mercy." 
Upon the Continent, on the other hand, and 
wherever the Roman Catholic influence has 
been predominant, the idea of rest has been 
the more prominent one in connection with 
the day, and it has either become a holiday 
with some subordinate religious services, or 
a compromise has been effected by devoting 
the morning to religious services and the 
afternoon to recreation. He, however, who 
regards all work as done unto the Lord, and 
with the eternal world in view, will not go 
much amiss in accepting the Sabbath as a 
day of rest. If he regards its object as only 
to prepare him for the secular work of the en- 
suing week, he will miss the end for which 
the Sabbath was constituted ; but if he con- 
siders how he may best use it to prepare him- 
self for the great work of life, the service and 
glory of God, he will not fall far short of its 
true observance. In other words, the desecra- 
tion of the Sabbath is a natural result of the 
desecration of the whole life. He whose life- 
work is godly will make his rest days godly. 



SABAOTH 



SABBATH-SCHOOLS 



Sabaoth (the Lord of). Sabaoth is the 
Greek form of a Hebrew word, meaning 
" armies," and appears in the O. T. in '' Lord 
of Hosts." In the mind of an ancient He- 
brew the Lord of Sabaoth was the leader 
and commander of the armies of the nation, 
who went forth with them, and led them to 
certain victory over the worshipers of Baal, 
Chemosh, Molech, Ashtaroth, and other false 
gods. [Rom. ix., 29 ; Jas. v., 4.] 

Sabbath - schools. History. — It is cus- 
tomarily said that Sabbath - schools origi- 
nated with one Robert Raikes, in England, 
toward the close of the last century. Cate- 
chistical schools, in which religious truth 
was taught on the Sabbath, were, however, 
established in the primitive Church, and a 
certain amount of catechistical instruction 
was a condition precedent to admittance to 
the Church. These schools declined with 
the decline of piety and intelligence, and at 
the time of the Reformation had substan- 
tially ceased to exist. The Reformation 
was accompanied by a revival of religious 
training for children in schools which were 
inaugurated both by Martin Luther in Ger- 
many and John Knox in Scotland. Sab- 
bath-schools were also instituted and main- 
tained in this country as early as 1674, by 
the Pilgrim Fathers ; and one, which lived 
and flourished over thirty years, was es- 
tablished by Ludwig Hacker, in Ephratah, 
Lancaster County, Pennsylvania, in 1747. 
Robert Raikes did not, therefore, originate 
the idea of Sabbath-schools, but he was the 
first to institute the system out of which 
the modern Sabbath-school has grown. He 
was a citizen of Gloucester. Oppressed by 
seeing the children in the streets spend the 
Sabbath in play, often with quarrels and 
curses, he engaged four women who kept 
day-schools to gather them into school on 
the Sabbath. Thus the germ of the pres- 
ent Sabbath -school system was a mission- 
school, and the results were a sensible im- 
provement in the Sabbath quiet of the street 
and in the morals of the neighborhood. Oth- 
er schools sprang up on the same model ; a 
society was organized for their support ; the 
Queen gave the movement her hearty en- 
couragement ; free teachers took the place 
of paid teachers ; buildings were erected for 
the work ; and by 1800 there were probably 
very few districts in England which had not 
one or more Sabbath -schools. Up to this 
time the instruction had been almost, if not 
absolutely, entirely secular. The object was 
to gather in free schools on the Sabbath 
those who, for lack of funds, or because of 
their employments, could not attend school 
during the week. But from this time the 
character of the schools began to change, 
until now they have become almost entire- 
ly religious in their character, the existence 
of public schools in Great Britain and the 
modern legislation forbidding the employ- 



ment of children in mines and manufacto- 
I ries having obviated the necessity of em- 
ploying the Sabbath for instruction in read- 
ing, writing, and spelling. — In this country 
Sabbath-schools appear to have been almost 
contemporaneously established in different 
parts of the country about the beginning of 
the present century. In 1816 the New York 
Sunday-school Union was formed, and eight 
years later the American Sunday - school 
Union, its object being to provide a Sun- 
day-school literature and to plant Sabbath- 
schools in destitute neighborhoods. Mean- 
while, the character of Sabbath-schools had 
materially changed, and from being ragged 
schools for the benefit only of the poor and 
ignorant, they came to be schools for the 
imparting of religious instruction to chil- 
dren of all classes ; and to this has been fur- 
ther added the idea, in some districts, of 
making them gatherings of all, both old 
and young, for the study of the Scriptures. 
The opposition which the Sabbath -schools 
at first met from those who thought that 
instruction at home was sufficient has been 
almost wholly overcome, and now probably 
there are very few churches in this country 
of any denomination which do not have the 
Sabbath -school connected with them, and 
the wealthier and more advanced have, in 
addition to their own, one or more mission- 
schools. These are located in destitute 
neighborhoods, but often have fine build- 
ings furnished, with every appliance, not 
only for Sabbath - school instruction, but 
also for church service, employing one or 
more visitors to gather in the children and 
look after the poor, and a paid missionary. 
In more than one instance within our own 
personal knowledge, the great majority of 
conversions and additions to the member- 
ship of the Church are the result of, and take 
place in connection with, its mission-school 
and the co-operating mission visitation and 
tract distribution. 

Organization and WorTc. — We can here 
speak only very briefly of the general prin- 
ciples which experience has indicated should 
underlie the organization and methods of 
work of the Sabbath-school, in order to in- 
sure for it the greatest success, referring the 
reader for fuller information to the treatises 
on this subject, of which there are several 
by men of large experience and success, for 
the instruction of Sabbath-school workers. 
The oflicers of a Sabbath-school are a super- 
intendent, assistant-superintendent, secreta- 
ry, teachers, and librarian. The oflice of as- 
sistant-superintendent is needed only in the 
larger schools ; that of secretary and libra- 
rian may generally be merged in one, and in 
fact in many, if not the majority of cases, 
the duties of both are fulfilled by the su- 
perintendent. Those of secretary, however, 
whether i)erformed by the superintendent or 
by a distinct officer, are of prime importance. 



SABBATH-SCHOOLS 



829 



SABBATH-SCHOOLS 



A careful account of the school should al- 
ways be kept ; every teacher should keep a 
record of his class, and the secretary should 
be able to gather up all these records and 
combine them in one, for which purpose a 
record -book can be purchased at any Sab- 
bath-school book -store. It is the duty of 
the superintendent to take general charge 
and conduct of the school; to direct the 
opening and closing exercises ; where the 
school are all united in studying one les- 
son, to comment upon the general lessons 
it contains, and perhaps to illustrate them 
by blackboard exercises ; to arrange for spe- 
cial meetings, anniversary exercises, and the 
like; to provide vacant classes with teach- 
ers ; to obtain new teachers, and to adapt the 
teachers to their classes ; to welcome new 
scholars, and to select appropriate classes 
for them ; to look after absent teachers, and 
either directly, or by the aid of others, to in- 
quire into the causes of absence in scholars ; 
and in general to give unity and direction to 
the entire school by his supervision. He also, 
or sometimes the pastor, conducts the teach- 
ers' meeting, which ought to be held every 
week, and in which the various questions in 
connection with the lesson are discussed, 
and the best method of applying it to the 
hearts and consciences of the pupils, is con- 
sidered. The efficacy and success of the 
Sabbath-school depends more upon the su- 
perintendent than upon any other officer. 
He is usually elected by the teachers annu- 
ally, though sometimes by the church, and 
sometimes by the teachers in connection 
with the officers of the church. The library 
is of no small importance in the school ; and 
to secure a good assortment of healthful 
books, and to preserve them from destruc- 
tion and loss, are about equally difficult. 
The selection of the library is generally de- 
volved upon a special committee. The care 
of the library and the distribution of the 
books devolve upon the librarian. The 
duties of the teacher need no description. 
The following simple rules for securing effi- 
cacy and success are prescribed by Mr. J. G. 
Fitch, of the Normal College, London, for 
teachers ia general, and are worth repeat- 
ing here. But to these rules it should be 
added that no teacher can truly succeed in 
the Sabbath-school who has not, first, a liv- 
ing sympathy with Christ as his own Sav- 
iour, and, second, a living sympathy with 
the children, who are thus taught first to 
love him, and then through him to love 
Christ. 

" 1. Never teach what yon do not quite underetand. 

"2. Never tell a child what you could make that 
child tell you. 

"3. Never give a piece of information without ask- 
ing for it again. 

"4. Never use a hard word if an easy one will con- 
vey your meaning ; and never use any word at all un- 
less you are surelt has a meaning to convey. 

'• 5. Never begin an address or a lesson without a 
clear view of its end. 



"6. Never give an unnecessary command, nor one 
which you do not mean to see obeyed. 

" 7. Never permit a child to remain in a class a min- 
ute without something to do and a motive for doing 
it." 

To the most successful prosecution of the 
teacher's work careful and patient study is 
necessary, and a certain organization of the 
lesson. The successful teacher studies his 
lesson as a minister studies his sermon, sees 
clearly the end he wishes to accomplish, and 
equally clearly the means by which he wish- 
es to accomplish it. An actual illustration 
of a teacher's notes will give the reader a bet- 
ter idea of what a Sabbath-school teacher's 
preparatory work should be, than any gen- 
eral description. We therefore quote from 
Mr. Pardee's ''Sabbath-school Index" the fol- 
lowing notes of preparation, as made by Mr. 
Ealph Wells for his own use in the regular 
service of a Sabbath- school of which he was 
superintendent. We modify it very slightly 
by omitting some points which are not clear 
without explanations, and which are not 
necessary to give the reader an idea of the 
general nature of true Sabbath-school prep- 
aration. 

Subject: HYPOCRISY. 
Time, eight hours' intense study, commenced Sabbath evening pre- 
vious. 

1. Pray for light. Do you ? 

2. Go to the Bible to see what it says. 

3. Texts found. Write all out. Job xx., 5 ; xxvii., 8- 
10; xxxvi., 13, 14; Prov. xxx., 12; Psa. Ixv., 2-5; 
Ezek. xxxiii., 31, 32; Matt, vi., 2; xxiv., 51; Mark 
xii., 15; Luke xii., 1. 

4. Definition of Hypocrisy: To seek to appear what I 
am not. 

5. Bible Examples. 

Causes. End. 



Saul : 1 Sam. xv., 14 

Gehazi : 2 Kings v., 26 

Judas : Matt, xxvi., 50 

Ananias : Acts v., 1-26 

Simon Magus : Acts viii., 26 
Absalom : 2 Sam. xv., 1-12.. 



Love of gain. 



Gain and applause. 

Gain. 

Power. 



6. Look into the lesson and examples until I feel it 
myself. 



Bible. 

Leaven. 

Whited sepulchres 
Hidden graves. 
Spider's web. 



7. Emblems. 

Common. 

The mask. 
Counterfeit money. 
Paste jewels. 



8. Children's Dangers. 
Don't tell mother. 

Desire to please teachers or gain praise. 
The hypocrite lies with his hands, face, clothes, gifts. 

The introduction of the blackboard into 
the Sabbath-school has given rise to a good 
deal of discussion among Sabbath - school 
workers. One who is ready with his pen or 
pencil can make it do good service, though 
undoubtedly it has been perverted and em- 
ployed in ways which diverted the minds 
of the pupils from the lesson rather than 
fastened them upon it. The simple idea 
underlying all blackboard exercises is that 
the mind, especially of the young, can fre- 
quently be approached more effectually by 
the eye than by the ear. The blackboard 
may be used pictorially : thus, one teacher 
illustrated the relation between faith and 



SABBATICAL YEAR 



830 



SABBATICAL YEAR 



works by drawing a tree and entitling the 
root faith and the fruits works, and so 
bringing home to the children the twofold 
idea that faith was useless that produced 
no fruits, and fruits were impossible with- 
out faith ; or it may be used simply to em- 
body, in a tabular form, the results of the 
lesson so as to fix it in the memory ; or the 
superintendent may question the scholars, 
and write their answers down, and thus se- 
cure on the blackboard the result, not of his 
instruction, but of their thinking. The fol- 
lowing example illustrates this, which is at 
once one of the simplest and the best meth- 
ods of using the blackboard. The questions 
at the head of each column were addressed 
to the school ; the answers are their replies : 

THE THIRD COMMANDMENT. 



HOW BROKEN? "WHY BEOKBN S WHY NOT? 

Swearing. Get mad. 'Taio't right. 

Oh, gracious ! Don't think. No use. 

Make fun of the Think it's big. Bible says we 

Bible. mustn't. 

Praying careless. Careless. Mean. 

Singing and not Wicked. Ungentlemanly. 

thinking. 

The Sabbath - schools of all evangelical 
denominations are now united in this coun- 
try in conventions. These are town, coun- 
ty, state, and national. They do not exer- 
cise any authority whatever over the vari- 
ous Sabbath - schools represented in them, 
their object being simply to afford an op- 
portunity for united consultations concern- 
ing their work and the best means of con- 
ducting it. Sometimes a convention is mod- 
ified so as to embrace in its exercises prac- 
tice in the various departments of a school, 
one carrying on a Bilble-class, another con- 
ducting a blackboard exercise, a third teach- 
ing an infant-class. It is then termed an in- 
stitute. Usually the work of each teacher 
is criticised or commented on by the others, 
and thus all learn by the interchange, not 
of ideas, but of practice and experience. 

Of the various incidental matters con- 
nected with the Sabbath -school, the house 
to house visitation, the monthly meetings, 
the children's prayer- meetings, the teach- 
ers' meetings, the relations of the pastor to 
the Sabbath-school, the best method of ar- 
ranging the rooms, etc., we are not able to 
speak. Every teacher should make his work 
a study, and either by attendance on the 
town or county convention, or by the care- 
ful study of some of the numerous treatises 
on the Sabbath-school work, should labor to 
get, more fully than we can give him here, 
the advantages afforded by the experience 
of others in teaching religious truth to the 
children. 

Sabbatical Year. In Exodus the Sab- 
batical year is called the "seventh year," 
and in Deuteronomy the " year of release."^ 
It was a period of rest for the land. There 
was to be neither sowing nor reaping, nei- 



Exod. xxxiii., 10; Deut. xxxi., 10. See xv., 1. 



ther planting, pruning, nor gathering. What 
day and night are to man and beast, that 
summer and winter are to the soil; hence, 
as man had his Sabbath every seventh day, 
so the land was to have its Sabbath every 
seventh year. And whatever grew of it- 
self was to be public property, at the serv- 
ice of the poor and the stranger, and even 
the beasts of the field. Moreover, in this 
" year of release," all debts save those due 
from a foreigner must be forgiven. This 
release of debtors must not, however, be 
confounded with the release of slaves on 
the seventh year of their service. The orig- 
inality of the Sabbatical year, as well as of 
the Year of Jubilee, is very striking. There 
seems to be nothing like either of them to 
be fairly traced in any ancient legislation. 
One effect of the institution may have been 
to keep alive and encourage occupations 
that were not purely agricultural, such as 
trade, various kinds of handicraft, the chase, 
and the care of cattle. It is also not im- 
probable that schools for the instruction of 
young and old were carried on during the 
year with more than ordinary energy and 
system. The reading of the Law at the 
Feast of the Tabernacles in every Sabbatic- 
al year^ may have been connected with this. 
But the great material advantage of the in- 
stitution must have been the increased fer- 
tility of the soil from its lying fallow one 
year out of seven, at a time when neither 
the rotation of crops nor the art of manur- 
ing were understood. It must also have 
kept up a salutary habit of economy in the 
storing of corn.* Its great spiritual lesson 
was that there was- no such thing as abso- 
lute ownership of the land vested in any 
man ; that the soil was the property of Jeho- 
vah, to be held in trust for him, and not to 
be abused by overworking, but to be made 
the most of for the good of every creature 
that dwelt upon it. The weekly Sabbath 
bore witness to the equality of the people 
in regard to the covenant with Jehovah, of 
which the whole Sabbatical institution was 
the symbol; the restored distribution of the 
land in the Year of Jubilee testified that ev- 
ery Israelite had originally an equal claim 
to the Land of Promise; but the Sabbatical 
rest of tbe soil bore even a broader mean- 
ing: it declared that every dweller in the 
land — the hired servant, the foreigner, the 
cattle, even the wild animals, had an ac- 
knowledged claim of their own on its prod- 
uce. The different Sabbatical observances 
of the Law thus concur in pointing to that 
state of things which would have followed 
the first Sabbath of Creation, had not sin 
and its consequences brought disorder among 
the people of God. 

It would appear, from 2 Chron. xxxvi., 
20, that the Sabbatical year was neglected 
during seventy Sabbatical cycles — four hun- 
1 DeutTxxxL, 10-13.— 2 Gen. xli,, 48-66. 



SABEANS 



831 



SACRAMENTS 



dred and ninety years. But after the Cap- 
tivity there are found several historical no- 
tices which imply its observance. 

Sabeans. This word is used to indicate 
two distinct nations, one descended from 
Seba, a son of Raamah,^ the other from She- 
ba, a son of Joktan.'^ The first of these 
people inhabited the peninsula of Meroe, in 
Northern Ethiopia, or Nubia. Upon this 
peninsula lay a city of like name, the ruins 
of which are still visible. The people are 
described by Herodotus as "the tallest and 
the handsomest men in the world," and by 
Isaiah as "men of stature."^ The other na- 
tion inhabited a kingdom situated in the 
Arabian peninsula, the precise limits of which 
are unknown. They are first referred to in 
Scripture as Arab warriors. The visit of 
their queen to Solomon* seems to mark an 
era in their history, and may have led to 
commercial treaties between the two na- 
tions. At all events, it is as traders they 
are henceforth mentioned.^ The visit of 
this Arabian queen was a remarkable testi- 
mony to the extent and the power of Solo- 
mon's fame. It is estimated that she must 
have taken a journey of no little hazard, 
and of over one thousand miles, in order to 
accomplish her purpose. 

Sabellians, a sect deriving their name 
from one Sabellius, a theologian of the third 
century, of whom little is known except the 
opinions attributed to him. Sabellianism 
arose out of an attempt to explain the doc- 
trine of the Trinity (q. v.) on philosophical 
principles. It is the doctrine that there is 
but one divine person, who, however, mani- 
fests himself to man in different forms and 
under different names, now as Father, now 
as Son, and now as Holy Ghost. As the sun 
manifests itself as a fiery substance in the 
heavens, as the illuminator of the earth, and 
as the parent of heat with its vivifying in- 
fluences, so, taught Sabellius, we may dis- 
tinguish in God his essential character, the 
illuminating power of his Son Jesus Christ, 
and the enlivening energy of the Holy Spir- 
it in the hearts of believers. This doctrine 
never gained any great influence in the 
Church, but exercised a wide influence by 
giving rise to the opposite doctrine, that of 
the Arians (q. v.). It was condemned by a 
council held in Rome, a.d. 263, but was re- 
vived and maintained in substance by Dr. 
Watts at the beginning of the eighteenth 
century, and is believed to have been also 
entertained by Dr. Doddridge. The doc- 
trine of Swedenborg is somewhat analo- 
gous to it. See Trinity ; Swedenborgians; 
Arians. 

Sackcloth, a garment used as a sign of 
mourning among the ancient Hebrews. It 
was made of coarse materials, and was worn 



1 Gen. X., T.— 2 Gen. x., 28.—!* Isa. xlv., 14.— * 1 KmcrH 
X., 1-10.— 5 Psa. Ixxii., 15 ; Isa. Ix., 6 ; Jer. vi., 20 ; Ezek. 
xxvii., 22. 



next the skin. It seems to have been formed 
like a sack, with merely holes for the arms, 
and was thrown loosely over the mourner, 
reaching down below the knees. In this 
dress the afflicted individual frequently sat 
down in the midst of ashes, his head also 
being covered with them. Sackcloth was 
usually made of goats' hair, or, as some have 
conjectured, of camels' hair, and was of a 
dark or black color. The camels' hair gar- 
ment which John^ is said to have worn was 
probably of this description. [Gen. xxxvii., 
34 ; 2 Sam. iii., 31 ; 1 Kings xx., 31, 32 ; xxi., 
27 ; 2 Kings vi., 30 ; 1 Chron. xxi., 16 ; Esth. 
iv., 1, 2; Job xvi., 15; Psa. xxxv., 13; Isa. 
iii., 24; xv., 3; xx.,2; xxii., 12; xxxii., 11; 
xxxvii., 1, 2 ; Dan. ix., 3 ; Joel i., 8, 13 ; Amos 
viii., 10 ; Jon. iii., 5, 6, 8 ; Rev. vi., 12 ; xi., 3.] 

Sacraments. The word sacrament is no- 
where found in the Scriptures, but it is sup- 
posed to have been adopted into the lan- 
guage of the Church from the sacramentum 
of the Romans, which was an oath taken by 
the soldiers, whereby they bound themselves 
" to obey their commander in all things to 
the utmost of their power, to be ready to at- 
tend whenever he ordered their appearance, 
and never to leave the army but with his 
consent." There are two questions respect- 
ing the sacraments of the Church, which 
have given rise to protracted discussions: 
one. What is their significance and value ? 
the other. What are the divinely -appointed 
sacraments in the Church of Christ ? The 
latter question does not involve much diffi- 
culty. In the Jewish Church there were 
but two — circumcision and the Passover. 
In the early Church there were also but two, 
viz., baptism and the Lord's Supper. It was 
not till about the time of Peter Lombard, 
in the twelfth century, that they were in- 
creased to seven in the Roman Catholic 
Church, where confirmation, penance, holy 
orders, marriage, and extreme unction are 
regarded also as sacraments.^ In the Greek 
Church there are also seven sacraments, eu- 
chelaion, or intercessory anointing, ordinari- 
ly administered in cases of sickness, but not 
in anticipation of death, being substituted 
for extreme unction. 

The true significance of the sacraments is 
a matter not so easily defined. The degree 
of importance attributed to them depends 
very much upon other than strictly logical 
considerations. In general, however, it may 
be said that there are three opinions respect- 
ing them : 1. That the sacrament is a means 
of grace acting directly upon the heart and 
life, and irrespective of the faith of the one 
who receives them. This allows the impen- 
itent to receive the sacraments as a means 
of converting him ; 2. That the sacrament, 
though not in itself a means of grace, is nev- 
ertheless a solemn ratification of a covenant. 



1 Matt, iii., 4 ; Mark L, 6. 
respectively. 



-2 See under these titles 



SACRIFICE 



832 



SACRIFICE 



or agreement, between God and the individ- 
ual soul, and is in itself efficacious and sig- 
nificant as a marriage -ceremony is, which 
can not, indeed, take the place of a true un- 
ion of hearts in love, and yet which is es- 
sential to a marriage, and changes the legal 
relations and the moral obligations of the 
parties; 3. That the sacrament is simply a 
visible representation of something spiritual 
and invisible, and is significant only when 
the spiritual or invisible reality is present ; 
that thus it is in the nature of a solemn 
oath taken in witness or confirmation of a 
statement or an agreement. According to 
the first view, baptism, for example, actual- 
ly imparts grace to the partaker; accord- 
ing to the second, it binds him to the visi- 
ble Church, places him in new relations, and 
imposes new duties on him; according to 
the third, it simply indicates, in a formal 
way, his purpose to consecrate himself to 
the service of Christ, and is unmeaning and 
idle unless that purpose really exists in his 
heart. The first view is held by the Roman- 
ists and ritualists generally ; the second by 
most Protestants; the third by the Zwin- 
glians, the Socinians, and, in modern times, 
by some in the orthodox churches, especially 
of the Congregational denominations. The 
Quakers, or Friends, reject the doctrine of 
the sacraments altogether. 

Sacrifice, an offering made to God. In 
strictness of speech there has been but one 
sacrifice once offered, and never to be repeat- 
ed, the sacrifice of the death of our Loid Je- 
sus Christ. His death upon the cross for 
our redemption was the one full, perfect, and 
sufficient sacrifice and satisfaction for the 
sins of the whole world. But, figuratively 
speaking, all divine worship was anciently 
called a sacrifice — a sacrifice of praise and 
thanksgiving. The sacrifices and other of- 
ferings required by the Hebrew ritual have 
been enumerated under Offering (q. v.). 
The object of this article will be to examine, 
as well as space will allow, the historical de- 
velopment of sacrifice in the O. T., and to 
sketch briefly its theory, as set forth both in 
the O. T. and N. T., with special reference to 
the atonement of Christ. 

The universal prevalence of sacrifice shows 
it to have been primeval, and deeply rooted 
in the instincts of humanity. Whether it 
was first enjoined by an external command, 
or whether it was based on a sense of sin 
and lost communion with God, is an historic- 
al question which is perhaps insoluble, but 
which certainly does not affect the authori- 
ty and the meaning of the rite itself. The 
great difficulty in the theory which refers it 
to a distinct command of God is the total 
silence of Holy Scripture. Nor is the fact 
of the mysterious and supernatural charac- 
ter of the doctrine of atonement, with which 
the sacrifices of the O. T. are expressly con- 
nected, any conclusive argument on this side 



of the question, for the eucharistic and dep- 
recatory ideas of sacrifice are perfectly nat- 
ural to man. The higher view of its expia- 
tory character, dependent, as it is, entirely 
on its typical nature, appears but gradu- 
ally in Scripture, and its nature is clearly 
unfolded only in the N. T., especially in the 
Epistle to the Hebrews. It is to be noticed 
that, except in Gen. xv,, 9, the method of pa- 
triarchal service is left free, while in the Mo- 
saic ritual the limitation as to time, place, 
and material is a most prominent feature, on 
which much of its distinction from heathen 
sacrifice depends. Thus the inference is at 
least probable that God sanctioned formally 
a natural rite, and superadded to it a high- 
er idea, just as he made the already existing 
rainbow significant as the seal of his prom- 
ise. 

There are several quite distinct ideas un- 
derlying and expressed by the rite of sacri- 
fice. It is sometimes simply an act of praise, 
or eucharistic in its character ; sometimes it 
carries with it the idea of complete and en- 
tire consecration of the individual to God; 
sometimes it combines with this the expres- 
sion of penitence and abasement for sin; 
sometimes it assumes the form of an expia- 
tion for sin, the guilt of which is removed 
through the offering of the sacrifice by the 
appointment of God. These different phases 
of sacrifice find expression in the following 
among other passages of Scripture : thanks- 
giving, Psa. cxvi., 17; consecration, Rom. 
xii., 1; penitence, Psa. li., 17; expiation, Heb. 
ix.,22. The words especially denoting ex- 
piation are not applied to the various sac- 
rifices recorded in Scripture before the es- 
tablishment of the law, but this fact by no 
means shows that they were not actually 
expiatory, though it justifies the inference 
that the idea was not then the prominent 
one in the doctrine of sacrifice. The sacri- 
fices of both Cain and Abel appear to have 
been eucharistic. The sacrifice of Noah af- 
ter the Flood is expressly connected with the 
institution of the covenant which follows. 
The same ratification of a covenant is seen 
in the burnt-offering of Abraham, and is 
probably to be traced in the building of al- 
tars by Abraham on entering Canaan at 
Beth-el and Mamre, by Israel at Beer-sheba, 
and by Jacob at Shechem, and in Jacob's 
setting up and anointing of the pillar at 
Beth-el. The sacrifice of Jacob at Mizpah 
also marks a covenant with Labau, to which 
God is called to be a witness and a party. 
In all these, therefore, the prominent idea 
seems to have been what is called the feder- 
ative — the recognition of a bond between 
the sacrificer and God, and the dedication of 
himself, as represented by the victim, to the 
service of the Lord.^ The proposed sacrifice 



1 Gen. iv., 3, 4; viii., 20; xii., 7, 8; xiii., IS; xxii., 
1-14; xxvi., 25; xxviii., 18, 19 ; xxxi., 45-49; xxxiii., 
18-20. 



SACRIFICE 



833 



SACRIFICE 



of Isaac stands by itself as the sole instance 
in which the idea of human sacrifice was 
even for a moment, and as a trial, counte- 
nanced by God. Yet in its -principle it ap- 
pears to have been of the same nature as be- 
fore : the voluntary surrender of an only son 
on Abraham's part, and the willing dedica- 
tion of himself on Isaac's, are in the fore- 
ground; the expiatory idea, if recognized at 
all, holds certainly a secondary position. In 
the burnt-offerings of Job for his children 
and for his three friends, w^e for the first time 
find the expression of the desire of expia- 
tion for sin, accompanied by repentance and 
prayer, and brought prominently forward. 
The same idea, in the main deprecatory, is 
shown in the words of Moses to Pharaoh as 
to the necessity of sacrifice in the wilderness. 
The object is to appease the wrath and avert 
the vengeance of God.^ 

The main principles of sacrifice were fixed 
in the Mosaic period, which was inaugurated 
by the Passover, and the sacrifice described 
in Exod. xxiv. The Passover, unique in 
character and peculiar in its position as a 
historical memorial, and its special reference 
to the future, can not be referred to any 
formal class of" sacrifice. It seems to em- 
brace the peculiarities of all the various 
forms of offerings (q. v.), as they were soon 
unfolded in the Mosaic law, and embodies, 
with a distinctness before unknown, the 
idea of salvation from death by means of 
sacrifice. A similarly comprehensive char- 
acter is exhibited in the sacrifice described 
in Exod. xxiv. — offered as a solemn inau- 
guration of the covenant of Sinai, which dis- 
tinctly marks the idea that expiatory sacri- 
fice was needed for entering into covenant 
with God ; the idea of which the sin and 
trespass offerings were afterward the sym- 
bols. 

The law of Leviticus takes the rite of sac- 
rifice for granted, and is intended chiefly to 
guide and limit its exercise. In every case 
but that of the peace-offering the nature of 
the victim was carefully prescribed, not only 
so as to preserve the ideas symbolized, but 
also to avoid the notion, so inherent in 
heathen systems, and finding its logical re- 
sult in human sacrifice — that the more cost- 
ly the offering the more surely must it meet 
with acceptance. In consequence of the pe- 
culiarity of the law, it has been argued that 
the whole system of sacrifice was only a 
condescension to the weakness of the peo- 
ple, borrowed more or less from the heathen 
nations, especially from Egypt, in order to 
guard against worse superstitions and posi- 
tive idolatry. This argument is based upon 
those references in the Bible to the nullity 
of all mere ceremonial. As an explanation 
of the theory of sacrifice it is weak and su- 
perficial, losing sight of the historical fact 
of the primeval existence of sacrifice, and its 



i Gen. xxii., 1-13 ; 



Exod. X. 
53 



25; Jobi.,5; xlii., 8. 



typical reference to the one atonement of 
Christ, which was foreordained from the 
very beginning. But as a reason for the 
minuteness and elaboration of the Mosaic 
law, so remarkably contrasted with the free- 
dom of patriarchal sacrifice, and as furnish- 
iug an explanation of certain special rites, it 
certainly contains this truth, that the crav- 
ing for visible tokens of God's presence, 
and visible rites of worship, from which 
idolatry proceeds, was provided for and 
turned into a safe channel by the whole 
ritual and typical system of which sacrifice 
was the centre. The contact with the gi- 
gantic system of idolatry which prevailed in 
Egypt, and which had so deeply tainted the 
spirit of the Israelites, would doubtless ren- 
der such provision then especially necessary, 
and hence the sacrificial system was fixed in 
all its parts, until Pie whom it typified should 
come. It was one part of the prophetic of- 
fice to guard against its degradation into 
formalism, and to bring out its spiritual 
meaning with an ever-increasing clearness. 

In examining the doctrine of sacrifice w^e 
must remember that in its development the 
order of idea is not necessarily the same as 
the order of time. In the perfected order of 
sacrifice, the sin-offering occupies the most 
important place; the burnt -offering comes 
next, and the meat-offering, or peace-offer- 
ing, last of all. The second could only be 
offered after the first had been accepted; 
the third was only a subsidiary part of the 
second. Yet, in actual order of time, it has 
been seen that the patriarchal sacrifices par- 
took much more of the nature of the peace- 
offering and burnt - offering ; and that the 
sin-offering was for the first time explicitly 
set forth under the Law, by which was the 
knowledge of sin. This is but natural, that 
the deepest ideas should be the last in or- 
der of development. It is difficult to reduce 
to auy theory the various ideas involved in 
the sacrifices so universal among the hea- 
then. They were often looked upon as a 
gift or tribute to the gods ; they were used 
as prayers to obtain benefits or avert "wrath ; 
they were regarded as thank-offerings ; nor 
was the higher idea of sacrifice, as a repre- 
sentation of the self-devotion of the offerer, 
body and soul, to the god, wholly lost, al- 
though generally obscured by the grosser 
and more obvious conceptions of the rite. 
But, besides all these, there seems always to 
have been latent the idea of jiropitiation, 
that is, the belief in a communion with the 
gods, natural to man, broken off in some 
way, and by sacrifice to be restored. Now, 
the essential difference between these hea- 
then views of sacrifice and the Scriptural 
doctrine of the O. T. is not to be found in 
its denial of any of these ideas. In fact, 
the Bible brings out clearly and distinctly 
the ideas which in heathenism were uncer- 
tain, vague, and perverted. But there are 



SACRIFICE 



834 



SACRIFICE 



two essential points of distinction. First, 
that Avhereas the heathen conceived of their 
gods as alienated in jealousy or anger, to be 
sought after and to be appeased by the un- 
aided action of man, Scripture represents 
God himself as approaching man, as point- 
ing out and sanctioning the way by which 
the broken covenant should be restored. 
The second mark of distinction is closely 
connected with this, inasmuch as it shows 
sacrifice to be a scheme proceeding from 
God, and, in his foreknowledge, connected 
with the one central fact of all human his- 
tory. 

The nature and meaning of the O. T. sac- 
rifices are gathered partly from the form of 
their institution and ceremonial, partly from 
the teaching of the prophets, and partl}^ from 
the N. T., especially the Epistle to the He- 
brews. They all had relation, under differ- 
ent aspects, to a covenant between God and 
man. The sin-offering represented that cov- 
enant as broken by man through sin, that 
the "wages of that sin was deatli," and that 
God had provided an atonement by the vi- 
carious suffering of an appointed victim. 
The ceremonial and meaning of the burnt- 
offering were very different. The idea of 
expiation seems not to have been absent 
from it, for the blood was sprinkled round 
about the altar of sacrifice ; but the main 
idea is the offering of the whole victim to 
God, representing the devotion of the sacri- 
ficer, body and soul, to him.^ The death of 
the victim was, so to speak, an incidental 
feature. Tlie meat-offering, the peace or 
thank offering, the first -fruits, etc., were 
simplj'' offerings to God of his own best 
gifts, as a sign of thankful homage, and as 
a means of maintaining his service and his 
servants. From this it is clear that the 
idea of sacrifice is a complex idea, involving 
the propitiatory, the dedicatory, and the eu- 
charistic elements. Any one of these, taken 
by itself, would lead to error and supersti- 
tion. All three, probably, were more or less 
implied in each sacrifice, each element pre- 
dominating in its turn. The Israelites seem 
to have always retained the ideas of propi- 
tiation and of eucharistic offering, but con- 
stantly ignored the self-dedication which is 
the link between the two, and which the 
regular burnt-offering should have impress- 
ed upon them as their daily thought and 
duty. It is, therefore, to this point that 
the teaching of the prophets is maiuly di- 
rected.'^ But from this it must not be ar- 
gued that the idea of self-dedicatiou is the 
main one of sacrifice. The idea of propitia- 
tion lies below it, taken for granted by the 
prophets as by the whole people, but still 
enveloped in mystery, until the Antitype 
should come to make all clear. 



1 Rom. xii., 1.— « 1 Sam. xv., 22; Isa. i., 10-20; Jer. 
vii., 22, 28; Ezek. xx., 39-44; Hos. vi., G; Amos v., 
21-27; Mic. vi., 6^. 



The N. T. contains the key to the sacrifi- 
cial doctrine of the O. T. The Epistle to 
the Hebrews sets forth fully the typical and 
probationary character of sacrifices, in vir- 
tue of which alone they had a spiritual 
meaning. The Great Atonement — the sac- 
rifice " slain from the foundation of the 
world"' — is represented by these material 
sacrifices as already made and accepted in 
God's foreknowledge ; and to those who 
grasped the ideas of sin, pardon, and self- 
dedication symbolized in them, they were 
means of entering into the blessings which 
the one true Sacrifice alone procured. They 
could convey nothing in themselves; yet, 
as types, they might, if accepted by a true, 
though necessarily imperfect, faith, be the 
means of conveying in some degree the bless- 
ings of the Antitype. The same epistle, 
having thus set forth the typical charac- 
ter of all sacrifices, dwells upon the union 
in our Lord's person of the priest, the offer- 
er, and the sacrifice. The Atonement, as in 
the N. T. generally, is viewed in a twofold 
light. On the one hand, it is set forth dis- 
tinctly as a vicarious sacrifice, which was 
rendered necessary by the sin of man, and 
in which the Lord " bare the sins of many." 
It is its essential characteristic that in it 
he stands absolutelj^ alone, offering his sac- 
rifice without any reference to the faith or 
the conversion of men. In it he appears as 
the only mediator between God and man; 
and his sacrifice is offered once for all, never 
to be imitated or repeated. This view of 
the Atonement is set forth in the Epistle to 
the Hebrews, as typified by the sin-offeriug. 
All the expiatory and propitiatory sacrifices 
of the Law are now for the first time brought 
into full light. As the sin-offering, though 
not the earliest, is the most fundamental of 
all sacrifices, so the aspect of the Atonement, 
which it symbolizes, is the one on w^hich all 
others rest. On the other hand, the sacri- 
fice of Christ is set forth to us as the com- 
pletion of that perfect obedience to the will 
of the Father, Avhich is the natural duty of 
sinless man, in which he is the representa- 
tive of all men, and in which he calls upon 
us, when reconciled to God, to " take up the 
cross and follow him." In this view, his 
death is not the principal object; we dwell 
rather on his lowly incarnation and his life 
of humility, temptation, and suffering, to 
which that death was but a fitting close. 
The main idea of this view of the Atone- 
ment is representative rather than vicari- 
ous. It is typified by the burnt-offering, in 
respect of which the N. T. merely quotes and 
enforces the language already cited from the 
O. T., and especially the words of Psa. xl., 6, 
etc., which contrast the " doing the will of 
God" with material sacrifice.^ As without 
the sin-offering of the Cross, this, our burnt- 
offering, would be impossible, so also with- 
3^ev.xiii.,8.— 2 See Heb. x., 6-9. 



SADDUCEES 



835 



SALCAH 



out the burnt-offering the sin-offering will 
to us he unavailing. With these views of 
our Lord's sacrifice on earth, as typified in 
the Levitical sacrifices on the outer altar, is 
also to he connected the offering of his in- 
tercession for us in heaven, which was rep- 
resented by the incense. The typical sense 
of the meat-offering, or peace-offering, is less 
connected Avith the sacrifice of Christ him- 
self than with those sacrifices of praise, 
thanksgiving, charity, and devotion which 
we, as Christians, offer to God, and " with 
which he is well pleased," as with ^' an odor 
of sweet smell, a sacrifice acceptable to 
God."^ 

Sadducees, a religious, or rather an in- 
fidel or skeptical, school of Judaism in the 
time of Christ. The origin and meaning of 
the w^ord is uncertain ; it probably refers to 
a person of the name of Zadok, who was re- 
garded as the founder of the school, but no 
person is known with certainty whom it is 
possible to identify as such leader or found- 
er. They maintained the doctrine that di- 
vine justice is administered in this present 
life, and that there is no ground to hope for 
a reward or to fear punishment in the life 
to come. They denied the Pharisaic fiction 
of an oral tradition. They depreciated, if 
they did not reject, the historical and pro- 
phetical books of the O. T. The Pentateuch 
alone they accepted as the undoubted word 
of God. In brief, whatever the Pharisees 
believed, the Sadducees denied. The Phar- 
isees laid great stress upon divine rewards 
and punishments. The Sadducees demand- 
ed that virtue be practiced for its own sake. 
The Pharisee dwelt upon the immortality 
of the soul, and, to sustain his faith, resort- 
ed to the fiction of an oral tradition. The 
Sadducees denied the authority of aught but 
the Pentateuch, and repudiated the doctrine 
of immortality, which admittedly was not 
contained in the Mosaic law. The Pharisees 
developed a fanatical faith in a fatalistic 
Providence. The Sadducees, at first insist- 
ing on the free-will of man, ended by deny- 
ing the reality of divine control, and by the 
declaration that man is the sole master of 
his own fate. The Pharisee built up a pet- 
ty but rigorous ceremonial. The Sadducees 
preached a loose and easy morality, the mot- 
to of which was, '' Let us eat and drink, for 
to-morrow we die." The Pharisee was an 
intense, but bigoted and exclusive Jew. The 
Sadducee was a cosmopolitan, quite ready 
to affiliate with the Gentile, if place, or pow- 
er, or wealth could be obtained by so doing. 
The Pharisees were the teachers of the peo- 
ple, and secured their reverence by the aus- 
terity of their lives and doctrine. The Sad- 
ducees comprised more frequently the priest- 
ly class, and, never speaking from or to the 
heart, consisted almost wholly of men of 
cold and heartless culture. The Scribes and 



1 Heb. xiii., 15, IG; Phil, iv., IS. 



Pharisees were the degenerate sons of the 
prophetic order; the Sadducees the corrupt 
descendants of the sons of Levi ; the Phari- 
sees intense religionists ; the Sadducees cyn- 
ical and scoffing philosophers. That Christ 
should have denounced so earnestly the er- 
rors of the Pharisees, and said so little con- 
cerning the errors of the Sadducees, has been 
a cause of perplexity to some minds, and has 
even been accounted by some as an indica- 
tion that he was indifferent to them. His 
comparative silence, however, warrants no 
such conckision. He perceived that Saddu- 
ceeism would die with the cessation of the 
conflict on which it fed. Like all nega- 
tions, with the overthrow of the errors it 
combated, it has perished of inanition. Not 
a remnant of this once haughty and power- 
ful sect remains. Not a trace of their influ- 
ence has survived their entombment. Not 
a line even of their literature has been pre- 
served to bear witness to their philosophy ; 
and their character and teachings can only 
be gathered' with much research, and in 
much uncertainty, from the casual notices 
in the gospels, and from the description 
which is afforded of them by their foes. 
See Pharisees. 

Saffron. This substance is mentioned in 
conjunction with various perfumes and spices. 
It consists of the dried stigmas of the Crocus 
sativus, a plant which is a native of Greece 
and Asia Minor, and extensively cultivated 
in various parts of Europe. There are three 
stigmas in the flower ; and these, with a por- 
tion of one style, are plucked out when the 
calyx is fully expanded, spread upon paper, 
and dried by kilns or the heat of the sun. 
They are narrow, thread-like, and of an or- 
ange-yellow color. They have a penetra- 
ting aromatic odor, with a bitter taste, tin- 
ging the mouth and saliva yellow. Saffron 
was formerly in high esteem as a medical 
stimulant; it is still used in the East me- 
dacinall}^, and as a condiment. [Sol. Song 
iv., 14.] 

Salamis, a sea-port town, on the eastern 
coast of Cyprus, with a good harbor. It was 
at Salamis that Paul and Barnabas landed, 
being the nearest point to Seleucia. Many 
Jews appear to have been residents there, as 
they had more than one synagogue. It was 
ruined by an earthquake under Constantino 
the Great, but was rebuilt and called Con- 
stautia. Its remains are yet to be seen near 
the modern Famagosta. [Acts xiii., 4, 5.] 

Salathiel (Z have asked of God), a person 
concerning whose 'genealogy there appears 
to be some confusion in the sacred accounts. 
It is generally considered, however, that he 
was the son of Neri, and the heir of Jeconi- 
ah. His name is also spelled Sbealthiel. [1 
Chron. iii., 17 ; Matt, i., 12 ; Luke iii., 27.] 

Salcah (apUgrimage?), a city on the east- 
ern frontier of Bashan, taken by the Israel- 
ites, and assigned to the half- tribe of Ma- 



SALEM 



836 



SALT SEA 



nasseh, the border of Gad coming close up 
to it. It has been identiiied as the modern 
Sulkhad, on the southern spur of the Jebel 
Hauran, seven hours south-east of Busrah, 
and is said to abound in vineyards. [Deut. 
iii., 10 ; Josh, xii., 5 ; xiii., 11 ; 1 Chrou. v., 

11.] 

Salem (peace, peaceful). It has been ques- 
tioned, since the earliest days of criticism, 
whether this name was that of the city over 
which Melchizedek ruled, or rather the title 
of the king; and then, assuming it to be a 
place, whether it was identical with Jerusa- 
lem or with the Salim of John the Baptist. 
It is agreed by all that in Psa. Ixxvi., 2, Sa- 
lem is employed for Jerusalem. And it is 
the general opinion that the Salem of Gen. 
xiv., 18 ; Heb. vii., 1, was a city, and that 
that city was afterward Jerusalem (q. v.). 

Salim, a place named in John iii., 23, to 
indicate the locality of ^non (q. v.), where 
John was baptizing. The site of the one 
place is involved in the same uncertainty 
which hangs over the other. Salim may 
also be another name for the Salem (q. v.) 
of which Melchizedek was king. 

Salma, Salm.on, the son of jSTahshon, and 
father of Boaz. In 1 Chron. ii., 51, a person 
of the same name is called the father of 
Bethlehem, and reckoned among the sons of 
Caleb ,' whence some have supposed that the 
Salma of that passage is a different person 
from the son of Nahshon. Probably, how- 
ever, he became somehow the head or chief 
man in Bethlehem, which lay within the ter- 
ritory of Caleb ; whence he came in later 
times to be reckoned to the family of Caleb. 
But as to strict parentage Nahshon was his 
father, and having married Eahab, he be- 
came the father of Boaz, and so one of the 
ancestors of our Lord. [Ruth iv., 20, 21 ; 1 
Chron. ii., 11, 51 ; Matt, i., 4 ; Lnke iii., 32.] 

Salome, the wife of Zebedee, as appears 
from comparing Matt, xxvii., 56, with Mark 
XV., 40. It is further the opinion of many 
modern critics that she was the sister of 
Mary, the mother of Jesus, to whom refer- 
ence is made in John xix., 25. The few scat- 
tered hints of her character which the evan- 
gelists' afford indicate that she was a woman 
of courageous and ambitious character. She 
accompanied Jesus from an early period in 
his ministry. Of her wealth — for the fami- 
ly was one of means — she contributed gener- 
ously to his support, and to that of his little 
church. She sought for her two sons, James 
and John, the place of honor in Christ's king- 
dom, was present at his Crucifixion, and af- 
terward visited his sepulchre. [Matt, xx., 
20 ; Mark xv., 40 ; xvi., 1.] 

Salt. Indispensable as salt is to our- 
selves, it was even more so to the Hebrews, 
being to them not only an appetizing condi- 
ment in the food both of man and beast, and 
a most valuable antidote to the effects of the 
heat of the climate on animal food, but also 



entering largely into their religious services 
as an accompaniment to the various offer- 
ings presented on the altar. They possess- 
ed an inexhaustible and ready supply of it 
on the southern shores of the Dead Sea. 
Here may have been situated the Valley of 
Salt. Here were the salt -pits, probably 
formed in the marshes at the southern end 
of the lake ; and here also were the succes- 
sive pillars of salt which tradition has from 
time to time identified with Lot's wife. Salt 
might also be procured from the Mediterra- 
nean Sea ; and from this source the Phoeni- 
cians would naturally obtain the supply nec- 
essary for salting fish, and for other purposes. 
In addition to the uses of salt already speci- 
fied, the inferior sorts were applied as a ma- 
nure to the soil, or to hasten the decomposi- 
tion of dung. It was the belief of the Jews 
that salt would, by exposure to the air, lose 
its virtue and become saltless. The associ- 
ations connected with salt in Eastern coun- 
tries are important. As one of the most es- 
sential articles of diet, it symbolized hospi- 
tality ; as an antiseptic, durability, fidelity, 
and purity. Hence the expression " cove- 
nant of salt," as betokening an indissoluble 
alliance between friends. So, in the present 
day, " to eat bread and salt together " is an 
expression for a league of mutual amity; 
and, on the other hand, the Persian term for 
traitor is nemeMaram, " faithless to salt." It 
was probably with a view to keep this idea 
prominently before the minds of the Jews 
that the use of salt was enjoined on the Is- 
raelites in their offerings to God. Our Lord 
refers to the sacrificial use of salt in Mark 
ix., 49, 50, though some of the other associa- 
tions may also be implied. The purifying 
property of salt, as opposed to corruption, 
led to its selection as the outward sign in 
Elisha's miracle of the healing of the wa- 
ters ; and to this, probably, reference is had 
when Christians are declared to be the salt 
of the earth. [Lev. ii., 13 ; Numb, xviii., 
19 ; 2 Kings ii., 20, 21 ; 2 Sam. viii., 13 ; 2 
Chron. xiii., 5 ; Job vi., 6 ; Ezek. xvi., 4 ; 
Zeph. ii., 9 ; Matt, v., 13 ; Mark ix., 50 ; Luke 
xiv., 34; Col.iv.,6.] 

Salt Sea, one of the names, perhaps the 
most ancient, for the remarkable lake which 
is now generally known to the Western 
World as the Dead Sea. More frequently 
called the Salt Sea in Scripture, it yet bears 
a variety of names. Sometimes, where mis- 
conception is impossible, it is simply " The 
Sea." It is also the " Sea of the Plain," i. e., 
the Arabah, an appellation which is some- 
times used together with the " Salt Sea," the 
one explanatory of the other. In the later 
books it is termed the East Sea.^ By later 
writers it was distinguished as the Asphalt- 



1 Gen. sir., 3; Numb, xxxiv., 3, 12; Deut. iii., 17: 
iv., 49; Josh, iii., 10; xii., 3; xv., 2, 5; xviii., 19; 2 
Kings xiv., 25 ; Ezek. xlvii., IS ; Joel ii., 20. In Zech. 
xiv., 8, "the former sea" should be rendered " the east 



SALT SEA 



837 



SALT SEA 



ic Lake, and Sea of Sodom. The Arabs term 
it Bahr Lut, tlie " Sea of Lot." 

The so-called Dead Sea is of an elongated 
oval shape, save that the regularity of the 
hgure is broken by a large and long penin- 
sula which projects from the eastern shore, 
near its southern end, and virtually divides 
the expanse of the water into two portions, 
connected by a long, narrow, and somewhat 
devious passage. Its water surface is from 
north to south as nearly as possible for- 
ty geographical or forty-six English miles 
long. Its greatest width is about nine ge- 
ographical or ten and one -third English 
miles. Its area is about two hundred and 
fifty square geographical miles. At its 
northern end the lake receives the stream 
of the Jordan ; on its eastern side the Zilrka 
Ma^hi (the ancient Callirrhoe, and possibly 
tlie more ancient en-Eglaim), the Mojib (the 
Arnon of the Bible), and the Beni-Hemdd ; 
on the south the Kurdhy, or el-Alisy ; and on 
the west that of Ain Jidy. It is the deep- 
est portion of that very deep natural fissure 
which runs like a furrow from the Gulf of 
Akaba to the range of Lebanon, and from 
the range of Lebanon to the extreme north 
of Syria. If there were no historical inter- 
est attaching to it, it would still be the most 
remarkable body of water in the known 
world. Its depression is thirteen hundred 
and sixteen feet below the level of the 
Mediterranean. Its depth in the northern 
portion is thirteen hundred and eight feet. 
Modern travelers describe the water as most 
intensely and intolerably salt ; a quality 
well known to the ancients, and made the 
basis of some fabulous and extraordinary 
stories. This excessive saltness is probably [^^ 
caused by the immense masses of fossil salt 
which lie in a mountain in its south-west 
border, and by the rapid evaporation of the 
fresh water which flows into this basin 
without an outlet. To the very large quan- 
tity of mineral salts which it holds in so- 
lution the remarkable weight of the water 
is due. Each gallon weighs twelve and a 
quarter pounds, contains nearly three and 
one-third pounds of matter in solution — an 
immense quantity, when we recollect that 
sea -water, weighing ten and a quarter 
pounds per gallon, contains less than half 
a pouud. Of this three and one -third 
pounds nearly one pound is common salt 
(chloride of sodium), about two pounds 
chloride of magnesium, and less than half 
a pound chloride of calcium (or muriate 
of lime). The most unusual ingredient is 
bromide of magnesium, which exists in truly 
extraordinary quantity. Its specific gravity 
and buoyancy are consequently so great that 
people who could not swim in other wat^r 
can swim and float in it. It has been long 
supposed that no life whatever existed in the 
lake. Recent facts show that some inferior 
organizations do find a home even in these 



salt and acrid waters. The statements of an- 
cient travelers and geographers to the effect 
that no living creature could exist on the 
shores of the lake, or bird fly across its sur- 
face, are amply disproved by later travelers. 
The springs on the margin of the lake har- 
bor snipe, partridges, ducks, nightingales, 
and other birds, as well as frogs ; and hawks, 




Map of the Dead Sea. 

doves, and hares are found along the shore. 
The appearance of the lake does not ful- 
fill the idea conveyed by its popular name. 
'' The Dead Sea," says a recent traveler, "did 
not strike me with that sense of desolation 
and dreariness which I suppose it ought. I 
thought it a pretty, smiling lake —a nice rip- 
ple" on its surface." The truth lies, as usu- 
al, some^Yhere between these t\YO extremes. 



SALT SEA 



838 



SALT SEA 




Dead Sea. 



On the one band, the lake certainly is not 
a gloomy, deadly, smoking gulf. In this re- 
spect it does not at all fulfill the promise of its 
name. Wild as are the surrounding lieights, 
tlie view of the lake is generally beautiful. 
The color of its waters may change accord- 
ing to circumstances, but they often appear 
as blue as in other lakes. Witb the sur- 
rounding mountains wondrously tinted by 
the rising or setting sun the scene has often 
a wonderful charm. But, on the other hand, 
there is something in the prevalent sterility, 
and the dry, burned look of the shores, the 
overpowering heat, the occasional smell of 
sulphur, the dreary salt marsh at the south- 
ern end, and the fringe of dead drift-wood 
round the margin, which must go far to ex- 
cuse the title which so many ages have at- 
tached to the lake, and which we may be 
sure it will never lose. The ancients speak 
nmch of the masses of asphalt, or bitumen, 
which the lake threw up, comparing them 
in form and magnitude to islands, or to 
oxen. Modern travelers testify to the ex- 
istence of bitumen still on the shores and 
waters of the Dead Sea; but it is supposed 
by the Arabs that it is only thrown up by 
earthquakes. Especially after the earth- 
(piakes of 1834 and 1837, large quantities are 
said to have been cast upon the southern 
shore. These were probably detached from 



the bottom of the southern bay. There is a 
great difference between the northern and 
southern portions of the sea. While the 
one is of great depth, the other is shallow, 
its shores low and marshy, almost like a 
quicksand. 

The connection between this singular lake 
and the Biblical history is very slight. Li 
the topographical records of the Pentateuch 
and the book of Joshua, it forms one among 
the landmarks of the boundaries of the whole 
country, as well as of the inferior divisions 
of Judah and Benjamin. As a landmark it 
is once named in what appears to be a quo- 
tation from a lost work of the prophet Jo- 
nah, itself apparently a reminiscence of the 
old Mosaic statement. Besides this the name 
occurs once or twice in the imagery of the 
prophets.^ In the N. T. there is uot even an 
allusion to it. There is, however, one pas- 
sage^ in which the " Salt Sea " is mentioned 
in a manner different from any of those al- 
ready quoted, viz., as haviug been in the 
time of Abraham the Vale of Siddim. In 
consequence of this passage it has been be- 
lieved that the present lake covered a dis- 
trict which in historic times had been per- 
manently habitable dry land. But this is 
true only of its southern and more shallow 

1 Numb, xxxiv., 8, 12 ; 2 Kinirs xiv., 2.5 ; Ezek. xlvii^ 
S; Joel ii., 20; Zech. xiv., S.— 2 Gen. xiv., 3. 



SALT (VALLEY OF) 



839 



SAMARIA 



portiou; the sea, in its present extent, cover- 
ing what was once the Vale of Siddim. Con- 
cerning the sitnation of these Cities of the 
Phiin, and the catastroplie which destroyed 
them, see Cities of the Plaix. 

Salt (Valley of), a valley mentioned in a 
few passages as the scene of two great vic- 
tories gained by the arms of Israel over 
Edoni; one by David. It is probably the 
tract adjoining the Salt Monntain, forming 
the npper part of the Arabah, the plain to 
the sonth of the Salt Sea. The victory 
gained by David is, in the title of Psa. Ix., 
ascribed to Joab ; in 2 Sam. viii., 13, to Da- 
vid; and in 1 Chrou. xviii., 12, to Abishai — 
discrepancies that are easily explained from 
the different points of view taken by the 
several writers. The victories gained by 
any of the captains of David might, of 
conrse, be justly reckoned David's; and as 
Joah had command over the whole host, he 
was entitled to the honor of the achieve- 
ments. But from the mention of Abishai 
we may infer that it was chietiy due to his 
prowess. Another variation appears in the 
account of the number of the slain ; hut 
this probably arose from a different mode 
of rejckouing in the different places ; such 
as, in the one, taking account only of the 
Edomites that were slain, while the Syrians 
who had joined them might, in the other, be 
added to the sum. [2 Sam. viii., 13 ; 1 Cbron. 
xviii., 12 : 2 Kings xiv., 7 ; 2 Chron. xxv., 11.] 

Salutation. Salutations may be classed 
under the two heads as conversational and 
ejjistolary. 

1. The salutation at meeting consisted, in 
early times, of various expressions of bless- 
ing, such as, '' The Lord be with you," and 
'' The Lord bless thee."^ Hence the term 
"bless" received the secondary sense of 
"salute," and is occasionally so rendered 
in the English Bible. '^ The blessing was 
sometimes accompanied with inquiries as to 
the health, either of the person addressed or 
his relations.^ The salutation at parting- 
consisted, originally, of a simi)le blessing, 
but in later times the form, " Go in peace," 
was introduced. This was current at the 
time of our Saviour's ministry, and is adopt- 
ed by him in his parting address to his dis- 
ciples.* The more common salutation, how- 
ever, at this period was borrowed from the 
Greeks, their word Hail being used both at 
meeting and probably also at departure.^ 
In modern times the ordinary mode of ad- 
dress current in, the East resembles the 
Hebrew, " Peace be on yon." The Jew 
of old, as the Mohammedan of the present 



1 Gen. xliii., 29 ; Ruth ii., 4 ; iii., 10 ; 1 Sam. xv., 13 ; 
Psa. cxxix., 8.-2 1 Sam. xiii., 10; xxv., 14; 2 Kings 
iv.,29; X., 1.5.— 3 Gen. xliii., 27; Exod. xviii., T ; Judg. 
xviii., \5 ; 1 Sam. x., 4 ; 2 Kings x,, 13. — * Gen. xxiv., 
()0; xlvii., 10; Josh, xxii., 6; 1 Sam. i., 17; xx.,42; 2 
Sam. XV., 9; Mark v., 34; Luke vii., 50; x., 5; xxiv., 
3G ; John xiv., 27 : xx., 19 ; Acts xvi., 36.— ^ Matt, xxvi., 
49; xxviii., 9; Luke i., 2S. 



day, saluted only those whom he considered 
" brethren," i. e., members of the same relig- 
ious community. Hence Christ's direction 
was a radical innovation on not only the 
customs but the prejudices of his age.^ 

2. The epistolary salutations in the peri- 
od subsequeut to the O. T. were framed on 
the model of the Latins. A combination of 
the tirst and third persons in the terms of 
the salutation was not infrequent.'^ A form 
of prayer for spiritual mercies was also used, 
consisting generally of the terms "grace and 
peace." St. Paul, who availed himself of an 
amanuensis, was accustomed to add the sal- 
ntatiou with his own hand. [Rom. xvi., 22; 
1 Cor. xvi., 21 : Col. iv., 18 ; 2 Thess. iii., 17.] 
Samaria {watch-lieiglit). 1. A city of Pal- 
estine. The city of Samaria was built by 
Omri, king of Israel, about 925 B.C., on a hill 
of the same name. Its title was probably 
derived from Shemer, the original owner, 
from w^hom it was purchased by the kiug.^ 
It was the capital of the ten tribes of Israel 
for two centuries, till the time of the Cap- 
tivity under Shalmaneser. During all this 
time it was the seat of idolatry, and as such 
was denounced by the prophets. It was the 
scene of many stirring events in Israel's his- 
tory. Here was a temple to Baal, built by 
Ahab and destroyed by Jehu. Here, hard 
by, Ahab was buried. Here was the scene 
of the marvelous deliverance wrought by 
the Lord at the interposition of Elisha, 
when the Syrians tied in a causeless panic, 
leaving their supplies to the famine-strick- 
en city. After the capture of the city and 
the exile of the ten tribes,* Shechem (q. v.) 
I became the capital of the new residents. 
Samaria was rebuilt by Herod, who named 
it Sebaste, the Greek equivalent of Augus- 
: tus, his imperial patron. Its site is now 
: occupied by the village of Sebustieh, con- 
' strncted chiefly out of the ruins of the an- 
cient city. The hill of Samaria itself is cul- 
tivated from its base. Its sides are ter- 
raced, and covered with corn and olive-trees. 
The situation is described as being unsur- 
passed in strength, fertility, and beauty, and 
in these respects far superior to Jerusalem 
itself. 

2. A province. The city of Samaria early 
gave its name to the kingdom of which it 
was the capital. In the O. T. the cities of 
Samaria is the equivalent of the kingdom 
of Israel. It thus included all of Palestine 
north of Judea (q. v.). That portion of Is- 
rael east of the Jordan which originally be- 
longed to it was taken away by the kings 
of Assyria;^ then the northern portion, Gali- 
j lee (q. v.), shared the same fate f and Sama- 
ria was reduced to the dimensions which it 
possessed in the time of Christ. See map, 
art. Palestine ; Samaritans. 

' 1 Matt, v., 47.-2 Gal. i., 1, 23 ; Philem. i. ; 2 Pet. i., 
12.— 3 See O.MKi.— •' See Hosuea.— ^ 1 Chron. v., 20.— 
. « 2 Kings XV., 29. 



SAMAEITAN PENTATEUCH 



840 



SAMARITANS 



Samaritan Pentateuch (The). The Pen- 
tateuch exists iu the Samaritaiij or the an- 
cient Hebrew, character ; that is, the lan- 
guage is Hebrew, but written with letters 
varying from those in which, for many cen- 
turies, Hebrew has been expressed. Yet 
this Pentateuch is not a mere servile copy 
of Hebrew, made by only a change of char- 
acter. It is an independent edition, pre- 
served with jealous care among the Samar- 
itans, and presenting many readings differ- 
ent from those in the Hebrew Pentateuch. 

Biblical critics are by no means agreed 
upon its origin. Many imagine that it is 
not older than the estalblishmeut, some time 
after the Babylonish captivity, of independ- 
ent Samaritan worship, and of a temple on 
Gerizim. But there are good reasons for be- 
lieving its prior existence. Jeroboam rec- 
ognized not only the existence but the mor- 
al power of the Law, in his systematic en- 
deavor to turn the people from their alle- 
giance to it; Elijah and Elisha, Hosea and 
Amos, could not have been without it; Jo- 
siah appeals to it as to a book known to 
the people, and by its influence carried on 
the reformation which extended from Ju- 
dah into Israel; and it is hardly doubtful 
that when the Assyrian king sent one of the 
priests to teach the mixed people the " man- 
ner of the god of the land," he probably had 
a written book on which to base his teach- 
ings.^ The Samaritan Pentateuch thus con- 
stitutes an additional and very important 
evidence as to the authenticity of that por- 
tion of the Scriptures; since neither Samar- 
itans nor Jews would have taken the sacred 
writings or adopted the corruptions of the 
other, owing to their bitter jealousy of and 
hostility to each other. Scholars formerly 
differed respecting the critical value of the 
Samaritan Pentateuch; some even regarding 
its readings as preferable, very frequently, 
to those of the Hebrew copies. Later and 
more thorough examination has shown the 
worthlessness of its pretended emendations 
of the Hebrew text. There is a remarkable 
similarity, not yet fully accounted for, be- 
tween it and the Septuagint text. The Sa- 
maritan Pentateuch has been translated into 
the Samaritan dialect, which is a mixture 
of Hebrew and Aramaean. There is also an 
Arabic version extant in Samaritan char- 
acters. 

Samaritans. A proper understanding of 
the national character of the Samaritans is 
necessary in order to comprehend one of 
the most significant incidents in the life of 
Christ, and one of tlie most beautiful para- 
bles in his teachings,^ When Jeroboam se- 
ceded and established the separate king- 
dom of Israel, nearly one thousand years be- 
fore the time of Christ, he laid the founda- 
tion of the individual kingdom of Samaria, 



1 1 Kiiififs xii., 26-33 ; 2 Kings xvii., 2T, 28 ; xxiii., 21 ; 
2 Chi-on. XXX., 5-9.-2 Luke ix., 51-56 ; x., 25-3T. 



while at the same time he divided the He- 
brew nation, and prepared the way for its 
utter destruction. In order the more effect- 
ually to complete the estrangement, upon 
which he depended for the perpetuation of 
his power, he annulled the law requiring 
the people to go up to Jerusalem, and estab- 
lished an idolatrous worship in the cities of 
Dan and Bethel; at the same time he ap- 
pointed a new priesthood, which was of 
course subject to his will, as it was the crea- 
tion of his appointment. Thus, by a double 
treachery to his nation and his God, he pre- 
pared the way for the multitudinous crimes 
which followed. Israel became a nation of 
idolaters, and, by a rapid process of degen- 
eracy, exchanged the free constitution which 
Moses had given for the despotism of an 
Ahab — the glory of a Solomon for the decay 
of a Pekah and a Hoshea. Thus from the 
very outset the Jews, i. e., the inhabitants 
of Judea, who adhered to the line of David 
and retained the Temple and the priesthood, 
learned to look with unmingled aversion 
and contempt on their neighbors, an aver- 
sion intensified by the bitter warfares waged 
from time to time between Judah and Israel. 
The latter degenerated in military strength 
as well as in moral power, and suffered one 
incursion after another at the hands of the 
Assyrians, until at length, in the reign of 
Hoshea, their entire laud was despoiled, the 
people were carried away captive, and their 
country w^as repeopled by colonies from the 
land of their conquerors. It has been ques- 
tioned whether this expatriation was com- 
plete, and an entirely new populatioii sup- 
planted the old, or whether the heathen 
mixed with a remnant of the former inhab- 
itants left in the land. There are eminent 
authorities in favor of both hypotheses. We 
think the latter the more rational of the 
two, and the one better supported by the 
course of history. However this may have 
been, the new nation incorporated the relig- 
ion of the previous inhabitants with their 
own. It was in those days generally be- 
lieved that each land had its own god. Ac- 
cordingly the new inhabitants, suffering the 
disa'sters common to all such colonies, ap- 
plied to the King of Assyria to have sent to 
them an Israelite priest to ''teach them the 
manner of the god of the land."^ Thus at 
the same time a mongrel population sup- 
planted the ten tribes of Israel, and a mon- 
grel religion, composed of the wholly idola- 
trous rites of the new population and the 
half- heathen worship of the old one, took 
the place of the religion of the God of Israel. 
From this time till the return of Judah 
from captivity, B.C. 536, we know nothing 
of the history of Samaria. They requested 
at that time to be allowed to participate in 
the rebuilding of the Temple at Jerusalem. 
Their religion, they asserted, was the same 
~ 1 2 Kings xvii., 26, 27. 



SAMARITANS 



841 



SAMOS 



as that of the two tribes ; therefore they had 
a right to share in that great religious un- 
dertaking. But the Jews did not listen fa- 
vorably to their overtures, and refused their 
co-operation. On this the Samaritans threw 
off their mask and became open enemies, 
frustrated the designs of the Jews through 
the reigns of two Persian kings, and were 
only effectually silenced in the reign of Da- 
rius Hystaspes, B.C. 519. The feud thus un- 
happily renewed grew year by year more in- 
veterate. At length, about B.C. 409, a cer- 
tain Manasseh, a man of priestly lineage, on 
being expelled from Jerusalem by Nehemiah 
for an unlawful marriage, obtained permis- 
sion from the Persian king of his day, Dari- 
us Nothus, to build a temple on Mount Ger- 
izim for the Samaritans, with whom he had 
found refuge. The only thing wantedto crys- 
tallize the opposition between the two races 
— namely, a rallying-point for schismatic- 
al worship — being now obtained, their ani- 
mosity became more intense than ever. From 
this time the Samaritans did every thing in 
their power to annoy the Jews. They re- 
fused hospitality to pilgrims on their road 
to Jerusalem ; they would even waylay them 
on their journey, and many were compel- 
led through fear to take the longer route 
by the east of Jordan. Certain Samaritans 
were said to have once penetrated into the 
Temple of Jerusalem, and to have defiled it 
by scattering dead men's bones on the sa- 
cred pavement. Their own temple on Ger- 
izim they considered to be much superior 
to that at Jerusalem. There they sacrificed 
a Passover. To their copy of the Law they 
arrogated an antiquity and authority great- 
er than attached to any copy in the posses- 
sion of the Jews. The Law (i. e., the five 



of Shechem.^ They would have no dealings 
with them that they could possibly avoid. 
"Thou art a Samaritan and hast a devil," 
was the mode in which they expressed them- 
selves when at a loss for a bitter reproach. 
Every thing that a Samaritan had touched 
was as swine's flesh to them. The Samari- 
tan was publicly cursed in their synagogues ; 
could not be adduced as a witness in the 
Jewish courts ; could not be admitted to any 
sort of proselytism ; and was thus, so far as 
the Jew could affect his position, excluded 
from hope of eternal life. And even the 
apostles believed that an inhospitable slight 
shown by a Samaritan village to Christ 
would be not unduly avenged by calling 
down fire from heaven. 

Such were the Samaritans of our Lord's 
day. If any thing could justify a national 
antipathy their character and history would 
have done so, since they were both traitors 
and heretics. And the several occasions 
which Christ took to rebuke the prejudice 
against the Samaritans afford an equal re- 
buke to every prejudice grounded on race 
or national antipathy, or on difference of re- 
ligious opinion.^ A small settlement of Sa- 
maritans is still maintained at Nablus, the 
modern Shechem. It comprises about two 
hundred persons, and constitutes "the old- 
est and smallest sect in the world." They 
observe the Law and celebrate the Passover 
with a minuteness which the Jews them- 
selves have long intermitted; and their copy 
of the Pentateuch is one of the oldest ver- 
sions of the law of Moses. See Samaria; 
Samaritajsi Pentateuch. Onin. Hoshea. 

Samos, an island on the coast of Asia 
Minor, midway between the points occupied 
by Ephesus and Miletus, and separated from 



L^ 



Samos. 



books of Moses) was their sole code; and 
they professed to observe it better than did 
the Jews themselves. The Jews, on the oth- 
er hand, were not more conciliatory in their 
treatment of the Samaritans. The copy of 
the Law possessed by that people they de- 
clared to be the legacy of an apostate (Ma- 
nasvseh). They accused them of worshiping 
the idol-gods buried long ago under the oak 



the main-land by a strait which, in the nar- 
rowest part, is not more than three or four 
miles broad. Samos was celebrated for its 
fertility, and has not lost its claim to the dis- 
tinction ; but its wine, now highly valued, 
was regarded by the ancient Greeks as of a 
very inferior quality. [Acts xx., 15.] 

1 Gen. XXXV., 4.-2 Luke ix., 54^56 ; x., 30-37 ; xvii., 
6 ; Jolm iv., 2T. 



SAMOTHRACIA 



842 



SAMSON 



Samothracia, a lofty and conspicnons isl- 
and north of Lemuos, in the ^gean Sea, off 
the coast of Thrace. It was formerly cele- 
brated for the mysteries of Ceres and Proser- 
pine. It is now called Samotraki, or Saman- 
draki. [Acts xvi., 11.] 

Samson {the sunny) was the onlj^ son of 
Manoah, of the tribe of Dan, of the town of 
Zorah. His birth was heralded by an an- 
gelic messenger. In accordance with the 
divine command, he was consecrated to the 
life of a Nazarite from his cradle, by his 
mother's vows. He drank no wine, ate no 
grapes, snffered the locks of his hair to grow 
nncut. From his youth he gave tokens of 
that extraordinary strength which has since 
rendered his name proverbial. His fame was 
not confined to his own nation. Under the 
title of Hercules he was deified both in Egypt 
and in Greece ; for that Hercules is a heathen 
transformation of Samson there is little room 
to doubt. To the same symbolic origin both 
names are traced by linguists. Both are 
men of superhuman strength, of exuberant 
physical life, of wild, ungovernable passions, 
and of broad, trenchant humor. Of both 
substantially the same traditions are told. 
Both slay a lion with their own hands. Both 
suffer death, though in different ways, at the 
liands of their treacherous wives. One, a 
captive in Philistia, summoned to make 
sport for his enemies, pulls down the temple 
of Dagon, and buries both the god and its 
Avorshipers in the ruins. The other, a cap- 
tive in Egypt, is led forth to be sacrificed to 
Jupiter, breaks the bands which bind him, 
and slays the priests and scatters the assem- 
blage. Even the custom of tying a lighted 
torch between two foxes in the circus, in the 
memory of the damage once done to the har- 
vest by a fox with burning hay and straw 
tied to it, was long maintained in Greece — 
a singular witness to the extent of Samson's 
reputation. 

We first meet Samson on his way to Tim- 
nath. A Philistine maiden has captured his 
fancy by her beauty. His parents remon- 
strate against the alliance. But neither the 
protests of his parents, nor the plain provis- 
ions of the law, nor the high and holy mis- 
sion to which he is called by God, can coun- 
teract his passion. The result justifies the 
father's remonstrance. The Philistine maid- 
en plays the coquette with Samson. He pro- 
poses, as is the custom in the Orient, a rid- 
dle to his guests at the betrothal feast. He 
wagers with them thirty changes of raiment 
that they can not guess it. She cajoles him 
out of his secret, and discloses it. That they 
should have won the wager does not trouble 
him. He goes alone across the country, and 
takes the thirty changes of raiment from the 
Philistine city of Ashkelon to pay his bet. 
But that he should have been cheated by a 
woman sorely wounds his pride ; and when 
the Philistine coquette marries one of these 



very guests, Samson's groomsman, his indig- 
nation knows no bounds. This is the be- 
ginning of hostilities. Samson, to avenge 
himself of his enemy, catches three hundred 
jackals,^ ties them together, two by two, by 
the tails, puts a fire-brand between the tails, 
and sets them loose in the harvest season to 
set fire to the Philistines' standing wheat. 
Then, when the Philistines, with a singular 
injustice, visit their wrath on the bride and 
the father, putting her to death, Samson, 
with that fickleness of feeling which char- 
acterizes him, smites them " hip and thigh 
with a great slaughter." We next find him 
in the hands of more formidable foes. The 
Philistines come up to avenge their wrongs 
on the nation which shelters him. The Is- 
raelites deliver him bound into their hands. 
He submits without opposition, only to 
break the cords that bind him, and leap 
upon his would-be captors with a shout 
that fills them with alarm. In the panic 
which ensues, a thousand are slain — some, 
doubtless, by Samson's own hand, others 
perhaps trampled underfoot by their own 
companions. 

Twenty years elapse, during which he is 
acknowledged as theleader of his own tribe, 
and perhaps also of the neighboring tribes 
of Judah and Benjamin. Doubtless the au- 
thority of the Philistines is broken, their 
yoke somewhat lightened; doubtless, too, 
his term of office is marked by constant 
raids and border warfare. It is not, howev- 
er, characterized by any marvelous achieve- 
ments on Samson's part, whom nothing seems 
capable of arousing but personal wrongs or 
imnuneut danger. We next meet him, at 
all events, in Gaza, a Philistine city, whither 
he has gone in pursuit of a Philistine har- 
lot, still yielding to the bane of his life, an 
unbridled, self-willed, self-indulgent spirit. 
The Philistines close the gates, and set a 
watch to catch him at the dawn. At mid- 
night he goes out, takes the gates and their 
posts, and carries them off in a sort of scorn- 
ful disdain of their boasted strength, and so 
escapes. One might have thought he would 
have learned enough by this time of Philis- 
tine women. But such a man, weak in the 
very self-conceit of his strength, never learns. 
He falls in with another, s-ets his heart upon 
her, and, with a folly for which there is ab- 
solutely no palliation, walks with open eyes 
into the trap this treacherous Delilah sets 
for him. She undertakes to get from him the 
secret of his superhuman strength. Three 
times he mocks her with lying answers. 
Three times she binds him, and delivers him 
into the Philistines' hands. He breaks the 
green withes, the new ropes, the web woven 
in with his hair, and scatters the captors, 
who imagine that they have secured him. 
Three times he discovers the treachery of 
this woman ; and yet, because of her beauty. 



Judg. XV., 4, 5. See Fox. 



SAMUEL 



843 



SAMUEL 



and yielding to her tears and entreaties, he 
deliberately tells her the whole secret of his 
strength, then lies down to sleep Avith his 
head upon her lap, to awaken, his locks 
shaven, his vow broken, his strength gone, 
and himself an easy prey to his remorseless 
enemies. 

If his life had ended here, there would 
have been nothing in it to explain the fact 
that the apostle names him among those 
who "through faith subdued kingdoms." 
But his servitude teaches him that lesson 
of self-denial which nothing but affliction 
suffices to teach. He grinds away iu the 
prison - house of his foes ; employs, in this 
horrid slavery, the reuuiant of that strength 
with which God had endowed him, and 
which, by her vows, his mother had conse- 
crated to God's service. Little by little 
that strength returns to him. At last he 
is brought forth, ou one of the high days of 
the Philistines, to grace a heathen festival. 
Humbled, he looks to God for strength to 
fulfill his purpose, and redeems his name 
from the ignominy which would otherwise 
attach to his wasted life by voluntarily sac- 
rificing himself, that he may win one more 
victory over the Philistines, and bury their 
god Dagon iu its own teniple.' 

Samson's virtues and vices are those of one 
in whom the animal nature predominates. 
Bold, fearless, audacious, he rushes into all 
sorts of hazards with the recklessness of an 
untamable self-reliance, and delivers him- 
self by his own marvelous might of muscle. 
With this rare strength and aimless courage 
goes the good humor which belongs to ex- 
uberant health and vigor. But this very 
strength of his animal nature proves his 
weakness, and works his ruin. Inspired by 
no high, noble, commanding purpose, his 
misdirected power spends itself in fitful 
gusts of idle bravado. Wholly wanting in 
the power of self-restraint, the very strength 
of his own nature only makes his wreck and 
ruin more terrible. He lives an aimless, and 
therefore a barren life, and dies a fruitless, 
though a martyr's death. His nation re- 
mains in the bondage from which he might 
have freed it, and his name survives only to 
witness to the weakness of him whose pow- 
ers, however great they may be, are subserv- 
ient to his passions. Nothing but the pathos 
of his death saves his name from deserved 
oblivion. [ Judg. xiv.-xvi. ; Heb. xi., .32.] 

Samuel {asked of God), the son of Elka- 
nah and Hannah, of the tribe of Levi, was 
the last of the judges of Israel, and the first 
of the prophets. Though Ave have no cer- 
tain information as to his birthplace, it was 
probably at Ramathaim-zophim, elsewhere 
called Ramah (q. v.), where his parents re- 
sided, and where he himself lived, died, and 
was buried. His mother was a remarkable 
woman. Almost a Nazarite'^ in practice, and 



1 Judjj. xvi., 23-30.— 2 1 S;im. i., 15. 



a prophetess in gifts,^ she sought from God 
the gift of the child with a passionate de- 
votion of silent prayer^ of which there is no 
other example in the O. T. Before his birth 
she had dedicated him to the office of a Naz- 
arite, and while he was yet a little child she 
fulfilled her vow, and brought him to Shiloh 
to give him up to the high-priest. Here he 
ministered before the Lord, girt with a linen 
ephod^ and the little coat which his mother 
brought him at each of her yearly visits. 
This little mantle, reaching dowu to his 
feet, had, from his earliest years, marked 
him out as almost a royal personage ; and 
the same peculiar robe, in extended propor- 
tions, wrai^ped around him, was his badge 
to the end — the same Hebrew word being 
used throughout the narrative to represent 
Samuel's dress. Here, in the tabernacle, in 
his early childhood, occurred his first inspi- 
ration as a prophet. It was in the stillness 
of the night, just before the early dawn, that 
Samuel first heard the Divine voice: "The 
Lord revealed himself to Samuel."* In chap, 
ix., 15, it is said, " The Lord uncovered the 
ear of Samuel;" for such is the literal ex- 
pression, a touching and significant figure, 
taken from the manner in which the pos- 
sessor of a secret moves back the hair of 
his friend, and whispers into the ear thus 
laid bare the word that no one else may 
hear. Through these revelations the child 
first, and then the man, became " Samuel 
the Seer." By that ancient name, older 
than any other designation of the pro- 
phetic office, he was known in his own as 
well as in after times.^ And, as if in a dis- 
torted reminiscence of his peculiar gift of 
second-sight, Samuel is the character select- 
ed, in Mussulman traditions, as the first re- 
vealer of the mysteries of the nocturnal 
flight of Mohammed from Mecca to Jerusa- 
lem. 

Upon the overthrow of the sanctuary of 
Shiloh, and iu the disasters which followed,^ 
we hear not what became of Samuel. It is 
inferred that he was steadily fulfilling his 
office as prophet of the Lord, first at Shiloh, 
and then at Mizpeli and Ramah. We nest 
meet him, after an interval of nearly twenty 
years, at Mizpeh. Here he gathered the chil- 
dren of Israel together, warning them against 
their idolatrous practices. The hold which 
he had upon the national heart is indicated 
by the efiect which his words produced. The 
Israelites put away Baalim and Ashtaroth, 
and reinstated the worship of Jehovah, This 
national reformation was accompanied by ap- 
propriate religious ceremonies. The people 
fasted, and, partly as a symbol of their humil- 
iation, partly as an act of solemn ratification 
of their new covenant, poured water out be- 
fore the Lord. It was during this national 



1 1 Sam. ii., 1.— 2 1 Sam. i., 13.— 3 1 Sam. ii., 18, 19.— 
4 1 Sam. iii., 21.-5 j g^m. ix., IS. 19 ; 1 Chron. ix,, 22. 
—8 See Eli. 



SAMUEL 



844 



SAMUEL 



convention that the intelligence came that 
the Philistines meditated an attack upon 
them. The Israelites, unprepared for war, 
were thrown into consternation. They en- 
treated Samuel to intercede for them with 
God. There appears to have been no time 
for either flight or military preparations; 
for while Samuel was still engaged in the 
sacrificial service, the Philistine host burst 
snddenly upon them. A violent thunder- 
storm broke over the scene at almost the 
same moment. According to Josephns, it 
was accompanied by an earthquake. The 
superstitious and terror-stricken Philistines 
fled ; the emboldened Israelites pursued ; 
and thus, exactly at the "spot where, twen- 
ty years before, the enemies of Israel had 
obtained their great victory, they were to- 
tally routed. A huge stone was set up, 
which long remained as a memorial of Sam- 
uel's triumph, and gave to the place its 
name of Eben-ezer,^ the "Stone of Help," a 
name which has thence passed into Chris- 
tian phraseology. The battle of Eben-ezer 
— the first, and, as far as we know, the only 
direct military achievement of Samuel, if, | 
indeed, it can be so considered — marked as [ 
it was by the first return of victory to the \ 
arms of Israel after the fall of Shiloh, was i 
apparently the event which raised him to 
the office of "judge." There, in the same 
way as Jerubbaal, and Bedan, and Jephthah,^ 
with whom he is classed, he won his title to 
that name, then the highest in the nation. 
He dwelt still in his own birthplace, and 
made it a sanctuary of his own, but weut 
from year to year in solemn circuit to th\e 
ancient sanctuaries in his own immediate 
neighborhood.^ But his return was always 
to Ramah, "and there he judged Israel."* 
As he advanced in years his two sons began 
to share the power with him ; but in their 
corrupt practices he witnessed the same per- 
version of high office that he had seen in his 
childhood in the two sons of Eli. Their cor- 
ruption became at length intolerable; and 
the indignant people demanded not only a 
change of rulers but a change of government, 
by the establishment of a monarchy. 

And now Samuel appears in his new and 
peculiar position as the inaugnrator of the 
first of the kings. For the whole night, we 
are told by Josephus, Samuel lay, fasting 
and sleepless, in the depths of doubt and 
perplexity. In the visions of that night, 
and the announcement of them on the fol- 
lowing day, is given the dark side of the 
new institution.^ On the other hand, his 
acceptance of the change is no less clearly 
marked in the story of his recieption of Saul. 
In his final address is represented the mix- 
ed feeling, with which, after having fore- 
warned and struggled and resisted, he at 
last bows to the inevitable course of events, 

1 1 Sam. vii., 12.— 2 1 Sam. xii., 11.— 3 1 Sam. vii., IC. 
—4 1 Sam. vii., 17.— ^ 1 Sam. viii., 9-18. 



and retires to make room for a new order, 
of which he could but partially understand 
the meaning. He parted from the people, 
not with curses but with blessings. " God 
forbid that I should sin against the Lord in 
ceasing to pray for you; but I will teach 
you the good and the right way."^ So, later, 
he parted from Saul, not in anger but in 
sorrow. "Nevertheless Samuel mourned for 
Sanl."^ So, finally, he who had begun by 
denouncing the monarchy as fraught with 
evil, ended by becoming the protector and 
counselor of him who was to be its chief 
glory and support.^ Meanwhile, the mon- 
archy being established, the two institutions, 
respectively represented by Saul and Sam- 
uel, moved on side by side. Samuel was still 
judge — for "he judged Israel all the days 
of his life"* — not in the sense of a military 
commander, but as the arbitrator of moral 
and religious matters. He was consulted 
far and near on the small afi^airs of life.^ 
No sacrificial feast was thought complete 
without his presence and blesshig f and a 
peculiar virtue was believed to reside in his 
intercession. In his capacity as prophet he 
still exercised an authority even higher than 
that of the king ; and when Saul had ceased 
to act in harmony with the divine direc- 
tions, Samuel announced his deposition, and 
appointed David his successor.'^ Not only 
was he himself a prophet, the first of a long 
and illustrious line,^ but he was probably 
the founder, certainly in his time the head, 
of the schools of the prophets (q. v.), ^ where 
in. that age of change and dissolution he 
gathered around him all that was generous 
and devout in the people of God. Unlike 
any previous teacher of the Jewish Church, 
Samuel grew up for the prophetic office from 
his earliest years. The image which is en- 
shrined to us in Christian art, and which 
appeals most to our general sympathy, is not 
the picture of the sedate judge, or the terri- 
ble figure which rose up before the apostate 
king in the cave of Endor,^° but that of the 
" child Samuel,"" who ministered before the 
Lord. His integrity gives significance to 
one of the most touching episodes in his life. 
In his parting address to the people, he says, 
"I am old and grayheaded, and I have walk- 
ed before you from my childhood unto this 
day ; witness against me before the Lord."^^ 
It was this appeal, and the universal re- 
sponse of the people, that has caused Gro- 
tius to give him the name of the Jewish 
Aristides. The death of Samuel is described 
as taking place in the year of the close of 
David's wanderings, at the advanced age of 
ninety-eight. It is said with peculiar em- 
phasis, as if to mark his loss, that "aZZ the 
Israelites" — not one portion, as might have 

1 1 Sam. xii., 23.-2 1 Sam. xv., 35.-3 See David.— 
4 1 Sam. vii., 15.— s 1 Sam. ix., 1-10.— « 1 Sam. ix., 13.— 
■? 1 Sam., xvi., 13.-8 ^cts iii., 24.— ^ 1 Sam. xix., 20.— 
10 See Witch of Endou.— h 1 Sam. iii., 1 ; compare 
also 1 Sam. ii., IS, 21, 26 ; iii., S.— 12 1 gam. xii., 2, 3. 



SAMUEL (BOOKS OF) 



845 



SAMUEL (BOOKS OF) 



been expected in that time of division and 
confusion — '' were gathered together and 
lamented him and buried him" — not in any 
secluded sepulchre, but in the midst of the 
home which he had consecrated by his own 
long, unblemished career — "in his house 
at Ramah." The situation of Ramah is not 
known with certainty; but the place long- 
pointed out as his tomb is the height most 
conspicuous of all in the neighborhood of Je- 
rusalem, immediately above the town of Gib- 
eon, now called Neby Samtvil, the "Prbph- 
et Samuel." This tradition is traced as far 
back as the seventh century. His supposed 
relics were taken to Constantinople, a.d. 406, 
and received there with much pomp by the 
Emperor Arcadius. His descendants con- 
tinued in Ramah during the time of David. 
Heman, his grandson, was one of the chief 
singers in the Levitical choir.' It has been 
supposed that Samuel wrote a life of the ear- 
lier years of David which was still accessible 
to one of the authors of the book of Chron- 
icles,^ but this appears doubtful. Various 
other books of the O. T. have been ascribed 
to him by Jewish tradition — the Judges, 
Ruth, and the two books of Samuel (q. v.). 
[1 Sam. i. ; ii. ; iii. ; vii. ; viii. ; ix., 11-27; 
X. ; xii. ; xiii., 8-17 ; xv. ; xvi.] 

Samuel (Books of). In the Jewish Scrip- 
tures these two books form but one, which 
bears the name of Samuel, probably because 
the earlier part is occupied with the histo- 
ry of that prophet, and is supposed to have 
been written by hitu. In the Septuagint 
aud Vulgate versions they are called " books 
of kings," since they are two of the four 
books in which the history of the kings of 
Israel and Judah is related. Heuce, in our 
Bibles w^e find, added to the titles, ''com- 
monly called the First (or Second) Book of 
the Kings." They constitute, however, a 
separate and independent whole, and are not 
to be joined either with the book of Judges 
or that of Kings, from both of which they 
differ by mauy important characteristics. 
It is not easy to arrive at any certainty 
with respect to the age and authorship of 
these books. They were evidently not writ- 
ten by Samuel, whose death is recorded in 
the twenty -fifth chapter of the first book. 
The history continues after his death, down 
to nearly the eud of the reign of David, a 
period of perhaps forty -five years. With 
the exception of a brief expression in the 
Talmud, there is no opinion expressed by 
antiquity respecting the name of the au- 
thor. No mention is made of it in the books 
of Samuel, Kings, Chronicles, or any part of 
the Bible; nor is it named in the Apocry- 
pha or in Josephus. There is a somewhat 
common opinion that the first twenty-four 
chapters w^ere written by Samuel, and the 
rest by Gad and Nathan — an opinion found- 
ed on 1 Chron. xxix., 29. There is much in 



1 Chron. vi., 33 ; xv., 17.— ^ 1 Chron. xxix., 29. 



the general structure of the books, and in 
the relation of the several parts to each oth- 
er, to render it probable that different writ- 
ers, living at different times, were concerned 
in their production, notwithstanding the de- 
gree of uniformity which the style and lan- 
guage exhibit. The most reasonable sup- 
position is that they were the work of one 
compiler, who availed himself of authentic 
historical records of various sources. Some 
writers ascribe the work to Jeremiah, some 
to Ezra, and some to Isaiah ; but the great 
number of words and forms of words pecul- 
iar to it point out a distinct author and age. 

All are agreed as to the high antiquity of 
the work. Thatf is made certain by much 
internal evidence, and by the purity of its 
language, which ranks it as one of the best 
specimens of Hebrew prose in the golden 
age of Hebrew literature. In prose it holds 
the same place which Joel and the undis- 
puted prophecies of Isaiah hold in poetical 
or prophetical language. The exact date 
of its composition aud the name of its au- 
thor are also involved in uncertainty. 

The First Book of Samuel contains the his- 
tory of the Jewish Church and polity from 
the birth of Samuel, during the judicature 
of Eli, to the death of Saul, the first king of 
Israel — a period of nearly eighty years. It 
consists of three parts : 1. The transactions 
under the judicature of Eli; 2. The history 
of the Israelites during the judicature of 
Samuel; 3. The history of Saul and the trans- 
actions during his reign. 

The Second Book of Samuel contains the 
history of David, the second king of Israel, 
during a period of nearly forty years. It 
consists of three principal divisions, relat- 
ing, 1. The triumphs of David ; 2. The trou- 
bles of David and their cause, together with 
his repentance and subsequent recovery of 
divine favor ; 3. The transactions of his reign 
after his restoration. The Second Book of 
Samuel bears an exact relation to the pre- 
ceding book, and is likewise connected with 
that which succeeds. We see throughout 
the effects of that enmity against other 
nations which had been implanted in the 
minds of the Israelites by the Mosaic Law, 
and which gradually tended to the extirpa- 
tion of idolatry. By describing without dis- 
guise the misconduct of those characters 
who were highly reverenced among the peo- 
ple, the sacred writer demonstrates his im- 
partial sincerity; and by appealing to mon- 
uments that attested the veracity of his ac- 
counts when he wrote, he furnished every 
possible evidence of his faithful adherence 
to truth. The books of Samuel connect the 
chain of sacred history, and especially re- 
cord the remarkable change which was ef- 
fected in the method of the divine govern- 
ment when the God of Israel ceased to rule 
the chosen people by judges, and permitted 
them to be governed by kings, as were the 



SANBALLAT 



846 



SANDAL 



other nations of the earth. While doing 
this, the writer takes care to point out the 
important distinction which was to be main- 
tained between the liiugs of Israel and those 
of the other nations of the earth, in the sep- 
aration of the civil from the ecclesiastical, 
or the secular from the religious authority; 
and also to describe the origin andiniiuence 
of the prophetical order in relation both to 
the monarchy and to the people. The books 
describe the reformation and improvement 
of the Jewish Church established by Da- 
vid ; and as they delineate minutely the life 
of that monarch, they point out his typical 
relation to Christ. In the sins into which 
David fell we behold the sirength and prev- 
alence of human corruption, and in his re- 
pentance and recovery the extent and effi- 
cacy of divine grace. These books are of 
very considerable importance for illustrating 
the book of Psalms, to which, indeed, they 
may be considered as in some measure a 
key.^ 

Sanballat, a person of considerable pow- 
er and influence in the time of Nehemiah. 
Though apparently a Moabite, he was a res- 
ident in Samaria, and seems to have held 
some official appointment in that quarter 
under the Persian monarchy. Taking coun- 
sel with Tobiah, the Ammonite, Geshem, the 
Arabian, and some others, he endeavored 
to obstruct the work which Nehemiah had 
come to accomplish in behalf of Jerusalem. 
They were obliged to desist from any open 
assault, but resorted to stratagem, seeking 
to decoy Nehemiah to a distance for the 
avowed purpose of consultation, and em- 
ploying false prophets at Jerusalem to put 
him in fear. But he saw through the de- 
signs of Sanballat and his comrades, and 



priest, Eliashib. But this being an improp- 
er connection, Nehemiah drove away the par- 
ties with indignation. We hear no more of 
Sanballat in Scripture, and the account of 
Josej)hus respecting him is untrustworthy. 
[Neh.ii., 10; iv. ; vi.; xiii.,28.] 

Sanctification {making holy). The doc- 
trine of sanctification is the doctrine that 
man is perfected in holiness of life by the 
Spirit of God acting upon his heart, and the 
Providence of God disciplining him in his 
daily life. The Roman Catholic theologi- 
ans regard sanctification as the actual mak- 
ing of the soul holy, a prerequisite to justi- 
fication ; i. e., they consider that man is not 
treated by God as holy until and except he 
is made so by Divine influence. Protestant 
divines distinguish between the two acts ; 
they consider that the sinner is freely justi- 
fied for Christ's sake without regard to his 
actual character, and that sanctification fol- 
lows justification. They also distinguish 
between regeneration and sanctification. 
The former is an instantaneous change 
made in the heart and in the general course 
of the life ; the latter is a progressive change, 
in which the soul constantly grows more and 
more into the image of Christ its Lord. Some 
writers, indeed, speak of sanctification as a 
second crisis in the spiritual history of the 
soul, as marked and as sudden as regenera- 
tion ; but this philosophy is not generally 
accepted by evangelical theologians. 

Sandal. This word occurs but twice in 
the translation of the English Bible ;^ but 
the same thing, doubtless, was denoted by 
the word elsewhere translated shoe. Shoes 
proj)er were worn by the Greeks and Ro- 
mans ; but it appears to be the better opin- 
ion of Biblical scholars that the Jews wore 




Sandals. 



held his ground firmly against their mach- 
inations. Among other projects to strength- 
en his influence, Sanballat got his daughter 
married to the son of Joiada, son of the hiuh- 



See table at end of article Psalms. 



only, or at least chiefly, sandals, which 
consisted simply of a sole fastened to the 
foot, and protecting its lower, but not its 
upper, surface. It was fastened to the 



1 Mark vi., 9 ; Acta xu., 



SANDEMANIANS 



847 



SANHEDEIM 



foot by thoDgs or straps. It Tvas sometimes 
beautifully ornamented, inwrought with lines 
of gold, silver, or silk, and occasionally em- 
broidered with jewels. The materials were 
either leather, felt, cloth, or wood. It was 
occasionally shod with iron. Palm-leaves 
and papyrus-stalks were also occasionally 
used. In transferring a possession or domain, 
it was customary in ancient times to deliver 
a shoe, as in the Middle Ages a glove ; hence 
the action of throwing down a shoe upon 
a region or territory implied occupancy.' 
Shoes, or sandals, do not appear to have 
been worn at all periods as with ourselves; 
they were laid aside when indoors, and only 
put on hj persons abont to leave home, as, 
e. g., on a military expedition.'^ During meal- 
times it was customary for the feet to re- 
main uncovered, hence a necessity for wash- 
ing the feet.^ It has always been a mark 
of reverence in the East to lay aside the 
shoes on approaching any sacred spot. 
Hence the command to Moses at the bush, 
and to Joshua in the presence of the angel 
of Jehovah.* Subsequently, in the Temple 
service the priests officiated barefoot ; and 
the Talmudists even forbade any person to 
pass through the Temple with shoes on. To 
carry or unloose a person's sandal was a 
menial office, betokening great inferiority on 
the part of the person performing it. Hence 
we find John the Baptist employing this 
fact to express his relation to the Messiah.^ 
Sandemanians, a sect of Congregation- 
alists (q. v.), so called from their founder, 
Robert Saudemau, a native of Perth, who 
was led to embrace the opinions of Mr. 
Glas, which he so zealously diffused both 
in England and America, that at length the 
name of the founder was lost in that of the 
zealous advocate, and the sect came to be 
known exclusively by the ax^pellation of 
Sandemanians. Having gathered round him 
a congregation in London, he labored among 
them with indefatigable earnestness; but in 
1764 he sailed to America, where, after en- 
during much opposition and many trials, he 
died in 1771, at Danbury, in Massachu.setts. 
The inscription on his tombstone refers to 
his peculiar views on the nature of justify- 
ing faith: " Here lies, until the resurrection, 
the body of Robert Sandeman, who, in the 
face of continual opposition from all sorts 
of men, long and boldly contended for the 
ancient faith; that the bare death of Jesus 
Christ, without a deed or thought "on the 
part of man, is sufficient to present the chief 
of sinners spotless before God." This in- 
scription substantially embodies the dis- 
tinctive feature in his teaching, which ap- 
pears to have been that justifying faith con- 
sists barely in an assent of the understand- 



1 Psa. Ix., 8; cviii., 9; comp. Ruth iv., 7, 8; Deut. 
XXV., 9.-2 Isa. v., 27: Eph. vi., 15.— 3 Lnke vii., 38; 
John xiii., 5, 6. See Washing. — * Exod. iii., 5; Josh, 
v., 15.— 5 Matt, iii., 11 ; John i., 27. 



ing to the testimony of the Word of God. 
The sect has never assumed any very con- 
siderable importance, and is now reputed as 
containing only about two thousand mem- 
bers. They observe feet-washing and love- 
feasts, and partake of the communion every 
Lord's Day. 

Sanhedrim, or Sanhedrin, called also, in 
the Talmud, the great Sanhedrim, the supreme 
council of the Jewish people in the time of 
Christ and earlier. The origin of this as- 
sembly is traced in the Mishna to the seven- 
ty elders whom Moses was directed to as- 
sociate with him in the government of the 
Israelites; but this tribunal is thought by 
many scholars toTiave been temporary only, 
and not to have continued to exist after the 
Israelites had entered Palestine. In the lack 
of definite historical information as to the 
establishment of the Sanhedrim, it can only 
be said in general that the Greek etymolo- 
gy 01 the name seems to point to a period 
subsequent to the Macedonian supremac^^ in 
Palestine. From the few incidental notices 
in the N. T., we gather that it consisted of 
chief priests, or the heads of the twenty- 
four classes into which the priests were di- 
vided — elders, men of age and experience, 
and scribes, lawj-^ers, or those learned in the 
Jewish law.^ The number of members is usu- 
ally given as seventy-one. The president 
of this body was styled iVasi, and was chosen 
on account of his eminence in worth and 
wisdom. Often, if not generally, this pre- 
eminence was accorded to the high-priest. 
The vice-president, called in the Talmud 
"father of the house of judgment," sat at 
the right hand of the president. The other 
councillors were ranged in front of these two 
in the form of a semicircle. Two scribes 
attended to register the votes, one for acquit- 
tal, the other for condemnation. The jjZace 
in which the sessions of the Sanhedrim were 
ordinarily held was, according to the Tal- 
mud, a hall called Gazzitli, supposed to have 
been situated in the south-east corner of one 
of the courts near the Temple building. As 
a judicial body the Sanhedrim constituted a 
supreme court, to which belonged, in the first 
instance, the trial of a tribe fallen into idola- 
try, false prophets, and the high-priest ; also 
the other priests. As an administrative 
council it determined other important mat- 
ters. Jesus was arraigned before this body 
as a false prophet ; and Peter, John, Stephen, 
and Paul as teachers of error and deceivers 
of the people. From Acts ix., 2, it appears 
that the Sanhedrim exercised a degree of au- 
thority beyond the limits of Palestine. Ac- 
cording to the Talmud smaller councils with 
the same name were constituted in provin- 
cial towns where the inhabitant household- 
ers numbered upward of one hundred and 
twenty. These consisted of twenty-three 



1 Matt, xxvi., 57, 59; Mark xv., 1; Luke xxii. 

Acts v., 21. 



SAPPHIRE 



848 



SAEGON 



members, and sat on the second and fifth 
days of the week. Some have supposed 
them alluded to in Matt, v., 21 ; s., 17 ; Mark 
sill., 9. 

Sapphire, a precious stone — one of the 
hyaline corindons, usually of a deep blue 
color. It is of great hardness and brillian- 
cy, and when perfect and of large size is ex- 
tremely valuable. It is referred to in Scrip- 
ture as one of the gems in the high-priest's 
garment, and also in the imaginative de- 
scriptions of the heavenly city. [Exod. xxiv., 
10; xxviii., 10; xxxix., 11; Job xxviii., 6; 
Ezek. i., 26 ; Rev. xxi., 19.] 

Sarah (princess), the wife of Abraham. 
Her name does not occur in the genealogy, 
and all we know of her birth and parentage 
is the statement of Abraham to Abimelech.^ 
According to this she was his half-sister. 
An ancient and not untrustworthy Jewish 
tradition identifies her with Iscah, the sister 
of Lot. The fact that a marriage between 
a man and his half-sister was forbidden by 
the law has led many Jewish and Christian 
interpreters to think that granddaughter 
should be substituted for daughter in the 
passage referred to. Such marriages, how- 
ever, were common among the heathen na- 
tions of antiquity, and were not forbidden 
by divine command until a later period. 
The leading circumstances in Sarah's life, 
inseparably connected with those in the life 
of Abraham, are elsewhere narrated.^ Her 
treatment of Hagar shows her to have been 
a proud and jealous woman, and her recep- 
tion of the divine promise indicates that 
she had not the same spirit of faith which 
characterized her husband. Her original 
name Sarai {contentious) was hardly an in- 
apt cognomen, but was changed in token of 
the honor to which she was to be raised. 
Nothing is recorded of Sarah in connection 
with the most trying moment of her hus- 
band's life — the attempted offering up of 
Isaac. Perhaps the dreadful secret was kept 
from her, as a burden too great for her to 
bear, till the hour of trial was past. She 
lived to the ripe age of one hundred and 
twenty-seven, about thirty-seven years after 
the birth of Isaac, and was the first to be 
laid in that cave of Machpelah which af- 
terward received the mortal remains of so 
many honored patriarchs. See Abraham; 
Hebron; Ishmael; Hagar. 

Sardis, the ancient capital of the king- 
dom of Lydia, lay in a plain on the small 
river Pactolus, thirty-three miles from Thy- 
atira, and twenty -eight from Philadelphia. 
In the reign of Tiberius it was destroyed 
by an earthquake, but restored by order of 
that emperor. In the eleventh century Sar- 
dis fell into the hands of the Turks, and in 
the thirteenth it was destroyed by Tamer- 
lane. Only a village (Sart) now remains, 
built among the ruins of the ancient city. 
1 Gen. XX., 12.— ^ See Abkauam. 



Sardius, or Sardine, an agate of one col 
or, a clear, bright red, which in modern times 
is best known by the name of carnelian, or 
cornelian. The sardius, or sardine, is a fine 
variety of this stone ; it is of a deep, almost 
blood red, and is prized according to its 
depth of hue and translucency. It is not 
transparent and has no brilliancy, but it 
takes a high polish, and is of all stones the 
best adapted for the purposes of the en- 
graver. 

Sardonyx, a precious stone; like other 
agates, to which class it belongs, a hydrated 
quartz, of a red and pearl color in alternate 
layers. It resembles the onyx, except in 
color. The prefix sard seems to have ob- 
tained among lapidaries the technical meau- 
iug of red ; hence sardonyx would signify the 
red onyx. 

Sargon, an Assyrian king, mentioned only 
once in Scripture.^ Early writers had iden- 
tified him with either Shalmaneser, or Sen- 
nacherib, or Esar-haddon. But the Assyr- 
ian inscriptions prove Sargon to have been 




Glass Yase, bearing the Name of Sargon, from Nim- 
roud. 

distinct from these monarchs, and fix his 
place between Shalmaneser and Sennacherib. 
There is some probability in the supposi- 
tion that, during Shalmaneser's protracted 
absence at the siege of Samaria, Sargon ef- 
fected a revolution and seized the crown. 
It is remarkable that Sargoh claims in his 
first year to have taken Samaria; it may 
therefore be that he is the '' King of Assyr- 
ia" mentioned in Scripture;'^ or perhaps, as 
he had taken possession of the government 
before the siege was over, he claimed the 
capture as his own. The wars of Sargon 
were numerous, and he carried his victori- 
ous arms into many countries. He built 
the famous palace of Khorsabad, the orna- 
mentation of which surpassed the art of his 
I predecessors. Glass, intaglios, and the per- 
: feet enameling of bricks, characterize his 
, reign, which lasted about nineteen years, 
B.C. 721-702. A statue of Sargon has been 
discovered at Cyprus, which is now in the 
1 museum at Berlin. This is supposed to im- 



Isa. XX., 1.— 2 2 Kings xvii., 5, 



SATYES 



849 



SAUL 



ply that the king had prosecuted a success- 
ful war in that islaud. 

Satyrs, a name given, in ancient Greek 
mythology, to a class of beings who are said 
to have resembled goats or rams, and to 
have been noted for love of wine and sensu- 
al pleasures. They inhabited chiefly woods 
and forests. There has been some diiference 
of opinion as to the proper translation of 
the word so rendered in our English Bible. 
Some scholars have translated the word ivild 
goats, in favor of which is the fact that it 
is hardly supposable that Isaiah could give 
countenance to the popular superstition that 
demons inhabited the ruined cities. But the 
same Hebrew word is translated devils in 
Lev. xvii., 7, and 2 Chron. xi., 15, where it is 
clear that objects of idolatrous worship are 
intended. [Isa. xiii., 21 ; xxxiv., 14.] 

Saul {asked for), more accurately Shaul, 
is the name of several persons mentioned in 
sacred history.^ The most important are, 
however, Saul of Tarsus,^ and Saul, the son 
of Kish, the first king of Israel (B.C. 1095- 
1055). The birthplace and genealogy of the 
latter are involved in some uncertainty.^ 
He first appears in sacred history as a young 
man of unusual stature and of prepossessing 
appearance, at a time when the corruption 
of Samuel's sons had rendered the people 
dissatisfied with their form of government 
under the Judges and clamorous for a mon- 
archy. Saul is anointed by divine appoint- 
ment, and, entering one of those schools of 
the prophets which Samuel had instituted, 
received that religious education which was 
esteemed the first qualification for his royal 
position. Thus qualified for the royal dig- 
nity, at a solemn assembly at Mizpeh, Saul 
is designated by lot and received as king, 
not, indeed, without murmur or opposition 
from some few factious spirits, but by the 
unanimous consent of the great majority. 
His first measure was bold and answerable 
to the public expectation, as showing that 
the strength and vigilance of the royal 
power would extend its protection to the 
remotest part of the commonwealth. Na- 
hash, king of the Ammonites, had invaded 
the Transjordauic tribes, and now besieged 
the town of Jabez, in Gilead. He demand- 
ed that the inhabitants should submit to 
have their eyes put out — a revolting act of 
cruelty which he had exacted, as a sign of 
subjection, from all the people he had sub- 
dued. The inhabitants sent in all haste to 
the king for succor. Saul instantly hewed 
a yoke of oxen to pieces, and sent this sign, 
like the fiery cross of the Highlanders, to 
summon all the tribes of Israel. The army 
mustered to the number of three hundred 
and thirty thousand men, and the Ammon- 
ites were totally defeated and dispersed. 



i Gen. xxxvi., 37, 38: xlvi., 10; 1 Chron. i., 48; vi., 
24.-2 See PACi.— 3 Comp. 1 Sam. ix., 1, and 1 Chrou. 
viii., 33. 

54 



This victory was followed by a new and 
more public inauguration of the young king 
at Gilgal, accompanied by solemn religious 
services and a public surrender by Samuel 
of his official authority. 

Some time must have elapsed between the 
nomination of Saul and his active and reg- 
ular administration of the kingly office; he 
was a youth when nominated ; his son Jon- 
athan now appears grown up, a gallant and 
daring warrior. The monarch's first care 
was to form a regular and disciplined army ; 
for the Philistines were mustering the most 
numerous and overpowering host they had 
ever brought into the field. Jonathan began 
the war by attacking a garrison at Geba be- 
fore the preparations were completed. The 
Philistines broke into the country, and, with 
three thousand chariots and six thousand 
horse, swept the whole region. The panic- 
stricken Israelites fled on all sides ; the few 
troops which obeyed the trumpet of Saul 
met at Gilgal. Here Saul, in direct viola- 
tion of the Hebrew constitution and the ex- 
press command of Samuel, took upon him- 
self the priestly function, and offered sacri- 
fice. The union of these two offices in one 
person would either have given an over- 
weening weight to the kingly authority; 
or the religious primacy, instead of main- 
taining its independent dignity, would have 
sunk into a subordinate branch of the royal 
office. Samuel, who, if he offered sacrifice, 
probably assumed that right as belonging 
to the prophetic function, denounced, as the 
penalty of Saul's offense, that the kingdom 
should not be hereditary in his line, but 
pass into that of a man more obedient to 
the divine institutions. In the mean time 
the Philistines overran the territory ; part 
turned southward to the valley near the 
Dead Sea, part to the mountainous country 
of Ephraim, part toward the Jordan as far 
as Ophrah. They seized all the arms, and 
carried away all the smiths in the countrj'', 
forcing the inhabitants to go to their towns 
to get all their larger implements of hus- 
bandry ground, while Saul occupied the 
strong fortress of Gibeah with but six hun- 
dred ill-armed men. From this critical sit- 
uation he was delivered by the adventurous 
exploit of Jonathan.^ 

The battle of Gibeah was followed by a 
successful war with the enemies of Israel 
on all quarters, the most harassing and un- 
conquerable of whom were the wild tribes 
of the desert called the Amalekites. These 
fierce marauders constantly hovered on the 
borders, swelled the Philistine armies, or 
followed in the rear like Tartar hordes, pil- 
laging and massacring ; and, as the Israel- 
ites had no cavalry, retreated without loss 
to the security of their deserts. It was a 
cruel but inevitable policy to carry a war 
of extermination into their country. There 



^ See JoNATUAjj. 



SAUL 



850 



SAUL 



was an old feud of blood between the na- 
tions since their first attack on the Israel- 
ites near Sinai. The war law of nations, 
and necessity, as well as the divine com- 
mand, justified this measure. Even the 
flocks and herds were to be involved in the 
general destruction, lest the scattered fugi- 
tives (for the tribe was not so entirely an- 
nihilated but that it appeared again in force 
during David's residence at Ziklag) should 
re-assemble, and form a new settlement on 
the Israelitish frontier. In the conduct of 
this expedition Saul again transgressed the 
divine commandment ; he reserved the best 
part of the spoil, under the pretext of offer- 
ing it in sacrifice, and spared the life of the 
king. There seems to be an obvious pol- 
icy in this command to destroy all plunder, 
lest the Israelites should have been tempted 
to make marauding excursions upon their 
neighbors, and by degrees be trained up as 
an ambitious and conquering people. This 
danger the lawgiver clearly foresaw, if they 
should fall under a monarchy. Agag, the 
king of the Amalekites, to whom the Jews 
owed long arrears of vengeance for his cru- 
elties to their countrymen, was hewn in 
pieces before the altar by the command of 
Samuel — a fearful example to the merciless 
chieftains of the wild tribes : "As thy sword 
hath made women childless, so shall thy 
mother be childless among women." But 
his repeated acts of disobedience had de- 
stroyed all hope of finding in Saul a relig- 
ious and constitutional king, punctual in his 
conformity to the law of the land and to the 
divine commandment. Another fatal ob- 
jection to his sovereignty and that of his 
race began to display itself; he was seized 
with the worst malady to which mankind is 
subject, and as the paroxysms of his insani- 
ty became more frequent and violent, the 
brave though intractable warrior sunk into 
a moody and jealous tyrant. 

From this time the life of Saul is one un- 
interrupted tragedy. He grows more and 
more moody and violent. His unsuccessful 
pursuit of David, and his growing conviction 
of the truth of Samuel's prophecy, that the 
kingdom should pass from his house to that 
of the son of Jesse, add bitterness to his 
naturally jealous disposition. How far the 
frenzy which possessed him was the conse- 
quence of self-indulgence in evil passions, 
natural as we should call it, and how far it 
was the result of a really diabolical posses- 
sion, a supernatural wickedness, it is not 
easy to judge. Certainly history, which has 
recorded many a royal fall, has recorded few 
more startling or terrible illustrations of 
downward progress than that of Saul. His 
attempt to assassinate David with his own 
hand, his wholesale murder of the house of 
Ahimelech, his massacre of tlie Gibeonites, 
and his vindictive pursuit of David, despite 
his oath, and notwithstanding the sparing 



of his own life,^ all attest the reckless vio- 
lence of his malevolent passions. At length 
the end draws nigh. The Philistines re-en- 
ter the land. The king's courage is gone. 
Samuel is dead. The successor of the high- 
priest has fled the land for his life. To the 
prayers of the apostate king God vouchsafes 
no answer. He appeals to one of that class 
of pretended soothsayers to whose illegal 
traffic he has, by the severity of his meas- 
ures, almost wholly put a stop. At the call 
of the Witch of Endor,^ Samuel either really 
does appear, or seems so to do, only to de- 
nounce against him his defeat and death 
upon the morrow. The prophecy carries 
with it its own fulfillment. The disheart- 
ened king, entering the battle without cour- 
age, infects his army "with his own despair. 
In the bloody battle which ensues,^ Israel 
IS totally defeated ; Jonathan and the oth- 
er sons of Saul are slain. The desperate 
monarch, sorely wounded, falls by his own 
hand.* His faithful armor -bearer shares 
with him his death. His body is found by 
the Philistines, stripped of its armor, and be- 
headed. The armor is hung as a trophy in 
the house of Ashtaroth, his headless trunk 
hung upon the walls of Beth-shau. Thence 
it was soon after rescued by a daring incur- 
sion made by the inhabitants of Jabesh, a 
city beyond Jordan, who, remembering how 
Saul had rescued their city from the cruelty 
of the Ammonites at the commencement of his 
reign, displayed that rarest of virtues, grati- 
tude to a fallen monarch, and adorned the an- 
nals of their country with one of its most noble 
incidents. His reign had lasted forty years.^ 
The curiously contradictory character of 
Saul, and the mournful story of his degener- 
acy and downfall, as it is one of the saddest 
episodes in the Scripture so also it is one of 
the most striking illustrations of the temp- 
tations of ambition, and the dangers which 
attend the unexpected acquisition of power 
by one whose humane virtues are not re-eu- 
forced by genuine piety. The contrast be- 
tween the Saul who hid from the applause 
of the people, and the Saul incensed with a 
spirit of fiendish jealousy at the praises sung 
to David's honor — between the Saul who 
would suff'er no man of those who opposed 
his coronation to be put to death, and the 
Saul who slew ruthlessly the fourscore and 
five priests,® would seem incredible, were it 
not, unfortunately, paralleled in too many 
and too well authenticated instances to be 
at all extraordinary, however surprising. 
See David ; Jonathan ; Witch of Endor ; 
Gibeah; GiLBOA. [1 Sam. ix.-xxxi.] 



1 1 Sam. xix., 15 ; xxii., 9-19 ; 2 Sara, xxii., 1. See Da- 
vid.— ^ See, for a discussiou of this scene, Witch of 
Endoe.— 3 See Giluoa.— « 1 Sam. xxxi,, 4. There is 
no reason to suppose that the Amalekite's story, 2 
Sam. i.,7-10, is true, though Dean Milman's hypothesis 
may be true, that the self-inflicted wound was not 
mortal, and the work begun by Saul was completed by 
the Amalekites.— 6 Acts xiii., 21.— « Comp. 1 Sam. x., 
22; xviii., 8; xi., 13; xxii., IT, 18. 



SCAPE-GOAT 



851 



SCHOOLS 



Scape -goat, one of the two goats pre- 
sented at the door of the tabernacle of the 
congregation on the Day of Atonement.^ On 
that day expiation was made for the sins 
of the nation. For this purpose two goats 
were selected as near alike in size, form, 
and color as possible ; they were brought to 
the Temple ; the priest chose by lot between 
them ; the one was killed as a sin-offering 
for the people ; the high-priest carried some 
of its blood into the most Holy Place, and 
sprinkled it before the mercy-seat, then, com- 
ing from behind the vail, made atonement for 
the Holy Place because of the uncleanness 
of Israel. The remaining goat was then 
brought out, a piece of scarlet cloth, typical 
of the sins of the people, was bound upon it, 
and the priest, laying both his hands upon 
its head, confessed over it the sins of the 
congregation. It was then led off into the 
wilderness, where it was set free, and seen 
no more. The significance of the whole 
service was unmistakable. By the death of 
the victim the sins of the people were borne 
away and lost to sight forever; and since 
one animal could not both carry them away 
and be slain on the altar, two were taken to 
typify the one truth. 

Scholastics, Scholasticism. The term 
scholastic, or school -men, is applied to a 
class of theologians who flourished in the 
Middle Ages, and who taught a philosophy, 
the fundamental principle of which was that 
religious truth could be reduced to a perfect 
and complete philosophical system. Their 
name is derived from the fact that they orig- 
inated as a sect of philosophers in the schools 
instituted by and after Charlemagne for the 
education of the clergy. As the tendency 
of the Mystics (q. v.) was to give religious 
truth the aspect of a dream, so the tendency 
of the school-men was to reduce it to a mere 
system of philosophy. Their intellectual 
method led to various subtle reasonings for 
the purpose of explaining the mysteries of 
divine redemption; but their explanations 
have been, for the most part, long since aban- 
doned, and the study of their writings is of 
very little profit, except to the professional 
student of ecclesiastical history. But though 
the old scholasticism has entirely disappear- 
ed, wherever religion takes on a purely in- 
tellectual type the scholastic tendency re- 
appears." 

Schools. In this article we propose to 
give a brief account of schools and systems 
of education only so far as they have a bear- 
ing on religious questions. We shall, there- 
fore, first give our readers an account of 
Jewish schools in Bible times ; and, second- 
ly, state the present problem in respect to 
religious training in schools, and briefly in- 
dicate the solutions proposed in this and in 
other countries. 

I. Jewish Schools. — By the laws of Moses 



^ Lev. xvi. See Atonement (Day of). 



the duty of education was first devolved 
upon the parents, who were strictly enjoin- 
ed to instruct their offspring in the precepts 
of the Law, in the fear of God, and in the 
meaning of certain symbolical services which 
represented the dealings of Providence with 
their nation in past days, and which Avere 
evidently designed to excite the curiosity 
of the children, and to elicit inquiry. This 
work of education was to be prosecuted at 
all times ; no opportunity was to be lost ; 
the father was enjoined, in sitting down with 
his family at the table, at home, abroad, be- 
fore retiring in the evening, and after get- 
ting up in the morniug, to train his children 
in the nurture and admonition of the Lord.^ 
In addition, Moses established a Levitical 
order, a part of whose duty it was to in- 
struct the people in the Law on great state 
occasions, and who, later, scattered through 
Palestine in every town and village, taught 
them and their children by private cate- 
chetical instruction. An order of prophets 
was provided, of which he was himself the 
first, who fulfilled the double function of 
the modern press and the modern pulpit.'^ 
That reading and writing must have form- 
ed part of education from the settlement of 
the Jews in Palestine, is evident from the 
fact that the Israelites were commanded to 
write the precepts of the Law upon the door- 
posts and gates of their respective houses. 
Arithmetic, too, must have been taught, as 
the days of the week, the months, the fes- 
tivals, etc., were not designated by proper 
names, but by numerals. The numbers oc- 
curring in the O. T. reach to hundreds of 
thousands ; and we have, moreover, instances 
of addition, subtraction, multiplication, and 
division.^ It is true that the word " school" 
does not occur in the Bible previous to 
the Babylonish Captivity ; still teachers 
and teaching are referred to. Bezaleel and 
Aholiab were qualified by God as teach- 
ers in certain departments ; the Psalmist 
speaks of his having had many teachers ; 
both teachers and pupils are mentioned in 
connection with the Temple choir ; and the 
prophets delivered public lectures on the fes- 
tivals, and instructed young men who aspired 
to a better education, in order to fit them- 
selves for public service.* The schools of the 
prophets established by Samuel^ appear to 
have afforded a somewhat definitely organ- 
ized system of instruction. School-houses, in 
the common use of that term, appear to date 
from the restoration of the Jews. In the Cap- 
tivity, the exiles had to a great extent for- 
gotten their vernacular Hebrew, and they be- 
came incompetent to understand their sa- 



1 Exod. xii., 26, 27 ; xiii., 8-14, 15 ; Deut. iv., 9, 10 ; vi., 
8, 9, 20, etc. ; xxxi., 13 ; xxxii., 46.-2 Deut. xxxi., 9-13; 
xxxii. , 10 ; 2 Chron . xvii., 8, 9 ; xxx., 22 ; xxxv. , 3 ; Neh. 
viii., 5-8.-3 Lev. xxv., 27-50 ; xxvii., 16, 18 ; Numb, i., 
22, etc.; iii., 19-43, 46-50; xxvi., 7; Deut. vi., 9.-4 1 
Sam. X., 5-10, etc. ; 2 Kings ii., 8 ; iv., 22, 23, 38 ; vi., 1, 
etc. ; 1 Chron. xv., 22; xxv., 8.— ^ See Pbophets. 



SCHOOLS 



852 



SCHOOLS 



cred oracles. Ezra, therefore, immediately 
on their return to Jerusalem, gathered around 
him those who were skilled in the law, and, 
with their assistance, trained a number of 
public teachers. The less distinguished of 
these teachers went into the provincial towns 
of Judea, where they gathered disciples and 
formed synagogues, while the more accom- 
plished of them remained in Jerusalem, be- 
came members of the great synagogue, and 
collected large numbers of young men, whom 
they instructed in the law, the prophets, and 
the sayings of the sages of old. At the time 
of Christ every synagogue had its school ; 
for every twenty-five children a teacher was 
required ; the books studied were the Bible 
and the commentaries of the scribes thereon. 
Thus the common people of Palestine were 
taught reading and writing, and were in- 
structed in the principles and precepts of 
their law, so that a far larger proportion of 
the people could read and write in Palestine 
in the days of Christ than in England in the 
days of Henry the Eighth. The unlearned 
fishermen by the Sea of Galilee were not ab- 
solutely illiterate. Few were the Jews who 
could not read their own Scriptures. In ad- 
dition to the Scripture and the commen- 
taries, arithmetic was also taught, and oc- 
casionally some little knowledge of natural 
history and physical science. In addition 
to these parish schools were the schools of 
the scribes, the descendants of the schools of 
the prophets, and the forerunners of our own 
colleges and theological seminaries. Here 
the degenerate scribes were taught the theo- 
logical dialectics of the time, and so, accord- 
ing to the popular notion, were prepared for 
the ministry of the Word. From them pro- 
ceeded those traditions and ceremonial re- 
finements against which Christ later brought 
the whole influence of his life and teaching 
to bear.^ These schools were mostly at Je- 
rusalem. It was such a school that Paul at- 
tended when he sat at the feet of Gamaliel, 
and it was probably the teachers of some of 
these schools whom Jesus astonished, when 
a boy, by his questions and answers in the 
Temple. The mode in which instruction 
was communicated in them was chiefly cate- 
chetical. After the master had delivered his 
theme, the disciples in turn asked different 
questions, which he frequently answered by 
parables or counter-questions, a line of con- 
duct also pursued by Christ, in accordance 
with the customs of the times. 

II. Bihle in ScJiools. — Though we entitle 
this division of our subject thus, because it 
is the title given to the popular discussion 
of the question respecting religious educa- 
tion at the present day, the title is not ade- 
quate. There are, in reality, two distinct 
theories respecting education, the Repub- 
lican or Protestant, and the Ecclesiastical. 
The latter holds that it is the duty of the 



See Teaditions ; Talmud ; Puariseb. 



Church to educate, and that education should 
be remitted entirely to her. This is the the- 
ory of the Roman Catholic Church, though 
not entertained perhaps by all Roman Cath- 
olics, nor even pronounced dogmatically by 
any council or decree. The other theory is 
that it is the business of the State to provide 
for the education of the people, because its 
prosperity and welfare depends on their ed- 
ucation. The Roman Catholic Church main- 
tains that education, to be complete, must 
include instruction in religious and theolog- 
ical truth, and that only the Church is com- 
petent to instruct on these subjects. Prot- 
estants, or, to speak more accurately. Re- 
publicans, hold that a distinction may be 
drawn between theological and secular 
matters, and that secular education may be 
afforded by the State, and theological in- 
struction by the Church. In all Roman 
Catholic countries, i. e., in all countries 
where the Roman Catholic Church exer- 
cises a political supremacy and control, there 
is no public, i. e., no governmental school 
system.* Education is provided only in 
parish schools under the direction and con- 
trol of the parish priest, and is to a large ex- 
tent theological, i. e., it consists largely of 
instruction in the rites, ceremonies, and doc- 
trines of the Church. In Protestant coun- 
tries there is no uniformity of practice. Most 
Protestants agree with the Roman Catholics 
in so far as to hold that education, to be 
complete, should embrace some general in- 
struction in the precepts and principles of 
the Christian religion, and various attempts 
have been made to afford such instruction 
without embracing doctrines of a sectarian 
character. In Holland, whence we have 
largely borrowed our civil and religious in- 
stitutions, the schools are carefully guarded 
from all sectarian influence. The teachers, 
though giving general religious instruction, 
are forbidden to teach the doctrines of any 
particular denomination. Calvinist and Lu- 
theran, Armiuiau and Socinian, Protestant 
and Catholic, unite in the common school. 
In Switzerland, and generally throughout 
Germany, a similar result is attained by dif- 
ferent means; for though education in Chris- 
tian doctrine is there afforded in the schools, 
the hours for religious and secular instruc- 
tion are car^fnlly kept separate, and the re- 
ligious instruction is imparted by the pas- 
tors of the congregations to which the pu- 
pils severally belong. In Ireland, for many 
years, the schools were under the control of 
the Church of England, and the children of 
the Roman Catholics, who constituted six- 
sevenths of the population, were practical- 
ly excluded. At length, after nearly thir- 

1 Since this sentence was written education has 
been taken out of the hands of the clerey in Austria, 
and partially so in Italy and France; but this is not 
because the Roman Catholic Church has changed, but 
because it has lost, or is losing, its political suprem- 
acy. 



SCHWENKFELDERS 



853 



SCORPION 



ty years of agitation, an unsectarian Board 
of Education was established, representing 
Protestants, Catholics, Orthodox, and Uni- 
tarians, under whose direction a system of 
national schools has been organized free 
from ecclesiastical control. In England, un- 
til recently, education was left mainly to 
churches. Recent attempts have been made 
to establish a public school system there 
upon a principle of compromise, which al- 
lows the Church schools to draw their ratio 
of school money, provided they will submit 
to a certain degree of supervision from the 
State. In this country the public school 
system is regulated by State laws, and is not, 
therefore, the same in different States. In 
the South there was not, prior to the Civil 
"War, any very general public school system, 
the scattered nature of the population render- 
ing it difficult, if not impossible, to sustain 
one ; but public school systems have been es- 
tablished there since the war. For a time 
there appeared to be in this country a kind 
of tacit agreement that all sects would unite 
in a popular system of education, and that, 
to provide for the religious wants of the 
child, the Bible should be read in the schools 
without note or comment. The Roman 
Catholic priesthood have, however, objected 
to this of late years, as a proceeding which 
tends to Protestantism, while they at the 
same time do not hesitate to say that, if the 
Bible is excluded from the schools, the effect 
Avill be to make them godless and irreligious. 
In brief, their objection is to any principle 
which intrusts the education of the children 
of their parishes to secular agencies, and 
provides for them a free schooling at the 
expense of the State. It should be added 
that a small but influential body of Protest- 
ants advocate the removal of the Bible from 
the public schools, wherever the demand is 
made for its removal, and the jirovision only 
of secular instruction in public schools, leav- 
ing all religious training to the home, the 
Church, and the Sabbath-school. 

Sch-wenkfelders, a denomination of 
Christians which arose in Silesia in the six- 
teenth century, deriving its name from its 
founder, Caspar Schwenkfeld von Ossing. 
He took a lively interest in the success of 
the Reformation, and held the chief Reform- 
ers in the highest respect, but differed from 
them in some doctrinal points. For '^ This is 
my body," he read, " My body is this," that 
is, such as this bread, a true and real food, 
nourishing, satisfying, and invigorating the 
soul. He denied that the external word 
possessed any power to enlighten and renew 
the mind, but maintained that all power of 
this kind was to be ascribed to the internal 
word, which, in his opinion, was Christ him- 
self. Schwenkfeld often declared his un- 
willingness to form a separate sect ; but af- 
ter his death, in 1562, numbers were found to 
have embraced his views, who were subject- 



ed to severe persecution at the hands of the 
established clergy, who were Lutherans. 
At length, having become a religious de- 
nomination of some importance, they at- 
tracted the attention of the Jesuits, at whose 
instigation a peremptory edict was promul- 
gated, in consequence of which a number 
of families fled into Saxony, in 1725, where 
they remained for eight years, at the end of 
which they emigrated to Altona, in Den- 
mark, whence they sailed to Pennsylvania, 
in North America. On reaching their Trans- 
atlantic home, the Schwenkfelders held a fes- 
tival in gratitude for the divine goodness 
and protection; and since that period (1734) 
this commemorative festival has been annu- 
ally observed. The sect numbers about one 
thousand, all of them Germans, conducting 
public worship in their native language. 
Their pastors are chosen by lot, and they 
maintain a strict church discipline. 

Scorpion, a well-known venomous ani- 
mal, which is twice mentioned in the O. T., 
and four times in the N. T.^ The wilderness 
of Sinai is especially alluded to as being in- 
habited by scorpions at the time of the Ex- 
odus, and to this day they abound in the 




Scorpion. 

same district, as well as in some parts of 
Palestine.^ The sting often occasions much 
suffering, though it is not often fatal. 

The "scorpions" mentioned in the rash 
answer given by Rehoboam to IsraeP were 
whips, which consisted of several thongs, 
each of which was loaded with knobs of 
metal, and tipped with a metal hook, so 

1 Deut. viii., 15; Ezek. ii., 6; Luke x., 19; xi., 12; 
Rev. ix., 3, 5, 10. — 2 Josh, xv., 3. See Akeabuim.— ^ 
3 2 Chron. x., 11, 14. 



SCOUEGING 



854 



SEASON 



that it resembled the jointed and hooked 
tail of the scorpion. This terrible instni- 
ment was made for the express purpose of 
punishing slaves,, so that the mere mention 
of it was an insult. i 

Scourging, a practice sanctioned by the 
Romish Church, and which they usually 
term disci2)line, whereby an individual, for 
the mortifying of the flesh, voluntarily 
scourges himself. Such an exercise of vol- 
untary penance is resorted to in many mon- 
asteries at regular intervals, frequently as 
often as three times a week, and in many 
cases much oftener. The practice is also 
regularly performed at Rome on particular 
days during the time of Lent. The service 
is said, by an eye-witness,^ to have com-, 
menced, on one occasion, about an hour af- 
ter sunset, about iive hundred men being 
present in the spacious church of the Cara- 
vita. After a sermon, during which the 
lights were extinguished, a bell rang, and 
there was a slight bustle, as if those pres- 
ent were removing part of their dress: a 
second bell rang, and the flagellation com- 
menced: it lasted fully a c^uarter of an hour. 
To judge from the sounds, some used the 
whips, and others their hands. The gToan- 
ing and crying were horrible. When the 
flagellation ceased prayers were read, dur- 
ing which the penitents put on their clothes 
and composed their countenances. Lights 
were brought in, and the congregation dis- 
missed with the usual benediction. The 
use of the scourge in self-torture was com- 
mon in the heathen religions of antiquity ; 
and the ascetics of all heathen systems are 
accustomed to make use of this mode of self- 
discipline, i 

L'nder the Roman law, scourging preceded 
crucifixion. The scourge was made with 
thongs of leather loaded with sharp pieces 
of metal, and cut at every stroke a bloody • 
farrow in the quivering flesh. The victim 
often ex]3ired under the terrible torture. 

Scribes (writers). This term, which is 
sometimes used in the O. T. to designate 
certain officers whose duty it was to keep 
the official records of the kingdom, or to act 
as private secretaries of distinguished indi- 
viduals, is employed in the X. T.. generally 
in combination with the word Pharisees, to 
designate a class of scholastics who were at 
once the recorders and the expounders of the 
oral traditions which constituted so large a 
IDroportion of the Jewish literature of the 
first century. They took the ph^ce, though 
they did not fulfill the functions, of the 
ancient prophets. They copied the law, at 
a later date wrote commentaries upon it, 
taught the Scriptures and the oral tradi- 
tions in schools established throughout the i 
land, engaged with each other in fruitless 
and often heated discussions, and were, in 
short, the theologians and literati of the 

1 "Faiths of the World," art. Flagellation. 



Church and the literature of Pharisaism. 
See Pharisees ; Taeznitd. 

Scythian. The Scythians were the wild 
nomadic tribes who, like the more modern 
Tartars, roamed over the regions of Asia 
north of the Black and Caspian seas. They 
were most probably the descendants of Ma- 
gog, and were known to the Israelites under 
that name. The term is used by St. Paul in 
Col. iii., 11, to illustrate the large mercy of 
God. free to every nation. 

Seal. The use of seals is of very great 
antiquity. They were sometimes worn, like 
Judah"s,^ suspended (as is now customary in 
Persia) by a cord or lace upon the breast; 
sometimes the signet was in a finger-ring 
placed on the right hand.^ As these seals 
were indispensable articles for use, and also 
were prized as ornaments, they became the 
symbol of any thing particularly precious.^ 
The art of graving upon seals was also ear- 
ly known.'* Modern Oriental seals have usu- 
ally the name of the owner on them, and oft- 
en a sentence from the 
Koran. An impression 
of the seal, made, per- 
haps, by means of a 
kind of India int. 
served them, as now. 
for the signature of the 
individual. Hence in 
Scripture times seals 
were used to authen- 
ticate documents, for ^ „„,. <• c i • 

„ ' ^ Impressions of Seals m 
the security of deeds Clay. Assvrian. From 
or writings which were originals in British Ma- 
put in sealed bags, and " ™" 
for the fastening of doors or gates, which 
were first secured by some ligament, over 
which properly-prepared clay was put.- and 
the seal impressed. ° Hence, too, the deliv- 
ery of such a ring by a sovereign to a court- 
ier invested him with authority.® Among 
the most interesting discoveries which re- 
cent investigations have brought to light in 
the East are some of these ancient seals of 
monarchs and others, illustrations of some 
of which accompany this article. 

Season. Two seasons are mentioned in 
the Bible — '-summer" and "winter." The 
former properly means the time of cutting 
fruits, the latter that of gathering fruits; 
they are, therefore, originally rather sum- 
mer and autumn than summer and winter. 
But that they signify ordinarily the two 
grand divisions of the year — the warm and 
cold seasons — is evident from their use for 
the whole year in the expression, " summer 
and winter."' Since little rain falls in the 
summer, it is called the dry season, in con- 
trast to the rainy season of winter. Hence 

1 Gen. xxxviii., IS.— ^ Geo. xli., 42 ; Jer. xxii., 24.— 

3 Sol. Sods viii., 6: Haj:. ii., 23.—^ Exod. xxviii., 11.— 
5 Dent, xxxii.. 34: 1 Kiries xxi.. S; Job xiv., 17: Jer. 
xxxii., 11. 14: Dan. vi., 1": Mart, xxvii., 66.— « Gen. 
xli.. 42 : Esth. iii., 10; viii., 2, S.— ■ Gen. viii., 22 ; Psa. 
Ixxiv., IT ; Zech. xiv., S. 




SEBA 



855 



SECRET DISCIPLINE 



the " drought of summer " is spoken of in 
Psalm sxxii., 4. The whole period from Oc- 
tober to March now constitutes only one 
continued season of rain, without any reg- 
ularly intervening term of prolonged fine 
weather. Unless, therefore, there has been 
some change in the climate, the early and 
the latter rains for which the husbandman 
waited with longing probably implied the 
first showers of autumn, which revived the 
parched and thirsty soil, and prepared it for 
the seed, and the later showers of spring, 
which continued to refresh and forward both 
the ripening crops and the vernal products 
of the fields.^ 

The accompanying diagram, taken from 
" The New Biblical Atlas," published by the 
American Sunday-school Union, presents in 
one view the progress of the seasons, the 
general bearings of the wind, the prevail- 
ing weather, and the range of temperature 
throughout the year. 



tributary of the Nile and the " Blue River," 
the eastern of its two great confluents. It 
was a rich and fertile district. [Gen. x., 7 ; 
1 Chron. i., 9 ; Psa. Ixxii., 10 ; Isa. xliii., 3 ; 
xlv., 14.] 

Seceders, the name given to a branch of 
the Presbyterian Church in Scotland, which 
seceded from the Established Church of 
Scotland, owing to a controversy respecting 
the right of patronage. It was afterward 
amalgamated with the Relief churches, the 
two constituting the United Presbyterian 
Church of Scotland. See, for account of 
history and principles, art. Presbyterians. 

Secret Discipline, a term used to describe 
a practice which early crept into the Chris- 
tian Church of concealing from the knowl- 
edge of the catechumens, or candidates, for 
admission into the Church what were term- 
ed the sacred mysteries. During a certain 
portion of religious worship all were allow- 
ed to attend ; and when this ordinary part 




Seba, the eldest son of Cush, whose de- 
scendants constituted a nation three Unfies 
referred to in the Bible. These . references 
indicate that they constituted a nation of 
Africa, bordering on or included in Cush, 
and, in Solomon's time, independent and of 
political importance. Their territory may, 
perhaps, be identified with the island of Me- 
roe, which lav between the most northern 



Prov. xvi., 15 : Jas. v., 7. 



of the service was closed, and the sacrament 
AS as about to be administered, the catechu- 
mens and uninitiated of every description 
were dismissed by one of the deacons, who 
said, "l^e missa esV^ — "Go, the assembly is 
dismissed." Hence, it has been supposed, 
originated the word mass, being a corrup- 
tion of missa. Believers were strictly for- 
bidden to explain the manner in which the 
ordinance was administered, to mention the 



SECT 



856 



SECT 



words used in the solemnity, or even to de- 
scribe the simple elements of which it con- 
sisted. The ministers in their sermons made 
only distant allusions to these mysteries, re- 
serving the full unfolding of them for those 
occasions when the faithful alone were pres- 
ent. The origin of this is probably to be 
traced to a desire on the part of early Chris- 
tians to accommodate themselves to the pre- 
vious habits of the converts from heathen- 
ism, who had been accustomed to the observ- 
ance of rites in which the whole was wrap- 
ped in impenetrable darkness. This prac- 
tice was one of the influences which led to 
the substitution of transubstantiation and 
the worship of the host for those simple 
views and practices which characterized the 
ordinance as instituted by our Lord and ob- 
served by the Apostolic Church. 

Sect. This word is derived from the 
Latin word secta, cut off, and is analogous 
to the word sdtism, being derived from a 
Greek word having the same meaning. It 
was applied originally by the Roman Cath- 
olic Church to all those religious bodies 
which separated from her communion, but 
has come now to be generally employed by 
Protestants, in no opprobrious sense, to sig- 
nify the various ecclesiastical organizations 
into which the Protestant churches are di- 
vided. The spirit of sectarianism signi- 
fies, however, that spirit which makes more 
of the sect or organization than of the cause 
of Christ, and may be as characteristic of a 
Roman Catholic as of a Protestant church. 
There have been from time to time a great 
number of sects, separating often on points 
of no importance, from some other church 
organization. The more important of Chris- 
tian sects are treated of in separate articles. 
Some of those which have long since perish- 
ed, and are of no historic importance, are not 
treated of at all. We here group such minor 
sects as seem to require mention and defini- 
tion, but nothing more. It should be added 
that, with respect to certain sects belonging 
to the first centuries, we have no other infor- 
mation than such as is afforded by their foes, 
who were not always scrupulous in their theo- 
logical warfare, and that the inimical reports 
of their faith and practice which we possess 
are to be taken with considerable allowance. 

Adalbertines (France, eighth century), 
a Christian sect, followers of Adalbert, a 
French bishop who resisted papal suprem- 
acy. 

Adamites (Northern Africa, second and 
third centuries). They tjlaimed to possess 
the primitive innocence of Adam, and, in 
imitation of his original condition, are said 
to have appeared naked in their religious 
assemblages. 

Adoptionists (Spain, eighth century). 
They held that Jesus was by birth possess- 
ed of human nature merely, but was adopted 
as a Son of God at his baptism. 



Aerians (fourth century), a reforming 
sect, who maintained that a presbyter, or 
elder, does not differ from a bishop in au- 
thority — a view now entertained by all non- 
episcopal churches. They also repudiated 
prayer for the dead. Their name was de- 
rived from their leader, Aerius. 

Agnoet^ (ignorant), two sects, one in 
the fourth century which denied the om- 
niscience of God, and the other in the sixth, 
which denied the omniscience of Christ. 

Albanenses (eighth century). They de- 
nied the divinity of Jesus Christ, rejected 
the doctrine of the resurrection, affirmed 
that the general judgment was past, and 
that the only punishment of sin consists of 
the evils we feel and suffer in this life. 

Albati (Italy, fourth century), hermits, 
so called from the white linen garments 
which they wore. They appear to have ad- 
vocated a reform in religion, though their 
character is involved in some dispute. 

Allenites (eighteenth century), follow- 
ers of one Henry Allen, in Nova Scotia, who 
held that the souls of the whole human race 
are parts of one great Spirit, and were aU 
present in Eden and actually engaged in the 
first transgression. 

Almaricians (thirteenth century). They 
asserted that the power of the Father con- 
tinued only during the Mosaic dispensation, 
that of the Son only twelve hundred years 
after his entrance upon earth, and that in 
the thirteenth century the era of the Holy 
Spirit commenced, in which the sacraments 
and all external acts of worship were to be 
abolished. They are also termed Almeri- 
cians, Amalricians, and Anatauricians. 

Alombrados (Spain, seventeenth centu- 
ry). They considered neither the sacra- 
ments nor good works necessary, and reject- 
ed the ministerial office. 

Bardesanists (second century), a mystic, 
fatalistic sect, who denied the resurrection, 
and the incarnation and death of Jesus 
Christ. 

Barlaamites (Italy, sixteenth century), 
followers of Barlaam, who held certain pe- 
culiar views respecting the nature of the 
divine essence and attributes, maintaining 
that the difference in those attributes exist- 
ed not in fact, but only in our conceptions. 

Behmenists (Germany, sixteenth centu- 
ry), a class of mystics who followed the 
teachings of Jacob Behmen. 

Bereans (Scotland, eighteenth century), 
dissenters from the Church of Scotland, who 
held substantially the doctrines of Calvin- 
ism, with some unimportant modifications. 
They take their name from the inhabitants 
of Berea, claiming, like them, to build their 
system upon the Sciiptures alone, without 
regard to. human authority. 

Berengarians (eleventh century). They 
denied the doctrine of transubstantiation, 
but their views respecting the nature of the 



SECT 



857 



SECT 



elements in the communion are somewhat 
uncertain. 

BiDDELiANS (seventeenth century), fol- 
lowers of John Biddle, who held Socinian 
views, but of a peculiar character. 

BoGOMiLES (twelfth century). They re- 
jected the ritual system of the Church, and 
adopted certain mystical views in respect to 
the Trinity, the character of Satan, and the 
work and character of Jesus Christ. 

BoRELLiSTS, an austere sect in Holland, 
who rejected all sacraments and other acts 
of public worship. 

Burgher Seceders (eighteenth centu- 
ry), a minor sect of the Scotch Presbyterian 
Church. 

Carolostadians (Germany, sixteenth cen- 
tury), a reformed sect, followers of Carolo- 
stadt, so called from his birthplace, who de- 
nied the Lutheran doctrine of consubstan- 
tiation (q. v.), and maintained that the bread 
and wine in the communion were only sym- 
bols of Christ, a view now generally accept- 
ed by most Protestants. 

Christadelphiaxs (England and Ameri- 
ca, nineteenth century), a Millenarian sect, 
who believe in the literal second coming of 
our Lord, and disbelieve in the immortality of 
all except the followers of Christ, who, thej^ 
think, will rise from the dead and reign on 
this earth with him. 

Circoncelliones, a fanatical sect of Afri- 
ca, who committed innumerable cruelties and 
bloodshed during the reign of Constantine. 

Cocceians (Holland, seventeenth centu- 
ry), followers of Cocceius, who interpreted 
the O. T. history as a prefiguring or pro- 
phetic account of the history of the Chris- 
tian Church. 

CoLLEGiAJS^TS, an Arminian sect of Hol- 
land, somewhat analogous to the Plymouth 
Brethren in their principles and methods 
of worship. The only test of admission to 
the society is belief in the Bible and a sin- 
cere allegiance to it. Their religious meet- 
ings are in the nature of prayer-meetings, 
in which all participate. They have no set- 
tled pastor. Baptism is performed only by 
immersion. 

Daxeites (Scotland, eighteenth century), 
followers of Mr. Dale, Congregationalists in 
government, and substantially Sandemani- 
ans (q. v.) in doctrine. 

Dajvhaxists (sixth century), a sect enter- 
taining substantially the same views of the 
Trinity as the Sabellians. 

Dancers (Low Countries, fourteenth cen- 
tury), enthusiasts who employed, as do the 
Shakers of the present day, dancing as a 
prominent feature in their religious exer- 
cises. 

DoRRELiTES (Massachusetts, eighteenth 
century), followers of Mr. Dorrell, who 
taught that the resurrection was not literal, 
but only a resurrection from sin and spirit- 
ual death to holiness and life. 



DoRiTHEAXS (first ccutury), followers of 
Doritheus, a Samaritan, who pretended to 
be the Messiah. 

Drabricians (Hungary, seventeenth cen- 
tury), followers of Drabrik, a pretended 
prophet, who was put to death by the Ro- 
man Catholic Church, whose speedy de- 
struction he had foretold. 

Erastians (Germany, sixteenth century), 
followers of Erastus, who denied all author- 
ity, except that of moral influence, to the 
clergy, and all power of ecclesiastical disci- 
pline to the Church, and opened the Lord's 
Supper to all who desired to partake of it. 
His views did not differ very widely from 
those entertained at the present day by 
many Protestants. 

EUCHITES (Syria, fourth century). They 
are also variously called AdelpMans, Cho- 
rentes, Enthusiasts, Lamjjetians, and Messali- 
ans. They were ascetics and mystics, and 
gave themselves up wholly to prayer and 
meditation. They also held other mystical 
views of a gnostic nature. Their views 
were taken up again by a sect bearing the 
same name (which is derived from the Greek 
word eueliej prayer), in the eleventh century, 
in the Greek Church. These last gave rise 
to the Bogonales, mentioned above. 

EuxoMiANS, an Aiian sect of the fourth 
century. They held that the Son was en- 
tirely different in nature from the Father, 
and that the Holy Ghost was created by the 
Father through the agency of the Son. 

EusEBiANS (fourth century), a sect of 
semi-Arians. See Arians. 

Familists (sixteenth century), a sect orig- 
inating in Holland, and extending to En- 
gland. They held that the whole of relig- 
ion consists in love, and that doctrinal views 
are of no consequence. The full name of 
this sect was Family of Love. It ceased to 
exist as an independent sect in the seven- 
teenth century. 

FarnobiajSTS (Poland, sixteenth century), 
a Socinian sect of short duration. See So- 
cikians. 

GAI.ENISTS (Holland, sixteenth century), a 
sect of the Mennonites (q. v.). Their found- 
er, Galenus, held that all should be admit- 
ted to the Church who accepted the Scrip- 
tures and obeyed its practical precepts, what- 
ever their doctrinal opinions. He was also 
accused of holding Socinian views, but was 
tried and acquitted. 

Glassites (Scotland, eighteenth century), 
a Congregational or Independent sect, fol- 
lowers of John Glass, and merged in the 
Sandemanians (q. v.). See, also, Coxgre- 

GATIOXAI.ISTS. 

Halcyons (America, nineteenth century). 
They reject all creeds, deny the doctrine of 
the Trinity and of eternal punishment, main- 
taining the annihilation of the wicked. They 
baptize only adults. 

Haxdanites (Scotland, nineteenth centu- 



SECT 



858 



SECT 



ry), followers of Eobert and James Haldane, 
seceders from the ScotchPresbyterian Church. 
They have since become absorbed in the 
Congregational and Baptist denominations. 

Hattemists (Holland, seventeenth centu- 
ry), a sect of extreme Calvinists, fatalists in 
doctrine, and novr extinct. 

Henricians (twelfth century), a sect of 
reformers in the Roman Catholic Church, 
taking their name from their leader, Henry, 
a monk. His preaching resembled that of 
the later reformers in its unsparing attack 
on the corruptions of the British Church. 
The sect perished with its leader; but the 
doctrines it maintained were revived by 
later reformers. 

HoFFMAJsriTES (Germany, nineteenth cen- 
tury), a sect who held Millenarian views, 
believing that the second comiug of Christ 
is near. In 1854 they made some prepara- 
tion to emigrate to Palestine as a prepara- 
tion for that event, but we believe that no 
actual emigration has taken place. 

HuNTiNGTONiAJsrs (England, eighteenth 
and nineteenth centuries), a sect of Antino- 
mians, agreeing substantially with the views 
of Dr. Crisp ; for which, see article Antino- 

MIANTS. 

HuTCHiNSONiANS (England, eighteenth 
century), followers of John Hutchinson, who 
interpreted the Scripture in a typical and 
symbolical sense, somewhat analogous to 
that employed by the Swedenborgians (q. 
V.) in their doctrine of Correspondences. 

Inghamites (England, eighteenth and 
nineteenth centuries), followers of Benja- 
min Ingham. In doctrine and church gov- 
ernment they partake of the combined char- 
acter of the Methodists, Congregationalists, 
and Moravians. In 1851 they reported but 
nine congregations. 

Joachimites (twelfth century), followers 
of Joachim, a Roman Catholic abbot, a mys- 
tical writer, and an assailant of the corrup- 
tion of the papacy. 

Johnsonians (England, eighteenth cen- 
tury), a Calvinistic sect, followers of John 
Johnson. The sect is now extinct. 

JORISTS (Holland, fifteenth century), an 
Anabaptist sect, so called from its founder, 
David Jorist. 

Jumpers, a name given to a certain sect 
who practiced leaping and dancing in their 
religious assemblies. The practice appears 
to have commenced in Wales (1760) in a re- 
ligious revival. It was afterward maintain- 
ed in certain revivals in the Western and 
South-western States in the United States. 

Keithians (United States, seventeenth 
century), a sect of Friends, or Quakers, fol- 
lowers of George Keith, and seceders from 
the main body. The sect is now nearly or 
quite extinct. 

' Khornthal( Society of), a religious com- 
munity of Wiirtemberg, somewhat analo- 
gous in discipline to the Moravians. 



Labadists (Holland, seventeenth centu- 
ry), mystics, so called from their leader, 
John Labadie. 

Lampetians, the name of two sects — one, 
in the early Church, who observed the Sab- 
bath as a fast ; the other, followers of one 
Lampetias (seventeenth century), who de- 
nied the lawfulness of entering into monas- 
tic vows. 

LuciANiSTS (fourteenth century), a sect of 
semi-Arians. 

LuciFERiANS (fourth ccutury), followers 
of Lucifer, and intense foes of the Arians. 
They refused to receive back into the Church 
Arian ecclesiastics, even though the latter 
acknowledged their errors. 

Macedonians (fourth century). They 
admitted the divinity of Christ, but denied 
that of the Holy Spirit. 

Meletians, a name given to two sects — 
one in Antioch (fourth century), growing 
out of the Arian controversy ; the other in 
Egypt (third and fourth centuries), growiug 
out of the controversy respecting the prop- 
er treatment of lapsed Christians (q. v.). 

Mendeans, a sect whose religion is a 
strange combination of Judaism, Moham- 
medanism, and Christianity. They claim 
to be disciples of John the Baptist. They 
are chiefly found in and about Bussora, a 
city between Arabia and Persia. 

MoLiNiSTS (sixteenth century), followers 
of Lewis Molina, a Jesuit, who taught sub- 
stantially the doctrines of Pelagius respect- 
ing sin and man's power to obey the divine 
law without divine grace. 

MuGGLETONiANS (England, seventeenth 
century), followers of Lewis Muggleton, 
who claimed to possess the spirit of proph- 
ecy. The sect is now extinct. 

New Lights (United States, eighteenth 
century). This name is given to a small 
sect, also called Separatists, who hold that 
believers are to be guided by direct divine 
inspiration rather than by the Bible or the 
ordinary exercise of reason. The name is 
given to those who, in other denominations 
or outside of the Church, hold analogous 
views. 

Nihilists (Germany, fourteenth century), 
a mystic sect who denied the reality of ev- 
ery thing, and sometimes made this denial a 
cover for vice. 

Novatians (third century), followers of 
Novatian, who maintained that lapsed Chris- 
tians (q. V.) should never be admitted to the 
Christian Church again. They also insist- 
ed on re-baptizing all Christians who joined 
their communion. The sect disappeared in 
the sixth century. 

Ordibarii (seventh century), a sect of 
Catharists, who held that the Trinity began 
with the birth of Christ, and also certain 
peculiar views respecting man's nature, fall, 
and the divine redemption. 

Origenists, a name given to those in the 



SECT 



859 



SEIR 



fourth to sixth centuries who accepted the 
teachings of Origen, one of the most cele- 
brated of the Christian Fathers, and an in- 
dependent, earnest, and yet somewhat mys- 
tical thinker. He held somewhat peculiar 
views respecting the Trinity, maintained 
the pre - existence of the soul prior to its 
birth into this world, gave an allegorical 
interpretation to parts of the Scripture, and 
held to the final restoration of all men in a 
future state. 

Pelagians, followers of Pelagius, a monk 
of the fifth century. For an account of his 
views, see Original Sin. 

Petrobrussians (France, twelfth centu- 
ry), followers of Peter de Bruys, who main- 
tained substantially the doctrines of the 
later reformers. He was killed by a mob, 
but his doctrines were perpetuated by the 
Henricians, mentioned above. 

Philadelphians (seventeenth century), 
mystics who maintained that faith is still 
able to work miracles, and that the soul 
should be governed only by the inner light 
afforded by the Spirit of God. 

PiCARDS (Flanders, fifteenth century), 
substantially the same in doctrine as the 
Adamites, mentioned above. 

Pre-adamites, a name given to a sect of 
the seventh century, who held that Moses 
gives only the history of the Jews, and that 
a race of men preceded Adam whom they 
termed pre-adamites ; hence, also, the name 
of the sect. 

Priscillianists (Spain, fourth century), 
a mystic sect accused of holding the doc- 
trines of the Manicheans (q. v.). 

RosiCRUCiANS (seventeenth century), a 
secret society which combined mystic the- 
ories of religion with mystery in so-called 
science — astronomy, alchemy, etc. The na- 
ture and principles of this Society, howev- 
er, are matters of dispute, and are not well 
known. 

Rowites, followers of Mr. Campbell, of 
Row, Scotland, who holds peculiar views re- 
specting the nature of faith as a purely in- 
tellectual act, and the natural ability of all 
men to accept salvation without the assist- 
ance of divine grace. 

Samosatians (third century), followers 
of Paul of Samosata, who held, in a modified 
form, the views of the Monarchians (q. v.). 

SCOTISTS, a philosophico- religious school 
which arose at the close of the thirteenth 
and the beginning of the fourteenth centu- 
ry, under the leadership of John Duns Sco- 
tus, who was one of the leading school-men 
(q.v.). 

Separatists, a name which has been as- 
sumed by or given to different sects at dif- 
ferent times, on their withdrawal from some 
other large a-nd parent denomination, par- 
ticularly to certain Lutherans in Germany, 
and certain Congregationalists in Ireland. 

Servetians, the followers of Michael Ser- 



vetus, who taught certain Socinian doctrines 
prior to the time of either Socinus. See So- 
cinian. 

SiMONiANS, an heretical sect of the second 
century. The name of St. Simonian is given 
to a French socialistic sect. See Socialism. 

Southcottians (England, eighteenth cen- 
tury), followers of Joanna Southcott, who 
claimed divine authority as a prophetess, 
and gave out that she was about to become 
the mother of a second Messiah. She is 
dead, but four congregations of her follow- 
ers are said still to exist. 

Spirituals, a name assumed by a sect in 
Flanders in the sixteenth century. See Lib- 
ertint:s. 

Tanquilinians (Netherlands, twelfth cen- 
tury), followers of one Tanquelin, who claim- 
ed to be equal with the Messiah. 

Theopasclutes (fifth century), a sect who 
introduced into the liturgy the statement 
that God was crucified. It remains in the 
liturgy of the Eastern Church.* 

Theophilanthropists, a name given to a 
class of Deists, who, during the French Rev- 
olution, endeavored to introduce a worship 
based on simple natural religion. It per- 
ished at the end of the Revolution with the 
establishment of the Napoleonic Empire. 

Thomists, a philosophicb-religious school 
which arose in the eighteenth century, de- 
riving its name from Thomas Aquinas, who 
is justly considered as one of the chief of the 
school-men (q. v.). 

Triformians (fifth century), a name given 
to a sect who taught that God exists in three 
forms, each imperfect, but in conjunction 
forming a Divine Being. 

Ubiquitarians (Germany, sixteenth cen- 
tury). So called because they held that the 
body of Christ was everywhere. It grew out 
of the controversies respecting transubstan- 
tiation (q.v.) and consubstantiation (q.v.). 

Universal Friends (America, eighteenth 
century), followers of a Jemima Wilkinson, 
who claimed prophetic and miraculous pow- 
ers. The sect is now, we believe, extinct. 

Verschoorists (Holland, seventeenth cen- 
tury), followers of one James Verschoor. 
They are also called Hebraists, because it 
was one of their tenets that every man must 
learn to read the Bible in the original Greek 
and Hebrew. 

Waterlanders, a sect of the Mennon- 
ites (q. v.). 

Wilhelminians (Italy, thirteenth cen- 
tury), followers of a woman named Wilhel- 
mina, who is said to have claimed to be the 
Holy Spirit in an incarnate form. 

Seir (shaggy mountain). 1. A mountain 
range anciently inhabited by the Horites, 
and afterward the possession of Esau and 
his posterity. Hence Seir is sometimes put 
for Edom, or the Edomites. This range runs 
from the south of Palestine, near the extrem- 
ity of the Dead Sea, in a southerly direction, 



SELA 



860 



SENNACHERIB 



to the head of the Elanitic gulf. The high- 
land itself spreads, moreover, westward to 
the south-eastern frontier of Palestine, and 
to the borders of the territory of the Amo- 
rites, and of the tribe of Judah, so that, ac- 
cording to the Greek division, it would form 
a part of Arabia Petraea. The northern part 
of Seir is now called Jebal, and the southern 
esh-Sherah. It is a rugged and well-wood- 
ed chain, intersected by fruitful valleys and 
watered by various streams, which, howev- 
er, in summer often fail, but vegetation is 
abundant, and much of the land well culti- 
vated and fertile, far different from the ridge 
on the opposite side of the Arabah, which is 
less elevated, and utterly desolate. Existing 
remains show that some parts of the district 
were once densely peopled. Seir affords two 
striking illustrations of the fulfillment of 
prophecy. Its fruitfulness was a fulfillment 
of the promise to Esau,^ and the occupation 
of Mount Seir by the Simeonites fulfilled 
the prophecf of Obadiah.^ [Gen. xiv., 6; 
xxxii., 3 ; xxxiii., 14, 16 ; xxxvi., 8, 9 ; Deut. 
1., 2; ii., 4, 8, 12, 22; Josh, xi, 16, 17; 1 
Kings ix., 26; 2 Chron.xx.,10; Ezek.xxv.,8.] 

2. Another Seir, not to be confounded with 
the Mount Seir of Edom, is mentioned in 
Josh. XV., 10. It was one of the landmarks 
on the north boundary of the territory of 
Judah. 

Sela, or Selah (roclc), a city in the terri- 
tory of Edom, and probably the capital. It 
was situated about one hundred and ten 
miles from Jerusalem, in a small inclosed 
hollow in the range of Mount Hor, and sur- 
rounded by steep cliffs of a rose - colored 
sand-stone. The place is frequently called 
in Scripture " the rock,"^ of which Petra is 
the Greek translation. There can hardly be 
a doubt that Sela is identical with the Petra 
of later times, celebrated as being the chief 
city of the Nabathaeans in the fourth cen- 
tury B.C. It is not easy to determine the 
extent of the ancient city, though it could 
not have extended beyond the natural 
boundaries of the mountains, a length of 
little more than a mile, with an average 
breadth of about half a mile. It was, nev- 
ertheless, a place of great magnificence, and 
commanded a large share of the traffic of the 
East. Being withdrawn from all the cara- 
van routes, the roads which lead to it through 
the dreary mountain passes can not be found 
without the help of a guide. On one side, 
the entrance is through a frightful chasm, 
so narrow that not more than two horsemen 
can ride abreast ; on the other side, the road 
which leads down to it is too steep for a 
loaded camel. This description of the situ- 
ation of the city will explain the Scriptural 
account of the massacre of the Edomites by 
the children of Judah.* A small river, which 

1 Gen. xxvii., 39, according to the doubtful rendering 
in our Bible.— 2 1 Chron. iv., 38-43 ; Obad. 19.— s Judg. 
i., 86 ; 2 Chron. xxv., 12 ; Obad. 3.—* 2 Chron. xxv., 12. 



supplied the city with water, was paved at 
the bottom, and the sides were faced with 
hewn masonry, over which various bridgea 
were thrown. The city now presents re- 
markable ruins, which by some writers are 
considered as the fulfillment of the prophet- 
ical denunciations against Edom.^ Though 
this may be admitted to a certain extent, 
yet it must be remembered that Petra at- 
tained its chief importance after the Edom- 
ites had ceased to inhabit the country, and 
that the present ruins are of buildings for 
the most part constructed during the Roman 
age. The temples hewn out of the rock are 
all of a Roman style of architecture, orna- 
mented with porticoes and Corinthian col- 
umns of the age of the Antonines. In the 
ancient site of Petra itself every variety of 
ruins, of streets, houses, temples, and palaces 
bespeaks the vanished glory of a city once 
splendid and wealthy. The principal mon- 
ument is the Khasn6, or, as it is called by 
the Arabs, the "Treasury of Pharaoh," an 
astounding structure, probably used former- 
ly as a temple, and now considered one of 
the wonders of the East. This edifice, sculp- 
tured out of an enormous block of freestone, 
attracts notice by the elaborate detail of 
sculptural ornaments, but its interior is 
merely a lofty hall, with a chamber on each 
of its three sides. 

Seleucia. There were various cities of 
this name in Syria and Asia Minor; but 
the only one noticed in Scripture is the one 
which stood at the mouth of the Orontes, 
and formed the sea -port of Antioch. The 
place was founded by Seleucus Nicator, who 
died B.C. 280. The chief part of the town 
stood on a rocky eminence, which formed 
the southern extremity of a range of hills 
called Pieria, which branched off from Mt. 
Amauus. Many remains still exist of the 
ancient city, the most remarkable of which 
is an excavation cut through the solid rock, 
extending to upward of one thousand yards 
in length, supposed to have belonged to 
the approach from the sea just mentioned. 
[Acts xiii., 4.] 

Sennacherib was the son and successor 
of Sargon as king of Assyria, B.C. 702. His 
name is thought to signify "moons add broth- 
ers" — an indication that he was not the eldest 
son . The early part of his reign was marked 
I by a series of victories in Phoenicia, Philistia, 
[ and Egypt. He then marched into Judea, 
j and " came up against all the fenced cities 
of Judah and took them."'^ He exacted an 
j enormous tribute from Hezekiah (q. v.), then 
king of Judah. Sennacherib's own account 
of this transaction has been found on an- 
cient pieces of sculpture recently discovered 
in Nineveh. It is not easy to reconcile the 
chronology of Scripture with that of these 
j monuments, and various solutions of this 
difficulty have been proposed, the simplest 
I 1 Isa. xxxiv.— 2 2 Kings xviii., 13. 



SENNACHERIB 



861 



SEPTUAGINT 




of whicli is to suppose an error of the copy- 
ist in the Scriptural account. 

In consequence of the revolt of Hezekiah, 
Sennacherib made a second invasion into 
Judah, and laid siege to Jerusalem. Then 
occurred the remarkable destruction of his 
array of a hundred and eighty-five thousand 
men in a single night by the Angel of the 
Lord.^ The Assyrian camp was broken up, 
1 2 Kings xix., 35. 



and the hitherto victorious king fled to his 
own capital. No record of this annihila- 
tion of his army is found in the monumental 
annals of Sennacherib. He was not deter- 
red, however, from engaging in other wars, 
in which he seems still to have been vic- 
torious, though he thenceforward carefully 
avoided Palestine. No monumental infor- 
mation has been found reaching beyoud his 
eighth year. His reign lasted twenty-two 
years, and of his death nothing is known 
beyond the brief Scripture statement that 
" as he was worshiping in the house of Nis- 
roch his god, Adram-melech and Sharezer 
his sons smote him with the sword; and 
they escaped iuto the land of Armenia. And 
Esar-haddon his son reigned in his stead."^ 
Sennacherib was one of the greatest of the 
Assyrian kings as well as one of the proud- 
est of them. Isaiah depicts his pride and 
haughtiness,^ and Sennacherib himself veri- 
fies the portrait, for he calls himself " the 
great king," ^' the king of nations," " the 
first of kings," " favorite of the great gods," 
etc. 

Not only was he a great warrior, but a 
grand builder. He was the first who fix- 
ed the seat of government permanently at 
Nineveh, which he carefully repaired and 
adorned with splendid buildings. His great 
work is the palace of Koyunjik, surpassing 
in magnificence all the buildings of his pred- 
ecessors. The realistic sculptures of Sen- 
nacherib are very instructive, depicting ev- 
ery-day scenes of Assyrian life. One of his 
memorials is at the mouth of the river Kelb, 
on the Syrian coast, verifying his boast that 
" he had come up to the height of the mount- 
ains, to the sides of Lebanon." [2 Kings 
xviii., 13 - 37 ; xix. ; 2 Chron. xxxii., 1 - 22 ; 
Isa. xxxvi. ; xxxvii.] 

Sepharvaim, a city of the Assyrian em- 
pire, whence colonists were brought into 
the territory of Samaria. It would seem 
to have been, probably not very long be- 
fore, an independent power. It is probably 
Sipphara, the most southern city of Mesopo- 
tamia, on the east bank of the Euphrates. 
The dual form indicates that there were 
two Sippharas, one on either side of the riv- 
er. [2 Kings xvii., 24, 31 ; xviii., 34 ; xix., 
13; Isa. xxxvi., 19; xxxvii., 13.] 

Septuagint (seventy), the name of the prin- 
cipal Greek version of the O. T. Scriptures. 
Its history is involved in much obscurity. 
The popular account is contained in a letter 
said to be written by Aristeas, an officer of 
the court of Ptolemy Philadelphus, Accord- 
ing to this account seventy-two persons, at 
that monarch's request, in order to furnish his 
library with the Hebrew sacred books, were 
j commissioned by Eleazar, the high-priest at 
Jerusalem. These, on their arrival at Alex- 
andria, were shut up in the island of Pharos, 
' and accomplished their translation in sev- 
I 1 2 Kiugs xix., 37.-2 jga, x., 8-14, ' 



SEPTUAGINT 



SEEAPIS 



enty-two days. From the number of the in- 
terpreters the name "Septuagiut" was de- 
rived. This story has been repeated with 
more or less embellishment, and was for a 
long time implicitly believed ; but critical 
research has exposed its falsehood. The let- 
ter of Aristeas, though unquestionably of 
old date, is now admitted to be spurious. 

The most probable opinion concerning the 
origin of the Septuagint is, that it was be- 
gun at Alexandria (q. v.) in the time of the 
early Ptolemies, perhaps 280 or 285 B.C., and 
that the Law alone was first translated, the 
other books following at uncertain intervals. 
But whether the version originated with the 
Jews, rendered necessary in order to the 
reading of the Law and the Prophets in their 
synagogues in a tongue they could under- 
stand, or whether one of the Egyptian kings, 
Soter, or Philadelphus, commanded the trans- 
lation, is doubtful. Considering, however, 
the attachment of the Jews to their own 
tongue, and considering how long a lan- 
guage is often preserved for ecclesiastical 
use after it has ceased to be the medium of 
common intercourse, it may be thought, on 
the whole, most probable that the version 
was produced, in some measure at least, by 
the sovereign's desire. It grew into high 
consideration. Philo believed in its inspi- 
ration ; Josephus generally used it ; as also 
the earlier Christian fathers. Its alleged 
miraculous origin is mentioned in the Tal- 
mud ; and there is reason to conclude that 
it was read not only in Egyptian synagogues, 
but in those of Palestine and elsewhere. But 
some time after Christ, the Jews, pressed by 
the arguments from prophecy, began to ques- 
tion and to deny the faithfulness of the Sep- 
tuagint to the Hebrew original ; they insti- 
tuted a fast on the 8th of their month Te- 
beth, to show their sorrow for its having 
been made, and ultimately adopted in pref- 
erence the literal version of Aquila. 

It has been already hinted that some of 
the Septuagint translators were but imper- 
fectly acquainted with Hebrew. There are 
many mistakes, therefore ; and there is a sin- 
gular connection, not yet fully explained, 
between this and the text of the Samaritan 
Pentateuch. The Pentateuch is best ren- 
dered ; the poetical portions are generally 
inferior to the historical. Of the prophets, 
Jeremiah is the best given ; yet there are re- 
markable variations in the version from the 
original ; and, in general, many important 
predictions are obscured in the Septuagint. 
Still, with all the errors, variations, miscon- 
ceptions, and corruptions of the Septuagint, 
it is of inestimable value for both the crit- 
icism and the interpretation of the sacred 
book. It is evident that the translators 
had before them a text differing from that 
of our oldest manuscripts ; and some correc- 
tions may be obtained from it which we can 
not hesitate in pronouncing j ust ones. More- 



over, its language is the pattern of that of 
the apostles and evangelists. Hebrew idi- 
oms appear in a Greek form ; and it thus en- 
ables the scholar to understand the sense in 
which many words and phrases of the N. T. 
are used. It has appeared in several differ- 
ent editions, of which an elaborate edition 
by Origen, the product of twenty-eight years 
of labor, is the most remarkable. 

Seraphim, an order of celestial beings, 
whom Isaiah beheld in vision standing about 
Jehovah as he sat upon his throne. They 
had each of them three pairs of wings, with 
one of which they covered their faces as a 
token of humility; with the second they 
covered their feet as a token of respect ; 
while with the third they flew. They seem 
to have borne a general resemblance to the 
human figure ; for they are represented as 
having a face, a voice, feet, and hands. Their 
occupation was twofold — to celebrate the 
praises of Jehovah's holiness and power, and 
to act as the medium of communication be- 
tween heaven and earth. From their cry- 
ing one unto another we may conceive them 
to have been ranged in opposite rows on 
each side of the throne. The idea of a 
winged human figure was not peculiar to 
the Hebrews. Among the sculptures found 
at Mourghaub, in Persia, we meet with a rep- 
resentation of a man with two pairs of wings, 
springing from the shoulders, and extendiug, 
the one pair upward, the other downward, 
so as to admit of covering the head and the 
feet. The meaning of the word " seraph" is 
doubtful; it is perhaps connected with an 
Arabic term signifying JiigJi, or exalted; and 
this may be regarded as the generally re- 
ceived etymology. [Isa. vi., 1-6.] 

Serapis, an Egyptian deity, probably in- 
troduced into Egypt by the Ptolemies. His 
chief temple was erected in Alexandria, on 
the spacious summit of an artificial mound 
raised one hundred steps above the adjacent 
parts of the city. Its stately halls and ex- 
quisite statues displayed the triumph of the 
arts ; and a part of the famous Alexandrian 
library added to its treasures those of the 
most celebrated collection of literature of 
the age. A great number of plates of differ- 
ent metals, artificially joined together, com- 
posed the majestic figure of the deity, who 
touched on either side the walls of the sanc- 
tuary. The aspect of Serapis, his sitting 
posture, and the sceptre which he bore in 
his left hand, were extremely similar to the 
ordinary representation of Jupiter. He was 
distinguished from Jupiter, however, by the 
basket, or bushel, which was placed on his 
head, and by the emblematic monster which 
he held in his right hand — the head and 
body of a serpent branching into three tails, 
which were again terminated by the triple 
heads of a dog, a lion, and a wolf. It was 
confidently affirmed, that if any impious 
hand should dare to violate the majesty of 



SERMON ON THE MOUNT 



863 



SERPENT 



the god, the heavens and the earth would in- 
stantly return to their original chaos. When, 
therefore, under Theodosius, a.d. 389, the tem- 
ple was sacked by the Christians, and the 
god was overthrown and dragged about the 
streets of the city, and eventually destroyed, 
the heathen, who had first witnessed the work 
of desecration with awe, presently joined in 
it themselves, convinced of the fraud from 
which they had so long suftered, and con- 
verted from their idolatry by the impotence 
to protect or avenge himself of the god who 
had held them in constant terror. This de- 
struction of Serapis was also the end of his 
worship, which was never re-established. 
He is not mentioned in Scripture. 

Sermon on the Mount, the name given 
to the longest discourse delivered by Jesus 
of which we have any full report. The only 
other one approximating it in length and 
comprehensiveness is that one delivered in 
the synagogue at Capernaum, and reported 
in John vi., 26-59. Of the Sermon on the 
Mount there are two reports, one by Matt., 
v.-vii. ; the other by Luke, vi., 20-49. They 
are quite different. The report given by Luke 
is much briefer, and the discourse is said to 
have been delivered on a X)lain.' Matthew 
indicates that the discourse was given on 
a mountain. These differences have led to 
the hypothesis that there were two dis- 
courses, one delivered to the disciples alone, 
recorded by Matthew, the other given on the 
plain below, involving in part the same mat- 
ter, and addressed to the multitude. It is, 
however, more generally considered by mod- 
ern scholars that there was but one dis- 
course, addressed peculiarly to the disciples, 
but in the presence of and with some refer- 
ence to the multitude, of which we have in 
the different reports only such variations as 
would naturally occur in the subsequent rec- 
ord by different writers. The discrepancy 
as to place between Matthew and Luke is 
not serious, inasmuch as Matthew's asser- 
tion that Christ went up into a mountain, 
only signifies that he left the lake to go up 
into the hill-country ; and Luke's statement 
that he came down and stood in the plain, 
indicates nothing more than that he descend- 
ed from one of the higher peaks to the level 
plateau. The Mount of Beatitudes singu- 
larly answers all the conditions of the narra- 
tive, which may be harmonized thus : '-'And 
it came to pass in those days that he went 
up into the hill-country to pray, and contin- 
ued all night in prayer to God. And when 
it was day he called unto him his disciples, 
and of them he chose twelve, whom also he 
named apostles; and he came down with 
them and stood in the plain, with the com- 
pany of his disciples, and a great multitude 
of people out of all Judea, etc., which came 
to hear him ; and he opened his mouth and 
taught them, saying." 

1 Luke vi., IT. 



The sermon itself, though in form a col- 
lection of apothegms and pithy sayings, is a 
connected discourse, and capable of a phil- 
osophical analysis. Its customary division 
into verses gives it an appearance even more 
aphoristic than the reality. To comprehend 
its full meaning, it should be remembered 
that it was delivered immediately after the 
selection and ordination of the twelve apos- 
tles, and, though addressed in part to the 
multitude, was nevertheless primarily in- 
tended for the twelve whom it was intended 
to instruct in the principles of the kingdom 
Avhich Christ had come to establish. It is 
properly an inaugural address. It may be 
described as divided into four parts. The 
first (Matt, v., 1-16) describes the kingdom 
of God as one of spiritual grace and glory in 
contrast with the material and political king- 
dom which the Jews generally expected. The 
second (v., 17-48) contrasts it with the Mo- 
saic system, showing it to be a kingdom of 
laws which reconstruct the heart, as opposed 
to one of laws which simply regenerate the 
conduct. The third (vi.-vii., 6) sets it in 
still more marked contrast jvith the right- 
eousness of the Scribes and Pharisees, bring- 
ing out the difference between the religion 
of a pure heart and holy life and one of a 
cold and heartless, though rigid, ceremonial- 
ism ; and the fourth (Matt, vii., 7-27) shows 
the conditions by which it may be won, viz., 
faith, or asking God, and obedience, or doing 
the will of the Father which is in heaven. 
See, for an elaboration of this analysis, "Ab- 
bott's Jesus of Nazareth," chapter xvii. 

Serpent. Great difficulty attends any 
endeavor to describe with accuracy the dif- 
ferent species of serpents mentioned in the 
Scriptures, not only from the fact that the 
Hebrew writers themselves probably never 
attempted any accurate division of the ser- 
pents into their varieties, but also from the 
fact that the translators have not even rep- 
resented such division as is indicated in the 
original. Thus the word adder is used to 
represent four Hebrew words, while the 
same Hebrew word is sometimes translated 
adder, sometimes cockatrice, and sometimes 
asp. The principal varieties are the follow- 
ing: 

1. Adder. — This word occurs five times, 
and represents four varieties. In Gen. xlix., 
17, where Jacob says of Dan that he " shall 
be a serpent by the way, an adder in the 
path, that biteth the horses' heels so that 
his rider shall fall backward," adder stands 
for ShepMplion, a word which does not occur 
again in the Scripture, and which is sup- 
posed to represent the Cerastes, or horned 
viper. This reptile, distinguished by two 
horn-like projections over the eyes, has a 
custom of lying half buried in the sand, 
awaiting the approach of some animal on 
which it can feed. It will always take ad- 
vantage of any small depression in the path; 



SERPENT 



864 



SERPENT 



such as the print of a camel's foot, and as it 
finds many of these depressions in the line 
of the caravans, it is literally '' a serpent by 
the way, an adder in the path." It is ex- 
ceedingly irritable, its bite is deadly, and 
wherever it is disturbed by passing horses, 
it is very likely to strike at them. Its small 
dimensions — it is hardly two feet in length 
— enable it to conceal itself in a very small 
hollow, and its brownish white color, diver- 
sified with darker spots, causes it to har- 
monize so perfectly with the loose sand in 
which it lies, that, even when it is pointed 
out, an unpracticed eye does not readily per- 
ceive it. The other passages in Scripture 
where the word adder is used are Psa. cxL, 
3, where the Hebrew word is Aclirih, and the 
proper translation uncertain ; Psa. Iviii., 4, 
and xci., 13, where the Hebrew word is Pe- 
tlien, and the proper translation would have 
been asp ; and Prov. xxiii., 32, where the 
word is Fsepha, and elsewhere rendered by 
cockatrice. 

2. Asp. — This word occurs in Deut. xxxii., 
33 ; Job XX., 14, 16 ; and Isa. xi., 8. The 
same Hebrew word, FetJien, is translated in 
Psa. Iviii., 4, and xci., 13, adder. The refer- 
ence in Psa. Iviii., 4, renders it evident that 
the pethen, or asp, was a serpent accustom- 
ed to be subjected to the action of charmers, 
and is, for this reason, identified with the 
Egyptian cobra, a very venomous serpent.' 
There was an ancient legend that this ser- 
pent, in order to prevent being charmed, put 
one ear to the ground and stopped the other 
with the end of its tail ; and that the Psalm- 
ist refers to this when he compares the wick- 
ed "to the deaf adder that stoppeth her ear."^ 
That this legend should have been credited 
in former days is not surprising, but that it 
should be referred to as a sober fact by mod- 
ern commentators seems incredible, in the 
face of the fact that the serpent has no ex- 
ternal openings to the ear at all. The poison 
of the asp, or cobra, is of such rapid opera- 
tion that it kills almost instantly. 

3. Cockatrice. — The word cockatrice oc- 
curs four times in our English version ; name- 
ly, in Isa. xi., 8 ; xiv., 29 ; lix., 5 ; and Jer. 
viii., 17 ; and the same Hebrew word, Tseplia, 
is rendered adder in Prov. xxiii., 32. The 
same word is sometimes, though not in the 
English Bible, translated basilisk. It is 
thought to be the yellow viper, one of the 
largest and most venomous of the i)oisonous 
serpents which infest Palestine, and which 
is the more dangerous on account of its noc- 
turnal habits. The cockatrice has been the 
subject of a large number of superstitious 
legends. It was reported to be hatched from 
an egg laid by a cock and hatched by a vi- 
per, an opinion subsequently soberly cor- 
rected by some of the earlier naturalists 
with the explanation tbat the cock hatched 
the egg itself! It was said that it« breath 

1 See Serpen T-cuAKMEES.— 2 Psa. Iviii., 4. 



was poison ; that venom exuded from its skin ; 
that it could kill even by its very look; that 
its subtle poison was so great that a man 
who killed it with his spear fell dead him- 
self, by reason of the poison darting up the 
shaft of the spear and passing into his hands ; 
and that it burned up the grass wherever it 
crept, and the birds fell dead when they ap- 
proached its lodging. Doubtless the sacred 
writers had these legends in mind — legends 
which were seriously believed to be well- 
authenticated facts even in the day when 
the Bible was translated into the English 
tongue ; and to this peculiarly poisonous 
character imputed to the cockatrice, or basi- 
lisk, or adder, they refer in such warnings 
against the wine-cup as that of Prov. xxiii., 
32, and such promises of the universal do- 
minion of love and peace as that of Isa. 
xi., 8. 

4. Dragox. — The word dragon is some- 
times used apparently to indicate a creature 
of the serpent kind, as in Psa. xci., 13 ; and 
the Hebrew word there translated dragon is 
elsewhere, as in Exod. vii., 9, 10, 12, trans- 
lated serpent. No modern variety can be 
identified, however. See Dragon. 

5. Fiery Serpent. — There are several 
passages in the Scripture in which allusion 
is made to fiery serpents.' The most impor- 
tant is that contained in the history of the 
children of Israel, who were bitten by fiery 
serpents, and subsequently healed by look- 
ing upon the brazen serpent, prepared at the 
command of God.^ The species indicated is 
not very clear, but they probably took their 
name from their vivid, flame-like color, be- 
ing somewhat like the copper-colored snake 
in appearance, or possibly from the burning 
sensations produced by their bite. Trav- 
elers describe a large serpent, affirmed to 
abound in the Arabian peninsula, full of 
fiery red spots and undulating stripes, and, 
judging from the structure of its teeth, one 
of the most poisonous of its species. ' The 
region abounds in very venomous serpents, 
and their bite produces intense and excru- 
ciating heat and a burning thirst. 

6. Flying Serpent. — This animal is re- 
ferred to twice in Scripture — in Isa. xiv., 29 ; 
XXX., 6. The reference is uncertain. No 
serpents now in existence are known to 
have wings, from which it is inferred that 
no flying serpents ever existed. Some of 
the most respectable authorities among the 
ancients, however, speak of winged, or fly- 
ing, serpents on occasions which would lead 
us to suppose that they are not treating of 
the fabulous, but of facts known to them- 
selves and their contemporaries. Josephus, 
in a remarkable passage, describes a species 
of Egyptian serpents which "ascend out of 
the grouud unseen, and also fly in the air, 
and so come upon men unawares, and do 



1 Numb, xxi., 6, S ; Dent, viii., 15 ; Isa. xiv., 29; xxx., 
—2 See Bkazem Sekpent. 



SERPENT 



865 



SERPENT 



them a miscliief."^ And Herodotus, also, 
refers to ^'winged serpents" that "fly from 
Arabia toward Egypt," hut does not pre- 
tend to have personally seen them. We 
must conclude either that a species is de- 
scribed which has become extinct, or that 
the kind is meant which Niebuhr mentions 
in his "Description of Africa," which, in- 
stead of descending one tree to ascend an- 
other, make a sudden leap from the one to 
the other, and on this account are called 
flyiug serpents to this day by the Arabs. 

7. Viper. — The word viper stands some- 
times as a general term for any venomous 
serpent, as in Matt, iii., 7 f but it also stands, 
in the three places in which it occurs in the 
O. T.,^ for the Hebrew word Eplieli, which is 
supposed by some to represent a small, but 
very poisonous, snake of Northern Africa, 
called the El-effah, but more generally iden- 
tified with the sand viper, or Toxicoa. This 
reptile, though very small, and scarcely ex- 
ceeding a foot in length, is a dangerous one, 
though its bite is not so dangerous as that 
of the cobra or the Cerastes (horned viper). 
It is variable in color, but has angular white 
streaks on its body, and a row of whitish 
spots along its back. The top of the head 
is dark, and variegated with arrow-shaped 
white marks. Ix is very plentiful in North- 
ern Africa, Palestine, Syria, and the neigh- 
boring countries, and is clpsely allied to the 
Horatta-pam snake of India. 

Besides these words, which represent, more 
or less clearly, different varieties, the Hebrew 
word Nacliasli is nsed without reference to the 
variety, like our word serpent, but is not al- 
ways translated serpent in our English ver- 
sion, while, on the other hand, the word ser- 
pent is used to translate other Hebrew words. 
The Scriptural allusions to the habits and 
character of the serpent are very numerous. 
Its subtlety is mentioned in Gen. iii., 1 ; its 
wisdom is alluded to by our Lord in Matt. 
X., 16 ; the poisonous properties of some spe- 
cies are often mentioned :* the sharp tongue 
of the serpent, which it would appear some 
of the ancient Hebrews believed to be the 
instrument of poison, is mentioned in Psa. 
cxL, 3, and Job xx., 16; although in other 
places, as in Pro v. xxiii., 32; Eccles. x., 8, 11 ; 
Numb, xxi.,9, the venom is correctly ascribed 
to the bite, while in Job xx., 14, the gall is 
said to be the poison. The habit serpents 
have of lying concealed in hedges is alluded 
to in Eccles. x., 8, and in holes of walls, in 
Amos v., 19 ; their dwelling in dry, sandy 
places, in Deut. viii., 15. Their wonderful 
mode of progression did not escape the ob- 
servation of the author of Prov. xxx., who 
expressly mentions it as " one of the three 
things which were too wonderful for him ;" 



1 Antiq. ii., 10, 2.-2 See also Matt, xii., 34; xxiii., 
33 ; Luke iii., 7 ; Acts xxviii., 3.-3 Job xx., 16 ; Isa. 
XXX., 6; lix., 5.—* See Psa. Iviii., 4; Prov. xxiii., 32, 
and other references above. 
55 



the oviparous nature of most of the order is 
alluded to in Isa. lix., 5. The art of taming 
and charming serpents is of great antiqui- 
ty, and is alluded to in Psa. Iviii., 5 ; Eccles. 
X., 11 ; Jer. viii., 17 ; and doubtless intimated 
by James, who particularizes serpents among 
the animals that " have been tamed by man."^ 
The three more important references in 
Scripture to the serpent are those of Gen. 
iii. ; Exod. iv., 3; vii., 9, 10, 15 ; and Numb, 
xxi., 1-10. The nature of the fiery serpents 
described in the latter passage we have al- 
ready considered.^ The nature of the ani- 
mal referred to in Exodus is uncertain. We 
are told that when "Aaron cast down his rod 
before Pharaoh and before his servants, it be- 
came a serpent."^ The Hebrew word here 
used is elsewhere translated dragon (q. v.), 
as in Psa. xci., 13. It is supposed by some 
that a crocodile is intended in the passage 
in Exodus ; and as that animal was an ob- 
ject of worship among the Egyptians, this 
interpretation would give peculiar signifi- 
cance to the fact afterward stated, that 
Aaron's rod swallowed up the rods of the 
enchanters. There is nothing to indicate 
the species of serpent whose form Satan as- 
sumed for the purpose of tempting Eve, and 
nothing to justify any other interpretation 
than a literal acceptance of the history, i. e., 
that Satan really did put on the guise of a 
serpent, and in that form persuade the wom- 
an to disobey. It has been supposed by 
many commentators, from Gen. iii., 14, that 
prior to the Fall the serpent moved along in 
an erect attitude. It is quite clear, howev- 
er, that an erect mode of progression is ut- 
terly incompatible with the structure of a 
serpent; consequently, had the snakes, be- 
fore the Fall, moved in an erect attitude, 
they must have been formed on a different 
plan altogether. The typical form of the 
serpent and its mode of progression were, in 
all probability, the same before the Fall as 
after it ; but subsequent to the Fall its form 
and progression were to be regarded with 
hatred and disgust by all mankind, and 
thus the animal was cursed " above all cat- 
tle," and a mark of condemnation was for- 
ever stamped upon it. Serpents are said, 
in Scripture, to "eat dust;"* these animals, 
which for the most part take their food on 
the ground, do consequently swallow with 
it large portions of sand and dust. It is 
because the devil assumed the form of a 
serpent in the tempting of Eve, that in 
Scripture Satan is called " the old serpent," 
and wicked men are compared to serpents.^ 
Hence, too, throughout the East the serpent 
is regarded as the emblem and embodiment 
of the evil principle. See Serpent-charm- 
ers ; Brazen Serpent ; Dragon. 



1 Jas. iii., 7. See Serpent-charmers. — ^ See also 
Brazen Serpent.— 3 Exod. vii., 10.—* Gen. iii., 14; 
Isa. Ixv., 25; Mic. vii., 17.—* Deut. xxxii., 33; Psa. 
iviii., 4, 5; cxl., 8; Rom. iii., 13; 2 Cor. xi., 3; Kev. 
xii., 9. 



SERPENT-CHARMERS 



866 



SERPENT-CHARMERS 



Serpent-charmers, a class of men in the 
East who profess to bring the most poison- 
ous serpents entirely under their control. 
How they perform their feats is not very 
clear, but the fact is beyond all dispute. 
Mr. Wood, to whose work on Bible animals 
we are indebted for the substance of this 
article, throws some light on their perform- 
ances. The handling of venomous snakes, 
he assures us, has been performed by En- 
glishmen, without the least recourse to any 
arts except that of acquaintance with the 
habits of serpents. 

"The late Mr. Waterton, for example, 
would take up a rattlesnake in his bare hand 
without feeling the least uneasy as to the 
behavior of his prisoner. He once took 
twenty-seven rattlesnakes out of a box, car- 




Serpent-charmers. 

fied them into another room, put them into 
a large glass case, and afterward replaced 
them in the box." 

The nature of all serpents is rather pe- 
culiar, and is probably owing to the mode 
in which the blood circulates. They are 
extremely unwilliug to move, except when 
urged by the wants of nature, and will lie 
coiled up for many hours together when 
not pressed by hunger. Cousequeutly, when 
touched, their feeling is evidently like that 
of a drowsy man, who only tries to shake 
off the object which may rouse him, and 
composes himself afresh to sleep. A quick 
and sudden movement would alarm the 
reptile, which would strike in self-defense, 
and, sluggish as are its general movements, 
its stroke is delivered with such lightning 



rapidity that it would be sure to inflict its 
fatal wound before it was seized. If, there- 
fore, Mr. Waterton saw a serpent which he 
desired to catch, he would creep very quiet- 
ly up to it, and with a gentle, slow move- 
ment place his fingers round its neck just 
behind the head. If it happened to be coil- 
ed up in such a manner that he could not 
get at its neck, he had only to touch it gen- 
tly until it moved sufficiently for his pur- 
pose. When he had once placed his hand 
on the serpent, it was in his power. He 
would then grasp it very lightly indeed, and 
raise it gently from the ground, trusting that 
the reptile would be more inclined to be car- 
ried quietly than to summon up sufficient 
energy to bite. Even if it had tried to use 
its fangs, it could not have done so as long as 
its captor's fingers 
were round its neck. 
There is no doubt 
that the snake- 
charmers trust 
chiefly to this slug- 
gish nature of the 
reptile, but they cer- 
tainly go through 
some ceremonies, by 
which they believe 
^^ thAaselves to be 
rendered impervi- 
ous to snake-bites. 
They will coil the 
cobra round their 
naked bodies; they 
will irritate the rep- 
tile until it is in a 
state of fury ; they 
will even allow it to 
bite them, and yet 
be none the worse 
for the wound. 
Then, as if to show 
that the venomous 
teeth have not been 
abstracted, as is pos- 
^~~" "^ sibly supposed to be 

the case, they will 
make the cobra bite a fowl, which speedily 
dies from the effects of the poison. Even 
if the fangs were extracted, the serpents 
would lose little of their venomous power. 
These reptiles are furnished with a whole 
series of fangs, in difterent stages of de- 
velopment, so that when the one in use is 
broken or shed in the course of nature, an- 
other comes forward and takes its place. 
The teeth are, however, often extracted. 
The operation is not difficult in experienced 
hands. The snake-charmer grasps the rep- 
tile firmly by the neck, forces open the 
mouth with a piece of stick and breaks off 
the fangs, which are but loosely attached to 
the jaw. 

The effect of music upon the serpent is 
mysterious but indubitable. It is upon 



SEXTON 



867 



SHAKERS 



this the charmers rely for enticing serpents 
from the walls of gardens, hedges, and 
houses, a feat which they frequently per- 
form. They profess to he able to detect in- 
stinctively the presence of a serpent hidden 
in the house (and it always seeks the darkest 
place). Entering the house, usually alone, 
since no one dares to accompany him, the 
charmer plays upon his flute, meanwhile 
striking on the wall and muttering incanta- 
tions. The serpent presently makes its ap- 
pearance. The charmer then seizes it by the 
tail and holds it at arms-length, where it 
writhes and wriggles in a vain attempt to 
escape. Having allowed it to exhaust its 
strength by its useless struggles, its captor 
lowers it into a basket and closes the lid. 
There is a very considerable number of per- 
sons in India who depend wholly for their 
livelihood on their power to charm the poi- 
sonous serpents of that country. 

Sexton. This word is a corruption of the 
word sacristan. The sacristan was original- 
ly an officer of the Church who was charged 
with the care of the church edifice and of 
all its appurtenances. It was his duty to 
take care of the sacred vestments and uten- 
sils, and to prepare and open the building 
for public service. The apartment attached 
to the church in which such sacred vest- 
ments and utensils are kept is called the 
sacristy. In the Church of England the of- 
fice of sexton is a life office ; but in the Uni- 
ted States the sexton is generally hired in 
the same manner as the janitor of any pub- 
lic building. 

Shakers. I. History. — The popular name 
of a religious sect sometimes called '' Shak- 
ing Quakers," who call themselves " The 
United Society of Believers in Christ's Sec- 
ond Appearing," which, according to their 
view, took place in the person of Ann Lee, 
whom the society subsequently entitled ilfoi/i- 
er Ann. Previous to this, however, the so- 
ciety had existed over twenty years, an off- 
shoot, in 1747, from the Society of " Friends " 
in England, but differing widely from them 
in creed and practice. For several years 
this little company were only remarkable for 
greater physical manifestations of their sup- 
posed spiritual illumination than most of the 
assemblages of Quakers, such as dancing, 
shouting, trembling, speaking with tongues, 
etc. These manifestations excited hostility 
in people, magistrates, and clergy. Ann Lee, 
who had become an adherent in the year 
1758, in 1770 professed to have received, by 
a special manifestation of divine light, those 
revelations in virtue of which her followers 
have ever since given her the name of Moth- 
er Ann, and have regarded her as a person in- 
spired by the Christ of the female order. In 
1774 Mother Ann, believing herself called to 
remove to America, proceeded thither accom- 
panied by ten followers, and settled at what is 
now Watervliet, near Albany, New York, then 



a wilderness. About 1779 a religious excite- 
ment, or revival, at New Lebanon, Columbia 
County, New York, accompanied by the ex- 
traordinary physical manifestations of the 
society, occurred, and eventually resulted in 
the establishment of a church at that place, 
which has ever since been the nucleus of 
this sect. Mother Ann died in 1784, the 
number of her adherents having greatly in- 
creased ; and after the decease of her suc- 
cessors. Father James ( Whittaker), and then 
Father Joseph (Meachan), the administra- 
tion of the Church was, according to the di- 
rection of the latter, vested in a ministrj" 
of four persons, two of each sex. The other 
principal officers were four elders and four 
deacons, also equally apportioned to each 
sex. The Shakers omit all external ordi- 
nances, believing that baptism and the Lord's 
Supper ceased to be obligatory from the time 
of the apostles, and that those only are or- 
dained to preach who themselves have es- 
pecial divine revelations. 

II. Theological Doctrines. — The Shakers hold 
that God is dual, there being an external 
Father and Mother in the Deity, the heav- 
enly parents of all angelical and human be- 
ings ; and that the revelation of God is pro- 
gressive, consisting of a series of revelations, 
each preparing for its successor. Christ 
they believe to be also dual — male and fe- 
male — a supra-mundane being; and at his 
first appearing the agent of the new revela- 
tion to Jesus, who, according to their sys- 
tem, was a divinely instructed and perfect 
man, and who, by virtue of his anointing, 
became Jesus Christ. All who marry or are 
given in marriage they term "children of 
the world." They hold that they are them- 
selves called to lead a .spiritual and holy 
life ; that in dying to the flesh they become 
as Christ and th^ apostles, " new creatures," 
who are able to comprehend the mysteries 
of God. Another of the doctrines in which, 
as they believe, Christ instructed Jesus, was 
human brotherhood and its development in 
a community of goods, which they practice 
according to what they claim to be the ex- 
ample of Jesus and his apostles. The doc- 
trine of non-resistance, non-participation in 
any earthly government, and the necessity 
of a life of virgin purity to a perfect Chris- 
tianity, they regard as having been commu- 
nicated to Jesus by Christ ; and, though neg- 
lected by the Church in the past, of prime 
obligation to the true believer. The second 
appearing of the Christ they believe to have 
taken place, as previously stated, through 
Mother Ann Lee, in 1770. This second ap- 
pearing of Christ they hold to be the true 
resurrection state, and repudiate a physical 
resurrection as repugnant to science, reason, 
and Scripture. As they recognize four cy- 
cles of human religious progress, so they be- 
lieve that there are four heavens and four 
hells, the first three of which are still places 



SHAKERS 



8G8 



SHAKERS 




Interior of Mee ling-house. 



of probation. They believe the hygieuic 
statutes of Moses to be as binding now as 
the Ten Commandments, and that obedience 
thereto insures entire exemption from dis- 
ease. They hold to oral confession of sins 
to God, in the presence of one or two wit- 
nesses, as essential to the reception of the 
power to forsake sin. They also believe in 
the power of their members to heal physic- 
al disease by means of prayer and dietetics. 
The Bible they consider as a record of the 
most divine, angelic ministrations to man 
(for they hold that the natural man never 
has seen and never will see God), and as a 
more or less imperfect record of the relig- 
ious experience and history of the Jews. 

The movements of the Spiritualists have 
excited great hopes in their minds of a re- 
markable influx of disciples to Shakerism, 
inasmuch as they consider it a preparation 



of the people to receive their doctrine ; and 
on examining into the details of Shaker 
living, we find undoubted proofs, as also 
we learn of open acknowledgment, of their 
affinity with modern Spiritualists. It is a 
fact worthy of note, that they are the only 
people on this continent, if not in the world, 
who have maintained successfully for near- 
ly a century a system of living, one of 
the fundamental principles of which is a 
community of propertj^ It is the boast of 
the Shakers that their habits and manners 
are the same that they were nearly a centu- 
ry ago. Their settlements are chiefly con- 
fined to the Northern United States. They 
have two in New York State, four in Massa- 
chusetts, one in Connecticut, two in New 
Hampshire, two in Maine, four in Ohio, and 
two in Kentucky, and are said to number 
about five thousand members. 




Shaker Costume. 
This cut shows the various costumes of the Shaliers at home and abroad. Figs. 1 and 7 show the worship 
costume of a man and woman ; Fig. 2, that of the field and shop laborer ; Fig. 3, an elder ; Figs. 4 and 6, 
traveling costume ; and Fig. 6, a half-dress costume. 



SHAKERS 



869 



SHAKERS 



III. Life and Worship. — From an article 
in Harper's Magazine (vol. xv., p. 164) we em- 
body some information as to the peculiar 
life and methods of worship of the Shakers. 
This article describes a visit to their set- 
tlement in New Lebanon, New York State. 
There is a Shaker village, with extensive 
workshops, a meeting-house, an office and 
store, and a number of dwellings. The man- 
agement of the business of this settlement 
is committed to trustees, and justice and rec- 
titude are said to characterize all their deal- 
ings. The preparation of herbs and medical 
juices constitutes an important part of their 
business. The preparation and sale of seeds 
constitutes another and perhaps equally im- 
portant department. There are also a dairy, 
a tannery, and several workshops, in which 
brooms, mats, wooden -ware, etc., are man- 



its members dedicate themselves and all 
they possess to the Church, holding all prop- 
erty in common, and maintaining celibacy. 

The Shaker meeting-house is perfectly 
plain, both in its exterior and its interior. 
The floor is kept as clean as a dining-table. 
In public worship the men and women take 
their seats on benches, facing each other. 
Adults and children are dressed exactly alike. 
''Their Sunday costume," says the writer 
from whom we condense, '' consists of panta- 
loons of blue linen, with a fine white stripe 
in it ; vests of a much deeper blue, and plain, 
made of linsey-woolsey (woolen and linen) ; 
stout calf- skin shoes and gray stockings. 
Their shirt collars and bosoms are made of 
cotton like the body. The women wear, on 
Sunday, some a pure white dress, and oth- 
i ers a white dress with a delicate blue stripe 




The Dance. 



nfactured for sale. System, neatness, and 
industry are everywhere observable ; every 
man, woman, and child is kept busy ; the 
ministry labor with their hands when not 
spiritually engaged ; and all the operations 
of the village are conducted with economy. 
In fact, the community appears to be equal- 
ly free from idleness on the one hand, and 
from ambition, self-seeking, and covetous- 
ness on the other. All persons who unite 
with the Society do it voluntarily. Mem- 
bers are of three classes : the novitiates, who 
live in their own families, and manage their 
own temporal concerns, but are, in religious 
faith and worship, united to the community; 
the junior class, the members of which are 
without families, but still retain ownership 
in their property ; and the senior class. This 
last constitutes the " Church " proper, and 



in it. Over their bosoms and necks were 
pure white kerchiefs, and over the left arm 
of each was carried a large white pocket- 
handkerchief. Their heads were covered 
with lawn caps, the form of all, for both old 
and young, being alike. They project so as 
fully to conceal the cheeks in profile." The 
worship, as witnessed on this Sabbath, con- 
sisted of singing, exhortations by the elders, 
and dancing. This latter feature, which is 
the peculiar characteristic of Shaker worship, 
is thus described: "When Elder Evans had 
ceased his sermon all the worshipers arose, 
the benches were removed, and they formed 
themselves into several ranks. Then, with 
graceful motions, they gradually changed 
their position into a circular form, all the 
while moving with springing step, in uni- 
son with a lively tune. In the centre stood 



SHALEM 



870 



SHECHEM 



twenty-four singers in a circle, twelve men 
and twelve women ; and around them, in 
two concentric circles, marched and counter- 
marched the remainder of the worshipers, 
the men three and the women two abreast. 
A brief pause and they commenced another 
lively tune and march, all keeping time with 
their hands moving up and down, and occa- 
sionally clapping them three or four times 
in concert." This writer adds that these 
exercises of public worship are " digniiied, 
solemn, and deeply impressive ;" that the 
music " captivates the ear because of its se- 
vere simplicity and perfect melody ;" and 
that the movements are all " graceful and 
appropriate." 

For fuller details of the peculiarities of 
Shaker life, the reader is referred to the ar- 
ticle in Sarper^s Magazine from which we 
have quoted, and to an account in Noyes's 
" History of American Socialisms." 

Shalem. The word occurs only in Gen. 
xxxiii., 18, as a proper name, and there only 
by mistake. Instead of reading, '^And Ja- 
cob came to Shalem, a city of Shechem," it 
should be, "And Jacob came in safety to the 
city of Shechem." 

Shallum (retribution), the son of Jabesh, 
was the fifteenth king of Israel, B.C. 772. 
He conspired against Zachariah, killed him, 
and took possession of the kingdom, thus ful- 
filling the prophecy of 2 Kings x., 30, and 
bringing the dynasty of Jehu to an end. 
Shallum, after reigning only a mouth, was, 
in his turn, dethroned and killed by Mena- 
hem, who was his successor. [2 Kings xv., 
10-12.] 

Shalmaneser, the Assyrian king who prob- 
ably succeeded Tiglath-pileser, about B.C. 726. 
In Hosea x., 14, he appears under the name 
of Shalman. Soon after his accession to the 
throne, he made war upon Samaria, and Ho- 
shea, the last king of the ten tribes, at once 
yielded and rendered him tribute. Not long 



the siege to its close, for Sargon, his succes- 
sor, claims to have conquered Samaria in the 
first year of his reign. It is to be noticed 
that Scripture does not assert that Shal- 
maneser did capture Samaria; the expres- 
sion is, " he besieged it," " and they took it," 
as if in some way the king who began the 
siege had been removed. The Assyrian me- 
morials of Shalmaneser's reign represent 
Israelites bringing him tribute. [2 Kings 
xvii., 3-6; xviii., 9-12.] 

Shamgar (possibly imrrior), one of the 
judges of Israel. He was the son of Anath ; 
and in his days the people were grievously 
oppressed; but he slew six hundred Philis- 
tines with an ox-goad, and delivered Israel. 
We have no further account of him; but he 
may be supposed prior to or contemporary 
with Barak. [Judg. iii., 31 ; v., 6.] 

Shebna (youth), an official in the court 
of Hezekiah, holding the office of chamber- 
lain, or treasurer. He appears to have been 
a person of proud spirit and arbitrary con- 
duct, for the greatest reverse is announced 
to him. It is not known how far this 
threatening was executed. At a later stage 
of Hezekiah's reign he appears in a lower 
position, as a scribe merely. [2 Kings xviii.. 



18, 26, 37 



3,11, 




Israelites brin 



tribute to Shalmaneser. 



after, Hoshea having rebelled, Shalmaneser 
invaded Palestine a second time, and laid 
siege to Samaria. This siege lasted three 
years, when Samaria fell. It is probable, 
however, that Shalmaneser did not conduct 



22; xxxvii.,2.] 

Shechem (a shoulder-Made), a celebrated 
city of Palestine; called also Sichem, Sy- 
char, and Sychem.^ It was of great antiqui- 
ty, for it was in existence when Abram en- 
tered Canaan. It was occupied by Hivites 
when Jacob pitched his tent before it, and 
purchased some ground, where he built an 
altar; and it was plundered and the inhab- 
itants put to the sword by Simeon and Levi, 
because the chief's son had defiled their sis- 
ter Dinah. Shechem was, after the con- 
quest, territorially in the tribe of Ephraim, 
but was assigned to the Levites of the fami- 
ly of Kohath, and appointed a city of refuge. 
There the bones of Jo- 
seph were buried ; and, 
as a central point, it was 
the place where Joshua 
gathered Israel to re- 
ceive his last instruc- 
tions. Its history in the 
time of the judges was 
disgraceful and disas- 
trous. The coronation 
of Abimelech as king by 
the Shechemites was fol- 
lowed by his death and 
by the destruction of the 
city. It was afterward 
rebuilt ; Eehoboam went 
thither to be inaugu- 
rated king ; there, in consequence of his 
folly, the revolution broke out ; and there 



1 Gen. xii., 6; Johniv.,5; Actsvii.,16. Dr. Thomson, 
however, thinks Sychar is not to be identified with 
Shechem, but is the neighboring village of Aschar. 



SHEEP 



871 



SHEEP 




m 




Shechem. 



was at first the seat of the new monarchy. 
It was standing after the destruction of 
Jerusalem ; and after the return of the 
Jews from captivity it became the centre 
of Samaritan worship. On or near the an- 
cient site a town was built, probably by Ves- 
pasian, called Flavia Neapolis : it was the 
birthplace of Justin Martyr, and the see of 
Christian bishops. The modern town is call- 
ed Nablous, and contains about eight thou- 
sand inhabitants. It is beautifully located 
in a fertile valley between Mount Ebal and 
Gerizim, about seven miles south of Sama- 
ria. [Gen. xxxiii., 18-20 ; xxxiv. ; Josh, 
xvii., 7 ; xx., 7 ; xxiv., 1-23, 32 ; Judg. ix. ; 
1 Kings xii., 1-25 ; 2 Chron. x. ; Jer. xli., 5.] 
Sheep. Large flocks of sheep were an 
important part of the possessions of the 
ancient Hebrews, and of Eastern nations 
generally. Their flesh seems to have been 
eaten freely by kings and great men ;^ but 
generally, when ordinary people ate the 
tiesh of the sheep, it was on the occasion of 
some rejoicing, such, for example, as a mar- 
riage feast, or the advent of a guest, for 
whom a lamb or kid was slain and cooked 
on the spot. The principal part of the food 
supplied by the sheep was, and still is, the 
milk, which can be used without thinning 
the numbers of the flock. The milk of the 
sheep is i^eculiarly rich, and in the East is 
valued much more highly than that of cat- 
tle. It was seldom drank in a fresh state, 



1 1 Sam. XV., 18; 1 Kings i., 19; iv., 23; Job 
Psa. xliv., 11. 



but was suffered to become sour, curdled, 
and semi-solid. For butter (q. v.), tlie milk 
of the cow or goat seems to have been pre- 
ferred, although that of the sheep also fur- 
nished it. In ancient times a large propor- 
tion of the clothing was made of wool. The 
wool of the sheep of Palestine differed ex- 
tremely in value, some kinds being coarse 
and rough, while others were long, fine, and 
soft. It was dressed much as it is at pres- 
ent. Spinning the wool was exclusively the 
task of the women.^ As with us, sheep- 
shearing was always a time of great rejoi- 
cing and revelry, which seems often to have 
been carried beyond the bounds of sobriety. 
Horns from the rams were formed into ves- 
sels for carrying liquids; but rams' horn, in 
Josh, vi., 4, 5, 6, 8, 13, is a false translation 
for trumpet of jiihUee, and also for horn of jubi- 
lee, an instrument originally made of horn, 
probably of the ox, but afterward of other 
material, and which played so important a 
part in the history of the Jewish nation. The 
common sheep of Syria and Palestine are 
the broad-tailed sheep, and a variety of the 
common sheep of this country. 

The sheep is the most prominent animal in 
the religious rites of the Jews. It was sac- 
rificed as an offering of thanksgiving, some- 
times as an expiation for sin, and sometimes 
as a redemption for some more valuable an- 
imal. The Mosaic law specifies the precise 
age, as well as the sex, of the sheep to be sac- 
rificed in certain circumstances. The sacri- 



Exod. XXXV., 25. 



SHEEP-FOLD 



872 



SHEPHERD 



fice of tlie Paschal lamb, prefiguring the Mes- 
siah, was the central rite of the Jewish na- 
tion, at once a sacrifice and a feast. See 
Shepherd. 

Sheep-fold,^ an inclosure or shelter for 
sheep. Sheep-cots, or sheep-folds, are often 
mentioned in Scripture (e. </., Numb, xxxii., 
24, 36 ; 1 Sam. xxiv., 3 ; 2 Chron. xxxii., 28). 
The word is sometimes used figuratively 
{e. g., John x., 1). Modern sheep-folds in 
Syria are described as low, flat buildings, in 
which, when the nights are cold, the sheep 
are shut. There is a yard attached, where 
they are kept in milder weather. This is 
fenced with a stone wall crowned with sharp 
thorns. The wolf rarely attempts to scale 
this wall, but the fahed, the leopard, and the 
panther of the country will sometimes over- 
leap it. It is to such a fold as this that 
Christ refers in John x., 1-10. 

Sheik, Sheikh, Scheik (elder, or eldest), 
the chief of an Arab tribe. The heads of 
monasteries are also called sheiJcs among the 
Mohammedans, and the mufti at Constanti- 
nople bears the title of Slieik-iil-Islam,^^ chief 
of the true believers." 

Shekinah {InJiabitation), a derivative of 
the common Hebrew root signifying to dwell, 
but itself not found in Scripture. The word, 
meaning anindivelling, i. e., of God, is proper- 
ly applied to visible manifestations of God's 
presence, examples of which may be found 
in the mysterious fire with which the bush 
on Horeb burned and was not consumed, 
and in that strange brightness above the 
sapphire pavement which Moses, and Aaron, 
and the elders of Israel beheld when they 
ascended the holy mount.'^ When the Lord 
led forth Israel from Egypt, he " went before 
them by day in a pillar of cloud to lead them 
the way, and by night in a pillar of fire to 
give them light." This cloudy pillar, ap- 
parently resting on the ark which preceded 
the host, was the active form of the symbol- 
ical glory cloud, and betokened God's pres- 
ence to guide his people, or to seek out and 
punish offenses, as the luminous cloud of 
the sanctuary exhibited the same presence 
under an aspect of repose. After the Israel- 
ites had entered Canaan, no mention is made 
of this cloud until the consecration of Solo- 
mon's Temple, when, in token of the Lord's 
owning the place as his peculiar dwelling, 
the cloud again appeared as the symbol of 
divine glory. 

There is no reason, however, to suppose 
this to have been more than a momentary 
sign — one given for the occasion. It would 
have been against the genius of the old cov- 
enant to render any symbol of the Lord's 
presence stationary and permanent ; to have 
done so would have given a dangerous en- 
couragement to the idolatrous tendencies 
of the people. Hence, while God did not 



1 For illustration see art. Fence. 
xxiv., 10. 



-2 Exod. iii. 



wholly abstain from the use of symbolical 
manifestations of himself, he took care to 
vary them, so as to keep up the impression 
that they were only symbols; nor did he 
ever employ them more than occasionally. 
The aMding sign of his presence was to be 
found in the tabernacle, with its sacred ark 
and tables of the covenant. It was in per- 
fect accordance, therefore, with the whole 
nature of the old economy, that the pillar 
of cloud, as a regular manifestation of Dei- 
ty, should cease to be connected with the 
tal3ernacle or Temple after- the people had 
been settled in Canaan ; and it is only from 
having overlooked these fundamental con- 
siderations that Jewish, and also some Chris- 
tian writers, have contended for its perma- 
nent existence till the destruction of the 
Temple by the Babylonians. Ezekiel, in- 
deed, speaks about that time of seeing the 
glory of the Lord leaving the Temple ;^ but 
it was of what appeared in vision that the 
prophet spoke ; and, in the reality, it mere- 
ly announced the fact that God had now, on 
account of the people's sins, actually desert- 
ed the house, and surrendered it to desola- 
tion. 

Shem (name), the eldest of Noah's three 
sons ; for the translation, " the brother of 
Japheth the elder," can not be sustained: 
it is really "the elder brother of Japheth." 
This patriarch was the father of one of the 
three great divisions of mankind: the na- 
tions called Shemitic, including the He- 
brews, Aramaeans, Persians, Assyrians, etc., 
occupying the central parts of the ancient 
world, were descended from him. In the di- 
rect line from Shem we have the genealogy 
of the Israelitish nation. He lived six hun- 
dred years, and, if the ordinary chronology 
is to be depended on, he must have been 
many years contemporary with Abraham. 
In Luke iii., 36, he is called Sem. [Gen. x., 
21-31 ; xi., 10-26 ; 1 Chron. i., 17-27.] 

Shepherd. In the early state of society 
pastoral duties would naturally be among 
the first and most important in which men 
could be engaged.^ As many regions in 
the East are better adapted for this mode 
of life than for agriculture, families and 
clans would naturally be led to move about 
with their flocks from one pasture -ground 
to another, according to the state of the 
herbage and the supply of water. It is in 
this nomadic state we first come in contact 
with the Hebrew race. During these early 
ages in the history of the nation, the calling 
of a shepherd was held to be as honorable 
as it was important ; hence we find that all 
grades, from the highest downward, includ- 
ing the sons, and even the daughters, of the 
wealthiest chiefs, were thus occupied.^ But 
this phase of shepherd-life was modified in 
after ages in the history of Israel, partly by 



1 Ezek. X., 4 ; xi., 23.-2 Gen. iv., 2.-3 Gen. xxix., 6 ; 
xxxvii., 12 ; Exod. ii., 16. 



SHEPHERD 



873 



SHEW-BREAD 



their long residence in Egypt, i:)artly by their 
subsequent settlement in Canaan. Yet the 
shepherd-life was always an honored one in 
Hebrew history. Four shepherds were call- 
ed both king and prophet, and to the shep- 
herds was made the angelic announcement 
of the incarnation of Israel's great king, the 
Saviour of the world.^ 

The duties of a shepherd were, in ancient 
times, much the same as they now are in Pal- 
estine and Syria. Of the shepherd-life Dr. 
Thomson, in "The Laud and the Book," 
gives us an admirable description. In the 
morning the shepherd lets his flocKS out of 
the fold — the Arab Kliazir — an open space 
surrounded by a stone-wall, and topped with 
thorns ; or the Mar all, a flat shed, where the 
sheep are turned in when the nights are cold. 
From this fold the flocks are led by the voice 
of the shepherd f and they follow him with 
the utmost docility. In his hand the shep- 
herd holds a rod or staft', frequently hooked 
at one end, Avith which he guides and de- 
fends the flock.^ Arrived at the pasturage, 
and during the day, he leads them to drink, 
either at running streams, or more common- 
ly at troughs attached to wells. Should any 
sheep go astray, as is frequently the case, he 
goes in search of it until he finds it.* In au- 
tumn, when the pastures become dried up, 
and in winter, when they are covered with 
snow, the shepherd must provide their food, 
for which purpose the green branches of 
bushy trees are cut down. As the evening 
draws on, the shepherd leads his flock back 
to the fold, and each enters through the door 
under the guiding hand of its master. Dur- 
ing the night, he or a comrade keeps watch 
lest a thief shoukl enter and steal.^ In go- 
ing and returning, the ewes with young are 
gently led, as of old, and the tender lambs are 
frequently carried.^ The shepherd has with 
him a leathern scrij), in Avhich he carries his 
food. He is generally faithful and brave to 
defend his flock, and many a one has laid 
down his life for the sheep.'' In ancient 
times, when the shepherd was feeding his 
flock at a distance from his home, he pro- 
vided himself with a tent, which was fre- 
quently removed from place to place, accord- 
ing to the requirements. On the more dan- 
gerous stations towers were erected, for the 
double purpose of espying an enemy at a dis- 
tance and protecting the flock. The shep- 
herd was not always a member of the fami- 
ly, but hired servants were also employed ; 
sometimes there were various grades, and 
one sat over them as chief shepherd. The 
chief seems to have had a personal interest 
in the flocks, inasmuch as his service was 
paid by a certain proportion of the young ; 
hence he was responsible for all intrusted 
to his care. The flocks are generally mix- 



1 1 Sara, xvi., 11-18 ; Amos i., 1 ; Luke ii,, 8.-2 John 
X., 4.-3 Mic. vii., 14.— < Luke xv., 4.— ^ John x., 3.— 
« Gen. xxxiii., 13 ; Isa. xl., 11.— ^ John x., 11-13. 



ed, of sheep and goats, and will answer to 
their names if called by the shepherd, but 
will not obey the voice of a stranger.^ 

The shepherd's life must be one of consid- 
erable hardship, and sometimes of danger; 
and yet it had its pleasures and even its ad- 
vantages.^ Young David received many of 
his deepest impressions and most X)oetic im- 
ages while leading a shepherd's life ; and in 
later years expressed them in some of his 
sweetest psalms. The term is frequently- 
used in a metaphorical sense, and applied to 
kings,^ to prophets and teachers,* to God 
as the leader of Israel,^ and especially to 
our Saviour.^ [Gen. xxix., 7; xxx., 32; 
xxxi., 39 ; xxxv., 21 ; xlvii., 6 ; Exod. ii., 16 ; 
xxii., 12, 13 ; 1 Sam. xvii., 20, 34, 40 ; xxi., 
7 ; Psa. xxiii., 2 ; Sol. Song i., 8 ; Isa. xxxi., 
4 ; xxxviii., 12 ; Jer. xxxiii., 13 ; xxxv., 7 ; 
Amos iii., 12 ; vii., 14 ; Mic. iv., 8 ; Luke xv., 
4; John X., 12; ICor. ix., 7.] 

Shew-bread (literally, hread of the face, or 
hread of the presence), so called because it was 
set before Jehovah in the Holy Place. Later 
it was termed "bread of ordering," or "ar- 
rangement." It consisted of twelve loaves 




Table of Shew-bread. From the Arch of Titus. 

or cakes, according to the number of the 
tribes of Israel, fresh every Sabbath-day, 
placed in two rows or piles, with frankin- 
cense on each row. The frankincense was 
burned as an offering made by fire ; and the 
bread taken away to make room for the 
fresh loaves was to be eaten by the priests 
in the Holy Place.'' It was this shew-bread 
which was given to David.® This shew- 
bread was placed upon a table made of shit- 
tim - wood, overlaid with gold, set in the 
sanctuary.^ On this table were, besides 
the " continual bread," as it was sometimes 
termed, bowls and cups in which there was 
probably wine for libations." The number 
of loaves (twelve) plainly answers to the 
twelve tribes." But taking this for granted, 
we have still to ascertain the meaning of 
the rite, and there is none which is left in 
Scripture so wholly unexplained. But, al- 



1 Matt. XXV., 32 ; John x., 5.-2 1 Sara, xvii., 40 ; 
XXV., 2, 36; 2 Sam. xiii., 23.-3 jpa. xliv., 28.- ^ Jer. 
xxiii., 4.-5 Gen. xlix., 24 ; Psa. xxiii., 1.—® Zech, xiii., 
T; John x., 14; Heb. xiii., 20.— ^ Lev. xxiv., 5-9.— 
8 1 Sara, xxi., 2-6; Matt, xii., 3, 4.-9 Exod. xxv., 
23-30 ; xxxix., 36 ; Heb. ix., 2.— 1» Exod. xxv., 29, 30 ; 
xxxvii., 10-16 ; xl., 4, 22-24.—" Rev. xxii., 2. 



SHILOH 



874 



SHIP 



tbougli unexplained, it is referred to as one 
of the leading and most solemn appoint- 
ments of the sanctuary/ The name '' Bread 
of the Face " may mean that bread through 
which God is seen — that is, with the par- 
ticipation of which the seeing of God is 
bound up, or through the participation of 
which man obtains the sight of God ; whence 
it follows that we have to regard it not mere- 
ly as the means of nourishing the bodily life, 
but as a symbol of spiritual food — a means 
of appropriating and retaining that life 
which consists in seeing the face of God; and 
hence a x)erpetual type of that Bread of Life 
of which the bread of the Lord's Supper is 
also a memorial. 

Shiloh. 1. A city or village in the tribe 
of Ephraim. It was one of the earliest and 
most sacred of the Hebrew sanctuaries. 
Here the congregation of the children of Is- 
rael set up the tabernacle and deposited the 
Ark of the Covenant, when they had sub- 
jugated the land of Canaan. Here they di- 
vided the greater ]3art of that land among 
the tribes. The ungodly conduct of the sons 
of Eli occasioned the loss of the Ark of the 
Covenant, which had been carried into battle 
against the Philistines, and from that time 
Shiloh sank into insignificance. Its history 
affords a striking example of divine indig- 
nation. In Judg. xxi., 19, a more minute 
description is given of its geographical sit- 
uation than is often furnished in the Bible : 
" On the north side of Beth-el, on the east 
side of the highway that goeth up from 
Beth-el to Shechem, and on the south of Le- 
bouah." In agreement with this, the travel- 
er at the present day, going north from Je- 
ru-salem, lodges the first night at Beitin, the 
ancient Beth-el ; the next day, at the dis- 
tance of a few hours, turns aside to the right, 
in order to visit Seilwn, the Arabic for Shi- 
loh ; and then, passing through the narrow 
wady which brings him to the main -road, 
leaves el-Lehbdn, the Lebonah of Scripture, 
on the left, as he follows " the highway " to 
Nablous, the ancient Shechem. Seilto is 
nine English miles from Nablous, seven and 
a half from Beth-el, or Beitiin, and almost 
sixteen from Jerusalem. The ruins are unim- 
portant, and mostly modern. Among them, 
however, are many large stones, and some 
fragments of columns of the ancient city. 
The situation is a fine one, and, if ever for- 
tified, must have been very strong. The 
prophet Abijah lived at Shiloh, and is re- 
peatedly named the SJdlonite. This is the 
adjective of the place, and the form of it is 
one reason for thinking Shilon the full orig- 
inal Hebrew name of the city, closely cor- 
responding to the modern Arabic Seilftn. 
[Josh, xviii., 1 sq. ; xix., 51 ; 1 Kings xiv., 2, 
4 ; xi., 29 ; xii., 15 ; xv., 29 ; 2 Chron. ix., 29 ; 
X., 15.] 

2. This word occurs also in Jacob's pro- 



1 2 Chron. xiii., 10, 11. 



phetic blessing.^ Various and most diverse 
are the interpretations of the passage. A 
full consideration of them belongs rather to 
a conmientary than to a religious dictionary. 
Sortie writers, and among them Mr. Twisle- 
tou, in " Smith's Bible Dictionary," maintain 
that the translation of Shiloh, as the name 
of the city of Shiloh, is the soundest. Oth- 
ers, who regard the word as an epithet ap- 
plied to a person, trace it to the root to rest, 
to be at])eace; and make it equivalent to Pa- 
cificator, or Autlior of Peace. In a sense, 
this is accordant with the realized charac- 
ter of the Messiah, one of whose crowning 
denominations is Prince of Peace. By Chris- 
tians in general it has ever been regarded as 
a denomination of Christ, and all Jewish an- 
tiquity referred the prophecy to the Messiah. 

Sliimei, the son of Gera, a Benjamite, who 
belonged to a family of the house of Saul, 
and dwelt at Bahurim. He first comes into 
notice on the occasion when David fled from 
Jerusalem for fear of his son Absalom, and 
had reached Bahurim on his way to the oth- 
er side of the Jordan. He cursed David, de- 
nounced him as a bloody man, and a man 
of Belial, and cast stones at him and his 
party, apparently from the other side of the 
ravine along which they were passing. Abi- 
shai sought leave to cross over and make 
an end of Shimei, but David restrained him. 
On David's return, however, to take posses- 
sion of his former capital, Shimei hastens to 
Jordan, that he might be among the first to 
welcome the king back and implore his for- 
giveness. He was allowed to go home in 
peace, the king swearing to him that his life 
should be spared. But David did not hold 
him guiltless, and gave Solomon a special 
charge of the case, requesting him to do in 
regard to it what he deemed right. Solomon 
obliged Shimei to stay as a prisoner in Jeru- 
salem, assuring him that if he should once 
pass over Kidron he should forfeit his life. 
Shimei professed himself satisfied with the 
terms, and kept them for three years. But 
two slaves having run away to Gath,he pur- 
sued after, and captured them. In conse- 
quence, he was slain by Benaiah at the 
command of the king. [2 Sam. xvi., 5-13 ; 
xix., 16-23 ; 1 Kings ii., 8, 9, 36-46.] 

Ship. The oldest and most famous vessel 
of which we have any account was Noah's 
ark ; and it is remarkable of this that its 
proportions of length, breadth, and depth 
are almost precisely the same as those of the 
fastest vessels of the present da^y. Some of 
our ocean steamers are 322 feet long, 50 feet 
broad, and 28|^ feet deep — dimensions arrived 
at as the result of generations of experience 
and skill in ship-building. The ark was 300 
cubits long, 50 broad, and 30 high. 

Ships of burden were originally mere 
rafts, made of tree-trunks bound together, 
over which planks were fastened. Some- 



1 Geu. xlis., 10. 



SHIP 



875 



SHIP 



times they were made of mere reeds, and 
such are still seen in the East. But boats 
made of hollow trees, and various materials 
covered with hides or pitch, were also of a 
very early date, and to these may be ascribed 




KeedRaft. 

the origin of planked vessels. Papyrns boats, 
composed of rushes, bound together by bands 
of papyrus, are frequently mentioned by an- 
cient writers. Moses is said to have been 
exposed in "an ark (or boat) of bulrushes, 
daubed with slime and with pitch." "Ves- 
sels of bulrushes" are again mentioned in 
Isaiah ;^ and Pliny mentions boats " woven 
of the papyrus," the rind being made into 
sails, curtains, matting, and ropes. The hol- 
low tree with both ends rounded must be 
held to be the primitive form and model for 
the ship, and contin- 
ued to be so with lit- 
tle alteration till the 
Middle Ages. The 
nations dwelling of 
old upon the shores 
of the Mediterranean 
and Eed seas attain- 
ed considerable skill 
in the construction of 
vessels, and succeed- 
ed even in making 
voyages of long du- 
ration. Among these 
nations the adventur- 
ous Phoenicians, who 
visited the coast of 
Britain in quest of 
tin, were the first to 
attain this distinc- 
tion. The monu- 



or cedar, were well adapted in shape for easy 
propulsion, and were furnished with oars. 

The Jews can not be said to have been a 
sea-faring people ; yet their position on the 
map of the world is such as to lead us to feel 
that they could not have been 
ignorant of ships, and the bus- 
iii iness which relates thereunto. 

^^je^ Phoenicia, the north-western 

l;;:rg. part of Palestine, was unques- 

^'^ tionably among, if not at the 

head of, the earliest cultivators 
" of maritime affairs. The Holy 
5 - Laud itself lay with oue side 

- ' i coasting a sea which was an- 

ciently the great highway of 
- navigation, and the centre of 
social and commercial enter- 
z-rf^'"^"^ prise. Within its own borders 
^_ J , it had a navigable lake, and the 
T z " Eed Sea itself, which conduct- 

- ^^ ed toward the remote east, was 

. , 3— "" at no great distance from the 

^=^.^^:- capital of the land. At differ- 

3^ ent points in its long line of 

^'- sea -coast there were harbors 

of no mean repute. Yet the 
decidedly agricultural bearing 
of the Israelitish constitution checked such a 
development of j)Ower, activity, and wealth 
as these favorable opportunities might have 
called forth on behalf of sea-faring pursuits ; 
and it is evident that the Israelites only par- 
tially improved their local advantages, since 
we find Hiram, king of Tyre, acting as car- 
rier by sea for Solomon, engaging to convey 
in floats to Joppa the timber cut in Lebanon 
for the Temple, and leaving to the Hebrew 
prince the duty of transporting the wood 
from the coast to Jerusalem. And when, 




archers, and the pilot d 

ments represent the ships of the Egyptians 
as long galleys, with one mast, and a large 
square sail of white or colored linen or papy- 
rus. They were made of planks of pine, fir, 



a 'J 

Egyptian War Galley ; the sail pulled up during the action. 
Eaised forecastle, in which the archers were posted ; c. Another post for the 
„...i-...- -.-.T .T_- „-,^. ., g^ ^ bulwark for the rowers; /. Slingers in the top. 



1 Isa. xviii.,2. 



after having conquered Elath and Ezion- 
geber on the farther arm of the Red Sea, 
Solomon proceeded to convert them into na- 
val stations for his own purposes, he was 
still, whatever he did himself, indebted to 



SHIP 



876 



SHITTAH-TREE, SHITTIM 



Hiram for " shipmen that had knowledge of 
the sea."^ 

The ships of the Greeks and Romans were 
comiiaratively rude both in buikl and rig. 
Like those of the early Northmen, they were 
steered not by means of a single rudder but 
by two imddle-r udders, one on each quarter. 
Hence "rudders" are mentioned by Luke^ 
as by heathen writers. The hinged rudder 
does not appear till a late period in the Mid- 
dle Ages. The ship had one large mast, 
with strong ropes rove through a block at 
the mast-head, and one large sail fastened to 
an enormous yard. This concentrated the 
strain upon a small portion of the ship's 
hull, and caused a great tendency to leak- 
age ; so that a vast proportion of the ancient 
vessels lost were lost by foundering. This 
was the danger apprehended in the ship of 
Jonah, from which they cast forth the wares 
" to lighten it ;" and in the ship of Paul, 
from wliich, after having lightened it the 
first day, they " cast out the tackling " on 
the second day, and finally " threw out the 
cargo of wheat into the sea."^ In consequence 
of this danger from leakage to which ships 
were exposed, it was customary to take to 
sea, as part of their ordinary gear, iinder- 
girders, which were simply ropes for passing 
r(mnd the hull of the ship, and thus prevent- 
ing the planks from starting.^ 

The vessels connected with Biblical his- 
tory were, for the most part, ships of burden. 
In a ship of this kind was Paul conveyed to 
Italy. They were rounder and deeper than 
ships of war, and sometimes of great capaci- 
ty. In consequence of their bulk, and, when 
laden, of their weight, they were imj)elled 
by sails rather than by oars. On the prow 
was an image, which constituted the sign of 
the vessel and furnished its name ; on the 
stern was a similar image of its tutelary de- 
ity. The ship in which Paul departed from 
Melita, after the shipwreck, seems to have 
borne the same image in bow and stern, and 
to have taken its name, Castor and Pollux, 
from those gods, who were regarded as the 
special guardians of sailors.^ Eacli ship was 
furnished with a boat — to facilitate escape in 
case of peril — several anchors, and a plumb- 
line for sounding, besides the helps for un- 
dergirding already referred to. The cap- 
tain was denominated steersman, though he 
did not have the actual charge of the helm. 
The dangers of the ocean on board such 
ships as these, in the then ignorance of nav- 
igation, caused sailing to be restricted to 
the months of spring, summer, and autumn ; 
winter was avoided. To the Romans the 
sea was opened in March and closed in No- 
vember ; and ships which toward the end 
of the year were still on their voyage ear- 
nestly sought a harbor in which to pass the 



1 1 Kinss ix., 26 ; x., 22,-2 Acts xxvii., 40.-3 jon, 1., 
5; Acts xxvii., IS, 19, 3S.— < Acts xxvii., 17.— s Acts 
xxviii., 11. 



winter. Yet mariners without a compass 
ventured across the sea, out of sight of land. 
They were skillful in handling a vessel in 
bad weather ; could sail within seven points 
of the wind ; seem to have had some mode 
of keeping the log ; used soundings ; and it 
has been supposed that with a fair breeze 
they could make seven knots an hour.-^ 

The reader of the N. T. is well aware how 
frequently he finds himself with the Saviour 
on the romantic shores of the Sea of Galilee. 
There Jesus is seen, now addressing the peo- 
ple from on board a vessel, now sailing up 
and down the lake. Some of his earliest 
disciples were proprietors of barks which 
sailed on this inland sea. Then fishermen's 
boats — called " ships " in our Bible — abound- 
ed on its waters ; now few are seen there. 

Shishak, the king of Egypt to whom Jer- 
oboam fled for protection when he fell un- 
der the suspicion of Solomon.^ The date 
of his accession to the throne is somewhat 
uncertain, but supposed to be about B.C. 
980. The length of his reign was at least 
twenty -one years, and some suppose it to 
have been thirty -six. His name on the 
monuments is Sheshouk I. ; and the suppo- 
sition that he was the founder of a new dy- 
nasty is countenanced by Scripture, as he 
comes into notice without the ancient and 
venerable name of Pharaoh. Shishak in- 
vaded Judah in the fifth year of Rehoboam, 
and took the fenced cities one after anoth- 
er, till he arrived at Jerusalem, which, ac- 
cording to Josephus, fell without a struggle. 
He did not use severity toward the inhabit- 
ants, but satisfied himself with carrying off 
the rich treasures of the king's house and 
of the Temple,^ and making Judah for the 
time tributary to his own empire. A record 
of the conquests of Shishak is sculptured on 
the walls of a great temple in Egypt ; and 
here is found the name '• Joudh Malk," i. e,, 
King of Judah, the Rehoboam of Scripture 
history. Under Shishak, the power of Egypt 
appears to have been revived, and he was 
probably one of the ablest and most power- 
ful monarchs that had ever ruled over that 
country. As he did not inherit this king- 
dom, but was the founder of his dynasty, we 
must ascribe to him political and military 
talents of a high order. [2 Chron. xii.] 

Shittah - tree, Shittim (Heb. sliittdh), is 
without doubt correctly referred to some 
species of acacia, of which three or four 
kinds occur in the Bible lauds. The wood 
of this tree — perhaps the Acacia Scyal is 
more definitely signified — was extensively 
employed in the construction of the taber- 
nacle. It is very common in some parts of 
the peninsula of Sinai. It yields the well- 
known substance called gum arable, which 
is obtained by incisions in the bark, but it 
is impossible to say whether the ancient 

1 See Acts xxvin., passim, for mauy of these details. 
—2 1 Kings xi., 40.— ' 2 Chron. xii., 9. 



SHROVE-TUESDAY 



877 



SHUSHAN 



Jews were acquainted with this fact. From 
the tangled thickets into which the stem of 
this tree exi^auds is to be traced the use of 
the phiral form of the Hebrew noun jShit- 
iim, the singular number occurring but once 
only in the Bible. This acacia must not be 
confounded with the tree popularly known 
by this name in this country, which is a 
North American plant, and belongs to a dif- 
ferent genus and sub-order. The true aca- 
cias belong to the order Leguminosce, sub-or- 
der Mimosew. [Exod. xxv. ; xxvi. ; xxxvi. ; 
xxxvii. ; xxxviii.] 

Shrove - Tuesday, the day before AsJi- 
TTednesdaij, which is observed by the Eo- 
mish Church as the day on which confes- 
sion is appointed to be made with a view to 
the communion. 

Shunem (two resting-places), a city in the 
territory of Issachar. It was the native 
place of Abishag, David's concubine, and of 
the wealthy lady who built a room for Eli- 
sha, and whose son the j)rophet restored to 
life. It is now a village called Sidam, on a 
declivity at the western extremity of Little 
Hermon. [Josh, xix., 18 ; 1 Sam. xxviii., 4 ; 
2 Kings iv., 8.] 

Shur (rt fort), a desert on the south-west 
of Palestine, bordering upon Gerar and Ka- 
desh, and extending to the boundaries of 
Egypt : it was also called the wilderness of 
Etham. It was peopled by Arabian tribes, 
and was partially traversed by the Israelites 
in their march from the point where they 
crossed the Eed Sea to Marah and Elim. 
This appears to be the modern wilderness 
el Dsliifdr, extending between the Mediter- 
ranean and the Eed Sea, on the west and 
north-west of et- 
Tlh, from Pelusium 
to the south-west ^ 

frontier of Pales- 

tine. Shur may — -_^ J 

have been a forti- 
fied town east of 
the ancient head of 
the Eed Sea ; and, 
from its being spo- 
ken of as a limit, 
was probably the 
last Arabian, town 
before entering 
Egypt. [Gen. xvi., 
7 ; XX., 1 ; Exod. xv., 
22; 1 Sam. xv., 7; 
xxvii., 8.] 

Shushan {lily, 
probably from the 
abundance of the 

lily in the neighborhood), originally the 
capital of Elam, had passed, at the time 
of Daniel, into the possession of the Bab- 
ylonians.^ The conquest of Babylon by Cy- 
rus transferred it to the Persians, and at 
the time of Xerxes (Ahasuerus) it was the 



capital of that empire. The chief relig- 
ious interest attaches to it as the scene of 
the remarkable historical drama recorded in 
the book of Esther. Its exact site is not 
known with certainty, but it is most prob- 
ably identical with the modern Sus, in lat. 
32° 10', long. 48° 26'. The ruins of this place 
cover a space about seven miles in circum- 
ference. They include enough of the re- 
mains of the great jjalace so graphically 
described in the book of Esther to render 
a restoration at least partially practicable. 
There was a great central hall, about two 
hundred feet square, supported by thirty-six 
columns of stone, sixty feet in height, and 
about twenty -seven feet six inches apart, 
from centre to centre. Exterior to this, 
separated from it by walls eighteen feet in 
thickness, built partly of sun-burned brick, 
were three great porches, each measuring 
two hundred feet in width by sixty-five in 
depth, and supported by twelve columns of 
stone. These porches were the great audi- 
ence-halls of the palace. There was no 
porch at the south; the principal one was 
on the north, and served as a throne-room, 
and was so arranged that a whole army of 
courtiers could file by the king without in- 
convenience. The "king's gate," where Mor- 
decai sat, was x^robably a square hall, meas- 
uring a little over one hundred feet each 
way, standing one hundred and fifty or two 
hundred feet in front of the northern por- 
tico. The great feast so graphically de- 
scribed in the first chapter of Esther ap- 
parently took place, not in the palace, but 
in the gardens in front or at the side, un- 
der tents, the beauty of the whole scene be- 




Dan. viii., 2. 



Mouud of Susa. 

ing enhanced by the white, green, and blue 
hangings which decorated the marble pillars 
of the porch. The inner court, where Esther 
implored the king's favor, was probably 
either the "throne -room," i.e., the western 
porch, or the space between that and the 
" king's gate." [Esth. i., 5, 6 ; ii., 21 ; v., 1.] 



SIBMAH 



878 



SIDON 



Sibmah, Shebam, aud Shibmah, a city 
on the east of the Jordan, assigned to the 
Eeubenites, by whom it was built or forti- 
fied. At a later period it seems to have 
been possessed by the Moabites. Sibmah 
was close to Heshbon, and was noted for the 
excellence of its grapes, which are still cul- 
tivated in that region. [Numb, sxxii., 3, 
38 ; Josh, xiii., 19 ; Isa. xvi., 8, 9 ; Jer. xlviii., 
'32.-] 

Siddim (a depression full of stones ?) a val- 
ley in which probably stood the cities of 
Sodom and Gomorrah ; it was certainly the 
scene of the defeat of the five kings by their 
Eastern foes ; it is said to have been full of 
asphalt-pits, and has generally been believed 
to be partially if not wholly occui)ied by the 
Dead Sea. See Cities of the Plain. [Gen. 
xiv., 3, 8, 10.] 



the two cities. This is shadowed forth in 
Genesis by the statement that Zidon was 
the first-born of Canaan, and is implied in 
the name of "Great Zidon," or "the me- 
tropolis Zidon," which is twice given to it in 
Joshua. It is confirmed likewise by Zido- 
nians, being used as the generic name of the 
Phoenicians or Canaanites, and the fact that 
the distant town of Laish was reckoned as 
dependant not upon Tyre, but upon Sidon.^ 
The history of the city may be briefly told. 
That it should occasionally be subject to its 
wealthy and powerful neighbor Tyre, may 
be easily believed. It may also have yield- 
ed to Tiglath-pileser during his western ex- 
peditions, for Tyre, under a King Hiram, sub- 
mitted to him. It had been in subjection 
to Tyre afterward, for it revolted when the 
inroad, of the Assyrian^ Shalmaneser, gave it 




Sidou. 



Sidon, or Zidon, an ancient aud wealthy 
city of Phcenicia, on the eastern coast of the 
Mediterranean. Its Hebrew name, from 
which comes the form Zidon, signifies/s/m?//, 
or fishery. Its modern name is Saida. It is 
not quite twenty miles north of Tyre, and 
about twice that distance south of Berytus, 
or Beirut. It is situated on the northern 
slope of a small promontory, which juts out 
into the sea from a plain scarcely two miles 
Avide between Lebanon and the sea. This 
promontory, projecting to the south-west, 
constituted a fine naturally-formed harbor. 
Though in a Biblical point of view Sidon is 
inferior in interest to its neighbor Tyre, it 
was in early times the more influential of 



opportunity. During the Persian domina- 
tion, Zidon seems to have attained its high- 
est point of prosperity ; and it is recorded 
that, toward the close of that period, it far 
excelled all other Plioenician cities in wealth 
and importance. It is very probable that 
the long siege of Tyre by Nebuchadnezzar 
had tended not only to weaken and impov- 
erish Tyre, but likewise to enrich Sidon at 
the expense of Tyre. Its prosperity was 
suddenly cut short by an unsuccessful re- 
volt against Persia, which ended in the de- 
struction of the city B.C. 351. While Ar- 
taxerxes Ochus was jireparing in Phoenicia 

1 Gen. X., 15, 19 ; Josh, xi., 8 ; xix., 28 ; xiii., 6 ; Judg. 

xviii., 7. 



SIHON 



879 



SILOAM 



for an invasion of Egypt, the Sidonians drove 
the insolent and oppressive Persian forces 
from their city. But the Sidonian king 
proved a traitor to their cause, and betray- 
ed into the power of the despot Ochus one 
hundred of the most distiugnislied citizens 
of Sidou, who were at once put to death. 
The Persian troops overcame all resistance 
on the part of the peo^ile made desperate 
by their betrayal, and the citizens, shutting 
themselves up with their wives and chil- 
dreu, set tire each man to his own house. 
Forty thousand persons are said to have per- 
ished in the flames. Sidon, however, grad- 
ually recovered from the blow, and became 
again a flourishing town. Their detestation 
of the Persians led its citizens to surrender 
to Alexander after the battle of Issus, and 
their fleet helped him against Tyre. Sidon 
then passed through several fluctuations, 
and was great and powerful in Eoman 
times. During the Crusades it was taken 
several times by Baldwin, in 1111, and plun- 
dered. Fak-ed-Din, the Emir of the Druses, 
filled its harbor with stones, as a protection 
against the Turks. For a short time it was 
a seat of French merchandise, but Jezzar 
Pacha drove out the French in 1791. Sidon, 
now called Saida, has still a population of 
about five thousand, but trade and naviga- 
tion have now gone to Beirut. It is sur- 
rounded by very fertile and beautiful fields, 
and watered, as probably in early times, with 
numerous channels cut from the streams of 
Lebanon. 

The artistic products of Sidon were fa- 
mous at an early period. Many of them are 
mentioned in the poems of Homer. The city 
was famous for its glass, though the art of 
making glass, represented as an accidental 
discovery, probably came from Egypt. Ac- 
cording to Pliny, the Sidonians used the 
blow-pipe, lathe, and graver, and could cast 
mirrors. Sidonian ships were famous, and 
as a sea-faring people the Sidonians must 
have carried on an extensive trade. They 
excelled in a knowledge of astronomy. 
Wealth seems to have inclined them to ease | 
and luxury. The city, like the other Phce- i 
nician cities, had its own king, and worship- 
ed Baal and Ashtoreth. [ Judg. i., 31 ; xviii., j 
28 ; Joel iii., 4 ; Isa. xxiii., 2, 4, 12 ; Jer. xxv., 
22; xxvii.,3; Ezek. xxviii., 21, 22 ; Zech.ix., 
2; Matt, xi., 21, 22; xv.,21; Mark iii., 8; vii., 
24, 31 ; Luke vi., 17 ; x., 13, 14.] 

Sihon {sweeping away), king of the Amo- 
rites, who inhabited a portion of the coun- 
try on the east of Jordan when the Israel- 
ites were on their way to Palestine. Hesh- 
bon was his capital, and the territory he 
reigned over comprised all that lay between 
the Arnon and the Jabbok. The southern I 
part of this he had wrenched from the Mo- 
abites. His successes and enlargement of 
territory had made him proud ; and when 
the Israelites approached his country, and 



asked permission to pass peaceably through 
his land, promising to keep by the king's 
highway, Sihon not only refused this request, 
but marched forth in warlike array to fight 
against Israel. The result was his complete 
defeat, and the occupation of his territory 
by Israel. [Numb, xxi., 20-30; Deut. i., 4; 
ii"!, 24-32 ; Josh, xiii., 15-29.] 

Silas, an eminent member of the early 
Christian Church, mentioned under that 
name in the Acts, but as Silvanus in St. 
Paul's epistles. His name, derived from the 
Latin silva, " wood," betokens him a Hellenis- 
tic Jew, and he appears to have been a Eo- 
man citizen. He was appointed as a delegate 
to accompany Paul and Barnabas on their re- 
turn to Antioch with the decree of the Coun- 
cil at Jerusalem. We next find him select- 
ed by Paul as the companion of his second 
missionary journey. At Berea he was left 
behind with Timothy, while Paul proceeded 
to Athens, and wx hear nothing more of his 
movements until he rejoined the apostle at 
Corinth, where his presence is several times 
noticed. He probably returned to Jerusa- 
lem with Paul, and from that time the con- 
nection between them appears to have ter- 
minated. Whether he was the Silvanus who 
conveyed Peter's first epistle to Asia Minor 
is doubtful, though the probabilities are in 
fcivor of the identity. A tradition of very 
slight authority represents Silas to have be- 
come bishop of Corinth. [Acts xvi., 37 ; xv., 
22, 32, 33, 40-xxi., 17 ; xvii., 14, 15 ; xviii., 5 ; 
2 Cor. i., 19 ; 1 Thess. i., 1 ; 2 Thess. i., 1 ; 1 
Pet. v., 12.] 

Silk. The only imdoiihted notice of silk 
in the Bible occurs in Rev. xviii., 12, where 
it is mentioned among the treasures of the 
typical Babylon. The other references are 
uncertain. It is, however, in the highest 
degree probable that the texture was known 
to the Hebrews from the time that their 
commercial relations were extended by Sol- 
omon. There can scarcely be a doubt that 
silk, the most beautiful of all the fabrics of 
the loom, was known and emploj^ed by the 
Assyrians long before the Captivity. The 
Medes were notorious for the luxuriance and 
effeminacy of their costume ; and after the 
conquest of Babylon, and the possession by 
the Persians of universal empire, "Median 
robes " became a symbol and expression for 
magnificence. These robes were made of 
silk ; for Procopius, writing long afterward, 
when the silk-worm had become known in 
Europe, says : " The robes which the Greeks 
used to call Median Ave now call silken" 

Siloam (sent), a pool or aqueduct. It is 
variously entitled Siloah, Shiloah, and Silo- 
am.^ It is identified with a pool, or tank, 
still found in the vicinity of Jerusalem, 
which gives to an adjoining hamlet the 
name of Kefr Siluan, i. e., village of Siloam. 
It stands at the southern extremity of the 
1 Neh. iii., 15 ; Isa. viii., 6 ; Johu ix., T-11. 



SILOAM 



830 



SILVER 




Pool of Siloam. 

Temple mount, near Mount Opliel (q. v.), and 
consists of an oblong tank, partly hewn out 
of the rock, and partly built of masonry, 
measuring about fifty-three feet in length, 
eighteen feet in width, and nineteen feet in 
depth, with a flight of steps leading down 
to the bottom. Several columns stand out 
of the side walls, extending from the top 
downward into the reservoir, the design of 
which it is now difficult to conjecture. The 
water passes out of this reservoir through 
an open channel cut in the rock, which is 
covered for a short distance, and a few yards 
off is partly dammed up by the people of the 
adjoining village of Siloam, for the purpose 
of washing their clothes, and then divided 
into small streams to irrigate the gardens 
below. The water flows into this reservoir 
from an artificial cave or basin under the 
cliff. This cave is entered by a small arch- 
way hewn in the rock. It is irregular in 
form, and decreases in size as it proceeds 
from about fifteen to three feet in height. 
It is connected with what is known as the 
Fountain of the Virgin by a remarkable 
conduit cut through the very heart of the 
rock in a zigzag form, measuring some sev- 
enteen hundred and fifty feet, while the dis- 



tance in a straight line 
is Q-i^lj eleven hundred 
feet. This remarkable 
fact was discovered by 
Robinson and Smith, 
who had the hardihood 
to crawl through the 
passage. The Virgin's 
Fountain, called by the 
natives Ayin um ed Du- 
raj (Fountain of the 
Mother of Steps), from 
the fact th at it is reach- 
ed by descending two 
flights of twenty- six 
steps cut in the rock, 
consists of a moderate- 
sized cavern, the bot- 
tom of which is some 
twenty - five feet be- 
low the surface of the 
ground. The bottom, 
which forms the res- 
ervoir, is about fifteen 
feet in length, and six 
feet in width. The wa- 
ter flows into it through 
the pebbly bottom in 
perfect silence — not a 
constant flow, but ir- 
l|| regular. The water 
has a peculiar taste — 
somewhat brackish — ■ 
but not disagreeable ; 
but becoming more so 
with the advance of 
the hot season. The 
same peculiarities, to 
a great extent, characterize the water at 
Siloam, which prove th^t both fountains are 
principally, if not entirely, supplied from 
the same source. It is not impossible that 
other conduits flowed into Siloam in former 
ages, which might account for Josephus de- 
scribing the water to be sweet and abundant. 
Silver. We first find silver mentioned 
in the time of Abraham, by whom it was 
used as a medium of exchange, not coined, 
but given by weight.^ At a later period in 
Hebrew history it was manufactured into 
various kinds of utensils, ornaments, vessels, 
and instruments for sacred use, and idols 
also were made of it.^ It appears to have 
been procured from Tarshish, perhaps also 
from Arabia. It was iiurified from dross by 
a process of refining (q. v.). In later times 
it was the common material of ordinary 
money ; and Hebrew, Greek, and Roman sil- 
ver coins were in general use. [2 Chron. 
viii., 18 ; Job xxviii., 1 ; Psa. xii., 6 ; Ixvi., 
10 ; Prov. viii., 19 ; xvii., 3 ; xxvii., 21 ; Jer. 
X., 9 ; Ezek. xxii., 22 ; xxvii., 12 ; Zech. xiii., 
9; Mal.iii., 3.] 

1 Gen. xiii., 2; xxiii., 15, 16; xxxvii., 28.-2 Gen. 
xliv., 2, 8; Exod. xii., 35; Numb, vii., 13; Judg. xvii., 
2-4; 1 Chrou. xxviii., li-17. 



SIMEON 



881 



SIMONY 



Simeon (a hearJcening),^ the second son of 
Jacob by Leah. In personal character Sim- 
eon seems to have been one of the most im- 
amiable of the patriarchs. It was he who, 
in conjunction with Levi, took so bloody a 
revenge npou the people of Shechem for the 
dishonor done to theii- sister Dinah. Per- 
haps, also, he had been prominent in the out- 
rage committed upon Joseph, as we find that 
he was the one selected as a hostage, to be 
detained in bonds in Egypt, to secure the re- 
turn of the rest of the brethren. When Ja- 
cob pronounced, on his death -bed, his pro- 
phetical blessing, he did not forget the evil 
deeds of Simeon and Levi. Joiued as they 
had been in an act of atrocity, joined they 
were in the reprobation with which their 
father stigmatized it ; and their subsequent 
history is summed up in the words, '' I will 
divide them in Jacob, and scatter them in 
Israel."^ 

At the descent into Egypt, Simeon is said 
to have had six sous, probably by two wives; 
but five only of these sons appear to have 
been progenitors of families. The tribe had 
increased very much during the bondage, 
being, at the first census, 59,300. Their place 
in the encampuient was on the south side 
of the tabernacle, and their order of march 
in the second division, under the banner 
of Reuben. They probably were involved 
deeply in some of the crimes committed in 
the wilderness. That one of their priuces 
perpetrated a shameless act of sin in the 
matter of Baal-peor is distinctly recorded. 
This may account for the extraordiuary de- 
crease of the tribe — for at the second ceu- 
sus they were but 22,200 — and also for the 
omission of it in the blessing of Moses. ^ 

To Simeon, the fierce and lawless tribe, 
true children of their founder, the dry South 
was given, in the division of the Promised 
Land. Their inheritance was within the in- 
heritance of the children of Judah — seven- 
teen towns in the south-east of Palestine; 
and a kind of alliance subsisted between 
them and Judah. Among these Bedouin 
villages their lot was cast; and as time 
rolled on the tribe gradually crossed the 
imperceptible boundary between civiliza- 
tion and barbarism, between Palestine and 
the Desert; and in the days of Hezekiah 
they wandered forth to the east to seek pas- 
ture for their flocks, and " smote the tents " 
of the pastoral tribes who " had dwelt there 
of old," and roved along across the Arabah, 
till they arrived at Mount Seir, and smote 
the rest of the Araalekites, and dwelt there. 

No eminent person is recorded as of this 
tribe. A corps of seventy - one hundred 
Simeonites joined David at Hebron. And 
Simeon retains its place in the enumeration 
of the tribes by Ezekiel and St. John. [Josh. 



1 Gen. xxix., 33.-2 Qen. xxix., 33 ; xxxiv. ; xlii., 19, 
24; xlix., 5-T.— 8 Gen. xlvi., 10; Numb, i., 22, 23; ii., 
12,13; XXV., 6-S, 14; xxvi., 12-14. 

56 



xix., 1-9; Judg. i., 3, 17; 1 Sam. xxvii., 6; 
XXX., 30 ; 1 Kings xix., 3 ; 1 Chron. iv., 24-43 ; 
xii., 25 ; 2 Chron. xv., 9 ; Ezek. xlviii., 24, 
25; Rev. vii.,7.] 

Simon. 1. The Brother of Jesus. He 
has been identified by some writers with Si- 
mon the Canaanite, and still more generally 
with Symeon, who became bishop of Jerusa- 
lem after the death of James, a.d. 62, and who 
suffered martyrdom in the reign of Trajan, 
the extreme age of one hundred and twen- 
ty years. The former of these opinions rests 
on no evidence whatever, nor is the latter 
without its difficulties. [Matt, xiii., 55; 
Mark vi.,3.] 

2. The Canaanite. One of the twelve 
apostles, otherwise described as Simon Ze- 
lotes. He appears to have originally be- 
longed to the faction of the Zealots, who 
were conspicuous for their fierce advocacy 
of the Mosaic ritual. He has been frequent- 
ly but erroneously identified with Simon, the 
brother of Jesus. [Matt, x., 4 ; Mark iii., 18 ; 
Luke vi., 15 ; Acts i., 13.] 

3. Simon of Cyrene. A Hellenistic Jew, 
born at Cyrene, and present at Jerusalem at 
the time of the crucifixion of Jesus. Meet- 
ing the procession that conducted Jesus to 
Golgotha, he was pressed into the service 
to bear the cross. Mark describes him as 
the father of Alexander and Rufus. [Matt, 
xxvii., 32; Mark xv., 21 ; Luke xxiii., 26; 
Actsvi.,9; ii., 10; Rom. xvi., 13.] 

4. Simon Magus. A Samaritan, born at 
Gitton, a village of Samaria. He is first in- 
troduced to us in the Bible as practicing 
magical arts in a city of Samaria, perhaps 
Sychar. He was probably educated at Al- 
exandria, and there became acquainted with 
the eclectic tenets of the Gnostic school. 
The preaching and miracles of Philip hav- 
ing excited his observation, he became one 
of his disciples, and received baptism at his 
hands. Subsequently he witnessed the ef- 
fect produced by the imposition of hands, as 
practiced by the apostles Peter and John, 
and, being desirous of acquiring a similar 
power for himself, he offered a sum of mon- 
ey for it. His object evidently was to ap- 
ply the power to the prosecution of magical 
arts ; but his proposition met with a severe 
denunciation from Peter, followed by a pe- 
tition on the part of Simon which bespeaks 
terror, but not penitence. The memory of 
his peculiar guilt has been perpetuated in 
the word simony, as applied to all traffic in 
spiritual offices. [Acts viii., 5-24.] 

Simony, the crime, in ecclesiastical law, 
of buying or selling spiritual offices. The 
term is derived from the sin of Simon Ma- 
gus, who wished to purchase from the apos- 
tles for money the power of conferring the 
gift of the Holy Ghost.^ In the ancient 
Christian Church, when men either offered 
or received money for ordination to a spir- 



Acts viii., 19. 



SIN 



882 



SINAI 



itnal office, they were uniformly regarded as 
chargeable with simony, and punished with 
the heaviest censures of the Church. The 
civil code of Justinian, also, to prevent sim- 
ony enacted that both the persons ordain- 
ed, and also their electors and ordainers, 
should all take oath that there was nothing- 
given or received, or so much as contract- 
ed or promised, for any such election or or- 
dination. Under the English law, a simo- 
niacal presentation is declared to he utterly 
void; the person giving or taking the gift 
or reward forfeits double the value of one 
year's profit, and the person accepting the 
benefice is disabled from ever holding the 
same benefice. In the nature of the case, 
the offense can only exist in an Established 
Church. 

Sin (mire, clay), a fortified city on the 
north-eastern frontier of Egypt, on the east- 
ern bank of the eastern stream of the Nile, 
two or three miles from the sea, amidst marsh- 
es. In consequence of its position and its 
strong fortifications, it was regarded as the 
key of Egypt ; and every invader first at- 
tempted to capture this place. Sin was the 
Pelusium of the Greeks. It no longer exists, 
its site being covered by the sea. [Ezek. 
XXX., 15, 16.] 

Sin, the imperfection of the human race, 
the truth that it is not all that God intends 
it to become, is admitted by all schools of 
theology and philosoi^hy. But concerning 
the nature of this imperfection, and so the 
true remedy for it, they are not agreed. In 
the first place, they are divided into two 
great schools, one of which regards human 
nature as in an abnormal or diseased condi- 
tion. According to this view, which is that 
universally entertained by all orthodox or 
evangelical divines, the first thing is to cure 
man. "As orthodoxy," says Rev. James 
Freeman Clarke, " believes man to be dis- 
eased, its object is twofold, and the truths 
which it employs are of two kinds. First, 
it seeks to convince man that he really has 
a dangerous disease; and then to convince 
him that, by using the right means, he can 
be cured. It, therefore, constautly dwells 
upon two classes of truths: first, those which 
reveal man's sinfulness and his ruined con- 
dition ; and, secondly, those which reveal 
the plan of saving him from this couclition — 
a plan which has been devised by the Al- 
might5', and which is accomplished in Chris- 
tianity. Orthodoxy dwells upon sin and 
salvation; these are its two pivotal doc- 
trines. 

" On the other hand, all the systems which 
may be associated under the term 'Liberal 
Christianity' regard man not as in a state 
of disease, and needing medicine, but as in 
a state of health, needing diet, exercise, and 
favorable circumstances, in order tliat he 
may grow up a well-developed individual. 
It regards sin not as a radical disease with 



which we all are born, but as a temporary 
malady to which all are liable. It does not. 
therefore, mainly dwell on sin and salvation, 
but on duty and improvement. Man's na- 
ture it regards not as radically evil, but as 
radically good ; and even as divine, because 
made by God." 

The second question respecting sin divides 
the orthodox Church. By John sin^ is de- 
fined as "the transgression of the law." By 
the Westminster Catechism it is defined as 
" any want of conformity unto or transgres- 
sion of the law of God." These two defini- 
tions may, perhaps, be regarded as represent- 
ing the two conceptions of sin. The first 
view asserts that all sin consists in volun- 
tary action. Of course by this is meant not 
merely external action, but any intelligent 
and conscious act of the will. A personal 
choice is regarded by this theory as essential 
to^ sin. Accordingly, that corrupt nature 
which leads men into sin, but is itself innate 
and inherited, is not regarded by this school 
of divines as itself sinful. The second view 
asserts that any want of conformity to the 
divine law, however it originates, is sinful; 
and it rests this assertion upon the declara- 
tion that men do unconsciously testify to its 
truth by condemning others and themselves 
for their evil predispositions, without inquir- 
ing whence they arose. Hence it regards the 
innate and inherited tendency to sin as itself 
sinful, and denies that there is any real dis- 
tinction between sin and depravity. 

It should be added that the Eoman Cath- 
olic theologians make a distinction between 
mortal and venial sins. The former they 
define as a " grievous transgression of the 
law," and " worthy of eternal i3uuishment ;" 
the latter as a " smaller transgression of the 
law," which " does not deserve eternal pun- 
ishment." This distinction Protestants be- 
lieve to have no foundation in the Word 
of God, and to result in dangerous conse- 
quences to those who are taught to believe 
in it. Protestant theology regards all sins 
as mortal. See Depra^t;ty ; Original Six ; 
Blasphemy. 

Sin CWilderness of), a wilderness be- 
tween Elim and Sinai, or, more accurately, 
between Elim and Rephidim or Dophkah. 
It was here that the manna was first given. 
It is thought to be the desert-plain, El-Eda, 
which, beginning at El- Murlxliali, extends, 
with varying breadth, ahnost to the south- 
ern extremity of the Sinaitic peninsula. 
[Exod. xvi., 1; xvii., 1; Numb, xxxiii., 11, 
12.] 

Sinai'^ {jagged, full of clefts), the wild 
mountainous region in Arabia Petrsea, where 
the law was given to Moses. Indeed, the 
wliole peninsula which lies between the 
horns of the Red Sea has received the name 
of Sinai, from the magnitude and promi- 



1 1 John iii., 4.-2 See Map, with art. Wildebness of 
TUE Wandering. 



SINAI 



883 



SINAI 




Ordnance Smvey of Mount Sinai. 



uence of the Sinaitic group of mountains 
which lies nearly in its centre. These 
mountains consist of a somewhat triangular 
mass of granite, porphyry, and greenstone 
rocks, faced toward the two gulfs by strips 
of red sandstone running south-east and 
south-west till they meet. The whole forms 



a huge plateau, which is intersected by 
wadys, and from which rise various cliffs 
and peaks, some of them to a height of eight 
thousand or nine thousand feet above the 
level of the sea. These mountains may be 
divided into three principal clusters : one to 
the north - west, above Wady Feirau, which 



SINAI 



884 



SINAI 



finds its greatest relief in the five-peaked 
ridge of Serbal, at a height of 6342 feet above 
the sea; the eastern and central mass, in- 
cluding Jebel Katherin (Mount St. Catlierine), 
about 8000 feet, and Jebel Mlisa (the Mount 
of Moses), about 7000 feet high ; and the 
south-eastern, which is closely connected 
with the central, and the loftiest point of 
which, Um Shaumer (the Mother of Fennel), 
9300 feet high, is also the highest point of 
the whole peninsula. The name Sinai, in 
the stricter sense, is applied to a very lofty 
ridge which lies in the central cluster. This 
ridge, at least three miles in length, rises 
boldly and majestically from the southern 
end of the plain Er Eahali, and terminates 
at the south in. the peak Sinai, now called 
Jebel Musa. 

In the obscurity which has so long over- 
hung the peninsula of Sinai with regard to 
the possible route of the Israelites through 
the desert, there have been many widely-dif- 
fering opinions as to the identification of 
that particular mount whereon the Lord de- 
scended in fire. Until lately no one had trav- 
ersed more than two of the supposed routes, 
and each traveler had yielded more or less to 
the temptation to make the Israelites follow 
his own track; so that no just comparison 
could be instituted between the facilities or 
difficulties which attended them all ; and 
critics at home have consequently striven in 
vain to reconcile conflicting descriptions of 
the country, and to find in them some defi- 
nite traces of those sacred events which have 
rendered the peninsula of Sinai of such in- 
terest to us. But at last almost the whole 
of the country has been explored ; and that 
portion of it which possesses the greatest in- 
terest has been most carefully mapped by a 
scientific expedition, sent out in 1868, under 
the auspices of the Director General of the 
Ordnance Survey of Great Britain. The 
general results of this survey have just been 
given (1871), in an essay by the Rev. F. W. 
Holland,^ from which we make the following 
abstract : 

"The account of the Mount of the Law 
which we have in the book of Exodus is but 
scanty, but there are certain points in con- 
nection with it which appear to be indispu- 
table. 1st. It must have been a mountain 
easy of approach, and having before it an 
open space sufficiently large for the whole 
congregation of the children of Israel to 
have been assembled there to receive the 
Law. 2d. It was evidently a prominent 
mountain rising abruptly from the plain be- 
fore it, and since bounds were ordered to 
be placed around it, it seems to have been 
separated by valleys from i\\& surrounding 
mountains. 3d. Its immediate neighbor- 
hood must have afforded a plentiful supply 



1 The "Recovery of Jernsalem," part ii., p. 513, 
" Explorations in the Peninsula of Sinai." See illus- 
tration on next page. 



of water and pasturage. Of all the mounc- 
ains within the peninsula of Sinai two only, 
Jebel Serbal and Jebel Musa, have been gen- 
erally considered to satisfy these require- 
ments. And now a careful survey of the 
neighborhood of Jebel Serbal shows that 
that mountain neither has before it any open 
space for a large assembly to gather in, nor 
is any one peak of it separated from the rest, 
so that it could be inclosed by bounds. 

" In massive ruggedness, and boldness of 
feature and outline, it presents an aspect un- 
equaled by any other mountain in the pen- 
insula ; and though far from being the high- 
est above the level of the sea, it has a great- 
er command than almost any other mount- 
ain over the surrounding country. But, un- 
fortunately, there is not a single point in 
the valleys near its base Avhich aftbrds a 
comprehensive view of it ; and it is onlj^ by 
ascending some of the neighboring hills that 
the whole range of its magnificent peaks 
can be seen at once. Two valleys (wadys 
Aleyat and Ajelali), each from three to four 
miles in length, run from its base to Wady 
Feiran ; but each is a wilderness of boul- 
ders and torrent-beds, which render it most 
unsuitable for a large encampment. The 
members of the Survey Expedition, after a 
careful examination of the ground during a 
stay of several weeks, came to the unani- 
mous conclusion that Jebel Serbal could not 
possibly be the mountain from which the 
Law was given. Under the name of Jebel 
Musa the survej^ included the peaks of Ras 
Sufs^feh, which have been wrongly described 
by some travelers as an independent mount- 
ain. The Ras Sufsafeh does, in fact, form 
the northern portion of Jebel Musa ; its 
two peaks rise precipitously from the bot- 
tom of the plain of Er Rahah to a height of 
about two thousand feet, being distinctly 
visible from every part of that plain, and 
standing out in lonely grandeur against the 
sky like a huge altar. A central, elevated 
basin, encircled by a ring of higher peaks, is 
a common feature of the granitic mountains 
in the peninsula of Sinai ; and such, more or 
less, is the character of Jebel Musa, which is 
about two miles long from north to south, 
and one mile in breadth. The southern 
peak, on which stands a little chapel and 
the ruins of a mosque, is its highest point ; 
and though the name of Jebel Musa is used 
for the whole mountain, it is more especial- 
1 ly applied to this one peak. On the east of 
the mountain runs Wady ed Deir, 'the Val- 
ley of the Convent,' so called from the Con- 
vent of St. Catherine, which is situated near 
its head. On the west runs Wad}^ Shuraich, 
a very steep and rocky valley, containing old 
monastic gardens and a copious spring. This 
valley, again, is separated by the narrow 
ridge of Jebel Fara from Wady Leja, a valley 
lying farther westward. Thus on the north, 
east, and west Jebel Mtisa is separated from 



SINAI 



SINAI 




The Plain of Er Rahah. 



the surrounding mountains ; on the south two 
smaller valleys — one running eastward into 
Wady Sebaiyeh, and the other westward 
into Wady Leja — separate it also from the 
range of mountains which lies between the 
Wady Sebaiyeh and Jebel Catherine. And, 
being thus isolated by valleys from the 
mountains on every side, it would be by no 
means difficult to set bounds round, about 
it, while at the same time its northern clifts 
rise so precipitously from the plain beneath 
that it might well be described as " a mount- 
ain that could be touched," and at the neth- 
er part of which the people could stand. 
The Wady Sebaiyeh could not have been the 
place where the Israelites were assembled 
to receive the Law. That valley does not 
lie immediately below the mountain, and its 
character, position, and extent all appear to 
render such a view extremely improbable. 
On the other hand, no place could be con- 
ceived more suitable than the plain of Er 
E^hah for the assembling together of many 
thousands of people to witness the thunders 
and lightnings, and the thick cloud upon 
the mount, and to hear the voice of the Lord 
when he spake unto them. The plain it- 
self is upward of two miles long and half a 
mile broad, and slopes gradually down from 
the water-shed on the north to the foot of 
Eas Sufsafeh. About three hundred yards 
from the actual base of the mountain there 
runs across the plain a low, semicircular 
mound, which forms a kind of natural the- 
atre, while farther distant on either side the 



plain the slopes of the inclosing mountain 
would seat an almost unlimited number of 
spectators. With regard to the water sup- 
ply, there is no other spot in the whole pen- 
insula which is nearly so well supplied as 
the neighborhood of Jebel Musa. In addi- 
tion to four running streams, there are nu- 
merous wells and springs affording excellent 
water. And there is also no other district 
in the peninsula which affords such excel- 
lent pasturage. The members of the Sur- 
vey Expedition were as unanimous in their 
conviction that the Law was given from 
Eas Sufsafeh to the Israelites assembled in 
the plain of Er Eahah, as they had been 
unanimous in rejecting Serbal as the mount 
of the giving of the Law. 

The names Horeb and Sinai are used in- 
terchangeably. At first Horeb had prece- 
dence, and was the mountain of God to Mo- 
ses prior to the giving of the Law. The 
name Sinai is first mentioned after the bat- 
tle of Eephidim,^ and is thenceforth promi- 
nent until the breaking up of the encamp- 
ment in that wilderness, recorded in Numb. 
X., 12. But Horeb is spoken of as the point 
of departure in the recapitulation of this 
journey by Moses; is named as the mount- 
ain from which the Lord spake, and upon 
which he wrote the Ten Commandments ; is 
mentioned in the scenes of the worsliiping 
the golden calf, and the making of the cov- 
enant. In the books of Kings and Chron- 
icles Horeb is named as the scene of the 



1 Exod. xix., 1, 2. 



SINAI 



SIN-OFFERING 



Law, -while in the Psalms both names are 
used for the same place. Mountains so close- 
ly identified with the same series of events 
could not have been far apart, and the best 
solution of the Biblical usage iu resi)ect to 
these names appears to be that which makes 
Horeb the central mass, or ridge, of which 
Sinai was a prominent peak.^ 

From the mouth of Wady Tayibeh, the 
encampment by the sea, three routes opeued 
before the Israelites : the most southerly one 
along the coast, by which they would come 
into Wady Sebaiyeh from the south ; the 
most northerly by the Sarbut el Khadem, 
either of which would have left Serbal out 
of their line of march ; and the middle one, 
and that generally assumed to have been 
followed by Wady Feiran, by which they 
would pass the foot of Serbal. By one of 
these routes they were led through the Si- 
naitic peninsula. Viewed from one of the 
three great heights, Serb41 , Kathrina, or Jebel 
Musa, this peninsula recalls the poetic Be- 
douin name for Wady Tayiheh, Beled Allah, 
" the city of God," a city of Almighty mason- 
rj. The bare ridges running here in paral- 
lels, there at all manner of angles, are like 
piles of buildings with the wadys for divid- 
ing streets. The shrubs are hidden in such 
a prospect, and rock and air are the only ob- 
jects upon which the intense light falls. It 
is strange that, with naught but the very 
rudiments of terrestrial creation in view, 
men should feel nearer to creative power 
than when all the infinite accessories of min- 
eral, animal, and vegetable life testify of its 
activity. But it is so. And here in the 
heart of that " city," more awful to men 
from crowded Egypt than the most gor- 
geous capital to men from a solitude, the 
Israelites paused before one mighty monu- 
ment of the power of its builder. Here he 
manifested himself, and uttered the Law with 
a great voice, which made all cry, " Let not 
God speak with us, lest we die." A scene 
more solemn than that before Sinai can not 
be conceived. The sense of solitude which, 
even when no supernatural sign appears, 
brings the thought into the presence of the 
Creator, must have deepened day by day 
upon the sjiirit of those who, but three 
months before, had stood among human 
haunts and monuments in the thronged 
cities of the Nile. Thus they were prepared 
for the impression that they had been led 
hither to hear from such a voice as had nev- 
er before reached human ear a Law which 
might be broken but never annulled, and 
would stand fixed and eminent among laws 
as that of the Mount of God. 

The local traditions which point to the 
site of the burning bush, the cave of Elijah, 
the spot where Moses hid in the rock, are of 

^ Exod. iii., 1, 12 ; iv., 27 ; xvii., 6 ; xviii., 5 ; Deut. i., 
2, 6, 19; iv., 10, 15; ix., 8; xxix., 1; 1 Kings viii., 9; 
xix., 8; 2 Chron. v., 10; Psa. Ixviii., 8, 17; cvi., 19. 



no value whatever. The monkish legends 
which identify among the rocks the mould 
of the calf, and the fissured boulder out of 
which the water flowed, are simply ridicu- 
lous. 

It is proper to add that, since this article 
Avas written. Dr. Beke has discovered what 
he regards as the true Mount Sinai in an en- 
tirely different portion of the East. Accord- 
ing to his hypothesis, the sea which the chil- 
dren of Israel crossed was not the western, 
but the eastern, branch of the Red Sea — not 
the Gulf of Suez, but the Gulf of Akabah ; 
and Mount Sinai he finds east of the Wady 
el Arabah, the valley which extends from 
the head of the Gulf of Akabah to the Dead 
Sea. It must suffice to say that at this 
wanting the view of Dr. Beke has not been 
accepted generally, and that the weight of 
authority is iu favor of the view given in 
this article. 

Sinira. This word occurs only once in 
the Bible, in the description of some very re- 
mote place from which the redeemed are to 
be brought.^ The opinion of recent writers, 
with scarcely an exception, has coincided 
with that of Gesenius, who believes that the 
Chinese are meant. The names Chin, Tsin, 
Sin, and Thin have been used among the 
Greeks, the Syrians, the Arabs, the Jews, the 
Persians, and the Hindoos to designate the 
Chinese ; and this usage in some cases can 
be shown to be extremelj'' ancient. No one 
denies that China is eminently suitable to 
the scope of the passage in Isaiah. And 
since the direct evidence in its favor is toler- 
ably strong, while there is an utter absence 
of evidence for any other place, we need not 
hesitate to accept it as reasonablj^ certain 
that there is an express promise of the evan- 
gelization of China. 

Siiiite, a tribe of Canaanites whose posi- 
tion is to be sought for iu the northern part 
of the Lebanon district. [Gen. x., 17; 1 
Chron. i., 15.] 

Sill-offering. The sin-offering among the 
Jews w^as the sacrifice in which the ideas 
of propitiation and of atonement for sin 
were most distinctly marked. Its ceremo- 
nial is described in Lev. iv. and vi. The 
shedding of the blood, the symbol of life, 
signified that the death of the offender was 
deserved for sin, but that the death of the 
victim was accepted for his death by the 
ordinance of God's mercy. In Leviticus 
the trespass - offering is closely connected 
with the sin-offering, but at the same time 
clearly distinguished from it, being in some 
cases offered with it as a distinct part of 
the same sacrifice.^ The difference of cere- 
monial of the two sacrifices clearly indicates 
a difference in the underlying ideas. The 
nature of that difference — still a subject 
of great controversy — will be in some sort 
shown by a brief comp arison of the two. 
~ 1 Isa. xlix., 12.— 2 See Lev. xiv. 



SINTO-ISM 



887 



SIVA 



The sin-offerings were: I. Eegular. 1. 
For the wliole i^eople, at the New Moon, Pass- 
over, Pentecost, Feast of Trumpets, and Feast 
of Tabernacles ; besides the solemn offering 
of the two goats on the Great Day of Atone- 
ment. 2. For the Priests and Levites, at their 
consecration ; besides the yearly sin-offering 
of a bullock for the high-priest on the Great 
Day of Atonement.^ — II. Special. 1. For 
any sin of " ignorance." 2. For refusal to hear 
ivitness. 3. For ceremonial defilement not will- 
fully contracted. 4. For the hreach of a rash 
oathJ The trespass-offerings, on the other 
Jiaud, were always special: as, (1.) For sac- 
rilege " in ignorance." (2.) For ignorant trans- 
gression. (3.) For fraud, sufppression of the 
truth, or perjury. (4.) For rape of a betrothed 
slave. (5.) At tlie purification of the leper, and 
the polluted Nazarite.^ In these last two 
cases it was offered with the sin-offering. It 
is clear from this enumeration that the two 
classes of sacrifices touch closely upon each 
other, and are yet distinct. The sin-offering 
was the only regular and general recogni- 
tion of sin in the abstract, and was by far 
the more solemn and comprehensive of the 
two ; the trespass-offering — with the excep- 
tion of the two cases in which it was united 
with the sin-offering — was confined to spe- 
cial cases, most of which related to the do- 
ing of material damage either to the holy 
things or to man. The sin-offering looked 
more to the guilt of the sin done, irrespective 
of its consequences ; the trespass-offering to 
the evil consequences of sin, either against 
the service of God or against man, and to 
the duty of atonement, as far as atonement 
was possible. In the sin-offering especially 
we find symbolized the acknowledgment of 
sinfulness as inherent in man, and of the 
need of exi)iation by sacrifice to renew the 
broken covenant between man and God. As 
to the nature of the sins for which either 
sacrifice could be offered, most of them which 
are not purely ceremonial are called in the 
law of Leviticus sins of" ignorance," or, more 
strictly, those of "negligence" or "frailty," 
repented of by the unpunished offender, as 
opposed to acts of deliberate and unrepent- 
ant sin.* These sacrifices of the law, it must 
be remembered, had a temporal as well as a 
spiritual significance and effect ; they were 
an atonement to the King of Israel for the 
infringement of his law, and restored an of- 
fender to his place in the commonwealth of 
Israel. 

Sinto-ism, probably the most ancient of 
the religious sects or systems of Japan. It 
is founded on the worship of spirits, called, 
in the Japanese language, Kami, in the Chi- 
nese, Sin, who are supposed to control the 
actions of men and all visible and invisible 



1 Exod. xxix., 10-14, 36 ; Lev. xvi. ; Numb, xxviii., 
i5-xxix.. 38.— 2 Lev. iv. ; v., 1-4 ; xii., 6-8 ; xiv., 19, 31 ; 
XV., 15. 30; Numb, vi., 6-11, 16.— 3 Lev. v., 15-19; vi., 
1-G ; xix., 20, 21 ; xiv., 2 ; Numb, vi., 12.— * See Numb. 
XV., 30 ; Heb. ix,, 19 ; x., 26. 



things. Chief of these spirits is Yen Zio Dai 
Sin, the Great Spirit of the Heavenly Light. 
Besides this sun goddess, thousands of infe- 
rior Kamis receive divine honors. Most of 
these are the spirits of distinguished men 
who have been canonized on account of 
their merits. Their number is not limited, 
but the Mikado, who is the head of both 
Church and State, still possesses the right 
to canonise prominent men, and thus to ele- 
vate them to the dignity of a Kami, or spir- 
it. The Sinto religion has five command- 
ments : 1. Preservation of the pure fire, as 
an emblem of purity and a means of purifi- 
cation ; 2. Purity of the soul, of the heart, 
and the body ; 3. Observation of festivals ; 
4. Pilgrimages ; 5. Worship of the Kami, in 
the temples and at home. The numerous 
temples (Mya) contain no idols, but large 
metal mirrors and packets of white paper 
scraps, as symbols of purity. The priests 
are called Kaminnsi, or keepers of the gods. 
They live near the temples, and derive their 
income chiefly from the money- offerings 
made on feast-days. The Mikado is be- 
lieved to be a veritable descendant from 
the Deity, to possess his more than regal 
authority by divine right, and to be the 
vicegerent and representative of the Deity 
upon earth. Hence the rapidity of the re- 
cent reformations introduced by the Mika- 
do. The people acquiesce in the decrees 
of their "holy father" with unquestioniug 
submission. How deep a hold those re- 
forms have taken on the mass of the peo- 
ple is questioned by many missionaries and 
others resident in Japan. 

Sisera (battle array), the commander-in- 
chief of the army of Jabin, king of Canaan. 
He resided at Harosheth of the Gentiles.^ 
For the circumstances connected Math his 
defeat and death, see Baeak, Deborah, and 
Jael. 

Siva (also spelled Shiva, and pronounced 
Seeva or Sheeva), the third person in the 
Hindoo triad. He does not appear at all 
in the earliest Brahmanical books; indeed, 
we hear nothing of him until some centu- 
ries after the rise of Buddhism. His wor- 
ship was then introduced, and added by 
the Brahmans to the Brahmanical religion 
(though not without some resistance to the 
innovation), probably in order to concen- 
trate in one religion all the idolatrous forms 
of Hindoo worship against Buddhism. He 
is said to represent the destructive element 
in nature, as Brahma represents the crea- 
tion, and Vishnu the process of preserva- 
tion. But as destruction appears to be the 
precursor of renewal of life, Siva is also sup- 
posed to preside over reproduction. Hence 
he is a special object of worship on the part 
of those desirous of obtaining offspring. As 
the god of destruction, Shiva is invested by 
popular imagination with the most hideous 



Judg. iv. 



SLAVERY 



SLAVERY 



and appalling attributes. He is described 
in tlie Puranas as "wandering about sur- 
rounded by ghosts and goblins, inebriated, 
naked, and with disheveled hair, covered 
with the ashes of a funeral pile, ornamented 
with human skulls and bones, sometimes 
laughing, sometimes crying." The votaries 
of Siva, and more especially of his Sakti, i. e., 
his wife, Durga or Devi, are in the habit of 
subjecting themselves to excruciating tor- 
tures in honor of their divinity. The wor- 
ship of Siva continues to be, as it has been 
from a remote period, the religion of the 
Brahmans, who receive him as their tutela- 
ry deity, wear his insignia, and worship the 
male organs as a symbol of his productive 
power, either in temples, or in houses, or 
on the side of a sacred s.tream, providing, 
in the last mentioned case, extempore em- 
blems, kneaded out of the mud or clay of 
the river's bed. 

Slavery. The term slave occurs but twice 
in our English Bible, viz., in Jer. ii., 14, and 
in Eev. xviii., 13. The institution of slav- 
ery, however, existed in the times of both 
the O. T. and the N. T., and the term trans- 
lated servant would in most cases be more 
appropriately rendered slave. Hired service 
was, of course, not unknown ; but the term 
employed in the original to describe the 
bond-servant was different, though the dis- 
tinction is not always noted in our version. 
The slavery of the O. T. was recognized un- 
der the Mosaic laws, that of the N. T. times 
under the laws of the Romans. The two 
systems were alike only in name, while both 
differed materially from modern slavery. In 
this article we shall — 1. Describe Hebrew 
slavery ; 2. Roman slavery ; and, 3. Consid- 
er the Biblical teaching on the subject of 
slavery. 

1. Hebrew Slavery. — In the rudest ages of 
the world, when '' might makes right," slav- 
ery was the natural condition of mankind ; 
the weaker served the stronger, and were 
protected by them from external foes. The 
slave was a part of the patriarchal house- 
hold ; and the fact that in Abraham's case 
one slave became his wife, and another was 
intended as his heir, shows very clearly the 
nature of the relationship.^ Though the 
slave was often a victim of oppression, from 
which he had no hope of deliverance, he was 
often glad to give his service to a master, 
and receive in return protection and sup- 
port. Moses did not institute slavery. He 
found it not only already existing, but prac- 
ticed among all nations ; the right of it 
probably never questioned ; recognized alike 
by master and servant ; impossible to ob- 
literate with a blow ; woven into the very 
fabric of society ; and, in a proper sense, 
necessary to the protection and welfare of 
the weaker in that rude and barbaric age 
of the world. The laws of Moses on this 



Gen. XV., 2, 3; xvi., 3. 



subject consist mainly of provisions regu- 
lating the condition under which slavery 
might exist, and determining the nature and 
the period of the service. The very He- 
brew term for slave, ebed, signifies that un- 
der the Mosaic system the idea of '"'property 
in man " was unknown, the word being de- 
rived from a verb meaning " to work," and 
the servitude allowed by the Mosaic system 
being, in fact, little more than a pledge for 
a definite period of service to a master. 
The circumstances under which a Hebrew 
might be reduced to slavery were carefully 
defined. A man who had mortgaged his 
property, and was unable to support his 
family, might sell himself to another He- 
brew to obtain their maintenance and a 
surplus sufficient to redeem his property : 
the thief who had not the means to make 
restitution could be sold for a term sufficient 
to make his service an adequate restitution ; 
and the parent might sell his daughter of 
tender age as a maid-servant, with a view 
of her becoming the concubine of the pur- 
chaser.^ In respect to this last provision, 
it must be remembered that in that age, 
and to the present day to a considerable ex- 
tent, in that country, the maiden is sold, 
more or less directly, to her future husband. 
Provision, was made for the termination of 
the period of service by the remission of the 
payment of all claims against the slave, by 
the recurrence of the Year of Jubilee, and by 
the expiration of six years from the time of 
the commencement of his servitude. Pro- 
vision was made, however, for his making 
the service a permanent one if he desired to 
do so.^ Careful guards were thrown around 
the slave while in service. His master was 
enjoined against all ill-usage, and was di- 
rected, on the termination of the service, 
not to let him go away empty.^ The pro- 
visions in the case of n on -Hebrew slaves 
were different. Of these many were cap- 
tives taken in war ; others Avere purchased 
from foreign slave -dealers, or w^ere mendi- 
cant foreigners who had reduced themselves 
to slavery by poverty or crime. Their serv- 
itude was permanent ; their children inher- 
ited their condition ;* but they were also 
guarded by special provisions against abuse.^ 
That the slave was not regarded as a mere 
piece of property is evident from the relig- 
ious privileges awarded to him.^ Such are 
by no means the only provisions of the Mo- 
saic code concerning slavery, but they give 
the chief features of the system. 

2. Roman Slavery. — The slavery of the N. 
T. times existed under and claimed its sup- 
port from the Roman law. This law gave 
the master almost absolute power over his 



1 Exod. xxii., 1, 3; xxi., 7; Lev. xxv., 25, 39.— 

2 Exod. xxi., 2-6; Lev. xxv., 40; Dent, xv., 12, 17.— 

3 Lev. XXV., 39, 40, 43 ; Deut. xv., 13, 15.—* Lev. xxv., 
44.-6 Exod. xxi., 20, 26, 27 ; Lev. xxiv., 17, 22.— « Gen. 
xvii., 12 ; comp. Exod. xii., 44 ; Deut. xii., 12, 18 ; xvi., 
11, 14. 



SLAVERY 



SO 



slave. In earlier times there was no restric- ' 
tion over this power of iiunishmeut ; and | 
even under Augustus, when a Roman mas- 
ter flung his slaves into his fish-ponds to 
feed his lampreys, the only punishment was 
the destruction of the ponds. A slave could 
not contract marriage, and the right of man- 
umission was restricted. All servile work 
was confined to slaves ; all rest was denied 
them. "A slave," says Cato, ''must either 
work or sleep." They were treated with 
that regard which self-interest dictated, and 
with no greater. '' Slaves and cattle were 
placed on the same level. 'A good watch- 
dog,' it is said in a Roman writing on agri- 
culture, ' must not be on too familiar terms 
with his fellow-slaves.' The slave and the 
ox were fed properly so loug as they could 
work, because it would not have been good 
economy to let them starve ; and they were 
sold like a worn-out plowshare when they 
became unable to work, because, in like 
manner, it would not have been good econ- 
omy to retain them longer."^ No attempt 
was made to attach the slave to the mas- 
ter by any bond of human sympathy, '' So 
many slaves so many foes," was a Roman 
proverb. Such was the s]3irit of Roman 
slavery as it existed throughout the Roman 
Empire in the time of Christ and the apos- 
tles, and to which incidental references are 
made in the N. T. 

3. It remains to consider briefly the Bib- 
lical teachings on the siibject of slavery. The 
Bible nowhere in direct and explicit terms 
condemns slavery, and the laws of Moses 
appear to sanction it. The slavery, howev- 
er, which Moses sanctioned resembled only 
in name that which existed later under the 
Roman Empire, and still later in different 
Christian nations, aud especially in our own 
country. It guarded the slave with jealous 
care from oppression, and forbade all en- 
slavement by robbery and violence.'^ It is 
to be remembered, also, that legislation must 
necessarily be adapted to the condition of 
the j)eople and the state of public opinion ; 
that the laws of Moses were not ideal laws, 
but such as the then condition of the people 
demanded;^ that if they ai)peared to sustain 
slavery, the same may be said of polygamy 
and divorce ; that the later teachers, whose 
office was not to legislate for the people, 
but to instruct them, denounced slavery in 
strong terms;* and that the effect of the 
Mosaic laws was such that Hebrew slavery 
was utterly extirpated before the time of 
Christ. At the beginning of the Christian 
era there was, x)robably, not a Hebrew slave 
in any Hebrew household in Palestine. It 
is true that neither Christ nor his apostles 
denounced Roman slavery. They did not 
preach to those who originated or maintain- 



5 Moramsen's "History of Rome," vol. ii., p, 437.— 
2 Exod. xxi. IG: Deut. xxiv., 7.-3 Matt, xix., 8.— 
* Isa. Iviii., 6 ; Jer. xxxiv., 8-22. 



ed the system, or who had power to abolish 
or to modify it. To have demanded eman- 
cipation would have been not only to sub- 
ject the Christian Church to the imputa- 
tion cast upon it of being a political organ- 
ization, but actually to endanger its work 
by attracting to it those Jewish zealots who 
were only too glad of any excuse for an as- 
sault upon the Roman Government. But 
not only the general principle which Christ 
inculcated, such as, "Thou shalt love thy 
neighbor as thyself;" not only his general 
doctrines, yet more clearly brought out in 
its application to this subject by Paul, that 
in his kingdom there was neither Jew nor 
Gentile, bond nor free ; but even more clear- 
ly the specific instructions which Paul gave 
to Christian masters are utterly irreconcila- 
ble with the spirit of slavery ^ The argument 
that the Bible supports slavery needs, in fact, 
no other refutation than that which is afford- 
ed by the simple fact that wherever the Bi- 
ble has gone it has created a public senti- 
ment, the end of which has been the final 
abolition of every form of human bondage. 

Smyrna, a famous commercial city of Io- 
nia, forty miles north of EjDhesus, situated 
at the head of the bay named after it, and 
at the mouth of the small river Meles. It 
was one of the cities which claimed to be 
the birthplace of Homer. It was a very an- 
cient city, but lay in ruins, after its destruc- 
tion by the Lydians, for four hundred years. 
It was then rebuilt about two miles from 
old Smyrna, and rose to be, in the time of 
the first Csesars, one of the fairest aud most 
populous cities in Asia. Modern Smyrna, 
now called Ismir, is a large city of more 
than one hundred and twenty thousand in- 
habitants, the centre of the trade of the Le- 
vant. The Church in Smyrna was distin- 
guished for its illustrious first bishop, the 
martyr Polycarp, who is said to have been 
put to death in the stadium there, in a.d. 
166. [Rev. i., 11 ; ii., 8-11.] 

Snail. There are two Hebrew words 
which are rendered "snail" in our Bible. 
The one which occurs in the Mosaic law 
as the name of an unclean animal prob- 
ably refers to some species of lizard ; but 
the creature mentioned in that remarka- 
ble passage of Psalms, "As a snail which 
melteth, let every one of them pass away," 
is undoubtedly a snail. The ancients sup- 
posed that the slimy track made by a snail 
as it crawls along was subtracted from the 
substance of its body, and hence that the 
farther it crept the smaller it became, until 
at last it wasted entirely away. [Lev. xi., 
30; Psa. Iviii., 8.] 

So is once mentioned in the Bible as a 
"king of Egypt," to whom Hoshea, king of 
Israel, sent messengers. He has been iden- 
tified by different writers with the first and 
second kings of the Ethiopian twenty-fifth 
1 Ephes. vi., 9 ; Col. iv., 1 ; Philem., 16, 17. 



SOAP 



890 



SOCIALISM, SOCIALISTS 



dynasty, Shebek and Shebetek. Though it is 
yet impossible to decide between these two, 
yet there is at El-karnak an inscription in 
which Shebek speaks of tributes from " the 
king of the land of Kala" (Shara), supposed 
to be Syria, which gives some slight coniir- 
matiou to the identification of So with She- 
bek. [2 Kiugs xvii., 4.] 

Soap. The Hebrew term so translated 
indicates any kind of cleansing substance. 
As in Jer. ii., 22, it is contrasted with nitre 
(q. v.), it is fair to infer that the Hebrew 
term refers to vegetable alkali, or some kind 
of potash, which forms one of the usual in- 
gredients in our soap. Numerons plants, ca- 
pable of yielding alkalis, exist in Palestine 
and the surrounding countries. 

Socialism, Socialists. The general name 
of Socialism is given to that school of philos- 
ophy which endeavors to cure the evils which 
all philosophers and philanthropists recog- 
nize in the world, less by the reformation of 
the individual than by changes in the form 
and organization of society. Without at- 
tempting to discuss sociahstic theories, we 
shall in this article give briefly an account 
of Socialism as it has actually existed, espe- 
cially in this country. For fuller informa- 
tion the reader is referred to an article on 
Socialism by the editor of this work, in Lip- 
pincoWs Magazine for May, 1870, page 569, 
from which this article is in a large measure 
taken, and for a still fuller account, by one 
who is himself an ardent admirer of the most 
extreme social theories, to " Noyes's History 
of American Socialism," Lippincott, 1870. 

Claude Henrie, Comte De Sault Simon, 
may be regarded as perhaps the founder of 
modern Socialism. He was born in Paris, 
October 17, 1760. From his earliest years 
he exhibited a decided hostility to the es- 
tablished system of things. At eighteen he 
entered the army, and served in America 
during the Revolution. On his return home 
he quitted the service, and traveled in Hol- 
land and Spain. The French Revolution 
found in him an enthusiastic disciple. He 
voted for the abolition of titles of nobility, 
but did not take part in the political events 
that followed. Not until his thirty-eighth 
year did he begin the study of social science 
to which he devoted the remainder of his 
life, often struggling hard with poverty, and 
once attempting, in his despair, to commit 
suicide. His system was both socialistic and 
religious. He pointed to the fact that Chris- 
tianity recognized the spiritual equality of 
all classes before God. He admitted that it 
went no farther, but declared that the reve- 
lation of Jesus Christ was not final any more 
than that of Moses. According to Sault Si- 
mon, it was the will of God that all mankind 
shall have, even upon earth, equal opportuni- 
ties, and that all shall be rewarded according 
to their deserts ; that temporal labors are as 
sacred as spiritual ones ; that no one here- 



after shall owe wealth and consequence to 
the mere hazard of birth, but that each shall 
be recompensed according to his works. He 
proposed an aesthetic worship, the basis of 
which were sculpture, architecture, poetry, 
and music. He opposed Romanism as an 
imposture, and Protestantism because it rec- 
ognized the Bible as a final and authorita- 
tive standard. In theology he was a pan- 
theist. After the death of Sault Simon, Father 
Enfantin, one of his disciples, became one of 
the leaders of the new movement, and in- 
grafted in it a new doctrine. He declared 
that marriage militated against the freedom 
of the affections, and denounced it; pro- 
pounding that theory of free love which has 
ever since been more or less connected with 
many of the socialistic theories and practi- 
cal exi)eriments both in the Old World and 
the New. The socialistic theories which he, 
and after him Fourier, a much abler thinker, 
propounded, have never lost their influence 
in France, and were the basis of the Com- 
munism which during the late war between 
France and Germany endeavored to get con- 
trol of the French Government, and which 
proposed, if it had succeeded, to abolish all 
distinctions of rank and all recognition of 
private property, as well as to exclude all 
religion and religious institutions from the 
community. 

It is, however, with Socialism in this coun- 
try that we are mainly interested. Twice 
this movement has appeared in the United 
States, under different auspices, inspired by 
somewhat different purposes, and assuming 
quite different types. The first in 1825, 
the offspring of Robert Owen, was an im- 
portation from Scotland; the second in 1842, 
the child of Fourier and Sault Simon, was a 
creation of French philosophy. 

Robert Owen was a large successful man- 
ufacturer in Scotland, on the banks of the 
Clyde. Oppressed by a consideration of the 
condition of the laboring classes, he made 
their wants a study — their amelioration, so- 
cially and intellectually, a life work. His 
cotton factory became, under his executive 
management, the centre of a little commu- 
nity. His work-people, who numbered be- 
tween two and three thousand, constituted 
a considerable village. Houses of a con- 
venient and tasteful structure were erect- 
ed for them. Stores were opened, where a 
credit system was established, and reasona- 
ble prices were maintained. A common 
kitchen and refectory for the unmarried 
workmen was provided. An infirmary was 
founded, but so excellent were the provis- 
ions which Mr. Owen made for the health 
of his i)eople, that it was but little used. 
Schools were established for the children. 
A regular time schedule for the whole village 
was marked out. In it time was allotted, 
with military precision, for work, for classes, 
for meals, for sleej), for recreation, and even 



SOCIALISM, SOCIALISTS 



891 



SOCIALISM, SOCIALISTS 



for devotions. New Lanark became far- 
famed. Students of social science from all 
over the kingdom, and fi-om the Continent, 
came to see it. Its transient success intoxi- 
cated its founder. For a time he ^yas feted 
and caressed by nobility and clergy. He 
imagined himself called to the office of a 
reformer, and began to write and publish. 
His avowal of Communistic doctrines, of an 
absolute equality of all rights, and the abo- 
lition of all inferiority, even of intellect and 
capital, turned the public sentiment of the 
community against him. His peculiar re- 
ligious views increased the seeming popu- 
larity, but real weakness, of his waning phi- 
losophy. He taught that man was wholly 
the creature of circumstances, and hence 
that society was to blame for the sins of the 
individual rather than the individual for 
the sins of society. Society disavowed him. 
He became more and more an iconoclast. 
He resolved to shake the dust from off his 
feet as a testimony against his native land, 
and turn to the New World, whither ac- 
cordingly he emigrated, to give his new phi- 
losophy a fair trial in a fresh tield. At this 
juncture he fell in with an agent of the 
Eappites, a religious community which had 
emigrated from Pennsylvania to Indiana, and 
had established a manufacturing and agri- 
cultural village there. They now desired 
to sell it, and return in a body to their old 
home. The village was bought for $150,000 ; 
a public proclamation was issued, inviting 
the "industrious and well-disposed of all na- 
tions" to take possession of the promised 
land ; and the foundation of New Harmony 
was laid. The social experiment could not 
have begun under more favorable auspices, 
nor have met with a more untimely end. 
It was formally organized in April, 1826 ; in 
June, 1827, it was as formally disbanded. 
The only thing which remains at New Har- 
mony as an historical witness to Robert 
Owen's social experiment is the intense and 
bitter disgust of its people toward Socialism 
in all its shapes and forms. 

This failure, however, did nothing to dis- 
courage him. To the day of his death, in 
1858, Mr. Owen was a diligent though whol- 
ly unsuccessful propagandist. His disciples 
shared his pertinacious faith. NeAv Har- 
mony was followed by similar communities 
in Indiana, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, 
Tennessee — eleven in all. The longest-lived 
did not last any longer than that at New 
Harmony. The average duration of life was 
from a year to a year and a half. The entire 
movement, inaugurated in 1825, had spent 
its force, and died, like the wave of the sea 
upon its beach, in 1828. Fanny Wright's fa- 
mous lecturing tour in the last part of that 
year was the last echo of the socialistic tide 
which promised so much and achieved so 
little. 

While these events were occurring, the 



disciples of Sault Simon were endeavoring in 
France to realize in actual organization the 
schemes of that eccentric philosopher. At 
the same time Fourier, to whom the lax mor- 
als of Enfantin are erroneously attributed, 
was studying in obscurity the social prob- 
lems which the Revolution in France had 
forced upon every thoughtful mind, and was 
beginning to publish his views concerning 
them. Puhlish, we have said — -j;rin^ would 
have been a more accurate word ; for in vain 
did he endeavor to secure any attention from 
the x)iTblic to his elaborate philosophy until 
the more sensational schemes of Enfantin 
and his followers awakened public interest 
in the subject. Fourier's volumes, publish- 
ed in 1808, and again in 1822, found scarce- 
ly a single reader. Not a single critic or re- 
viewer noticed them; and a brief summary 
of his doctrines, drawn up and sent to the 
press, received no better consideration. Per- 
haps the same reason which forbids our en- 
deavor to set them succinctly before our 
readers prevented the attempt by Parisian 
critics — their metaphysical and mystical 
character, as they are by no means con- 
fined to a discussion of the social problem, 
but embrace an elaborate theory of man's 
nature, and the character and relation of 
the faculties. Fourier was not only a So- 
cialist — he was a metaphysician, tind his So- 
cialism was founded on his metaphysics. 

It was not till 1831 that Fourierism began 
to be xDublicly known in France. The same 
iniiuence which brought from that country 
to this its political and its religious ideas, 
brought also these Socialistic theories which 
first took definite form in Brook Farm, a So- 
cialistic organization in the vicinity of Boston, 
Massachusetts. Among those who united in 
this experiment — an endeavor to realize in 
an actual community some of the theoretic- 
al remedies which Fourier had ]Droposed for 
the real or fancied social evils which afflict 
j the community — were George Ripley, Charles 
I A. Dana, George Wm. Curtis, Ralph Waldo 
i Emerson, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Theo- 
\ dore Parker. The publication of a quarter- 
ly called the Dial was commenced under the 
editorship of Margaret Fuller. The whole 
movement had, at least in its literature, not 
only an eminently religious, but an eminent- 
ly Christian tone. Dr. Chanuing was, if not 
its originator, an inspirer of it. It was an 
avowed attempt to establish " the kingdom 
of heaven as it lay in the charitable spirit 
of Jesus of Nazareth" — to form a communi- 
ty " in which the will of God shall be done 
as it is in heaven." A farm was purchased, 
and owned in joint stock. Each stockhold- 
er was to receive a certain fixed interest on 
his investment. A building was provided 
where the members were to live. There was 
board in common to such as desired; such 
as preferred could keep house. All were to 
share in the labors of the community ; each 



SOCIALISM, SOCIALISTS 



892 



SOCIALISM, SOCIALISTS 



one, however, was to choose his own work, 
and was to be paid according to the time 
spent npon it. All forms of labor, from the 
highest brain- work to the lowest drudgery, 
were to receive the same compensation, '^on 
the principle that as the labor becomes mere- 
ly bodily it is a greater sacriiice to the indi- 
vidual laborer to give his time to it, because 
time is desirable for the cultivation of the 
intellectual in exact proportion to ignorance. 
Besides, intellectual labor involves in itself 
higher pleasures, and is more its own reward 
than bodily labor." None, however, were to 
be engaged exclusively in bodily labor; none 
were to be wholly exempt from it. This 
programme was in fact carried out. Littera- 
teurs left their xiens to labor at the plow and 
in the hay-field. Poets ceased to sing the 
praise of labor, that they might actually 
make trials of it. Certainly, if any system 
of social co-operation could succeed. Brook 
Farm ought to have done so. It was father- 
ed by a leading and influential clergyman , 
its course was watched with sympathetic 
interest by a large denomination of the 
Christian Church; it was' supported by the 
ablest pens of the country ; it was establish- 
ed in a centre remarkable for its intelligence 
and its virtue ; it was characterized by no 
looseness in morals, no relaxation of the 
marriage tie, no infidel aspersions on the 
Christian religion ; it did not invite to itself 
the rabble, but was carried on by men of 
culture, of refinement, and of unimpeachable 
moral worth — men whose whole souls were 
enlisted in it, and who were as determined 
to make it succeed as they were sanguine of 
success. But, after a varied but never very 
prosj)erous experience, it was abandoned in 
1847, after an existence of five years, which 
was a continual struggle for life. The prop- 
erty has recently been purchased by the Lu- 
therans, and is occupied by them as an or- 
phan asylum, and for other ecclesiastical and 
philanthropic uses. 

Brook Farm a little preceded the distinct 
Fourieristic movement, which may be said 
to have been inaugurated in this country by 
Albert Brisbane. As an agitator he showed 
rare good sense. Instead of establishing a 
journal which no one would read, he se- 
cured a column in the Neiv York Tribune, 
then but recently established and growing 
in popularity. This column he edited him- 
self. He thus secured at the outset what 
Fourier himself waited long years to secure 
— the public ear. In a little over a year he 
felt strong enough to begin an independent 
publication, Tlie Phalanx, a monthly maga- 
zine. In 1843 he was able to announce as 
already established, or in process of organi- 
zation, nearly half a score of communities. 
Thej^ differed materially in detail, but the 
one grand principle of unitary homes and a 
common property interest underlaid them 
all. In some there was a strong govern- 



ment ; one executive head held the commu- 
nity together. It was peally a little mon- 
archy in the bosom of the republic. These 
lasted while their head remained with them ; 
when he left they dropped to pieces. Oth- 
ers disavowed all government ; there was 
neither property, government, nor family. 
This was the case at Prairie Home, for in- 
stance, in Logan County, Ohio, where there 
was no administration, no authority, no law, 
no provision even for public meetings and 
general decision of questions affecting gen- 
eral interests. Every man did what he 
pleased, went as he willed, and took what- 
ever he wanted wherever he could find it. 
The reader hardly needs to be told that 
such communities dropped to pieces almost 
as quickly as they were brought together. 
Sometimes a genuine religious spirit per- 
vaded the leading members ; some of these 
communities were ostensibly founded on the 
Bible. More frequently, whatever was the 
purpose of the leaders, the rank and file 
were not only infidel, but even blasphe- 
mously so. 

As New Harmony was the test of Owen- 
ism, so the test of Fourierism was the North 
American Phalanx. It was the longest-lived 
of any of the non-religious organizations. It 
was organized in 1843, after months of cor- 
respondence and consultation. The failures 
of previous movements, and the experience 
of Brook Farm, still in successful operation, 
served, the first as warnings, the other as a 
guide. Both Albert Brisbane and Horace 
Greeley were prominent amon^ its founders. 
A stock company was formed ; eight thou- 
sand dollars of stock were subscribed for. 
Four miles from Red Bank, Monmouth Coun- 
ty, New Jersey, six hundred acres of admi- 
rable land were selected. " The location 
was fortunate, the soil naturally good, the 
scenery pleasant, the air healthful." A large 
building was erected for faniilies. Some 
sixty or seventy members entered actively 
upon the enterprise. A reading-room was 
established for adults, a school for children, 
religious worship for all who chose to at- 
tend. At first a public table was maintain- 
ed; afterward a restaurant was established 
on the European plan. All articles were 
charged at actual cost ; all receipts went 
into the common treasury. After paying 
the interest on the stock, the balance was 
divided among the laborers. There was a 
fixed scale of wages. Disagreeable labor 
received the highest compensation. Finan- 
cially the association prospered better than 
its neighbors. It paid dividends ; its farm- 
ing was exceedingly well done; the sacred- 
ness of the family was not violated. But 
the largest number which the Phalanx was 
ever able to attract was one hundred and 
twelve — men, women, and children. The 
land, it is said, would have supported a 
thousand. But it was never out of debt. 



SOCINIANS 



893 



SOCINIANS 



It never realized the dream of Fourier, that 
Commimism would give time for education, 
and afford the drudges of society opportu- 
nity for self- improvement. The readiug- 
room degenerated, uutil the New YorJc Trib- 
une and the Nauvoo Tribune constituted the 
only reading material which it furnished ; 
three or four hundred volumes constituted 
the whole library. Converts became less 
and less numerous ; the withdrawals were 
not compensated for by additions. At last 
there was a religions controversy, a seces- 
sion, a fire, more withdrawals, and then a 
collapse, a sale of property, a payment of 
the debts (or rather a compromise), a turn- 
ing adrift once more on the world of those 
who had tried so faithfully Fourier's refuge 
from it ; and therewith the last of Fourier- 
ism as a practical experiment upon this con- 
tinent. 

We speak of the North American Phalanx 
as the last experiment of Fourierism, be- 
cause it would be unjust to charge to Fou- 
rier such a socialistic organization as that 
of the Oneida Community, situated at Onei- 
da, New York. This company, of which the 
spiritual and political organizer is Mr. Noyes, 
maintains both community of goods and of 
persons. The key-note of this association 
is the declaration which we quote from its 
fundamental law, that " there is no intrinsic 
difference between property in persons and 
property in things ; and that the same spir- 
it which abolished exclusiveness in regard 
to money would abolish, if circumstances al- 
lowed full scope to it, exclusiveness in re- 
gard to women and children." It professes, 
singularly enough, to be based upon relig- 
ious principles, and even upon the precepts 
of the N. T. ; but it, in fact, gives the widest 
possible scope to licentiousness, while shroud- 
ing it under the guise of piety ; and declares, 
with an audacity which is i)ositively un- 
paralleled for effrontery in the literature 
of vice, that "holiness must go before free 
love." Yet, though this community violates 
alike the laws of God and the instincts of 
humanity, it is a singular fact, that of all 
the socialistic communities (if we except 
that of the Shakers [q. v.]), it is the most 
prosperous ; though whether it will main- 
tain an existence after the death of its pres- 
ent chief, who appears to possess some of 
the peculiar executive genius of Mr. Owen, 
remains to be seen. With the excej)tion of 
this community, and possibly one or two 
others, though this is the only one, so far as 
we know. Socialism, as a new form of socie- 
ty, has proved itself in repeated experiments 
an utter failure ; and the lesson which its 
history teaches us is well summed up in the 
words of an old but converted Fourierite, 
" the family is a rock against which all ob- 
jects not only will dash in vain, but they 
will fall shivered at its base." 

Socirdans, a term sometimes, though im- 



properly, applied to all who deny the doc- 
trine of the divinity of Jesus Christ. They 
are to be distinguished from the Arians 
(q. V.) on the one hand, who maintain the 
divinity but deny the deity of Christ, and 
from the Humanitarians (q. v.) on the other, 
who regard him as no other than an ordina- 
ry, though perhaps inspired, man. They de- 
rive their name from two men by the name 
of Socinus, uncle and nephew, and to their 
day (a.d. 1618) we must look for the best 
definition of their tenets, since they pro- 
pounded their doctrine in the form of a def 
inite creed, while those who are called So- 
cinians at the present day usually disown 
all creeds, and leave their doctrine to be dis- 
covered from a consideration of the writings 
of their representative theologians. Michael 
Servetus was burned at the stake in 1553 for 
maintaining that Jesus Christ was a mere 
man, though so filled with the Divine Spirit 
as to be, in a peculiar sense, the Son of God. 
The doctrine thus revived by him — for it 
was as old as the third century when it was 
stoutly maintained by one Theodotus — did 
not perish on his death, but was revived 
timidly and hesitatingly by Lsetius Socinus, 
and more vigorously by his nephew Faus- 
tus. The odium which the doctrine of the 
latter awakened drove him from Switzer- 
land to Poland, where he soon took a promi- 
nent position, and his tenets became exceed- 
ingly popular. B}'^ his executive genius he 
succeeded in the very difticult task of har- 
monizing the various discordant elements 
in the Anti-trinitarian churches of Poland 
and uniting them in one ecclesiastical body. 
From Poland, the doctrines of the sect ex- 
tended to Holland and Germany, and thence 
to England, where they were maintained by 
John Biddle during the middle of the sev- 
enteenth century ; and later, in a modified 
form, by Priestly and Bel sham, whence they 
passed to this country, where they have been 
incorporated in the Unitarian denomination. 
The absence of a defined creed makes it ex- 
ceedingly difficult to state with impartiality 
the doctrines of Socinianism. It is current- 
ly said that the Socinians hold Jesus Christ 
to be a mere man, yet it is certain that Soci- 
nus himself not only maintained the doctrine 
of the miraculous conception, but bitterly 
opposed those who refused to pay to Jesus 
divine homage. It would probably be a fair 
representation of their views as a class to 
say that they hold Jesus Christ to be a man, 
but to have been miraculously conceived, and 
to have been so directed and inspired by the 
Spirit of God as to be elevated entirely above 
the rank of common mortals, and. havingbeen 
raised to a position of transcendent honor 
and dignity in consequence of liis life and 
character, is properly an object of regard such 
as no one may pay to a fellow-mortal, though 
not entitled to receive worship in the prop- 
er sense of that term. They deny the doc- 



SOCOH, SOCHOH 



894 



SOLOMON 



trine of Atonement, as that term is ordina- 
rily understood by tlie Evangelical or Ortho- 
dox churches/ maintaining that the only 
object of Christ's death was to produce a 
certain moral impression upon mankind, and 
prepare the way for his own resurrection 
and final glory. As a class, too, they deny 
the doctrine of Original Sin, and maintain, 
with the Pelagians,'^ that man possesses 
by nature a pure and innocent character, 
though it is invariably depraved by the ef- 
fect of evil association and example. The 
name of Socinians, thongh often applied 
by their opponents to those holding these 
views in England and America, is dis- 
owned by them, and Socinians and Arians, 
who in their origin and early history were 
wide asunder, and often engaged in theo- 
logical controversies with each other, both 
claim the common title of Unitarians. See 
Arians; Humanitarians; Original Sin; 
Unitarians; Atonement; Christology; 
Trinity. 

Socoh, Sochoh, and Socho {hedge), a town 
in the Shefelali, or plain of Judah. It was not 
far from this that Goliath was slain and the 
Philistine host routed, and Socoh was one of 
the places fortified by Eehoboam after the 
revolt of the ten tribes. Eobinson has iden- 
-tified it with Shuweikeh, in Wady Mustir, 
which may hence correspond with the an- 
cient valley of Elah. [Josh, xv., 35 ; 1 Sam. 
xvii., 3 ; 2 Chron. xi., 7.] 

Sodom (huriiing? or vineyard?), the prin- 
cipal city of the district destroyed on ac- 
count of the wickedness of the inhabitants. 
It is first mentioned in describing the Ca- 
naanitish border; was afterward selected 
by Lot as a place of residence ; was plun- 
dered by Chedorlaomer and his associate 
kings ; and was finally destroyed, together 
with Gomorrah, Admah, and Zeboim. Ever 
after Sodom is mentioned but as a terrible 
warning of the divine punishment inflicted 
upon x)ersistent sinners. For account of de- 
struction of Sodom and Gomorrah, see Cit- 
ies OF THE Plain. [Gen. x., 19 ; xiii., 10-13 ; 
xiv.; xviii., 16-33; xix., 1-29; Deufc. xxix., 
23; Isa. i.,9,10; xiii., 19; Jer.xxiii.,14; Ezek. 
xvi., 48, 50; Hos. xi., 9; Matt, x., 15; xi.,23, 
24; 2 Pet. ii., 6-8 ; Jude7; Eev.xi.,8.] 

Sodomites. This word does not denote 
the inhabitants of Sodom ; but is employed 
in the English version of the O. T. for those 
who practiced, as a religious rite, the unnat- 
ural vice from which the inhabitants of Sod- 
om and Gomorrah have derived their lasting 
infamy. [Dent, xxiii., 17 ; 1 Kings xiv., 24 ; 
XV., 12; xxii., 46; 2 Kings xxiii., 7.] 

Solomon (the jjeaceful). The name cor- 
responds to the German Frederick, and re- 
ceives its interpretation from 1 Chron. xxii., 
9. His first name was Jedidiah (beloved of 
Jehovah), and was given, perhaps, by Nathan 
as a sign of David's forgiveness. He was 
1 See Atonement. — 2 gge Oiuginal Sin. 



the second son of Bathsheba, and, next to 
Absalom, the king's favorite. In promi- 
nence he stands, among the Hebrew kings, 
second only to David. His reign marks the 
epoch of Israel's greatest apparent jDrosper- 
ity, but real corruption and decay, and was 
followed immediately by the disruption of 
the kingdom under his son, Eehoboam. Un- 
der his reign the Jewish nation, for the first 
time, came in contact with Gentile races. 
He was the first one to employ art in the 
service of religion. The monumental rec- 
ords of his age remain in the ruins of the 
present. His fame, not confined to his own 
nation, is to be seen in Mussulman legends, 
as the splendor of his reign was of a kind 
particularly captivating to the Mussulman's 
imagination. Like his father, an author and 
a poet, though of a different kind, his liter- 
ary remains constitute a very considerable 
contribution to the sacred Scriptures, and 
are indispensable in interpreting the man 
and his reign ; his own character is no less 
the key to their interpretation. Our con- 
sideration of him is naturally under two as- 
pects — as king and as author. 

1. King. — Of his early life little is known. 
He was brought up by Nathan ;' during 
Absalom's rebellion shared his father's tem- 
porary exile ; and, after the rebel's death, 
became the recognized heir and successor 
of David. The incipient revolt of Adoni- 
jah led to his father's abdication and his 
own coronation,^ while yet but a youth^ — 
according to Josephus, but fifteen years of 
age. The event which immediately fol- 
lows is not altogether easy to be under- 
stood. Bath-sheba, who had incited David 
against A(^A'>vii1ah, interceded with Solomon 
for him, and asked for him Abishag, David's 
concubine, as his wife. The request may have 
been presumptuous ; the penalty seems se- 
vere. Adonijah was put to death; Joab, 
who had joined in the first movement for 
Adonijah, was executed with him; Abiathar, 
the priest, was banished ; and Bath-sheba's 
influence at court appears to have ended, for 
we hear no more of her. It is conjectured 
that Bath-sheba, finding herself unable to 
control Solomon, took this means of supplant- 
ing him and securing the kingdom for Adoni- 
jah, or at least a regency for herself, and that 
Solomon, seeing through the scheme, put an 
end to the disquiet threatened by his ambi- 
tious brother by his summary measures. If 
the hypothesis that Abishag is the heroine 
of Solomon's Song (q. v.) be correct, jealousy 
may have added flame to his auger. The 
well-known appearance of God to Solomon 
at Gibeon, and his choice of an understaud- 
iug heart, in answer to the question, "What 
shall I give thee ?" are to be included among 
the incidents of the inauguration of his reign; 
and the well-known story of the two moth- 

1 2 Sam. xii., 25 ; comp. 1 Chrou. xxvii., 32.-2 jSee 
Aponi^au. — 3 1 Kings iii., 7. 



SOLOMON 



895 



SOLOMON 



ers and the babe, and tlie king's curiously 
sagacious judgment, illustrate not less ad- 
mirably the nature of an Oriental court and 
of Oriental justice than they do the wisdom 
which God vouchsafed at the young king's 
request.^ If the conjecture which gives to 
Solomon's Song an historical basis be cor- 
rect, he was only less 

remarkable for person- 
al beauty than for wis- 
dom, sharing, in the for- 
mer respect, the char- 
acteristics of his half- 
brother Absalom and his 
father David, being fair, 
with a "light and rud- 
dy" face, bushy locks, 
dark as the raven's 
wing, eyes soft as " the 
eyes of doves," and the 
"countenance as Leba- 
non, excellent as the ce- 
dars."^ From this time 
any thing like a chron- 
ological account of his 
reign, which, indeed, was 
not characterized by any 
special incidents, but 
only by an unexampled 
prosperity, becomes im- 
possible. A brief de- 
scription of the charac- 
teristics of his adminis- 
tration must suffice in- 
stead. 

He divided the king- 
dom into twelve dis- 
tricts. Over each of 
these he appointed a 
purveyor for the collec- 
tion of the royal tribute, 
which was received in 
kind. Each ]3urveyor 
supplied the court for a 
month. The daily con- 
sumption of Solomon's 
household Avas 300 bush- 
els of fine, 600 of coarser 
flour ; 10 fatted, 20 other 
oxen ; 100 sheej), besides 
poultry and venison. 
Provender was furnish- 
ed for 40,000 horses and 
a great number of drom- V '° '° " '" '" '" '•" '° "' 
edaries. Alliances were, 
for the first time, enter- 
ed into w^ith other nations. Solomon mar- 
ried a daughter of the royal family of 



Egypt, and made important treaties with 
the King of Tyre, by which he undertook to 
supply the Tyrians with corn, receiving in 
return their timber, whicb was floated down 
to Joppa for the construction of the Temple, 
which was begun in the fourth and finished 
in the eleventh year of his reigu.^ His own 




1 The peremptory justice of this judgment shocks 
our Occidental ideas, but is in accordance with East- 
ern customs. The story is told by a modern traveler 
ot a woman who complained to an Egyptian official 
of a soldier who had stolen and drunk her milk. The 
soldier denied the charge. The official ordered the 
soldier to be cut open on the spot, and the milk was 
found in his stomach. " If it had not been," said the 
officer to the woman, "you would have suffered the 
fate he has met."— ^ See Sol. Song iv., 1-4; v., 9-16. 



SCflLE OF FEET. 

Plan of Solomon's Palace. 

palace, thirteen years in building, rivaled in 
magnificence that which he erected for Je- 
hovah. It was built on the hill opposite the 
Temple, with which it was connected by a 
causeway. The vast hall for public business, 
called, from its cedar pillars, the House of the 
Forest of Lebanon, was one hundred and 
seventy-five feet long, half that measure- 
ment in width, above fifty feet high ; four 



1 See Temple. 



SOLOMON 



SOLOMON 



rows of cedar columns supported a roof 
made of beams of the same wood ; there 
were three rows of windows on each side, 
facing each other. Besides this great hall, 
there were two others, called porches, of 
smaller dimensions, in one of which the 
throne of justice was placed. The harem, or 
women's apartments, joined to these build- 
ings, with other piles of vast extent for dif- 
ferent purposes, particularly, if we may 
credit Josephus, a great banqueting -hall. 
The same author informs us that the whole 
was surrounded with spacious and luxuri- 
ant gardens, and adds — a less credible fact — 
ornamented with sculptures and paintings. 
Another palace was built in a romantic part 
of the country for his wife, the daughter of 
the King of Egypt, in the luxurious gardens 
of which we may lay the scene of that poet- 
ical epithalamium, The Song of Solomon. 

The descriptions in the Greek writers of 
the Persian courts in Susa and Ecbatana; 
the tales of the early travelers in the East 
about the kings of Samarcand or Cathay; 
and even the imagination of the Oriental ro- 
mancers and poets, have scarcely conceived a 
more splendid pageant than Solomon, seated 
on his throne of ivory, receiving the homage 
of distant princes who came to admire his 
magnificence, and put to the test his noted 
wisdom. This throne was of pure ivory, 
overlaid with gold ; six steps led up to the 
seat, and on each side of the steps were 
twelve lions carved. All the vessels of his 
palace were of pure gold — silver was thought 
too mean: his armory was furnished with 
gold; two hundred targets and three hun- 
dred shields of beaten gold were suspended 
in the house of Lebanon. Josephus men- 
tions a body of archers who escorted him 
from the city to his country palace, clad in 
dresses of Tyrian purple, and their hair pow- 
dered with gold dust. But enormous as this 
wealth appears, the statement of his expen- 
diture on the Temple, and of his annual rev- 
enue, so. passes all credibility, that any at- 
tempt at forming a calculation on the uncer- 
tain data we possess may at once be aban- 
doned as a hopeless task. 

The source of his enormous wealth lay in 
the commerce which, for the first and the 
last time in the history of the Hebrew race, 
was assiduously cultivated under Solomon. 
His treaty with Tyre, the mistress of the 
commerce of the Mediterranean, was of the 
first importance to both parties. Tyre fur- 
nished the ship-builders and mariners; the 
fruitful plains of Palestine victualed the 
fleets, and supplied the Phcenician manufac 
turers and merchants. Througli this treaty 
the trade of the Hebrews was pushed to ev- 
ery part of the Mediterranean, even ys far as 
the south of Spain, ^ and all lands became 
tributary to the Holy Land. Scarcely less 
important was the inland trade with Egypt, 



^ See Taksuisu. 



whence were imported horses in vast num- 
bers, and linen yarn, from the flax-fields of 
the valleys of the Nile, to be spun and woven 
by the prudent and industrious housewives 
in Palestine. A third and equally important 
branch of commerce was the maritime trade 
by the Red Sea ; nor less so the inland trade 
of the Arabian peninsula. The latter was 
carried on by caravans of the native tribes, 
who transported on camels the spices, in- 
cense, gold, precious stones, and valuable 
woods of that country. And, finally, on the 
extreme east, a fifth line of commerce — that 
of inland Asia — crossing from Babylonia and 
Assyria to Tyre, passed through the domain 
and contributed to the wealth of the Hebrew 
people. Yet all this apparent prosperity re- 
dounded rather to the glory of the monarch 
than to the permanent welfare of the na- 
tion. Solomon was essentially an Asiatic 
monarch. And it is evident, not only that 
the glory of his empire Avas that of personal 
aggrandizement, but, from the subsequent 
complaints of the people and the rebellion 
under Jeroboam, that the burdensome tax- 
es laid upon the inhabitants of the land 
more than compensated, in their estimation, 
for all the advantages which were derived 
from the assiduously cultivated commerce 
with other lands. ^ How truly Asiatic was 
his kingdom is indicated by the single fact 
that his seraglio included seven hundred 
wives f how far the glory of his kingdom — 
so great that its fame extended to other 
lands, and brought him royal visitors cu- 
rious to measure it with their own eyes^ — 
was a personal and sensuous glory, is abun- 
dantly illustrated by Solomon's Song and 
Ecclesiastes. Upon the ornamenting of his 
palaces and the construction of his royal 
gardens no expense seems to have been too 
lavish;* but we look in vain for any evi- 
dence of analogous expenditures or public 
improvements for the real and permanent 
welfare of his people. Measured by modern, 
by true standards, the schools of the proph- 
ets which Samuel established were worth 
more than all Solomon's glory, and they sur- 
vived all the wasteful magnificence which 
he devised and wrought. The seeming 
splendor of his kingdom was really, as 
has often been found in analogous cases, the 
sign of its decay. His harem was a direct 
violation of the law of God.^ His heathen 
wives brought with them the heathen re- 
ligion. Rival temples to Moloch, Chemosh, 
and Ashtoreth were erected under the very 
shadow of the house of God. He shared 
more or less directly in the idolatrous prac- 
tices, if not in the idolatrous worship, of these 
heathen religious. Darkness and disaster 
began, as a consequence, to cloud his de- 
clining days. Hadad, one of the blood royal 



1 1 Kiii2:s xii., 4.-2 1 Kings xL, 3 ; comp., however, 
Sol. Song' vi., 8.— a See Sabeans.— « Eccles. ii., 1-11.— 
5 Deut. xvii., 10, 17. 



SOLOMON 



897 



SOLOMON 



of tlie Edomite princes, began to organize a 
revolt in that province, on which so much of 
the Jewish commerce depended. An advent- 
urer seized on Damascus, and set up an in- 
dependent sovereignty, thus endangering the 
communication from Tadmar. A domestic 
enemy still more dangerous appeared in the 
person of Jeroboam, supported by the proph- 
et Abijah, who foretold his future rule over 
the ten tribes. The decline of the kingdom 
was scarcely less rapid than its rise. The 
prestige of Solomon prevented any success- 
ful outbreak while he lived, but the popular 
dissatisfaction was wide -spread and deep- 
seated; and when, after a reign of forty 
years, Solomon died, the kingdom was ripe 
for the insurrection and division which fol- 
lowed. His son Rehoboam succeeded to his 
throne but not to his kingdom, which, by 
the successful revolt of Jeroboam, was di- 
vided into the rival kingdoms of Judah and 
Israel.^ 

2. Author. — Solomon has stood through- 
out all ages as the embodiment of human 
wisdom. At first sight it is not easy to see 
why, since the results of his kingly career 
do not seem to justify the assumption. But 
the reign of Solomon marks an era in the 
history of the race — the transition from the 
grandeur of war, of which David's reign was 
a remarkable illustration, to that of peace, 
of which Solomon's reign is the most consid- 
erable illustration in Hebrew history. The 
defects of his administration were the result 
rather of want of moral purity and simplic- 
ity than lack of sagacity. Despot though 
he was, the justice of his judgments was not 
only universally recognized while he lived^ 
but famed after his death. His breadth of 
view and large-hearted toleration, though 
finally it became perverted by his heathen 
wives, and the cause of corruption and the 
curse of his reign, was yet something nota- 
ble in his age, and in the Hebrew race in 
any age f and to it his commercial treaties 
and the commercial prosperity of his king- 
dom was largely due. As a natural philos- 
opher, he was the first scientist in Hebrew 
history, we may say in any history ; and 
prominent among tlie marvels of his king- 
dom were his collections of trees, and birds, 
and animals, which his passion for natural 
science, no less than his love of the beauti- 
ful, led him to gather, and to make the sub- 
jects of writings now lost.^ In his book of 
Proverbs there are signs enough of his fond- 
ness for riddles and enigmas to give some 
countenance to the traditions which tell us 
that the interchange of riddles was a fixvor- 
ite pastime with him. It is certain that the 
famous visit of the Queen of Sheba was less 
to see the magnificence of his royal build- 
ings and gardens than to test the reality of 
his far-famed wisdom.^ The founder of He- 



1 See Rehoboam and Jerouoam.— 2 1 Kino;s iii., 2S.— 

1 Kings iv., 29.-4 1 Kings iv., 33, 34.-5 1 Kiugs x.^ 1. 

57 



brew architecture, Solomon was also the 
father of Hebrew philosoi)hy. His three ex- 
tant works illustrate, however, the person- 
al history of the man even more than the 
nature of his reign and the extent of his 
learning. Solomon's Song, which in its first 
significance is an Oriental love-song, what- 
ever secondary and mystical meaning may 
be attached to it,^ is the luxuriant product 
of a sensuous imagination. It tells the sto- 
ry of the monarch's opening days, when he 
planted vineyards and gardens and orchards, 
and set out trees in them of all kinds of 
fruit, and gat him servants and maidens, 
and gave himself up to luxurious pleasure, 
while yet the youthful heart was free to en- 
joy without fear or foreboding of the future. 
But this sowing of the wind brings the 
whirlwind: the life of the voluptuary is fol- 
lowed by his confessions in the book of Ec- 
clesiastes, the cry of a soul which has tried 
every form of earthly enjoyment, and turn- 
ed away surfeited from the feast. Finally 
comes the book of Proverbs, when life has 
completed its lessons, and the inculcations 
of its varied experiences are coined into 
proverbs, and enigmas, and riddles, every 
one of which is an interpretation of some 
actual event witnessed or participated in. 
To go through these three products of Sol- 
omon's life experience, analyze them, and 
educe the appropriate conclusions concern- 
ing his character, would swell our article 
beyond all reasonable limits; but he who 
would look beneath the exterior life, and 
understand aright the interior character and 
real significance of Solomon's life, can only 
do so by studying these works, which con- 
stitute, after all, his true autobiography. 
We like to think that the book of Proverbs 
— not as many scholars do, the book of Ec- 
clesiastes — is the ripened fruit of his expe- 
rience, the copsummation of his life. But 
were it not so, we should still wish to be- 
lieve Ecclesiastes to be a genuine confes- 
sion, a book of which the Confessions of St. 
Augustine may be regarded as an imita- 
tion ; that thus, at the last, the recreant and 
guilty king found out by experience the 
truth of the proverb, which a later tradition 
attributed to him, ''Whoso confesseth andfor- 
saketh his sins shall have mercy."^ Wheth- 
er, however, Solomon is to be counted among 
the penitent sinners or the apostate saints, 
is a question not to be settled till the Judg- 
ment-day solves all such problems. His 
character and example are themselves one 
great riddle ; how great a one is curiously 
illustrated in mediseval art by the fact that 
in a series of frescoes on the walls of the 
Campo Santo, at Pisa, Solomon is represent- 
ed in the resurrection at the last day as 
looking ambiguously to the right and to 
the left, not knowing on which side his lot 
will be cast. See Ecclesiastes ; Proverbs ; 



1 See Solomon's Song.— 2 Prov. xsviii., 13. 



SOLOMON'S SERVANTS 



SOLOMON'S SONG 



Solomon's Song ; Temple ; Sa beans ; Hi- 
ram ; Tyre. [2 Sam. v., 14 ; xii., 24 ; 1 Kings 
i.-xi. ; 2 Chron. i.-ix.] 

Solomon's Servants, a certain class of 
the returned exiles, enumerated after tlie 
Levites and the Nethinim. They had prob- 
ably some very subordinate connection with 
the Temple services, and may be supposed 
the descendants of those Canaanites whom 
Solomon, carrying out his father's policy, 
employed as slave-laborers in his works. 
[1 Kings ix., 20, 21; 1 Chron.xxii.,2; 2Chron. 
viii., 7, 8 ; Ezra ii., 55, 58 ; Neh. vii., 57, 60.] 

Solomon's Song. Few poems have ex- 
cited more attention, or have found more 
translators and commentators than this, but 
the learned are not yet agreed respecting its 
arrangement and design. The majority con- 
sider it an inspired book, and certainly on 
the best of evidence ; while others affirm it 
to be merely a human composition. The 
former regard it as a sacred allegory, the 
latter as a mere amatory effusion. Though 
all critics and expositors are agreed that it is 
a poem, they are by no means unanimous as 
to what class of Hebrew poetry it is to be re- 
ferred to. While some consider it a regu- 
lar drama, distributed into acts and scenes, 
others hold that it is in no respect a continu- 
ous composition, but a collection of separate 
lyrics. The golden mean between these two 
opinions is undoubtedly the true one. It is 
not entitled a collection of songs, but a song; 
not the " Songs of Solomon," as the Proverbs 
of Solomon, but " TJie Song of Songs, which 
is Solomon's ;"' i. e., the most beautiful of all 
songs, as the Messiah's title of King of Kings 
describes him as the most glorious of kings. 
The subject of the poem is the same from 
beginning to end, and the plot advances on- 
ward to a contemplated result through a se- 
ries of Hebrew idyls. Not only does one 
spirit breathe through the whole, but all the 
parts and members are fitly framed together, 
each being evidently intended not to be com- 
plete in itself, but to enter with the others 
into a harmonious and self-consistent unity. 
It needs but one glance at Solomon's Song 
to discover that its theme is love. In this 
all scholars are agreed. But when we in- 
quire what is the character of the love which 
pours itself forth in this Hebrew song, we 
are overwhelmed with the multitude of con- 
flicting answers which our question sum- 
mons forth from the expository tomes of 
critics, ancient and modern, Jewish and 
Christian, living and dead. Strange that a 
song of loves should have been the occasion 
of so many critical conflicts! The various 
expositions may, however, be ranked under 
three heads, the literal, the allegorical, and 
the typical — the latter a middle position, 
in which the literal and the allegorical are 
combined and harmonized. 

Those who interpret the song literally 



Chap, i., 1. 



agree in holding that it is an outpouring 
of merely human loves, but differ decidedly 
with regard to its main scope, design, and 
argument. While some hold that Shulam- 
mith is the wife of Solomon, who in this 
poem gives expression to the truest conjugal 
affection, others maintain that she is a sim- 
ple maiden whom Solomon, overcome by 
love, seeks to allure into his already well- 
filled harem, but who, having previously 
pledged her faith to a village youth of her 
own rank, resists with success the solicita- 
tions of royalty, and maintains fidelity to 
her humble lover. If we grant any form of 
the literal hypothesis, the song has still a 
grand moral bearing, and is a poetical em- 
bodiment of the true idea of marriage — an 
eloquent sermon in behalf of Christian wife- 
hood, when considered as coming from Solo- 
mon, enslaved by the love of strange women. 
But so great a diversity of sentiment among 
those who hold the literal seems to be a 
strong argument in favor of the allegorical 
interpretation. Surely if this were a com- 
mon love-song, the author would never have 
left it open to dispute whether he intended 
to represent his heroine as doting upon his 
hero, or as resisting that hero's advances and 
giving her love to another. We are not 
aware that there is in the whole range of 
human literature any love-song so ambigu- 
ously expressed as that would imply, and 
therefore conclude that some deeper mean- 
ing, not found by the literalist interpreters, 
lies in the obscure utterances of this poem. 
This deeper meaning is discovered by those 
interpreters who regard Solomon's Song as 
an allegory intended to teach the love of 
Christ for his Church. The allegorical and 
typical interpreters have greatly the advan- 
tage of their opponents in numbers, as well 
as in critical acumen and poetic and spiritual 
insight. The allegorical may indeed claim 
to be the traditional exposition of the song, 
both by the Christian Church and the Jewish 
Synagogue ; the typical is now coming more 
into prominence. It. is not necessary to pro- 
nounce any discriminating judgment be- 
tween its different leading forms, at least in 
so far as regards their prominent features. 
Shelomo is the peace bestower ; it is in 
his love that Shulammith finds peace. He 
may, therefore, be regarded either as the rep- 
resentative of Jehovah, the covenant God 
and King of Israel, or as a type of Messiah, 
the Prince of Peace. There is no reason 
that we should give an exclusive prefer- 
ence to one or the other of these expositions. 
In truth they differ only in form, not in 
reality. And an allegorical representation, 
like a prophetic word, may have more than 
one form of realization or fulfillment. And 
so Shulammith may be regarded either as 
the representative of the Church, or of the 
individual soul which seeks and finds rest in 
Christ, If we have any preference for the 



SOLOMON'S SONG 



899 



SOUTH 



former view, it is only because it seems to 
be more in harmony with the national char- 
acter of the dispensation under which the 
Song of Songs was written, and by the prin- 
ciples of which we must, to a certain extent, 
be guided in its interpretation/ 

In regard to some other books of the O. T. 
questions of date and authorship are of vi- 
tal moment. But the value of the subject- 
matter of the Song of Solomon does not 
depend on any circumstances of time and 
place. It will continue equally edifying to 
the Church, whether it is found to belong 
to the age of Solomon or to that of the cap- 
tivity. The title ascribes it to Solomon, 
and this, as the most ancient tradition with 
regard to the authorship, must have due 
weight ; but we have no decisive evidence. 
While some ascribe it to so late a period 
as that of the Babylonish captivity, others 
hold that it proceeded from Israel, rather 
than from Judah, during that period just 
after the separation, when there must have 
been in Israel a large party who longed for 
reunion with their national sanctuary and 
with the divinely -chosen family of David, 
and who lived in the firm faith that the 
period would speedily arrive when Israel 
would again be one — one in Jehovah their 
God, and in Solomon their king. But, on 
the whole, internal evidence abundantly con- 
firms the testimony of the title and of tra- 
dition. There is no reasonable doubt that 
the song is truly Solomon's Song. 

The canonical authority of the song has 
always been recognized, both by the Jewish 
and the Christian Church. It is found in 
the oldest Greek translations of the O. T., 
and the oldest catalogues of the books con- 
tained therein ; and its canonicity rests on 
the same general grounds as that of the 
other books of the O. T. The title is of 
itself sufficient to prove that from the most 
ancient period the song has been accounted 
sacred. It is, no doubt, a song of surpass- 
ing beauty, but that alone would hardly 
have induced the ancient Jewish fathers to 
bestow upon it so exalted a title as "The 
Song of Songs," had they not recognized its 
sacred and sublimely mysterious character. 
And this fact alone is conclusive evidence that 
it is not a mere amatory effusion, but is an 
allegory full of the highest spiritual signifi- 
cance. It ought, perhaps, to be added that 
it is, in form, and dress, and color, thorough- 
ly Oriental, and that the warmth and pas- 
sion which characterize it, and which ren- 
der it somewhat difficult of interpretation 
to the Anglo-Saxon mind, admirably adapt 
it to the warmer and more sensuous natures 
of the Eastern and Southern races. It speaks 
the truth ; not, however, through the intel- 



1 The clearest statement of the true interpretation 
(the typical) is by Prof. William Henry Green, D.D., 
of Princeton Theological Seminary, in his additions 
to the American edition of the commentary in Lange's 
Bible-work. (T. J. C.) 



lect, but through the imagination and the 
natural afifections. 

Songs of Degrees, The fifteen Psalms, 
from CXX. to CXXXIV., are called Songs 
of the Steps or Degrees, or Gradual Psalms, 
because they were sung when the Jews came 
up to worship in Jerusalem, either at the 
annual festivals, or, perhaps, from the Baby- 
lonish captivity. Some have supposed that 
they were so called because sung by the 
Jewish companies in ascending to Jerusa- 
lem by a steep, rocky ascent, or in ascend- 
ing the flight of steps which led to the Tem- 
ple. 

Sons of God. There has been a good 
deal of difference of opinion as to the prop- 
er interpretation of this phrase as employed 
in Gen. vi., 2. The most ancient opinion was 
that "the sons of God" were the young men 
of high rank, while " the daughters of men " 
were the maidens of low birth and humble 
condition. According to this interpretation, 
the sin lay in the unbridled passions of the 
higher ranks of society, their corrupting the 
wives and daughters of their servants and 
dependents, and the consequent spread of 
universal licentiousness. A second inter- 
pretation, also of great antiquity, is that the 
" sons of God " were the angels, who, moved 
to envy by the connubial happiness of the 
human race, took to themselves human bod- 
ies and married the fair daughters of men. 
This interpretation was maintained by the 
earlier Christian Fathers, and was thought 
by them to derive support from Jude 6, 7. 
The true interpretation is that "the sons 
of God " were the descendants of Seth, who 
adhered to the worship and service of the 
true God, and who, according to some in- 
terpretations of chap, iv., 26, were, from the 
time of Enos, called by the name of the 
Lord, and that "the daughters of men" were 
of the race of the ungodly Cain. This was 
the belief of the eminent Church fathers, 
Chrysostom, Cyril of Alexandria, Theodoret, 
Augustine, and Jerome. It was adopted by 
Luther, Calvin, and most of the reformers, 
and has been the opinion of a great majori- 
ty of modern commentators. 

Sosthenes {safe in strength)^ a ruler of 
the Jewish synagogue at Corinth. Wheth- 
er he became a Christian, and was the per- 
son whom St. Paul joins in his address to 
the Corinthians, is uncertain. [Acts xviii., 
17 ; 1 Cor. i., 1.] 

South. This term is frequently used in 
Scripture to designate certain countries ly- 
ing south of Palestine, as Idumea, parts of 
Arabia, and the desert of Paran. But the 
" South country," or " Land of the South," 
of which mention is frequently made, was 
the southern portion of Palestine. It was 
separated from the rest of Judea by the 
broad plain of Beersheba, extending from 
the Dead Sea westward. On the south side 
the South country was bounded by the wil- 



sow, SOWER, SOWING 



900 



SPIDER 



derness, from which 
it was divided by a 
very distinct line of 
demarkation, consist- 
ing of a series of deep 
wadies. The whole 
land of the South, or 
South country, was 
divided into three or 
four parts, or dis- 
tricts. The eastern 
part, including the 
precipices along the 
shore of the Dead 
Sea, was the land of 
the Kenites. The 
central part of the 
South country was 
the land of the Je- 
rahmeelites ; and this 

region, with that of the Kenites, formed 
that part of ancient Seir called ^'the land 
of Seir," and " the field of Edom," in which 
Esau originally dwelt. To the west of the 
Jerahmeelites lay the land of Gerar, the 
southern part of the land of the Philistines, 
the great plain south and south-east of 
Gaza. On or near the border of the laud 
of Gerar, along the western slopes of the 
mountains of the Jerahmeelites, lay most of 
the cities of Simeon, of which Ziklag was 
one. The names of these cities are given in 
Josh, xix,, 1-7 ; 1 Chron. iv., 28-33, and most 
of them are found in the region south or 
south-south-west of Beersheba. The rest of 
the cities of the South, at the time of the 
conquest of Canaan, as originally allotted to 
Judah, are given in Josh, xv., 21-32. All 
these cities are now desolate. There is not 
a town or village in the whole of the South 
country which is now inhabited; there is 
not even a single dwelling. The prophe- 
cy is completely and impressively fulfilled : 
" The cities of the south shall be shut up, 
and none shall o^Den them.'" [Lev. xxvi., 
34, 43 ; Numb, xiii., 17, 22, 29 ; xxi., 1 ; 1 Sam. 
xxvii., 7, 10 ; xxx., 29.] 

Sow, Sower, Sowing. The sowing in 
Palestine was done in the fall, from the be- 
ginning of October to the beginning of De- 
cember. It was always done, of course, by 
hand. The ground was first prepared by 
plowing. The principal grains were wheat 
and barley. Several of our Lord's parables 
are grounded upon sowing. See Agricul- 
TURE. [Matt, xiii., 3-8, 18-32, 36-43 ; Mark 
iv., 26-32 ; Luke viii., 5-15.] 

Sparrow (Hebrew tzip;por). The Hebrew 
word, signifying to cMri) or twitter, appears 
to be a phonetic representation of the call- 
note of small birds generally. The term 
probably includes, besides the various species 
of the sparrow, the thrushes, starlings, finch- 
es, larks, and other similar birds. Dr. Thom- 
son, noticing the abundance of house-spar- 
1 Jer. xiii., 19. 




•^^A^ 



Sparrow. 



rows and field-sparrows in Palestine, says : 
" They are a tame, troublesome, and imper- 
tinent generation, and nestle just where you 
do not want them. They stop up your stove 
and water pipes with their rubbish, build in 
the windows and under the beams of the 
roof, and would stuif your hat full of stub- 
ble in half a day, if they found it hanging 
in a place to suit them." When we see 
their countless numbers, and the slight esti- 
mation iu which they are held, we can bet- 
ter appreciate Christ's argument, that He 
who cares for every one of them will surely 
not forget us. As the sparrow is a very so- 
cial bird, it has been coujectured that "the 
sparrow alone upon the house-top," referred 
to by the Psalmist, is the blue thrash, which 
is a solitary bird, more than a pair being 
rarely seen together. [Psa. cii., 7 ) Matt, x., 
29-31.] 

Spices. Under Aloes, Balm, Frankin- 
cense, Myrrh, and other headings, we have 
described the chief of those fragrant sub- 
stances belonging to the vegetable kingdom 
which were prized by the Hebrews. Among 
ourselves the great consumers of spices are 
the cook and the confectioner ; and to En- 
glish readers the word- suggests pungent rel- 
ishes, like pepper, nutmeg, ginger. As, how- 
ever, the word occurs in the English Bible, 
it generally denotes those aromatic woods, 
or seeds, or gums, which were employed in 
embalming or perfumery. " Balm" grew iu 
the deej) sub-tropical depression of Jericho, 
and cardamom is found in islands of the Le- 
vant ; the other gummy odors were obtain- 
ed from Arabia, or through Arabia were im- 
ported from countries beyond — from Persia 
and India. In the Temple service they were 
so important that the care of them was in- 
trusted to a special set of officials. [Exod. 
XXV., 6; xxxvii., 29; 2 Kings xx., 13; 1 Chron. 
ix., 29, 30; Sol. Song iv., 10; Mark xvi., 1; 
Luke xxiii., 56 ; xxiv., 1 ; John xix., 40.] 

Spider. There are two Hebrew words 
which hav^e been rendered " spider " in our 



SPIKENARD 



901 



SPIRITUALISM 



version of the Bible. The one which occnrs 
in that passage in Proverbs, " The spider 
taketh hokl with her hands, and is in king's 
palaces," is thonght to refer to some species 
of lizard, perhaps one of the geckos.^ But 
the word, which is found in two other pas- 
sages, evidently signifies some kind of spi- 
der. In both the latter instances reference 
is made to the fragility of the spider's web, 
as a metaphor to express the futility of evil 
devices. [Prov. xxx., 28; Isa. lix., 5j Job 
viii., 14.] 

Spikenard is mentioned twice in the O.T. ; 
in the N.T. only in the account of the anoint- 
ing of Christ at Bethany.^ It appears to 
have been procured from an Indian plant of 
the family Valleriana, known as the Nardo- 
stacliys jatamansi, and to have been imported 
from India by way of Arabia. Whatever 
may be our opinion of spikenard as a per- 
fume, we know that it was exceedingly 
prized by the ancients. Writing to Virgil 
not many years before the anointing of 
Christ, as detailed in Mark xiv., 3, John 
xii., 3, Horace asks his guest to bring, as 
his contribution to the feast, a little nard, 
and, by way of equivalent, he will match it 
with a cask of wine. The three hundred 
denarii for which the spikenard used in 
anointing Christ might have been sold 
would amount to not far from fifty dollars. 
[Sol. Song i., 12; iv., 13, 14.] 

Spirit. The apostle Paul incidentally 
speaks of man as possessing a threefold na- 
ture — spirit, soul, and body.^ Whether he is 
to be regarded as simply employing the lan- 
guage of the philosophy of his day, or wheth- 
er this passage is to be regarded as an in- 
spired indication of man's threefold nature, 
has been the subject of some question. Those 
who hold the latter views discriminate be- 
tween spirit and soul thus : Spirit, they say, 
represents the highest distinctive part of 
man, the immortal nature, that which recog- 
nizes the distinction between abstract right 
and wrong, which instinctively recognizes 
the truth of immortality, and which intui- 
tively perceives the existence of God, and so 
renders communion with him possible. The 
soul is the lower or animal nature, including 
the appetites, passions, and desires, which 
we have in common with the brutes, but 
ennobled and transfused by the spirit with 
which it is connected. The body is the 
purely physical and material part which we 
drop at death. According to this opinion it 
is the possession of the immortal and di*l^ine 
spirit which links us to God, and distinguish- 
es us from the animal creation. The discus- 
sion of this subject belongs rather to psy- 
chology than to theology or ethics. It is 
important only as it underlies, and so throws 
light upon, the true theory of sin and regen- 
eration. If we accept this threefold division 
of man, then we may perhaps say that the 



See Feuket.— 2 See Alabaster.— 3 1 Thess. v., 23. 



depravity of man consists not so much in 
any disease of the animal soul, or the immor- 
tal spirit, as in the fact that the latter is 
made subordinate to the former, the divine 
principle to the animal appetites and de- 
sires ; and that regeneration does not consist 
so much in the implanting of any new pow- 
er or principle in the soul, as in clothing the 
spirit with divine power, and making the 
animal nature subordinate to it. This the- 
ory will aid also to explain such statements 
in Scripture as those which declare that we 
are by nature blind, and that we are dead in 
trespasses and sins, the meaning being that 
the spiritual or immortal part is compara- 
tively dead, and so is unable to perceive 
spiritual truths. It will explain how an 
unregenerate man may still possess many 
natural virtues, the latter belonging to the 
animal soul rather than to the divine Spirit. 
And it will explain such passages as 1 Cor. 
ii., and the phenomenon there described, the 
apparent inability of the natural man — i. e., 
the man in whom the animal soul predomi- 
nates, to understand spiritual things, since 
the latter are only spiritually discerned — 
i. e., discerned only by the divine or immor- 
tal Spirit when it has been quickened by the 
power of the Spirit of God. 

Spiritualism. From the very earliest 
ages there has been a prevalent belief in the 
possibility of communications with the spir- 
it-world. In the O. T. times all dealing with 
spirits, and with those that had, or pretend- 
ed to have, a power of calling them up, was 
strictly forbidden ; throughout the Middle 
Ages belief in the reality of ghosts and ap- 
paritions was more devout and invincible 
than belief in the Bible. Thus the founda- 
tions of what is popularly called Spiritualism 
were early laid, and are to be found in what 
its friends would regard the inherent con- 
victions, in what its foes would entitle the 
superstitions of mankind. But Spiritual- 
ism, as a modern American religion, dates 
from the year 1847. The following account 
of its origin is condensed from Appleton's 
" Cyclopaedia." 

In the year 1847 a gentleman by the name 
of Mr. Michael Weekman, living in the vil- 
lage of Hydesville, New York, was disturbed 
in the night by mysterious rappings, the 
cause of which he was unable to ascertain. 
Mr. Weekman soon left the house, and an- 
other family, by the name of Fox, moved into 
it. In the latter part of March, 1848, they 
were also disturbed by the same rappings, 
seeming to come from the floor of a certain 
bedroom, and sometimes from other parts 
of the house. One night one of the daugh- 
ters imitated the sounds by snapping her 
fingers, and whenever she did so the raps 
would immediately respond. She carried 
on her experiments further, asking questions 
which, according to her account, were accu- 
rately answered by the rappings. Some at- 



SPIRITUALISM 



902 



SPIRITUALISM 



tempts were made to ascertain the cause of 
these rappings, but without success. About 
a year after these occurrences the family 
moved to Rochester, whither the rapping 
followed them. The theory that spirits were 
present began to be adopted, and communi- 
cations sought for. 

It was soon found that more than one 
supposed spirit used this channel of infor- 
mation, and now any one, by going into the 
presence of the two daughters of Mr. Fox, 
could receive communications from what 
purported to be the spirit of a departed 
friend. A new phenomenon began to show 
itself in the moving of tables and other 
heavy bodies. The rapping began also to 
spread, and others besides the Fox family 
heard them. People began to come long 
distances to witness these phenomena, and 
at last, in November, 1849, a meeting was 
held at the request of the alleged spirits, in 
order that a committee, appointed by the 
audience, might investigate the phenomena. 
From that time the mania became the gen- 
eral subject of newspaper and conversation- 
al discussion, and mediums sprang up in all 
parts of the country. From this beginning 
Spiritualism has developed into a religious 
philosophy, which has its itinerant ministry 
and its quasi religious services in regular 
meetings for spiritual communications. The 
fundamental doctrine of Spiritualism is the 
practicability of holding such communica- 
tions with the departed. In theory this 
doctrine does not forbid the continued ac- 
ceptance of the Bible and the continued 
employment of prayer, but practically pub- 
lic worship is discontinued, the Bible is laid 
aside, and for prayer communications with 
spirits are substituted. Spiritualism has no 
well-defined theology, and since it is admit- 
ted that lying spirits can communicate as 
well as others, and that there are no tests 
by which they can, with any certainty, be 
detected, the revelations which they are 
supposed to have made respecting the spir- 
it-world, which constitute the chief burden 
of their communications, can not be regard- 
ed by the dispassionate inquirer as of any 
very great value. These communications 
are made in various ways, always through a 
medium, i. e., through a person who is sup- 
posed to possess some peculiar affinity for 
spirits, and through whom, therefore, they 
are thought to be willing to communicate. 
Sometimes the communication is effected by 
rapping, the rappings indicating the pres- 
ence of the spirit and its answer to any 
question addressed to it. Sometimes the 
answers are given by the tipping of the ta- 
ble or other article of furniture. Sometimes 
the medium claims to be possessed by the 
spirit, and writes or speaks in a kind of 
trance^ and in that state, as is claimed, com- 
municates facts unknown to the medium, 
and even speaks in a language with which 



the medium is unacquainted. These com- 
munications are generally made at what are 
called seances, several of which the writer 
of this article has attended. A descrip- 
tion of one such seance may suffice as a 
type. It was in a private parlor. The me- 
dium took his seat at a table a little distant 
from the audience. His hands and feet were 
tied to the chair. On the table were a gui- 
tar and a bell. The room was then darken- 
ed, and the audience were requested to take 
each other's hands and to join in singing. 
Then various manifestations of the supposed 
spiritual presence were afforded; the bell 
was rung, the guitar was played, loud raps 
were heard, seemingly at different points 
in the room. The medium then called for 
a light, and when it was produced he was 
found tied as before. The object of these 
demonstrations was not so much to com- 
municate information as to convince the 
beholder of the reality of the spiritual agen- 
cy. The fact, however, that they required a 
dark room, singing, and the holding of hands, 
i. e., the inability to employ either the sense 
of sight, hearing, or touch, detracts, in such 
a stance, from the effectiveness of the dem- 
onstration ; and though believers assure us 
of many more remarkable phenomena, in- 
cluding the cure of disease by a spiritual 
prognostication of its character, and even 
the seeing of the spirits under favorable 
circumstances, the phenomena of spiritual- 
ism afforded to skeptics are generally, if not 
uniformly, veiled in an obscurity which for- 
bids investigation. Nevertheless, it appears 
to be tolerably certain that some wonderful 
phenomena do occur, the most striking, per- 
haps, being the movement of tables or other 
heavy articles of furniture with no other ob- 
servable causes of the motion than such as 
might be derived from the fact that several 
persons sit or stand with the palms of their 
hands lying loosely upon it. 

Of the phenomena of Spiritualism three 
explanations are given. First, of course, 
is that of the Spiritualists themselves, that 
the phenomena are produced by the inter- 
vention of si)irits. This view is accepted 
by some who disown Spiritualism, but who 
assert that evil spirits are suffered to com- 
municate with the living, but that our com- 
munication with them is forbidden by the 
Bible ; and such persons point, in confirma- 
tion of their views, to the passages in the 
O. T. respecting soothsaying and witchcraft, 
and to those in the N. T. respecting demoni- 
acal possessions. The second theory is that 
there is an unknown force, which the pro- 
pounders of this theory call psychic force. 
It is supposed that this force is unconscious- 
ly set in operation by the medium ; its na- 
ture is compared to that of electricity and 
magnetism, while it is admitted that as yet 
not enough is known of it to render possible 
any analysis of its nature or its operations. 



SPONGE 



903 



STAR IN THE EAST 



Those who hold this theory also believe 
that by some power, not well understood, 
the minds of certain individuals in certain 
states perceive directly and immediately 
the facts known to another mind in their 
presence, and it is maintained that the an- 
swers which the mediums give under the 
supposed direction of the spirits are in real- 
ity thus obtained, the mind of the medium 
in a sort of trance or clairvoyant state af- 
fording a kind of inner view of the mind of 
the person asking the question. It is said 
(with what truth we do not know) that the 
mediums never communicate any trustwor- 
thy information not previously known to 
some person in the room. The third theory 
is that all that is real in the so-called spirit- 
ualistic phenomena is explainable on known 
principles of physics and psychology, and 
that the rest is either an unconscious exag- 
geration of the bewildered witnesses or the 
result of chicanery and fraud. That a great 
many of the traveling mediums are arrant 
impostors, and a great deal of the so-called 
spiritualistic i)henomena are the results of 
their frauds, we suppose would be admitted 
by all impartial and intelligent Spiritual- 
ists. On the other hand, as a general rule, 
fraud, in such instances, indicates a reality. 
Superstition is rarely a pure invention ; and 
it is difficult to attribute all the apparent- 
ly well-authenticated accounts of so-called 
spiritual phenomena to the tricks of profes- 
sional but unscrupulous conjurers. 

The Spiritualists are not organized into 
any ecclesiastical body ; it is, therefore, im- 
possible to give any trustworthy statistics 
concerning them. In 1859 they reckoned 
1,500,000 adherents in America ; but we think 
this a great exaggeration of their numbers, 
of which no reliable account can be given. 

Sponge. There is little doubt that the 
ancient Hebrews were fully aware of the 
value of the sponge, which they could ob- 
tain from the Mediterranean, which skirted 
all their western coast. The Scripture, how- 
ever, mentions sponge only in connection 
with our Lord's crucifixion. [Matt, xxvii., 
48 ; Mark xv., 36 ; John xix., 29.] 

Sponsors, parties in the early Christian 
Church who were present at the baptism 
both of children and adults as witnesses to 
the transaction, and as sureties for the ful- 
fillment of the vows and engagements made 
by those who received baptism. The office 
of sponsors, though mentioned as early as 
the time of Tertullian, has no foundation 
either in example or precept drawn from 
the Scriptures, but may have probably orig- 
inated in a custom authorized by Roman 
law, by which a covenant, or contract, was 
witnessed and ratified with great care. The 
common tradition is, that sponsors were first 
appointed by Hyginus, a Roman bishop, about 
A.D. 154. The office was in full operation in 
the fourth and fifth centuries. The names 



of the sponsors were entered in the baptis- 
mal register along with that of the baptized 
person. Certain qualifications were required 
in those who undertook the duties of spon- 
sors. The sponsor must himself be a bap- 
tized person, in regular communion with the 
Church ; must be of adult age and of sound 
mind ; must know the Creed, the Ten Com- 
mandments, the Lord's Prayer, and the lead- 
ing doctrines of faith and practice, and must 
duly qualify himself for his duties. Monks 
and nuns were, in the early periods of the 
Church, thought to be peculiarly qualified, 
by their sanctity of character, for this of- 
fice ; but they were excluded from it in the 
sixth century. Parents were disqualified for 
the office of sponsor to their own children in 
the ninth century ; but this order has never 
been generally enforced. The name of Spon- 
sors was probably given because they respond 
or answer for the baptized. They are also 
termed now godfather and godmother ; and in 
old English were called god-sihs, or gossips. 
According to the rubric of the Church of 
England, "There shall be for every male 
child to he baptized two godfathers and one 
godmother, and for every female one godfa- 
ther and two godmothers." In the Church 
of Rome no person is allowed to marry one 
who has stood to him or her in the relation 
of sponsor. 

Stacte. Opinions differ as to whether 
this was an oil distilled or expressed from 
the myrrh or cinnamon, or whether it was a 
product of the Styrax officinale, or white pop- 
lar-tree. [Exod. XXX., 34.] 

Star in the East. Several attempts have 
been made to connect the miraculous star in 
the East by which the wise men were led to 
Bethlehem at the time of Christ's birth with 
some natural phenomenon, or to account for 
it, at least in part, on natural grounds. Dean 
Alford connects it with a conjunction of 
planets which astronomy shows must have 
occurred about that time. In the year 747 
of Rome, on the 20th of May, a conjunction 
of Jupiter and Saturn occurred in that part 
of the heavens in which, according to astrol- 
ogy, signs denoted the most notable events. 
It was repeated on the 27th of October, and 
again on the 12th of November. The first of 
these conjunctions would rise, to the Abyssin- 
ian in the East, three and a half hours before 
sunrise. The journey to Bethlehem would 
occupy about five months, and the Novem- 
ber conjunction would be before them, when 
at Jerusalem, in the direction of Bethlehem. 
It was a tradition with the Jews that a sim- 
ilar conjunction of Jupiter and Saturn pre- 
ceded the birth of Moses, and there are indi- 
cations that not only the Jews, but also the 
Chaldeans, expected such a conjunction as 
an indication of the near approach of the 
Messiah. This explanation is rejected by 
Ellicott,^ who adopts the opinion that the 



i " Life of our Lord," page 78, note. 



STEEL 



904 



STOICS 



star was a luminous body of a meteoric na- 
ture, but subject to special laws regulating 
its appearance, and perhaps also its motions. 
Professor F. W. Upham, in a curious and val- 
uable treatise, entitled " Star of our Lord," 
argues that it was a real star, perhaps the cen- 
tral star, around which the material universe 
revolves, whose light first touched the earth 
at the time of our Saviour's birth, and whose 
guiding power was miraculously exercised 
through refraction or some other natural law. 

Steel. It can not be doubted that the 
Egyptians were acquainted with steel, but 
it is questioned whether the Hebrews used 
it. The words so rendered in our version 
imply rather copper. [2 Sam. xxii., 35; Job 
XX., 24 ; Psa. xviii., 34 ; Jer. xv., 12.] 

Stephen, an eminent early disciple of 
Christ, and the first Christian martyr. He 
was undoubtedly a Greek by birth, and was 
one of the seven appointed by the Church to 
superintend its ministration to the poor. In 
the early Church there were no such ecclesi- 
astical distinctions as were introduced at a 
later day, and Stephen, who was appointed 
to " serve tables," soon became known as a 
powerful preacher of the Gospel. He is de- 
scribed as a man full of faith and of the 
Holy Ghost ; being a Greek, he was free from 
the Jewish prejudice which still entangled 
the Jewish converts; he saw more clearly 
the spiritual and universal nature of Christ's 
kingdom ; he proclaimed it more boldly ; and 
he was soon arrested on a charge of teaching 
that Jesus would destroy the Temple and 
change the Jewish ceremonials. 

Of the real character of his preaching we 
have no other intimation than such as is af- 
forded by this charge, and the address which 
he made in his own defense; enough, how- 
ever, is given to show clearly that he per- 
ceived and taught the truths that the Jew- 
ish as well as the Gentile world was under 
condemnation for sin, that to the Gentile as 
well as to the Jewish world a salvation was 
offered. In his appeal from the traditions of 
the Jews to the O. T. Scripture, he argued the 
universality of salvation from the fact that 
Abraham was called out of Mesopotamia, 
and Moses from the royal house of Egypt ; 
he reminded his hearers that the burning 
bush was holy ground in Midian long before 
the days of the Temple ; he quoted the dec- 
laration of the O. T. that Jehovah does not 
dwell in temples made with hands; and while 
he thus demonstrated from the O. T. Scrip- 
tures the offers of spiritual grace to the 
heathen, he also recited the history of the 
Jews as there given, to show that the Jew- 
ish nation, as well as the Gentile Avorld, was 
under divine condemnation for sin. The as- 
sembly finally broke up in a tumult; Stephen 
w^as hurried from the city, and stoned by a 
mob without the walls. It is quite evident 
that his death was the result not of a formal 
trial and decree, which would have required 



the sanction of the Roman authority, as in 
the case of Christ, but of mob violence, 
which did not wait to ask for any sanction. 
Saul, it is said, was consenting to his death ; 
it is impossible for the careful student of 
the first martyr's address not to see in it 
the germs of Paul's subsequent teaching, or 
to resist the conclusion that the persecutor 
here received his first lessons in that system 
of Christian truth of which he became sub- 
sequently so distinguished an expounder. 
[Acts vi. ; vii. ; viii., 1, 2.] 

Stoics. The Stoics were one of the four 
sects of philosophy recognized and conspic- 
uous at Athens during the three centuries 
preceding the Christian era, and during a 
century or more following. Among these 
four sects, the most marked antithesis of 
ethical dogma was between the Stoics and 
Epicureans. The Stoical system dates from 
about 300 B.C. ; it was derived from the sys- 
tem of the Cynics. 

The founder of the system was Zeno (340- 
260 B.C.), who derived his first impulse from 
Krates, the Cynic. He opened his school in 
a building or porch, called the Stoa Poecile 
("Painted Portico"), at Athens, whence the 
origin of the name of the sect. One of Zeno's 
disciples was Cleanthes (300-220 B.C.), whose 
"Hymn to Jupiter" is the only fragment of 
any length that has come down to us from the 
early Stoics ; it is a remarkable production, 
setting forth the unity of God, his omnipo- 
tence, and his moral government. In the 
high tone of this school, and in some part 
of its ethical language. Stoicism was an ap- 
parent approximation to Christianity; but, 
on the whole, it was a hostile system, in its 
physics, its morals, and its theology. The 
Stoics condemned the worship of images and 
the use of temples, regarding them as noth- 
ing better than ornaments of art. But they 
justified the popular Polytheism, and in fact 
considered the gods of mythology as minor de- 
velopments of the Great World — God. They 
were Pantheists; and much of their language 
is a curious anticipation of the phraseology 
of modern Pantheism. In their view, God 
was merely the spirit or reason of the uni- 
verse. The world was itself a rational soul, 
producing all things out of itself, and resum- 
ing them all to itself again. Matter was in- 
separable from the Deity. He did not create, 
he only organized. He merely impressed law 
and order on the substance, w^hich was, in 
fact, himself. The manifestation of the uni- 
verse was only a period in the development 
of God. In conformity with these notions of 
the world, which substitute belief in a sub- 
lime destiny for belief in a personal Creator 
and Preserver, were the notions which were 
held concerning the soul and its relation to 
the body. The soul was, in fact, corporeal. 
The Stoics said that at death it would be 
burned, or return tobe absorbed in God. Thus, 
a resurrection from the dead, in the sense in 



STOOL 



905 



STOEK 



wMcli the Gospel has revealed it, must have 
appeared to the Stoics irrational. Nor was 
their moral system less hostile to " the truth 
as it is in Jesus." The proud ideal which 
was set before the disciple of Zeno was a 
magnanimous self-denial, an austere ai^athy, 
untouched by human passion, unmoved by 
change of circumstance. According to Stoi- 
cism all outward things were alike to the 
wise. Pleasure was no good; pain was no 
evil. All actions conformable to reason 
were equally good ; all actions contrary to 
reason were equally evil. The wise man 
lives according to reason; and living thus, 
he is perfect and self-sufficing. He reigns 
supreme as a Mug; he is justified in boast- 
ing as a god. Thus their i)hilosophy, while 
it approached the truth in holding one su- 
preme Governor of all, compromised it, in al- 
lowing any and all ways of conceiving and 
worshiping him — and contravened it, in its 
Pantheistic belief that all souls are ema- 
nations of him. In spirit it was directly op- 
posed to the Gospel — holding the depend- 
ence of man on no being but himself, to- 
gether with the sub- 
jection of God and 
man alike to the stern 
laws of an inevitable 
fate. It was thus 
placed in direct an- 
tagonism to the doc- 
ti'ines of Christianity, 
especially to its doc- 
trines of a God of love, 
a personal Divine Sav- 
iour, a superintending 
Providence, a personal 
resurrection, and con- 
scious existence after 
death, and especially 
to the doctrine of 
faith, which regards as 
man's highest grace, 
not the spirit of self- 
reliance, but the spirit 
of self-conscious weak- 
ness and reliance upon 
a helpful God. Chris- 
tianity is the school 
of humility. Stoicism 
was the education of 
pride. 

Stool. The com- 
mand of Pharaoh to 
the Hebrew midwives 
bade them, in the 
words of our English 
version : "When ye do 
the office of a midwife 
to the Hebrew women, 
and see them upon the 
stools, if it be a son, 
then shall ye kill him ; but if it be a daugh- 
ter, then shall she live."^ The Hebrew word 



here translated stools occurs also iu Jeremiah 
xviii., 3, where it is translated tvheels. Its 
original meaning is a pair of stones. The 
passage iu Exodus has given rise to much 
discussion. The latest view of Gesenius 
("Manual Hebrew Lexicon") affords the best 
interpretation. The Hebrew word rendered 
in Jer. xviii., 3, " the wheels," consistiug of 
two wheels, the upper revolving on an up- 
right axis supported by the lower, in Exodus 
means a stool, similarly made of two disks 
with a connecting support. On such a stool 
the assistant at the birth might be seated, 
and the direction given her could then be 
rendered thus: "When ye do the office of 
midwife to the Hebrew women, then shall ye 
see, [while] on the stool, whether it be a son, 
and shall kill him ; and if it be a daughter, 
she shall live." She is directed, before leav- 
ing the stool, to remove the child from the 
mother, to observe its sex, and, if a boy, to 
kill it, as she might easily do by pressure of 
the thumb and fiuger, without the parent's 
knowledge or pain to the child. 

Stork, a bird forbidden as food to the 




Exod. i., 16. 



Stork. 

Israelites. The Hebrew name, which signi- 
fies "affectionate," seems peculiarly appro- 
priate to the stork, which is remarkable for 



STRANGER 



906 



SUCCOTH 



its tenderness toward its young, and was 
anciently supposed to support its parents in 
tlieir old age, during migration sometimes 
carrying the old birds on tlieir backs, lest 
they should become exhausted by the long 
flight. Partly in consequence of this popu- 
lar idea, and partly on account of the great 
services rendered by the bird as a scaven- 
ger, and in destroying mice and reptiles, the 
stork has always been protected in the East, 
the killing of one stork, or even the destruc- 
tion of its eggs, being punished by a heavy 
fine. The wings of the stork are very con- 
spicuous, and are well calculated to strike an 
imaginative mind. 

As the body, though large, is light com- 
pared with the extent of wing, the bird, 
when migrating, seems, in its lofty flight, 
literally " the stork in the heavens." It re- 
sorts, year after year, to the same spots ; and 
when it has once fixed on a locality for its 
nest, that place will assuredly be taken as 
regularly as the breeding - season comes 
round. It prefers some elevated place, as 
the top of a high tree or a rock pinnacle. 
[Lev. xi., 19 ; Zech. v., 9 ; Jer. viii., 7.] 

Stranger. In our Authorized Version the 
word stranger answers to a considerable va- 
riety of terms in the Hebrew Scriptures, 
which vary the phraseology according to the 
different points of view from which the par- 
ties interested are contemplated. Very near- 
ly synonymous with it is the word sojourner. 
Both terms, and their Hebrew equivalents, 
are employed to denote persons who were of 
foreign birth or race, but resident among the 
covenant people ; without the rights of citi- 
zens, yet subject to the general laws of the 
theocracy, and with a recognized claim (if 
conducting themselves aright) to hospitality 
and kindness. The existence of such a class 
of persons among the Israelites is easily ac- 
counted for; the "mixed multitude" that 
accompanied them out of Egypt' formed one 
element; the Canaauitish population, which 
was never wholly extirpated from their na- 
tive soil, formed another, and a still more 
important one ; captives taken in war form- 
ed a third ; fugitives, hired servants, mer- 
chants, etc., formed a fourth. The number 
from these various sources must have been 
at all times very considerable ; the census 
of them in Solomon's time gave a return of 
153,600 males,^ which was equal to about a 
tenth of the whole population. The enact- 
ments of the Mosaic Law, which regulated 
the political and social position of resident 
strangers, were conceived in a spirit of great 
liberality. It was always competent for 
such persons, according to the provisions of 
the Hebrew commonwealth, to enter by cir- 
cumcision into the bond of the covenant, 
and share in all its spiritual provisions. 
These became proselytes in the stricter 
sense, Israelites in fact, as regards whatever 



1 Exod. xii., 38.— 2 2 Chrou. ii., 17. 



was most distinctive in religious privilege 
and position; although, from the peculiar 
distribution of lands, and their hereditary 
connection with families, they could not 
usually share in these, except by purchase 
or marriage. A considerable proportion, 
however, of the strangers who ultimately 
became identified, as proselytes, with the 
covenant people, were descendants of the 
original inhabitants of Canaan, who had 
never been dispossessed, and whose lands or 
houses would consequently continue with 
them after they took their place among the 
circumcised. Uriah the Hittite, and Arau- 
nah the Jebusite, were of this class, and 
doubtless many besides. The stranger ap- 
pears to have been eligible to all civil offices 
except that of king.^ See Proselytes. 

Stylites, devotees who stood on the tops 
of lofty pillars for many years in fulfillment 
of religious vows. Simeon, a Syrian who 
lived in the first half of the fifth century, 
was known in Church history for having 
inaugurated this new kind of asceticism. 
He was afterward followed, to a certain ex- 
tent at least, by many persons in Syria and 
Palestine ; and Fillarists, or Pillar - saints, 
were found in the East even as late as the 
twelfth century: they were from that time 
abolished. This kind of asceticism never 
found a footing in the West, but was pre- 
vented by the ecclesiastical authorities. 

Sub-deacon, an inferior officer in the an- 
cient Christian Church, first mentioned to- 
ward the middle of the third century, but 
now retained only in the Roman Catholic 
Church. Its catechism thus describes the 
office: ^'This office, as the name implies, is 
to serve the deacon in the ministry of the 
altar ; to him it belongs to prepare the al- 
tar linen, the sacred vessels, the bread and 
wine necessary for the holy sacrifice; to 
minister to the priest or bishop at the wash- 
ing of the hands at mass ; to read the epis- 
tle — a function which was formerly dis- 
charged by the deacon ; to assist at mass in 
the capacity of a witness ; and to see that 
the priest be not disturbed by any one dur- 
ing its celebration." 

Succoth, an ancient town, first heard of 
in the account of the homeward journey of 
Jacob from Padan-aram. The name is de- 
rived from the fact of Jacob's having there 
put up "booths" (Succoih) for his cattle, as 
well as a house for himself. From the itin- 
erary of Jacob's return, it seems that Suc- 
coth lay between Peniel, near the ford of 
the torrent Jabbok, and Shechem. In ac- 
cordance with this is the mention of Suc- 
coth, in the narrative of Gideon's pursuit of 
Zebah and Zalmunna. It would appear 
from this passage that it lay east of the 
Jordan, which is corroborated by the fact 
that it was allotted to the tribe of Gad. 
Succoth is named once again after this — in 



1 Deut. xvii., 15. 



SUCCOTH-BENOTH 



907 



SUPEALAPSAEIANS 



1 Kings vii., 46 ; 2 Chrou. iv., 17 — as mark- 
ing the spot at which the brass foundries 
were placed for casting the metal work of 
the Temple. It appears to have been known 
in. the time of Jerome, who says that there 
was then a town named Sochoth beyond the 
Jordan, in the district of Scythopolis. [Gen. 
xxxii., 30 ; xxxiii., 17, 18 ; Judg. viii., 5-17 ; 
Josh, xiii., 27.] 

Succoth-benoth (tabernacles of daugliters). 
The Babylonians who were brought to colo- 
nize Samaria are said to have made Succoth- 
benoth. It has generally been supposed that 
this term is pure Hebrew, and signifies the 
"tents of daughters," which some explain 
as " the booths in which the daughters of 
the Babylonians prostituted themselves in 
honor of their idol," others as " small tab- 
ernacles in which were contained images 
of female deities." But Sir H. Eawlinsou 
thinks that Succoth-benoth represents the 
Chaldean goddess Zir-banit, the wife of Mer- 
odach, who was especially worshiped at 
Babylon. [2 Kings xvii., 30,] 

SuflEragaiis, a term applied, in the ancient 
Christian Church, to denote the city bishops 
of any province under a metropolitan, be- 
cause they met at his command to give their 
suffrage, counsel, or advice, in a provincial 
synod. Thus the seventy bishops who were 
immediately subject to the Bishop of Eome 
as their primate or metropolitan were called 
his suffragans, because they were frequently 
called to his synods. 

Suffrage. This term is used in the Prayer- 
book of the Church of England to designate 
a short form of petition, as those in the Lit- 
any, and those which follow immediately af- 
ter the Creed. 

Sun "Worship. Both sacred and profane 
history unite in teaching us that the wor- 
ship of the sun was one of the earliest forms 
of idolatry.^ The Egyptians regarded the 
sun as their guardian deity ; the Persians 
had no images in their temples, but the sun 
was worshiped as the primary, and fire as 
the secondary symbol of the Supreme Being ; 
the Phoenicians adored the sun under the 
name of Baal, the Ammonites under that 
of Moloch, and the Moabites under that of 
Chemosh. The early religion of the Hin- 
doos was essentially the worship of the sun. 
In the religion of the North American In- 
dians, also, the sun, as the dispenser of all 
radiance and fertility, was looked upon as 
possessing the highest excellence, and occu- 
pying the chief place among the good di- 
vinities ; while to be translated to the sun 
or his attendant stars was deemed the sum- 
mit of felicity. 

Supererogation (Works of), works done 
by any one beyond what God requires. Prot- 
estants believe such works to be impossible. 
But Eomanists assert that a j)erson may not 
only have in reserve a store of merit so as 
1 Job xxxi., 26, 2T. 



to have enough for himself, but also some- 
thing to spare for others ; and this supera- 
bundant merit, collected from all quarters 
and in every age, the Church of Eome pro- 
fesses to have laid uj) as in a treasury, from 
which to dispense to those who have little 
or none. The Eastern or Greek Church re- 
jects this doctrine of the Latin Church as 
unauthorized either by Scripture or tradi- 
tion. 

Supernatural {above nature). This term 
is used in theology to designate the exist- 
ence of a power above and superior to the 
common forces of nature. There is now no 
intelligent class of infidels who deny the ex- 
istence of a great First Cause ; i. e.. Atheism, 
in the strict philosophic sense of that term, 
as a disbelief in the existence of a God, has 
no existence among thinking men. But mod- 
ern infidel philosophj^, though it does not 
deny the existence of a God, denies that he 
exercises any control over natural phenom- 
ena, maintaining either that he voluntarily 
abstains from interference with natural laws 
and forces, or that God and nature are iden- 
tical. In contrast with this form of unbe- 
lief is the philosophy of the supernatural, 
i e., the belief, not only that God is, but that 
he is superior to and supreme in nature; 
that he controls and directs it ; that, accord- 
ingly, he is able to direct or change the 
course of nature, and actually has done so 
in the miraculous events recorded in the Bi- 
ble, and actually does so still, though not in 
a miraculous way, by his special providence 
in answer to prayer. Thus the question at 
issue at the present day between infidelity 
and Christian faith may be said to be not 
whether there be a God or not, but whether 
he exercises supernatural control over the 
laws of nature and over the hearts and lives 
of men. See Special Peovidences ; Mir- 
acles; Prayer; Atheism. 

Supralapsarians, Sublapsarians, or In- 
fralapsarians. These titles, the two latter 
being used synonymously, are given to cer- 
tain schools of theologians who agree in 
holding the doctrines of election and pre- 
destination, but differ in their statement 
and interpretation. Dr. Shedd, in his " His- 
tory of Doctrines," thus states the distinc- 
tion ; " Supralapsarianism holds that the de- 
cree to eternal bliss or eternal woe precedes, 
in the order of nature, the decree to aposta- 
sy ; Infralapsarianism holds that it succeeds 
it. According to the Supralapsarians, the 
primary decree is to bliss or woe ; and the 
decrees to create men that they shall apos- 
tatize, and from this apostasy some be re- 
covered and some reprobated, are merely the 
means of accomplishing the primary decree. 
According to the Infralapsarians, the decrees 
to create men, and that they shall aposta- 
tize, are prior to that of election and repro- 
Ibation; because men are elected from ont 
of a state of sin and ruin, or else are repro- 



SWALLOW 



908 



SWEDENBORGIANS 



bated in it. Election supposes apostasy as 
a fact. The Synod of Dort favored Infra- 
lapsarianism, in opposition to Gomar, who 
endeavored to comnjit the synod to Supra- 
lapsarianism." 

S"wallow. Two Hebrew words are trans- 
lated swallow in our English version. One 
of them is generally thought by Hebrew 
scholars to designate the crane rather than 
the swallow, while the other is regarded as 
not improbably a general term, indicating, 
in the loose nomenclature of the ancients, 
any swift -winged insectivorous bird. A 
third Hebrew word, sis, not translated swal- 
low, is thought to represent that bird. How- 
ever this may be, it is certain that various 
species of the swallow frequent . Syria and 
Palestine. They are an insectivorous fam- 
ily, in which the powers of flight are highly 
developed, while the feet are little adapted 
for progression on the ground. [Psa. Ixxxiv., 
3 ; Prov. sxvi., 2 ; Isa. xxxviii., 14 ; Jer. viii., 
7.] 

Swan. This word occurs in the list of un- 
clean birds enumerated in the Mosaic law.^ 
It is impossible to determine certainly what 
is the bird intended. The swan is far too 
rare in Palestine to have been specially men- 
tioned in the Law ; in all probability it was 
totally unknown to most of the Israelites. 
Later naturalists have suggested the pur- 
ple water-hen, which frequents marshes and 
sedges by the banks of rivers, in the regions 
bordering on the Mediterranean, and which 
abounds in Lower Egypt. Others think that 
the ibis is the bird intended, and the fact 
that it was held sacred by the Egyptians 
might be a special reason for its prohibi- 
tion. 

Swedenborgians, a name commonly 
given to the followers of Emanuel Sweden- 
borg. The name assumed by the Church 
which accepts him as an inspired teacher, 
and is based upon his teachings, is The 
Church of the New Jerusalem; but many 
who hold, more or less fully, to his views 
are not connected with this organization. 
Emanuel Swedenborg was born in Stock- 
holm, Sweden, January 29, 1688, and died in 
London, March 29, 1772. His father, Jesper 
Sved-berg, was a bishop of the Established 
Church of Sweden, whose family was en- 
nobled by Queen Ulrika Eleonora, and the 
name changed from Sved-berg to Sweden- 
borg. This gave Emanuel Swedenborg the 
rank of a nobleman. He was educated at 
the University of Upsala, graduated at the 
age of twenty-one, traveled for four years, 
was appointed to an assessorship in the 
College of Mines, and devoted himself for a 
number of years to scientific subjects, pub- 
lishing several valuable scientific works, and 
gaining no little eminence. The expressed 
object of his later scientific investigations 
was to discover the soul itself; the way was 



Lev. xi., IS; Dent, xiv., 16. 



thus prepared for a transition from science 
to theology, to which latter department he 
devoted his life after 1745. He claimed to 
have been led to this change by an appear- 
ance to him of the Lord, and a commission 
to be the herald of a new dispensation, or 
of the New Church which he claimed was 
signified by the New Jerusalem referred to 
in the book of Revelation. As such, he con- 
sidered it his office to interpret the Word of 
God according to its true significance ; to 
set forth a complete system of true religious 
doctrine ; and finally, by daily intercourse for 
twenty-seven years with the spiritual world, 
to reveal its nature, its order, and the con- 
stant relation of all men to it. The result of 
all this was the publication, in Latin, of a se- 
ries of theological works more voluminous 
than even his previous scientific productions. 
The first and largest is called Arcana CceJes- 
tia: the Heavenly Mysteries contained in the 
Holy Scripture, or Word of the Lord, unfolded 
in an exposition of Genesis and Exodus; to- 
gether with a relation of wonderful things seen 
in the World of Spirits, and in the Heaven of 
Angels, 12 vols., published in London during 
1749 -'56. Next came a volume entitled 
Heaven and Hell : a Relation of Things heard 
and seen. To these succeeded others, of 
which the following are abbreviated titles : 
Earths in the Universe, with an account of their 
inhabitants; The Last Judgment; the New Je- 
rusalem and its Heavenly Doctrine; TJie White 
Horse of the Apocalypse ; Doctrine of the New 
Jerusalem respecting the Lord; and similar 
treatises on the Sacred Scripture; on Life; 
Faith; Divine Love and Wisdom; Divine Prov- 
idence; Apocalypse Revealed ; Conjugal Love ; 
Lntercourse hetiveen Soul and Body ; and True 
Christian Religion. Nearly if not quite all 
these works have been translated into En- 
glish. The latter of them, in two volumes, 
contains a complete summary of his views, 
and is to Swedenborgians what the Insti- 
tutes of John Calvin are to Calvinism. 
From this work we gather an abstract of 
his teaching, premising that his theological 
nomenclature is so peculiar that it is not an 
easy matter to embody his somewhat mystic- 
al views in a popular statement. 

God. — The existence of God is taught 
not only by the sacred Scriptures, but by a 
universal influx from God into the souls of 
men, affirming and testifying to his exist- 
ence, so that the Divine existence is univers- 
ally believed, while his unity is made evi- 
dent by the works of creation and provi- 
dence. He is self-existent, and eternal and 
infinite in power, wisdom, and love, and is 
everywhere present. But though there is 
but one God and one divine Person, not 
three Persons in one God (which statement 
of the Trinity Swedenborg denies), still 
there is a trinity, the substance of God be- 
ing Love, the form of God being Wisdom, 
and these two combining to constitute Life, 



SWEDENBORGIANS 



909 



SWEDENBORGIANS 



■whicli operates coustautly ux)on all men aud 
tbiugs. Thus there is a trinity in God, in a 
mystical sense, and it re-appears throughout 
his creation, there being three heavens and 
three hells, and a threefold nature in man 
himself. 

Eedemption. — God descended to the earth 
and d^velt in a human body, and subject to 
human conditions, to redeem the race. It 
-was not, however, by his death that he re- 
deemed the race; his cross Avas his last 
temptation, and by conquering that tempta- 
tion he glorified his humanity. This work 
of redemption was wrought by the subjuga- 
tion of hell and evil, and setting in order the 
heavens, and opening the way thereto to the 
spirit of man. We are redeemed only when 
we are rescued from hell, i. e., from the evil 
within us, aud delivered from captivity to 
the devil. There was no vicarious atone- 
ment, and no need of one, for God is always 
"both able and willing to forgive.^ An impor- 
tant part of the work of redemption is the 
operation of the Holy Spirit, i. e., the holy in- 
fluence which proceeds in Life from the in- 
finite Love and Wisdom, and which regener- 
ates, renews, vivifies, sanctifies, and justifies 
the soul of the believer. 

Tlie Bible is the divinely-inspii-ed Word of 
the Lord. It possesses a double sense, an 
outer and an inner, or a material and a spir- 
itual sense. It is in this spiritual sense, 
heretofore unknown, but revealed to Swe- 
denborg by the Spirit of God, that its divine 
truth resides in its fullness and power. It 
is, to use the comparison of one of the disci- 
ples of Swedenborg, like Bunyan's '^Pilgrim's 
Progress," which a mother reads to her child : 
he sees only the narrative; she perceives 
and is fed by the spiritual signification. The 
key to the spiritual sense of the Word is the 
doctrine of correspondences; this doctrine 
explains how every literal representation in 
the Bible corresponds to some spiritual truth 
and interprets it. For example, the precious 
stones of which the foundation of the walls 
around the city of the New Jerusalem are, 
in the book of Eevelatiou, said to have been 
constructed, signify the truths of the New 
Church, i. e., of the Church of which Eman- 
uel Swedenborg was the founder. Thus, 
again, each of the Ten Commandments has 
both an outer or material, and an inner or 
spiritual meaning, as the commandment to 
honor father and mother, which includes 
honor and obedience to our natural parents, 
but also embraces honor and love to our 
spiritual parents, L e., to God who is our 
father, and to the Church who is our mother. 

JRepentance, Faith, and Regeneration. — Re- 
pentance is not sorrow for sin, but the shun- 
ning of sin — the abhorring it in the will aud 
turning away from it. Faith is based on the 
acknowledgment that Jesus Christ is the 
Son of God, and is a confidence in him and 
^ See Atojjeiient. 



in the truth that he who lives well and be- 
lieves aright is saved by him. Regeneration 
is such a change wrought by the Spirit of 
God in the spirit of man that his desires are 
changed, and he becomes spiritual, or, in the 
peculiar language of Swedenborgians, his old 
loves are cast out, and new loves are im- 
planted in him. 

Tlie Spiritual World. — This exists not 
merely in another and future state. Ev- 
ery man possesses, besides his material body, 
another and spiritual body, which answers 
to it in every part. At death the material 
body drops off, and the spiritual body 
emerges ; this is the resurrection. Heaven 
is goodness and truth in the soul; hell is 
evil and falsehood in the soul. We there- 
fore live in the inside of heaven or hell, and 
surrounded by the spirits of the saved or the 
lost, according to our character. The dead 
are not removed from us, but are all about 
us. They believe that occasionally, even in 
our earthly condition, the spiritual senses 
are opened, and we see the spiritual world 
about us. This revelation was vouchsafed 
to Swedenborg himself, who lived, so it is 
claimed, in constant communion with the 
spiritual world. 

The Doctrine of tlie Last Days, — The last 
days prophesied in the N. T. have already 
arrived. The second coming of the Lord 
foretold is not for the purpose of destroy- 
ing the physical earth and creating a new 
one in its stead; the prophecies of that 
coming are to be spiritually understood ; his 
object is to separate the wicked from the 
good, to save those who believe in him, and 
to form a new angelic heaven and a new 
Church on earth. This coming is not in per- 
son ; and the prophecies of it are fulfilled by 
the revelation of the truth which the Lord 
has made through Emanuel Swedenborg. 

Such are the most important points pe- 
culiar to the theology of Emanuel Sweden- 
borg. In other respects his doctrines do not 
differ widely from those entertained by the 
Church at large, exce]3t that his doctrine 
of correspondences gives a peculiar aspect to 
all the teaching of Scripture, and one which 
to most minds seems often mystical and ob- 
scure. The Church of the New Jerusalem 
was not organized as an ecclesiastical body 
till after Swedenborg's death. It has never 
possessed a very large number of adherents. 
It embraces about fifty congregations in 
Great Britain. In this country there are 
about seventy ordained ministers actually 
engaged in preaching, besides a number of 
licentiates who preach regularly, but who 
are engaged in other employments a part 
of the time. 

But the influence of Swedenborgianism is 
not represented by the number of professed 
disci]3les. The Church of the New Jerusa- 
lem, as conceived of by Emanuel Swedenborg, 
was not an ecclesiastical organization, but 



SWINE 



910 



SYMBOLISM 



the invisible communion of all who possess 
the truth as it is in Christ Jesus. And, un- 
floubtecUy, Swedenborg has exerted a very 
marked influence on theology in rendering 
it less hard and literal, and in leading to a 
more spiritual interpretation of the Scrip- 
ture, even among those who reject the doc- 
trine of correspondences. 

In England there is a General Conference 
of the New Church, which holds an annual 
session in diiferent parts of the kingdom. 
In the United States there is also a General 
Convention of the New Church, which meets 
annually in different places. There are so- 
cieties of the New Church in both countries 
not in connection with these organizations. 
The General Conference has published a lit- 
urgy, which is very generally used in En- 
gland. A liturgy has also been published, 
and from time to time revised, by the Gen- 
eral Convention of the New Church in the 
United States. Several periodicals, both in 
England and America, are devoted to the 
elucidation and dissemination of its doc- 
trines, and various able writers have pub- 
lished works for the same purpose. Gener- 
ally speaking, in the public worship of the 
New Church in this country, no prayer but 
the Lord's Prayer is used. The music con- 
sists mostly, and in many places entirely, of 
chants and anthems, the words of which are 
taken wholly from the Sacred Scriptures. 
The liturgy of the General Convention, be- 
sides the liturgical portion of the book, con- 
tains two hundred and forty pages of Scrip- 
tural selections, with suitable chants and 
anthems. The words of Scripture are re- 
garded by the New Church as possessing an 
influence and a power in worship, whether 
in jjrayer or singiug, altogether above those 
of any merely human composition. The 
government of the church in this country 
resembles the Episcopalian more nearly than 
any other. There are no bishops in name, 
but there are ministers who perform some 
of their functions. There is very little at- 
tempt to govern individuals or societies, 
though there are established rules of order 
for introduction into the church and into 
the ministry, and the functions of the dif- 
ferent grades in the ministry are clearly 
pointed out. 

Swine. The flesh of swine is pronounced 
unclean in the Levitical law. Bat this en- 
actment could hardly have produced the sin- 
gular feeling with which swine were regard- 
ed by the Jews, and in all probability the 
anthpathy was of far greater antiquity than 
the time of Moses. Not only did they refuse 
to eat swine's flesh, but held in utter abomi- 
nation every thing pertaining to them ; so 
that the stricter Jews would never even 
mention the name of the hog, but always 
substituted for the objectionable word tlie 
term, 'Hhe abomination." It is an open 
question whether those who possessed the 



herds of swine kept in Jewish lands in our 
Saviour's time were Jews of lax principles, 
or whether they were Gentiles. Even among 
the ancient Egyptians a repugnance to swine 
prevailed, and those who bred the animal 
and ate its flesh were despised. They, how- 
ever, offered it in sacrifices. In countries 
where diseases of the skin are so common, 
and where the dreaded leprosy still main- 
tains its hold, the flesh of swine is thought 
to increase the tendency to such diseases, 
and on that account alone would be avoid- 
ed. The wild boar is still common on the 
Syrian hills, but is scarcely recognizable as 
a near relation of the domestic species. It 
is of very great size, often resembling a 
donkey rather than a pig, and is swift and 
active beyond conception. It can leap to a 
considerable distance, and can wheel and 
turn when at full speed with an agility that 
makes it a singularly dangerous foe. [Lev. 
xi., 17 ; Dent, xiv., 8 ; Matt, viii., 30-32 ; Psa. 
Ixxx., 13.] 

Sycamine-tree. This must be carefully 
distinguished from the sycamore. It is men- 
tioned but once, and there can be little doubt 
that the mulberry-tree is intended. It is a 
native of Persia, but is abundant at present 
in Palestine. [Luke xvii., 6.] 

Sycamore-tree. The tree so called in 
Scripture is not the sycamore of this coun- 
try, which is a species of maple, but the 
Egyptian fig. It is common both in Egypt 
and Syria. It is a tender tree, flourishing in 
sandy plains and warm valleys, but is not 
hardy enough for the mountain, and would 
be killed by a sharp frost. It is lofty and 
wide-spreading, often planted by the way- 
side, over which its arms extend, just adapt- 
ed to the purpose for which Zaccheus select- 
ed it. The sycamore yields several crops of 
figs in the year, which grow on short stems 
along the trunk and large branches. These 
figs are generally small and insipid, and 
are eaten by only the humbler classes. It 
is easily propagated by planting a branch 
in the ground and watering it till it has 
struck out roots into the soil. The roots 
are thick and numerous, spreading deeply 
in the earth; and the tree itself is large 
and solid. Though of great size and appar- 
ent solidity, the wood is soft and of little 
value ; in Egyiit, however, where other trees 
were not common, it has been used for mak- 
ing mummy cases, and it is said to be dura- 
ble. [1 Kings X., 27 ; Psa. Ixxviii., 47 ; Amos 
vii., 14 ; Isa. ix., 10 ; Luke xix., 4.] 

Symbolism, that system which repre- 
sents moral or intellectual qualities by ex- 
ternal signs or symbols. It is characteristic 
of the earlier and ruder stages of develop- 
ment, when the mind and moral nature have 
not yet grown to the age which takes direct 
cognizance of mental and moral qualities, or 
takes cognizance of them here through exter- 
nal signs which bear a real or a convention- 



SYMBOLISM 



911 



SYNAGOGUE 



al resemblance thereto. The O. T. is full of 
symbolism ; the Jewish Temple, though no 
image of the Deity was permitted in it, was 
itself a symbol of the soul of man, in which 
God abides, if it be holy and ready to receive 
him, and all its utensils, as well as all its 
services, were symbolical. Of this phase of 
symbolism we have treated briefly under the 
article Types, and in the various articles 
on the O. T. ceremonials and sax3red things. 
Symbolism was also naturally characteristic 
of the Church of the Middle Ages, which un- 
dertook to carry home to the eyes, minds, 
and hearts of the people spiritual truths 
through external symbols. The origin of 
some of these it is now difficult to discover. 
Others naturally suggest the correlative 
truth to the mind; others make the sug- 
gestion through historical or Scriptural as- 
sociation. The following is a partial list of 
some of the principal symbols in use in the. 
Christian churches, for a fuller account of 
which the reader is referred to Mrs. Clem- 
ents's ''Hand-book of Legendary and Myth- 
ological Art." The glory, aureole, and nim- 
bus all represent light or lightness, and are 
symbols of sanctity. The nimbus surrounds 
the head; the aureole the body; the glory 
unites the two. The nimbus attaches in 
Roman Catholic art to all saints; the aure- 
ole and glory only to the persons of the God- 
head and to the Virgin Mary. The fish is an 
emblem of Christ. See article Fish. The 
cross, in its various forms, is also an emblem 
both of Christ and his passion. See articles 
Cross ; Crucifix ; Labarum. The lamb is 
a common symbol of Christ. It derives its 
significance from the fact that it was one of 
the chief sacrifices of the Jewish Temple, 
and from the words of John the Baptist, 
'' Behold the Lamb of God that taketh away 
the sin of the world."^ The lamb is often 
represented in art bearing a cross. The 
lion is another symbol of Christ, who in 
Scripture is called "the Lion of the tribe of 
Judah."^ The pelican, who is said to bare 
open her breast to feed her young with 
blood, is an emblem of redemption. The 
dove is a symbol of the Holy Spirit :^ issu- 
ing from tiie mouth of the dying, it is an 
emblem of the soul ; the olive-branch is an 
emblem of peace ;* the palm, of martyr- 
dom f the lily represents chastity ; the 
lamp, piety f fire, zeal or the sufferings of 
martyrdom ; the flaming heart, fervent piety 
and spiritual love ; the peacock, immortali- 
ty ; the crow, victory ; on women, it signifies 
the bride of Christ ; the sword, axe, lance, 
and club indicate martyrdom ; the skull and 
scourge, penance ; the chalice, faith ; the ship, 
the Christian Church ; the anchor, faith.'' 
Each color also has a symbolic meaning in 
art, for which see article Colors. In Ro- 



1 John i., 29.-2 Rgv. v., 5.-3 Matt, iii., 16.—* Gen. 
viii., 11.— 6 Rev. vii., 9.— « Matt, xxv., 1-12.— ^ Heb. 
vi., 19. 



man Catholic art, also, each apostle has his 
own symbol, as follows: Peter, the keys, or 
a fish ; Andrew, the transverse cross which 
bears his name ; James the Greater, the pil- 
grim's staff; John, the eagle, or the chalice 
with the serpent ; Thomas, a builder's rule ; 
James the Less, a club ; Philip, a small cross 
on a staff, or crozier surmounted by a cross; 
Bartholomew, a knife; Matthew, a purse; 
Simon, a saw ; Thaddeus, a halberd or lance; 
Matthias, a lance. The various monastic or- 
ders have also each its own symbol. 

Synagogue. The word synagogue, which 
means a congregation, is used in the N. T. to 
signify a recognized place of worship. The 
synagogues appear to have arisen during the 
exile, and to have received their full devel- 
opment on the return of the Jews from cap- 
tivity. The size of a synagogue, like that 
of a church or chapel, varied with the pop- 
ulation; its position was, however, determi- 
nate. It stood, if possible, on the highest 
ground, in or near the city to which it be- 
longed; was so constructed that the wor- 
shipers, as they entered and as they prayed, 
looked toward Jerusalem ; was commonly 
erected at the cost of the district, whether 
by a church-rate levied for the purpose, or 
by free gifts, must remain uncertain. When 
the building was finished, it was set apart, 
as the Temple had been, by a special prayer 
of dedication. From that time it had a 
consecrated chairacter. The common acts 
of life — eating, drinking, reckoning up ac- 
counts — were forbidden in it. No one was 
to pass through it as a short cut. Even if 
it ceased to be used, the building was not 
to be applied to any base purpose. In the 
internal arrangement of the synagogue we 
trace an obvious analogy to the type of the 
tabernacle. At the upper, or Jerusalem end, 
stood the ark, the chest which, like the 
older and more sacred ark, contained the 
Book of the Law. This part of the syn- 
agogue was naturally the place of honor. 
Here were the "chief seats" after which 
Pharisees and Scribes strove so eagerly, to 
which the wealthy and honored worshiper 
was invited.^ Here, too, in front of the ark 
— still reproducing the type of the taberna- 
cle — was the eight-branched lamp, lighted 
only on great festivals. Besides this, there 
was one lamp kept burning perpetually. A 
little farther toward the middle of the build- 
ing was a raised platform, on which several 
persons could stand at once, and in the mid- 
dle of this rose a pulpit, in which the read- 
er stood to read the lesson, or sat down to 
teach. The congregation were divided — 
men on one side, women on the other — a 
low partition, five or six feet high, running 
between them. The arrangements of mod- 
ern synagogues, for many centuries, have 
made the separation more complete by pla- 
cing the women in low side-galleries, screen- 
^1 MattTxxiii., 6; Jas. ii., 2, 3. 



SYNAGOGUE 



912 



SYRIA 



ed off by lattice-work. Within the ark, as 
above stated, were the rolls of the sacred 
books. The rollers round which they were 
wound were often elaborately decorated, and 
the cases for them embroidered or enameled, 
according to their material. 

In smaller towns there was often but one 
rabbi. Where a fuller organization was pos- 
sible, there was a college of elders, presided 
over by one who was tJie ruler of the syna- 
gogue.^ These formed a kind of chapter, 
and managed the affairs of the synagogue, 
and possessed the power of excommunica- 
ting. The most prominent functionary in 
a large synagogue was known as the She- 
liach, the officiating minister w^ho acted as 
the delegate of the congregation, and was, 
therefore, the chief reader of prayers, etc., 
in their name. The conditions laid down 
for this office remind us of Paul's rule for 
the choice of a bishop. He was to be act- 
ive, of full age, the father of a family, not 
rich or engaged in business, possessing a 
good voice, and apt to teach. ^ The Chaz- 
zan, or servant of the synagogue,^ had du- 
ties of a lower kind, resembling those of the 
Christian deacon or sub-deacon. He also oft- 
en acted, during the week, as school-master 
of the town or village. Besides these, there 
were ten men attached to every synagogue, 
whose functions have been the subject-mat- 
ter of voluminous controversy. They were 
known as the Batlanim, and no synagogue 
was complete without them. They were to 
be men of leisure, not obliged to work for 
their livelihood ; able, therefore, to attend 
the Aveek-day as well as the Sabbath serv- 
ices. They probably were simply a body 
of men permanently on duty, making up a 
congregation, ten being the minimum num- 
ber, so that there might be no delay in be- 
ginning the service at the proper hours, and 
that no single worshiper might go away dis- 
appointed. 

The service of a synagogue was a ritual, 
probably borrowed and modified from the 
established service of the Temple. "Mo- 
ses," L e., the first five books of the O. T., 
were read thus in a course of lessons, one 
lesson being read every Sabbath ; the proph- 
ets were read as second lessons. There was 
also an exposition, or sermon, which answer- 
ed somewhat to the Christian sermon in the 
Christian Church, with, however, this differ- 
ence, that it usually was more strictly an ex- 
position of the passage of Scripture which 
had been read, and that any rabbi present 
might speak upon the invitation of the ruler 
of the synagogue.^ It appears also that the 
officers of the synagogue exercised in certain 
cases a judicial power. The synagogue itself 
was the x^lace of trial ; even, strange as it 
may seem, of the actual punishment of 



1 Luke viii., 3, 41, 49 ; xiii., 14; Acts xviii., 8, IT.— 
2 Comp. 1 Tim. ii., 1-7; Tit. i., G-9.— 3 Luke iv., 20.— 
4 Luke iv., 16, IT ; Acts ix., 20; xiii., 15. 



scourging. They do not appear to have had 
the right of inflicting any severer penalty, 
unless under this head we may include that 
of excommunication. In some cases they 
exercised the right, even outside the limits 
of Palestine, of seizing the persons of the ac- 
cused, and sending them in chains to take 
their trial before the supreme council at 
Jerusalem. It is not quite so easy to define 
the nature of the tribunal or the precise lim- 
its of its jurisdiction. Undoubtedly the 
study of the organization of the synagogue 
is important on account of the light which 
is thrown on the organization of the early 
Christian Church, which it seems reasonably 
certain was in many instances formed out of 
the synagogue, and which probably embod- 
ied at least in such cases the substantial 
principles of its congregation. 

Syene, properly Seveneh, atownof Egypt, 
on the frontier of Cush or Ethiopia. The 
prophet Ezekiel speaks of the desolation of 
the whole of Egypt " from the town of Sy- 
ene," or, as in the margin, from Migdol to 
Syene. Migdol (q. v.) was on the eastern 
border, and Syene is thus rightly identified 
with the town of the same name, which was 
always the last town of Egypt on the south. 
Its hieroglyphic name signifies "the open- 
ing," or key of Egypt. [Ezek. xxix., 10 ; 
XXX., 6.] 

Syria. The country known to the He- 
brews in part as Aram (q. v.) was bounded 
by Cilicia on the north, the Euphrates on the 
north-east, the Arabian Desert on the south- 
east and south, and by the Mediterranean 
upon the west. It comprised Syria proper, 
Phoenicia (q. v.), and Palestine (q. v.). In the 
north and west it is mountainous, and gen- 
erally fertile ; in the east it is an arid desert 
broken only by a few oases, in the most noted 
of which is Palmyra. Extending southward 
from Mount Amanus to the latitude of Tyre 
lies Syria proper, a long but comparative- 
ly narrow tract of great fertility and value. 
Here two parallel ranges of mountains — Lib- 
anus and Antilibanus — intervene between 
the coast and the desert, prolific parents of 
a numerous progeny of small streams. Be- 
tween the two parallel ranges lies the " Hol- 
low Syria" — Coele-Syria proper — a long and 
rather broad valley, watered by the Oron- 
tes and the Litany, which, rising near each 
other, hurry in opposite directions, the one 
northward toward Amanus, the other south- 
ward to the hills of Galilee. Few richer 
tracts are to be found even in these most fa- 
vored portions of the earth's surface ; few 
places in the world are more remarkable, or 
have a more stirring history than this won- 
derful vale. Extending for above two hun- 
dred miles from north to south, almost in a 
direct line, and without further break than 
an occasional screen of low hills, it furnishes 
the most convenient line of passage between 
Asia and Africa, alike for the journeys of 



SYRO-PHCENICIAN 



913 



TABERNACLE 



merchants and for the march of armies. 
Along this line marched Thotmes and Rame- 
ses, Sargon and Sennacherib, Neco and Neb- 
uchadnezzar, Alexander the Great and Pom- 
pey, Antonj^, Kaled, and Godfrey Bouillon. 
Along this line must march every great army 
which, starting from the seats of power in 
Western Asia, seeks conquest in Africa, or 
which, proceeding from Africa, aims at the 
acquisition of an Asiatic dominion. 

Prior to its formation into a Persian sa- 
trapy, Syria had at no time any political 
unity. When we first hear of it in Scrip- 
ture it appears to be broken up into petty 
states. During the Assyrian period there 
were at least five of these, some of which 
were mere confederacies — viz., the Northern 
Hittites ; the Pateua, on the Lower Orontes ; 
the people of Hamath, in Hollow Syria, on 
the Upper Orontes ; the Syrians of Damas- 
cus, in the fertile country from Antilibanus 
to the desert. Of these states the one which, 
if not the most powerful, was at least the 
most generally known, was Syria of Damas- 
cus. Its capital was as old as the time of 
Abraham. This state, which was powerful 
enough to escape absorption into the empire 
of Solomon, was a formidable neighbor to 
the Jewish and Israelite monarchs. It en- 
joyed iudepeudence down to the time of 
Tiglath-pileser II., when the King of Syria 
leagued with the King of Israel to over- 
throw Judah. But this was a fatal step. 
Ahaz invoked the assistance of the Assyrian 
monarch ; and Syria sank, about B.C. 732, be- 
fore the might of the great king.' Syria Class- 
ed under the dominion successively of Baby- 



lon and Persia, and was afterward subdued 
by Alexander the Great. After his death it 
fell, with other territories, to one of his gen- 
erals, Seleucus Nicator, who founded Anti- 
och B.C. 300, and made it the capital of his 
wide dominions. A long line of kings suc- 
ceeded, more or less successful in maintain- 
ing or extending their power. Of these An- 
tiochus Epiphanes was the most cruel op- 
pressor of the Jews. By the valor, howev- 
er, of the Asmonean princes they establish- 
ed their independence. Syria became, ulti- 
mately, a Roman province, B.C. 64. But un- 
der the Roman dominion were many free 
cities and petty sovereignties assigned from 
time to time to subject princes, such as Chal- 
cis, Abilene, Damascus, and others. Palmy- 
ra maiutained its independence till a late 
period. Sometiuies Judea was attached to 
Syria, its procurator being subordinate to 
the president or governor of Syria. It is at 
present subject to the Sultan of Turkey. 

Syro-PhoBiiician. There were Phoenicians 
of Lybia, as well as those who occupied the 
territory adjoining to Syria. In order, there- 
fore, to distinguish the latter, they were call- 
ed Syro-Phoeniciaus. The woman so desig- 
nated is called "of Canaan," because the 
descendants of the ancient Canaanites peo- 
pled the coasts of Tyre and Sidon. The dis- 
ciples would have repelled her because of 
her nationality, but Christ, while he seemed 
at first to sustain them, really rebuked their 
lack of charity ; and it is reasonable to sup- 
pose, from the woman's action, that she un- 
derstood his language to be used in an iron- 
ical sense. [Matt, xv., 22 ; Mark vii., 26.] 



Taanach (sandy soil), an ancient city of 
Canaan, which, at the time of the conquest, 
had a king of its own, but who, along with 
thirty others, was overthrown by Joshua. 
The place was afterward assigned to the 
tribe of Manasseh, and was made aLevitical 
city,^ where it is written TanacJi, both in the 
original and the authorized version. In 1 
Chron. vi., 70, it is called Aner. It has been 
identified by Robinson and others with Ta- 
anuk, a small village with some ruins on a 
Tell about an hour and a quarter to the 
south-east of Megiddo. [Josh, xii., 21; 
Judg. i., 27 ; v., 19 ; 1 Kings iv., 12.] 

Tabernacle. We may distinguish in the 
O. T. three sacred tabernacles: 1. The anti- 
Sinaitic, which was probably the dwelling 
of Moses, and was placed by the camp of the 
Israelites in the desert for the transaction 
of public business; 2. The Sinaitic, which 
was constructed by Bezaleel and Aholiab as 
a portable mansion-house, guildhall, and 

1 2 Kiugs XV., 57 ; xvi., 5-10 ; Isa. vii., 1-16.— 2 Josh, 
xvii., 11 ; xxi., 25. 

58 



cathedral, and set up on the first day of the 
first month in the second year after leaving 
Egypt ; 3. The Davidic tabernacle, erected 
by David in Jerusalem, for the reception of 
the ark, while the old tabernacle remained 
to the days of Solomon at Gibeon.^ The sec- 
ond of these great tents is the only one of 
which we have accurate descriptions, and as 
the. most important it is named by pre-emi- 
nence the tabernacle. It is of this taber- 
nacle we propose to speak in this article. 

Jehovah had redeemed the Israelites from 
bondage. He had made a covenant with 
them, and given them a law. He had prom- 
ised, on condition of their obedience, to ac- 
cept them as his own peculiar people ; and 
now he was ready to testify visibly that ho. 
had made his abode with them. He claimed 
to have a dwelling for himself, which was to 
be in external form a tent of goat's hair, to 
take its place among their own tents made 
of the same material. Moses was divine- 



1 Exod. xxxiii., 7; xxxvi., 1; xl., 17; 2 Sam. vi. 
12-17. 



TABEENACLE 



914 



TABERNACLE 



ly taught regarding the construction and 
arrangement of every part of the sanctuary. 
The directions which were given him are 
comprised in Exod., chaps, xxv., xxvii., and 
the account of the performance of the work, 
expressed generally in the same terms, in 
Exod. XXXV., 20-xl., 33. This tabernacle com- 
prised three main parts — the dwelling-place, 
or the tabernacle, more strictly so called, its 
tent, and its covering. The parts are very 
clearly distinguished in the Hebrew, but they 
are confounded in many places in the En- 
glish and most other versions, ancient and 




ao 30 do 6o 60 70 75 jRfeft 
Plan of the Court of the Tabernacle. 

modern. The tabernacle itself consisted of 
curtains of fine linen, a great cloth of woven 
work figured with cherubim, measuring forty 
cubits by twenty-eight cubits, and a quad- 
rangular inclosure of wood open at one end, 
ten cubits in height, ten cubits in width, 
and thirty cubits in length, i. e., 15X15X45 
feet. The boards of this inclosure were set 
upright, each of them being furnished at its 
lower extremity with two tenons, which fit- 
ted into mortises in two heavy bases of sil- 
ver. Each base weighed a talent, i. e., sibout 
Qinety-four pounds, and must have been a 



massive block. Nothing is said of the form ; 
but as the tenons of the boards were " set in 
order one against another," the bases proba- 
bly fitted together so as to make a continu- 

I ous foundation for the walls of boards, pre- 
senting a succession of sockets, or mortises, 
into which the tenons were to fit. These 
bases served not only for ornament, but also 
for a protection of the lower ends of the 

j boards from the decay which would have 
resulted from contact with the ground. The 

j boards were furnished with rings, or loops, 
of gold, so fixed as to form rows when the 
boards were placed in position, and through 
these rings horizontal bars were thrust. 
There were five bars for each side of the 
structure, and five for the back. The mid- 
dle bar was distinguished from the other 
bars by its reaching from end to end. It 
is inferred, with great probability, that this 
bar was twice as long as the others; that 
there were three rows of rings ; that the 
half of each wall was fastened together by 
two of the shorter bars, one near the top, 
the other near the bottom, while the two 
halves were united into a whole by the mid- 
dle bar reaching from end to end. Thus 
each wall must have been furnished with 
four short bars and one long one. Each of 
the rings near the top and bottom of the 
two boards of a corner was so shaped as 

j to receive the ends of two bars, one belong- 
ing to the back, the other to the side, meet- 
ing at a right angle. In this way the walls 
were coupled together at the corners. There 
is nothing said from which we can decide 
whether the rings and bars were on the out- 
side or the inside of the wooden structure. 
From the rich materials of which they were 
made it seems not unlikely that they con- 
stituted an ornamental feature on the in- 
side. Besides this, their position on the in- 
side would make the structure firmer than if 
on the outside. So far it is not difficult to 
see nearly what the tabernacle must have 
been. But it is not so easy to determine 
the arrangement of the great figured cloth 
which belonged to it (a question which will 
be considered further on), or the still more 
difficult question of the internal arrange- 
ment. The vail which separated the Most 
Holy Place from the Holy Place was sus- 
pended from a golden hook, attached to four 
pillars overlaid with gold, standing upon sil- 
ver bases ; but the position of these pillaxs is 

I not mentioned in Exodus. It is said that the 
vail was hung "under the taches," a state- 

1 ment difficult of explanation ; for the taches 
of the tabernacle-cloth must have beenfifteen 
cubits from the back of the tabernacle, i. e., 
half-way from back to front ; but, according 
to ancient historians and all tradition, sup- 
ported by every consideration of probabilty, 
the vail was but ten cubits from the back, 
and the Holy of Holies was a cubical cham- 
ber of corresponding measurement. 



TABERNACLE 



915 



TABERNACLE 



The tent consisted of a great tent-clotli 
of goats' hair (which, judging from the num- 
ber and dimensions of its breadths, was for- 
ty-four cubits by thirty), and five pillars 
overlaid with gold, standing on bases of 
bronze, and furnished with golden hooks, 
from which was suspended the curtain that 
served to close the entrance of the tent. Of 
the covering of rams' skins and toc/ias/i-skins^ 
nothing whatever is said, except as regards 
the materials of which it was composed. It 
has been usual to represent the tabernacle 
as consisting of the wooden structure which 
has been described, with the four successive 
coverings or curtains thrown over it, as a 
pall is thrown over a coffin — first the fig- 
ured tabernacle - cloth, then the goats'- hair 
cloth of the tent, then the twofold covering 
of skins. But to this common theory there 
are the following objections: 1. The arrange- 
ment makes out the fabric to have been un- 
sightly in its form, and to have had a great 



gusson^ that we are indebted for what may 
be regarded as a satisfactory reconstruction 
of the sanctuary in all its main particulars. 
He holds that the shelter of the tabernacle 
proper was actually a tent of ordinary form, 
such as common sense and practical expe- 
rience would suggest as best suited for that 
purpose. According to this view, the five 
pillars at the entrance of the tent were 
graduated as tliey would naturally be at the 
entrance of any large tent, the tallest one 
being in the middle to support one end of 
a ridge-pole. The descriptions in Exodus 
appear to pass over all particulars in the 
construction, except those which formed vis- 
ible features in the fabric ; so that there 
may have been not only a ridge-pole but a 
series of pillars at the back of the tent cor- 
responding in height with those at the front. 
Such a ridge-pole might have been support- 
ed by light rafters resting on the top of the 
boards, or by a plain pole in the middle of 




South-east View of the Tabernacle as restored. 



part of the beauty of its materials entirely 
concealed; 2. It would be quite impossible 
to stretch drapery over a space of fifteen 
feet so as to prevent it from sagging, and 
no flat roof of any such materials could by 
any means be rendered proof against the 
weather ; 3. It is hard to assign any use to 
the pins and cords of the tabernacle, essen- 
tial in the construction of a tent, if the cur- 
tains and skins were merely thrown over 
the wood-work and allowed to hang down 
on each side : 4. The shelter of the taber- 
nacle proper is always called in Hebrew by 
a name which in strict use can denote noth- 
ing but a tent, properly so called, of cloth 
or skins ; 5. The row of five pillars at the 
entrance of the tent must have been strange- 
ly out of symmetry with the four pillars of 
the vail within, and the middle pillar must 
have stood needlessly and inconveniently in 
the way of the entrance. It is to Mr. Fer- 



1 Mistranslated in our Bible badger-skins, 
probably signifies seal-skins. 



the structure. Immediately over this was 
hung the tabernacle-cloth, as explained be- 
low, and superimposed upon it the tent- 
cloth of goats' hair was stretched, with its 
cords and tent-pins, in the usual way. There 
must also have been a back cloth suspend- 
ed from the pillars at the back. Above the 
tent-cloth of goats' hair was spread the cov- 
ering of red rams' skins. Mr. Fergusson con- 
ceives that the covering of tachash, or seal- 
skins, above this did not cover the whole 
roof, but served only as " a coping or ridge- 
piece " to protect the crest of the roof. The 
tent-cloth is said to have extended a cubit 
on each side beyond the tabernacle -cloth, 
and it appears to have extended two cubits 
at the back and front.^ It would appear, 
then, that the tent-cloth was laid over the 
tabernacle -cloth, so as to allow the excess 
of the dimensions of the former to be equal- 
ly divided between the two sides, and be- 



lt more i Smith's " Dictionary of the Bible," article Templb. 
—2 Exod. xxvi., 13 ; xxxvi., 9, 13. 



TABERNACLE 



916 



TABERNACLE 



feween the back and front. We may infer 
from this that the tabernacle -cloth served 
as a lining to the tent-cloth, and that they 
were both extended over the ridge-pole. In 
this way the effect would have been pro- 
duced on the inside of an ornamented open 
roof, extending the length of the tent. There 
is a remarkable consistency of the measure- 
ments of the different parts, if we accept this 
mode of putting them together. By assum- 
ing the angle at the ridge of the roof to have 
been a right angle — the usual angle for such 
a roof— the only measurements which at first 
sight appear abnormal are brought into har- 
mony. Every measurement given in the text 
is a multiple of five cubits, except the width 
of the tabernacle - cloth, which is twenty- 
eight cubits, and the length of the tent- 
cloth, which is fortj^-four cubits. With a 
right angle at the ridge, each side of the 
slope, as shown in the wood-cut, would be 
within a fraction of fourteen cubits (14.08), 
half the width of the tabernacle-cloth. The 
slope is here carried just five cubits beyond 
the wooden walls, and to within just five 
cubits of the ground. The tent-cloth would 
hang down in a balance on each side, one 
cubit in depth. ^ If we allow the taberna- 
cle-cloth, according to this arrangement, to 
determine the length of the tent as well as 
its width, we obtain an area for the struc- 
ture of forty cubits by twenty. The tent- 
cloth would, of course, overhang this at the 
back and front by two cubits, that is, half a 
breadth. The wooden structure being placed 
within the tent, there would be a space all 
round it of five cubits in width. Across the 
front of the tent, five cubits apart, stood the 
five pillars forming an entrance, as it were, to 
this space or porch, five cubits wide within 
them, and through that to the tabernacle. 
The tabernacle was placed toward the west- 
ern end of an inclosure called the court of 
the tabernacle, an oblong space, one hundred 
cubits by fifty, i. e., one hundred and fifty 
feet by seventy-five, having its longer axis 
east and west, with its front to the east. It 
was surrounded by canvas screens — called 
in the East Kannauts — five cubits in height, 
and supported by x>illars of brass five cubits 
apart, to which the curtains were attached 
by hooks and fillets of silver. This inclos- 
ure was only broken on the eastern side by 
the entrance, which was twenty cubits wide, 
and closed by curtains of fine-twined linen 
wrought with needle-work, and of the most 
gorgeous colors. The sacred furniture and 
instrnments of the tabernacle are described 
in separate articles, and can only be men- 
tioned here in their relative positions. In 
the eastern half of the court was placed the 
altar of burnt-offering, and between it and 
the tabernacle itself the brazen laver at 
which the priests washed their hands and 
feet on entering the tabernacle. In the first 



Exod. xxvi., 13, 



chamber of the tabernacle itself, the Holy 
Place, were three objects : the altar of incense, 
in the centre, so as to be directly in front of 
the ark of the covenant ; the tahle of sheiv- 
hread, on its right or north side ; and the 
golden candlestick, on the left or south side. 
These objects were all considered as placed 
before the presence of Jehovah, who dwelt 
in the holiest of all, though with the vail 
between. This Holy Place was entered by 
the priests only, who came daily to offer in- 
cense at the time of morning and evening- 
prayer, and to renew the lights on the gold- 
en candlestick ; and on the Sabbath to re- 
move the old shew-bread, and to place the 
new upon the table. In the Holy of Holies, 
within the vail, and shrouded in darkness, 
there was but one object, the Ark of the Cov- 
enant, containing the two tables of stone, in- 
scribed with the Ten Commandments. Here 
Jehovah dwelt on his mercy-seat between 
the cherubim above the ark. The vail which 
divided this Most Holy from the Holy Place 
was passed by the high-priest only, and by 
him but once a year, on the Day of Atone- 
ment. 

History of the Talernacle. — ^As long as Ca- 
naan remained unconquered, and the people 
were still an army, the tabernacle was prob- 
ably moved from place to place, wherever 
the host of Israel was for the time encamp- 
ed. It rested finally at Shiloh (q. v.), and 
continued there during the whole period of 
the judges. When the ark of God was taken 
the sanctuary lost its glory, and never again 
recovered it. Samuel treats it as an aban- 
doned shrine, and sacrifices elsewhere. In 
the times of the earl}" monarchy it seems to 
have been set up at other seats than Shiloh. 
Under Saul it seems to have been settled 
for a time at Nob. The massacre of the 
priests and the flight of Abiathar must, how- 
ever, have robbed it yet further of its glory. 
It had before lost the ark; it now lost the 
presence of the high-priest. What change 
of fortune then followed we do not know. 
In some way or other it found its way to 
Gibeon.^ The capture of Jerusalem and the 
erection there of a new tabernacle, with the 
ark, of which the old had been deprived, 
left it little more than a traditional, histor- 
ical sanctity. It retained only the old altar 
of burnt-offerings. Such as it was, howev- 
er, neither king nor people could bring them- 
selves to sweep it a>wsiy. The double serv- 
ice went on ; Zadok, as high-priest, officiated 
at Gibeon ; the more recent, more prophetic 
service of psalms and hymns and music, un- 
der Asaph, gathered round the tabernacle 
at Jerusalem. The divided worship contin- 
ued all the days of David, and the sanctity 
of both places was recognized by Solomon 
on his accession. But at last the purpose 



1 Joph. ix., 27; xviii., 1; xix , 51; xxii., 12; Jndg. 
xxi., 12; 1 Sam. iv., 22; vii., 9; ix., 12; X., 3,S; xi., 
15; xxi., 1-6; xxii., 20; xxiii., 6; 1 Chron. xvi., 39. 



TABERNACLES (THE FEAST OF) 917 



TABOR 



of David that the claims of both should 
merge in the higher glory of the Temple 
was fulfilled ; the tabernacle was either 
taken down and removed to the Temple by 
Solomon, or left to perish and be forgotten. 
Critics are almost unanimous in favor of the 
former view.^ See Temple ; Altak ; Ark ; 
Candlestick ; Shew-bread. 

Tabernacles (The Feast of), one of the 
three greater festivals to be observed by 
Israel. It was instituted to commemorate 
the dwelling of the people in tents while in 
the desert. And, as these feasts also mark- 
ed the epochs of the agricultural year, the 
Feast of Tabernacles was called also the 
Feast of Ingathering, from the fact that it 
was held at the year's end, when all the la- 
bors of the field were consummated. It thus 
answered nearly to our own Thanksgiving- 
day. The feast commenced on the fifteenth 
of the seventh month, answering to our Oc- 
tober, and was to last seven days. It was 
commanded that the people should dwell in 
booths or tents, which were anciently pitch- 
ed on the terrace-like roofe of the houses, in 
the courts of the Temple, and in the streets 
or wide places of the city. They were to 
cut down boughs of various trees, and to 
carry the fruit and branches in their hands 
so long as the festival lasted. The partic- 
ular sacrifices to be offered are detailed in 
Numb, xxix., 1-38; 
and, though the feast 
is described as of 
seven days, there was 
an eighth day add- 
ed, which was to be 
a Sabbath of rest and 
a holy convocation. 
Also, every Sabbatical 
year the law was to be 
read at the Feast of 
Tabernacles to the as- 
sembled people. No- 
tices of the observ- 
ance of this holy sea- 
son are to be found in 
Neh.viii., 13-18; Hos. 
xii., 9 ; Zech. xiv., 16- 
19; John vii., 2, 37-39. 
It seems that in later 
days it was customary 
to draw water from 
the Pool of Siloam, 
and carry it in a 
golden vessel to the 
altar. It was there 
poured into a sil- 
ver basin, from which 

it was conducted by "" ^-^'^ 

pipes to the Kidron. 
To this usage our Lord 

may, perhaps, allude in John vii. He has 
also been supposed to allude to the prac- 



tice of lighting two large chandeliers in 
the court of the women, by the light of 
which they held a festal dance on the last 
day of the feast.^ But it is doubtful wheth- 
er there is any good ground for either sup- 
position. 

Tabitha (gazelle), the Aramaic name of a 
Christian female dwelling at Joppa. She 
was also called by the Greek name Dorcas,, 
having the same signification; and hence,, 
possibly, was a Hellenist. She was remark- 
able for her charity and good works ; and, 
having died, was miraculously restored to 
life by St. Peter. [Acts ix., 36-42.] 

Tabor. 1. This strange and beautiful 
mountain of Palestine, rising from the north- 
east of the plain of Esdraelon, is distinguish- 
ed alike in form and character from all around 
it. As seen from the north-west of the plain, 
it towers like a dome ; as seen from the east, 
like a long arched mound, over the monot- 
onous undulations of the surrounding hills, 
from which it stands completely isolated, ex- 
cept by a narrow neck of rising ground, unit- 
ing it to the mountain range of Galilee. It 
is not what we should call a wooded hill, be- 
cause its trees stand all apart from each oth- 
er ; but it is so thickly studded with them 
as to rise from the plain like a mass of ver- 
dure. Its summit — a broken oblong — is an 
alternation of shade and green sward, that 




1 2 Sam. vi., 17; 1 Kings iii., 15; viii., 4; 1 Chrnn. 
XV., 1 ; xvi., 4, 3T, 39 ; xxii., 9 ; 2 Chron. i., 3 ; v., 5. 



Tabor. 

seems made for a national festivity; broad 
and varied, and commanding wide views of 
the plain from end to end. 

1 John viii., 12. 



TADMOE 



918 



TALMUD 



2. A city of the Merarite Levites, in the 
tribe of Zebulun, mentioned in the lists of 1 
Chron. vi., 77. The list of the towns of Zebu- 
lun contains the name of Chisloth-tabor. It 
is, therefore, possible, either that Chisloth- 
tabor is abbreviated into Tabor by the chron- 
icler, or that, by the time these later lists 
were compiled, the Merarites had establish- 
ed themselves on the sacred mountain, and 
that Tabor is Mount Tabor. [Josh, xix., 
12, 22; Judg. iv., 6-14; viii., 18; Jer. xlvi., 
18; Hos.v., 1.] 

Tadmor (city of palms). There can be no 
doubt that the Tadmor built by Solomon ''in 
the wilderness"^ is the city which has been 
so long known to the Greeks, Romans, and 
modern Europe as the celebrated city Pal- 
myra, whose ruins still exist about one hun- 
dred and forty miles east-north-east from Da- 
mascus, to attest its former grandeur and re- 
nown. The word Tadmor signifies in He- 
brew " the city of palms," and derived its 
name, in the same manner as Palmyra did, 
from the Latin palma, a " palm-tree." The 
modern Arabic name for the city is substan- 
tially the same as the Hebrew, being Tadmur, 
or Tathmur. According to Josephus, Solo- 
mon went as far as the desert above Syria, 
where he built a very great city, which is 
distant two days' journey from Upper Syria, 
and one from the Euphrates, and six days' 
journey from Babylon the Great; and the 
reason why this city lay so remote from the 
inhabited parts of Syria is that below there 
is no water to be had, and that it is in that 
place only that there are springs and pits of 
water. It was natural for Solomon, who had 
just ideas of the value of commercial inter- 
course with other nations, to have secured 
so favorable a spot in the desert, from which 
he could have communication with Babylon, 
the Euphrates, and the Persian Gulf.^ 

Of the history of Tadmor from the time of 
Solomon until the Christian era we know 
nothing. In its earlier fortunes Palmyra 
was dependent on one or other of the great 
empires which rose and fell around; but hn- 
der Odenathus and his martial queen, Zeno- 
bia, it expanded into a mighty sovereignty, 
rivaling and defying for a time the Roman 
power. In a.d. 273 the Emperor Aurelian 
succeeded, after obstinately contested bat- 
tles, in taking the city, and securing the per- 
son of Zenobia. The most remarkable of its 
magnificent ruins is the great Temple of the 
Sun. This temple was inclosed in a court 
one hundred and seventy-nine feet square, 
surrounded by a double row of columns. 
Sixty of the original three hundred and 
ninety are still standing ; and of the sanctu- 
ary itself there are massive remains: of the 
columns which adorned it about twenty mu- 
tilated ones now exist. 

Tahpanhes (head, ov beginning oftlw loorldf), 
an Egyptian city, identical with the Daphne 



1 2 Chron. viii., 4 ; 1 Kings ix., 18.— 2 1 Kings ix., 26. 



of the Greeks, a strong place on the Tanitic 
branch of the Nile, near Pelusium. As a col- 
ony of Jews came hither, it was naturally a 
prominent place in the Jewish mind, and is 
put with Noph, or Memphis, for the coun- 
try generally. It was to this city that, af- 
ter the murder of Gedaliah, Johanan and the 
Jewish leaders repaired, taking with them 
the prophet Jeremiah, who was directed to 
give a symbol here of the conquest of Egypt 
by Nebuchadnezzar. It is called Tehaph- 
nehes in Ezek. xxx., 18 ; Tahapanes in Jer. 
ii., 16; and appears in the contracted form 
of Hanes in Isa. xxx., 4. A mound called Tel 
Defenneh, in a direct line between the mod- 
ern Zan (or San) and Pelusium, may mark 
the site of Tahpanhes. [Jer. xliii., 7-13; 
xliv., 1.] ' 

Talleth, a square vestment which every 
Jewish male is required to possess, and 
which is worn constantly as an inner gar- 
ment. It consists of two square pieces, gen- 
erally of woolen, sometimes of silk, joined 
together at the upper edge by two fillets or 
broad straps, with a space left sufficient for 
the head to pass between them. These fil- 
lets rest on the shoulders, and the two square 
pieces hang down, one over the back and 
the other over the breast. From each of 
the corners hangs a fringe or tassel, consist- 
ing of eight threads, and tied with five 
knots. Besides the ordinary Talleth, there 
is a larger one, which is required to be worn 
during the dail}'^ morning prayers, and on 
some other occasions. It is a square piece 
of cloth, like a shawl, made of white sheep 
or lamb's wool, sometimes of camel's -hair, 
and bordered with stripes of blue, with a 
fringe or tassel at each corner. The larger 
Talleth, when worn, is thrown loosely over 
all the other garments. 

Talmud (study), the name of the book or 
code embodying the Jewish rabbinical law. 
At the time of Christ this rabbinical law, 
consisting of traditions,^ which the Phari- 
sees claimed to be contemporaneous and of 
equal authority with the Mosaic statutes, 
was still mainly, if not exclusively, taught 
by word of mouth in the schools, and hand- 
ed down by successive rabbis from gener- 
ation to generation. Great sacredness at- 
tached to it ; great mystery enwrapped it. 
It was forbidden to be written. When at 
last it was reduced to writing, a curse was 
pronounced on whoever should translate it 
into any heathen tongue. To teach it to a 
woman, a child, or a Gentile was a profa- 
nation. In the second century after Christ, 
the first written compilation of this oral 
law was effected. Three centuries later, a 
collection of the commentaries of the scribes 
was added. The former is termed the Mish- 
na, the latter is called the Gemara; the two 
combined constitute the Talmud. Like the 
religion of which it is the literature, it is a 
1 See Pharisees. 



TALMUD 



919 



TA-OISM 



singular mass of contradictious, of wisdom 
and folly, of philosophy and of wild Ori- 
ental imagination, of pure ethics and of 
loose audperuicious casuistry. Let any one 
attempt to analyze the religious literature 
of Europe ; let him compile in one work the 
pure spirituality of Madame Guyon and the 
abominable licentiousness of the miracle- 
plays; the high-toned morality of Pascal 
and the casuistries of Escobar and Reginald, 
which Pascal so indignantly protests against ; 
the religious philosophy of Augustine, the 
father of modern theology, with the disqui- 
sitions on angelology by Thomas Aquinas ; 
and he will have proposed to himself a task 
somewhat similar to that which is essayed 
in the attempt to analyze the Talmud, a com- 
pend of the Jewish literature of many cen- 
turies — "the sweepings of the intellectual 
threshing - floor of Judaism, accumulated 
during some centuries, and consigned to the 
Talmudic garner without any effectual win- 
nowing." That it contains some clear enun- 
ciation of divine truth is not to be denied. 
Scattered through its pages are many max- 
ims which embody the spirit of Christianity. 
In a negative form the golden rule is there 
found : " Thou shalt not do to thy neigh- 
bor what is hateful to thyself." The law of 
love, enacted under Moses and repeated by 
Christ, it reiterates : " Thou shalt love thy 
neighbor as thyself." Secret charity it com- 
mends : " He who gives in secret is greater 
than Moses himself." Humility and self- 
abnegation it urges: " Whoever* runs after 
greatness, greatness runs away from him; 
he who runs from greatness, greatness fol- 
lows him." Interior sins it rebukes: "Pride 
is like idolatry." Immortality it proclaims: 
"This world is like an inn, the world to come 
like home." It even gives a glimpse of the 
fatherhood of God : " If we are called serv- 
ants of God, we are also called his children." 
The parallels of these maxims in the teach- 
ings of Christ and his apostles will readily 
occur to the reader.^ Remembering, how- 
ever, that the Talmud was not compiled till 
several centuries after Christ ; remembering, 
too, that it has borrowed, without hesitation 
and without credit, from the literature of the 
East and from the philosophy of Greece, the 
suspicion that its compilers have put some of 
the words of Christ into the mouths of the 
ancient rabbis is not without at least a seem- 
ing foundation. But these maxims are as 
single stars shining in a murky night. They 
lie, like nuggets of gold, imbedded in masses 
of quartz. For the most part the theology 
is puerile, the imagination extravagant, the 
morals pernicious, the very language often 
so indecent as to forbid translation. We 
have depicted the best side of the Talmud. 
Its worst aspects hide in an obscurity from 
which we trust no hand will ever be willing 

1 Matt, vi., 2-4; vii., 12; xxii., 39; Luke xiv.,7-11; 
John XV., 15 ; Col. iii., 5 ; Heb. xi., 13, 14. 



to drag them to the light. Those portions 

: which throw light on the teachings of Christ 

! only by the contrast they afford constitute 

; the mass of Talmudical literature. See 

Pharisees. 

I Tammuz. This word occurs in the Bible 
I only in Ezek. viii., 14, where the prophet de- 
scribes the weeping of the Jewish women 
i for Tammuz, on the north side of the Tem- 
! pie. He is thought to be a Phoenician deity, 
and to be identical with the Adonis of the 
Greeks, who is said to have lived in the 
Lebanon, near the source of the river which 
bears his name. He was killed, according to 
the legend, by a wild boar ; but through the 
influence of Venus, who was enamored of 
him, he was permitted to spend six months 
of the year on earth, the other six being 
passed in the lower world. His death was 
annually celebrated, Byblos, where the riv- 
er Adonis — red, it was imagined, with his 
blood — flowed into the sea, being the chief 
seat of the solemnity. The fact is that the 
river, now Nahr Ibrahim, brings down after 
storms some of the red soil of Lebanon. The 
Syrian women first mourned the death, and 
then gave way to frantic joy for the return, 
of Adonis. A similar festival was held in 
Egypt in honor of Osiris, of whom a story 
of almost the same kind is told. The feast 
began with the new moon of July ; whence 
the month in which it fell received the name 
of Tammuz. 

Tanaites, an order of Jewish doctors who 
taught the traditions of the Oral Law from 
the time of the great synagogue to that of 
the compilation of the Mishna, after which 
they were called Amorajim (q. v.). At the 
head of the Tanaites, or Traditionists, the 
Jews are accustomed to place Ezra, whom 
they represent as having been succeeded by 
Simon the Just. 

Ta-oism, one of the three great religions 
I of China. Its founder, Laou-tsze, or Lao-tse, 
was born B.C. 604, fifty-four years before Con- 
! fucius. The object of the latter was to teach 
j a code of morals for the practical govern- 
ment of man ; the object of the former was 
to render man immortal through the con- 
' templation of God, the repression of the pas- 
sions, and the perfect tranquillity of the soul. 
The followers of Lao-tse have, however, al- 
tered his doctrines, and reduced his mys- 
1 tical philosophy to a system of superstitious 
observances. The priests of Ta-oism do not 
[ maintain their right to the title, which sig- 
' nifies the sect of reason. They are general- 
I ly ignorant men, few of them teaching or 
understanding the real principles of their 
I faith. They practice a mystical alchemy, 
j prepare spells and incantations, and pretend 
to hold intercourse with the dead. They 
worship certain stars, which are supposed 
to influence human life, and also genii, dev- 
ils, and inferior spirits. They live in tem- 
ples with their families, and are known by 



TARES 



920 



TARSHISH 



their slate-colored robes. They also main- 
tain monasteries and nunneries. Ta-oism is 
confined mainly to China, Cochin-China, and 
Japan. The number of its adherents is not 
accurately known. 

Tares. Referred to in the Scripture only 
in Matt, xiii., 24-30, 36-43, where Christ com- 
pares them to the "children of the wicked 
one." These tares are the darnel, or bastard 
wheat, and resemble the original wheat so 
nearly that the difference is not noticeable 
until the wheat comes into the ear. Such a 




Tares. 

sowing of tares in the wheat-field is not an 
unusual act of malice. Dean Alford, in his 
commentary on this parable, gives an ac- 
count of a similar malicious sowing by an 
enemy in one of his own wheat-fields. 

Tarshish. 1. Probably Tartessus, a city 
and emporium of the Phoenicians, in the 
south of Spain. The identity of the two 
places is rendered highly probable by the 
following circumstances : 1. There is a very 
close similarity of name between them, Tar- 
tessus being merely Tarshish in the Aramaic 
form ; 2. There seems to have been a special 
relation between Tarshish and Tyre, as there 
was at one time between Tartessus and the 
Phoenicians ; 3. The articles which Tarshish 
is stated by the prophet Ezekiel' to have 
supplied to Tyre are precisely such as we 



1 Ezek. xxvii., 12. 



know, through classical writers, to have been 
productions of the Spanish peninsula. In 
regard to tin, the trade of Tarshish in this 
metal is peculiarly significant ; and, taken 
in conjunction with similarity of name and 
other circumstances already mentioned, is 
reasonably conclusive as to its identity with 
Tartessus ; for even now the countries in 
Europe or on the shores of the Mediterrane- 
an Sea where tin is found are very few ; and 
in reference to ancient times, it would be 
difficult to name any such countries except 
Iberia or Spain, Lusitania, which was some- 
what less in extent than Portugal, and Corn- 
wall, in Great Britain. In the absence of 
positive proof, we may acquiesce in the state- 
ment of Strabo, that the river Baetis (now 
the Guadalquiver) was formerly called Tar- 
tessus ; that the city Tartessus was situated 
between the two arms by which the river 
flowed into the sea ; and that the adjoining 
country was called Tartessis. [1 Kings x., 
22; xxii., 48(49); 1 Chron. i., 7; Ezek. xxvii., 
12,25; xxxviii., 13; Psa. xlviii., 7; Isa. ii., 
16 ; xxiii., 1, 6, 10, 14 ; Ix., 9 ; Ixvi., 19 ; Jer. 
X., 9; Jon. i., 3; iv., 2.] 

2. From the book of Chronicles there 
would seem to have been a Tarshish access- 
ible from the Red Sea, in addition to the 
Tarshish of the south of Spain. Thus, with 
regard to the ships of Tarshish, which Je- 
hoshaphat caused to be constructed at Ezi- 
on-geber, it is said in the Chronicles that 
they were made to go to Tarshish ; and in 
like mann(?r the navy of ships, which Solo- 
mon had previously made in Ezion-geber, is 
said in the Chronicles to have gone to Tar- 
shish with the servants of Hiram.^ It is not 
to be supposed that the author of these pas- 
sages in the Chronicles contemplated a voy- 
age to Tarshish in the south of Spain by go- 
ing round what has since been called the 
Cape of Good Hope. The expression " ships 
of Tarshish " originally meant ships destined 
to go to Tarshish ; and then, probably, came 
to signify large Phoenician ships, of a par- 
ticular size and description, destined for long 
voyages, just as iu English " East Indiaman " 
was a general name given to vessels, some 
of which were not intended to go to India 
at all. Hence we may infer that the word 
Tarshish was also used to signify any dis- 
tant place, and in this case would be ap- 
plied to one in the Indian Ocean. This is 
shown by the nature of the imports with 
which the fleet returned, which are specified 
as " gold, silver, ivory, apes, and peacocks."^ 
The gold might possibly have been obtained 
from Africa, or from Ophir in Arabia, and 
the ivory and the apes might likewise have' 
been imported from Africa ; but the pea- 
cocks point conclusively, not to Africa, but 
to India. There are only two species known ; 
both inhabit the continent and islands of 



1 Kings ix., 26 ; xxiL, 48 ; 
1 Kings X., 22. 



Chrou. ix., 21 ; xx., 30. 



TARSUS 



921 



TAXES 



India ; so tbat the mention of the peacock 
seems to exclude the possibility of the voy- 
age having been to Africa. The inference 
to be drawn from the importation of pea- 
cocks is confirmed by the Hebrew name for 
the ape and the peacock. Neither of these 
names is of Hebrew, or even Semitic, ori- 
gin, and each points to India. There are 
not, however, sufficient data for determining 
what were the ports in India or the Indian 
islands which were reached by the fleet of 
Hiram and Solomon, though the suggestion 
of Sir Emerson Tennent that they went to 
Point de Galle, in Ceylon, is very probable. 

Tarsus, the capital of the province of Ci- 
licia, a large and populous city in a fruitful 
plain on the river Cydmus, which flowed 
through the midst of it with a swift stream 



Roman citizenship; and therefore Paul must 
have inherited that privilege in some other 
way. Afterward, indeed, it became a col- 
ony (q. v.), and so entitled to the right of 
citizenship; but this was at a period long 
subsequent. Tarsus is now a town with 
about twenty thousand inhabitants, and is 
described as being a den of poverty, filth, 
and ruins. [Acts ix., 11, 30 ; xi., 25 ; xxi., 
39; xxii., 3.] 

Tartarus, a place mentioned by the later 
Greek poets as being situated in the infer- 
nal regions, the abode of the spirits of wick- 
ed men, where they sufler the punishment 
due to their crimes committed on earth. 
Homer represents it as a subterranean re- 
gion as far below Hades as heaven is above 
the earth. See Heix. 



'3 




Tarsus. 



of remarkably cold water. Strabo speaks 
most highly of \ts eminence in schools of 
philosophy. He enumerates many learned 
men who had sprung from it. At one time, 
in its schools and in the number of its learn- 
ed men, it was the rival of Athens and Alex- 
andria. In allusion to this, perhaps, Paul 
says that he was " born in Tarsus, a citizen 
of no mean city.-" It was a free city, i. e., 
one which, though under Rome, lived under 
its own laws and chose its own magistrates. 
This freedom was granted to it by Antony. 
This, though it implied government by its 
own laws and magistrates, and freedom from 
tribute, did not of itself confer the right of 



Taxes. 1. Jewish. — Under the Mosaic sys- 
tem the taxes laid upon the peoj^le consist- 
ed of tithes (q. v.), the first-fruits (q. v.), and 
the redemption-money paid by the first-born 
to be redeemed for the service of the priest- 
hood and the Temple, which were perform- 
ed by the tribe of Levi.^ There were also 
free-will offerings, one of which was later 
converted by the Pharisees into a perma- 
nent tax. When the kingdom was organ- 
ized it involved a heavier expenditure, and 
therefore a heavier taxation. The chief 
burdens appear to have been (1), a tithe of 
the produce, both of the soil and of live 



1 Nuiub. iii., 44-51 



TE DEUM 



922 



TEMPERANCE 



stock ; (2), forced military service for a 
month every year; (3), gifts to the king; 
(4), import duties ; (5), the monopoly of 
certain branches of commerce ; (6), the ap- 
propriation to the king's use of the early 
crop of hay.^ At times, too, in the history 
of both kingdoms, there vs^ere special bur- 
dens. A tribute of fifty bushels a head had 
to be paid by Menahem to the Assyrian 
kiug,^ and under his successor, Hoshea, this 
appears to have assumed the form of an an- 
nual tribute. 

2. Foreign. — When the Jews were brought 
under foreign domination they were subject, 
of course, to the foreign system of taxation. 
In general, in Oriental countries in the pres- 
ent day, taxes are collected by farming out 
districts. The Government sells the right 
to collect the taxes in a given province to a 
capitalist, who pays a given sum, and then 
collects from the people what he can get, 
frequently dividing up a province and sell- 
ing it again to sub-contractors. This sys- 
tem, still pursued by the Turkish Govern- 
ment, was that in vogue under the Egyp- 
tian, Syrian, and Roman governments.^ The 
taxation under the latter was intolerably 
grievous and oppressive. Every thing in a 
Roman province was taxed. Every article 
exported paid for the privilege of going out ; 
every article imported paid for the privilege 
of coming in ; every article sold paid a tax 
of one per cent, on the purchase-money ; ev- 
ery slave twice that amount ; to manumit 
him cost his owner five per cent, additional ; 
every house paid one tax ; every door in it 
another ; every column which adorned it a 
third ; every man of property paid for its 
peaceable possession a tax, ranging some- 
times as high as twelve per cent. ; every 
poor man paid, for the privilege of living, a 
poll-tax practically determined by the greed 
of the gatherer and the ability of his vic- 
tim ; and, finally, every old bachelor paid a 
special tax for the privilege of his inde- 
pendence. As a part of the system of taxa- 
tion, it was customary to make, on certain 
occasions, an enrollment of the people, an- 
swering to our census. It is to such an en- 
rollment reference is had in Luke ii., 1-3, 
and Acts v., 37. Joseph went u]) to Bethle- 
hem, not to pay a tax, but to report himself, 
his employment, his property, etc., to the Ro- 
man officers. 

Te Deum (TJwe, God), a well-known 
hymn, whose opening words, Te Deum lau- 
damus — "We praise thee, O God" — gives to 
it its title. It is one of the most simple, 
and at the same time the most solemn and 
majestic, in the whole range of Christian 
hymnology. Its authorship is uncertain. 
An ancient chronicle describes the Te Deum 
as the joint production of Ambrose and Au- 

1 1 Sam. viii., 12, 15, 17 ; x., 2T ; xvi., 20 ; xvii., 18 ; 1 
Kin.2;s ix., 22, 28 ; x., 15, 28, 2!) ; xxii., 48 ; Amos vii., 1. 
—2 2 Kings XV., 20 ; xvii., 4. — ^ gee Publicans. 



gustine, into which they both burst forth 
by a common inspiration, on occasion of the 
baptism of Augustine ; but this tradition iSj 
of course, not accepted by intelligent minds. 
It is found in the Roman Catholic ritual in 
its Latin form, from which it has been trans- 
ferred to the Episcopal Prayer-book. In the 
morning service of the latter Church it is 
usually said or sung every Sabbath morn- 
ing, but in the English translation. 

Tekoa, Tekoah (pitching, viz., of tents), a 
town of Judah, six Roman miles south-east 
from Bethlehem. Tekoa was from compar- 
atively early times a place of some impor- 
tance. The wise woman employed by Joab 
in connection with the affair of Absalom 
was brought from it ;^ in the next genera- 
tion it was one of the places fortified by 
Rehoboam for purposes of defense ; and it is 
referred to by Jeremiah as a fitting position 
from which, in a time of danger, the war- 
trumpet should be sounded. It is also dis- 
tinguished as the birthplace of the prophet 
Amos. Tekoa still retains its ancient ap- 
pellation, Tekua, but it is no more than a 
ruined site on the north-eastern slope of a 
high ridge, where the Arabs pasture their 
flocks. [2 Chron. xi., 6 ; Jer. vi., 1 ; Amos 
i.,L] 

Tema (desert), a son of Ishmael, and the 
founder of a tribe, which bore his name. 
This district lay on the northern part of 
Arabia Deserta, on the borders of the Desert 
of Syria, and the name is still preserved in a 
small town called Teyma, which is mention- 
ed by several Eastern geographers. [Gen. 
XXV., 1.5 ; Job vi., 19 ; Isa. xxi., 14.] 

Teman (desert), the eldest son of Eli,- 
phaz, and grandson of Esau. His descend- 
ants were called Temani, or Temauites; they 
were noted for their wisdom and their valor, 
and formed the stronghold of Idumean pow- 
er ; they are therefore specially mentioned in 
the predictions against Edom. The district 
itself is nowhere exactly defined ; but from 
the import of the name it may be inferred to 
have formed the more southerly portion of 
Idumea. [Gen. xxxvi., 11, 15, 42 ; 1 Chron. 
i., 36 ; Jer. xlix., 7 ; Amos i., 12 ; ©bad. 9.] 

Temperance. The words temperance and 
sobriety are not used in the Bible in the lim- 
ited sense which modern usage has attached 
to them, of abstinence from alcoholic liquors, 
but in the more general sense of self-control. 
They are, indeed, nearly synonymous, as are 
the two Greek words which in the N.T. they 
respectively translate. Temperance is used 
to translate a word signifying literally 
mastery, and denotes that kind of moral 
force, the highest and the best, which 
makes a man the master of his own appe- 
tites and passions. Sobriety is used to trans- 
late a word signifying soundness of mind, 
and so indicates that mental health which 
characterizes the man whose appetites and 
1 2 Sam. xiv., 2. ~ 



TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES 



923 



TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES 



passions are under the control of his will, 
and are guided by his reason. Temperance 
or sobriety, as indicating the virtue of self- 
control, is combined by the apostle, in Titus 
ii., 12, with righteousness, or right conduct 
toward one's neighbor, and godliness, or 
right relations toward God, the combination 
constituting the whole sum of human virtue. 

Temperance Societies, societies for the 
prevention of the use of ardent or intoxi- 
cating liquors as a beverage. Something 
analogous to the temperance or total ab- 
stinence society of mod<irn times existed in 
the O. T. days in the Nazarites (q. v.) and 
the Rechabites (q. v.). Bnt these organiza- 
tions, if organizations they can be called, 
were not, apparently, based so distinctly on 
the idea that all use of liquors as a beverage 
is injurious, as upon the doctrine, ascetic in 
its character, that the refusal of a harmless 
enjoyment tends to the development of piety 
and to religious growth. However this may 
be, the modern total abstinence societies 
date from the commencement of the present 
century, and took their origin in this coun- 
try. In 1808 the first society of this charac- 
ter appears to have been founded at Moreau, 
Saratoga County, New York. Its principles 
would hardly be acceptable to modern tem- 
perance men ; for, although the pledge which 
all its members signed prohibited them 
from drinking " rum, gin, whisky, wine, or 
any distilled spirits, or compositions of the 
same," an exception was made not only in 
cases of sickness, but also in favor of public 
dinners. It may be readily imagined that 
a society which permitted public drinking 
to be countenanced by its own members did 
not accomplish very much for reformation. 
Eighteen years later (1826) the American 
Temperance Union was formed in Boston; 
three years later a similar temperance socie- 
ty was formed in New York; and before the 
close of the year nearly if not quite one 
thousand local societies had been organized 
at various points throughout the country. 
For the most part, however, these societies 
did not require total abstinence, except from 
distilled spirits; and it was not until 1836 
that the broader principle, that alcohol in 
all its forms is a poison, and should be used 
only as a medicine, was adopted. 

In 1840 the Washingtonian movement was 
originated by seven hard drinkers, who met 
at a tavern at Baltimore, and then and there 
resolved to drink no more. They formed a 
society for the propagation of total -absti- 
nence principles among those who, like 
themselves, had been hard drinkers. The 
movement thus originated rapidly over- 
spread the land, reclaiming thousands from 
drunkenness to sobriety. It depended al- 
together on moral suasion and the pledge ; 
temperance lecturers traveled from town to 
town, one of the most effectual among them 
— Mr. John H. W. Hawkins — being one of 



the original seven, lecturing on temperance, 
and offering the pledge at the close of their 
meetings for the audience to sign. Out of 
this movement grew the secret temperance 
societies of modern times, of which the most 
important are the Good Templars and the 
Sons of Temperance. They have lodges anal- 
ogous to those of the Masons and the Odd 
Fellows; in most of the larger towns require 
subscription to a pledge by all their mem- 
bers, employ pass-words and mystic signs, 
allow no one except members at their pri- 
vate meetings, and depend chiefly on such 
direct personal influence as they can exert 
on the fallen and the tempted. In addition 
to these societies, mention should be made of 
the National Temperance Society and Pub- 
lication House, Avhich was organized in the 
city of New York about ten years ago, and 
which, besides two periodicals, publishes 
annually a large amount of temperance lit- 
erature in the form of tracts and books, es- 
pecially for the young. 

In 1851 the temperance movement in the 
United States assumed a new phase. The 
State of Maine passed a law absolutely pro- 
hibiting the sale of liquors to be used as 
beverages, and ai^pointiug State agents in 
every town, who were alone permitted to 
sell liquor, and who were placed under bonds 
not to sell for any other than mechanical 
and medicinal purposes. The undoubted 
effect of this law was to close the public 
bars ; what its actual effect has been upon 
drunkenness is a disputed point. Similar 
legislation has been adopted by other States 
— ten or twelve in all — but now remains in 
force in only four or five. Such laws are 
known in popular parlance as prohibitory 
laws, or sometimes, from their origin, as 
Maine laws. More recently two other forms 
of legislation have been proposed as a means 
of checking intemperance. One of these, 
known as the Local Option law, gives to 
the authorities of each town the right to 
prohibit the sale of liquor in their dis- 
cretion ; the other, recently adopted in Ohio 
and Illinois, renders the liquor seller and the 
shop which is rented or owned by him lia- 
ble in damages for all injuries inflicted by, 
or on any person, in consequence of becom- 
ing intoxicated there. 

A still later phase of the temperance 
movement is the establishment of inebriate 
asylums for the cure of inebriety. The in- 
satiable appetite for strong drink, sometimes 
caused by inheritance, sometimes by habit, 
is regarded as a physical disease by many 
physicians, and as requiring, in addition to 
moral motives, physical remedies. The rem- 
edies afforded by such asylums are total ab- 
stinence, absolute rest, good food, good air, 
moderate exercise, but no drugs. Such asy- 
lums are now established in many States of 
the Union, and the question of the estab- 
lishment of similar institutions by Govern- 



TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES 



924 



TEMPLARS 



ment in Great Britain is, at the time of our 
writing, under the consideration of Parlia- 
ment. 

In 1829 the temperance movement, which 
had already attained great power in this 
country, commenced in Great Britain, at 
first in Ireland and Scotland, but soon ex- 
tending to England. There the reformers 
were given the name of teetotalers, from 
the stuttering of one of their members in 
endeavoring to pronounce " total absti- 
nence." In 1839 a Roman Catholic priest 
commenced his labors as an apostle of tem- 
perance in the city of Cork. The immediate 
result of his labors was a total abstinence 
society, numbering one hundred and fifty 
thousand members, in that city; the final 
result has been the formation of Fatlier 
Mathew societies wherever the Irish Ro- 
man Catholic population have gone. 

The arguments employed by the temper- 
ance advocate against all use of intoxica- 
ting liquors are threefold — the Scriptural, 
the physiological, and the social. The Scrip- 
tural argument we have considered under 
the title Wine. The physiological argument 
is, briefly, that alcohol is in its nature a 
poison, and always a poison ; that it serves 
none of the proper functions of food, neither 
being able to add to the permanent heat nor 
to the healthy tissues of the body ; that it 
has an important function to fulfill in the 
animal economy, but that this function is 
medicinal purely, and that accordingly it 
should never be used except as a medicine. 
It appears to be tolerably clear that the 
stomach never digests alcohol, and very 
clear that, when taken in large quantities, 
it is a powerful poison ; the ablest physi- 
ologists are also agreed on purely scientific 
grounds that it is not properly food; but 
whether its use as a stimulant in moderate 
quantities is or is not beneficial, is a question 
on which there is such a balance of medical 
authorities that it can not be regarded as 
settled in a scientific point of viewl The 
social argument is, in brief, that the use of 
intoxicating liquors is the greatest of social 
evils ; that it produces lunacy, poverty, ig- 
norance, and crime ; that it tends to stimu- 
late the animal, and to degrade the mental 
and spiritual nature ; that this tendency, op- 
erating on an entire community, is accom- 
panied by the most disastrous results to its 
peace and well-being, and that for this rea- 
son even those who can indulge with safety, 
or even with profit (if there be any such), 
should be willing, for the sake of the general 
good, to deny themselves, and practice total 
abstinence. 

Some statistics, published in t\iQ Illustrated 
Christian Weekly (March 23, 1872), indicate 
the extent of this evil, as estimated carefully 
by those who are engaged in labors for its 
suppression. The results of these statist- 
ics, gathered from the census tax returns, 



are thus summed up by the writer in that 
paper : 



Yearly retail cost of liquors 

Labor wages, or value of time ot dealers 
and clerks , . . 

Loss of productive iudnstry to the coun- 
try of drunkards and tipplers 

Public support of 800,000 drunken pau- 
pers and children 

Costs of sicknesses by Intemperance, 
nursing, physicians' bills, and funeral 
charges of 60,000 drunkards, dying an- 
nually 

Taxation and expenses caused by 300,000 
intemperate criminals .* 

Burdens of some 300,000 maniacs and 
idiots ,• 

The extent of this evil is perhaps yet 
more strikingly indicated by the fjict 
that the revenues of the United States, 
including heavy burdens for the war 
debt, are $400,000,000 a year; while the 
cost and resulting wastes from intox- 
icating liquors are estimated at im- 
mensely more than three times that 
amount, or, per year 



$616,814,490 
250,000,000 
225,000,000 
100,000,000 

Unknown. 
Unknown. 
Unknown. 



1,200,000,000 



Since this article was written, a new and re- 
markable phase of the temperance movement 
has appeared, and is now in progress in the 
United States: it is popularly known as the 
" woman's movement." This commenced in 
Ohio, in the villages of Washington Court- 
house and Hillsboro'. Women's leagues were 
formed for the purpose, first of securing sig- 
Tiatures to temperance pledges, then to per- 
suade the liquor sellers to abandon their bus- 
iness. For this purpose the women united 
in prayer - meetings, placing their reliance 
wholly upon moral measures carried out in 
the spirit of love and good-will, and in trust 
upon the direct presence and help of God. 
In this spirit they visited the various liquor 
saloons, groceries, and druggists, appealing 
to the proprietors to abandon their busi- 
ness. The requests not being granted, they 
asked permission to hold meetings for prayer 
in the saloons. When this permission was re- 
fused, the prayer-meetings were held on the 
sidewalks. The movement extended through- 
out the State, and into the adjoining States 
of Pennsylvania and Indiana, and, in a less 
degree, into other parts of the Union. 

The results were extraordinary. In less 
than six months' time it was reported that 
2500 saloons had been voluntarily closed by 
their proprietors; and in 250 towns every 
liquor saloon was closed. A remarkable im- 
petus to the temperance movement was felt 
also in the Eastern States, Avhere, however, 
street and saloon prayer-meetings were not 
undertaken to any considerable extent. The 
movement is too recent to enable us to form 
any wise judgment as to the ultimate result ; 
but it is certain that it has for the time 
greatly reduced the liquor traffic, that it 
has given a new impulse to the temperance 
sentiment everywhere throughout the coun- 
try, and that it has imparted to it a more 
decidedly religious aspect and power. 

Templars, or Knights of the Temple, a 
religious order instituted at Jerusalem in 
the beginning of the twelfth century, for 



TEMPLE 



925 



TEMPLE 



the defense of the Holy Sepulchre, and the 
protection of Christian pilgrims. The order 
was founded by Baldwin II., then king of 
Jerusalem, with the concurrence of the pope. 
After the ruin of Jerusalem, about 1186, they 
spread themselves through Europe. The or- 
der flourished for some time, and acquired, 
by the valor of its knights, immense riches, 
and an eminent degree of military renown. 
But as their prosperity increased, their vices 
were multiplied ; and their arrogance, lux- 
ury, and cruelty rose at last to such a great 
height that the order was suppressed in 1312. 

The title Good Templars is assumed by a 
secret temperance organization in this coun- 
try, whose object is to promote the temper- 
ance cause by all legitimate means, especial- 
ly by moral influences. See Temperance 
Societies. 

Temple, a building dedicated to divine 
worship. This term is, however, employed 
in Biblical literature to designate the relig- 
ious edifice of the Jews in Jerusalem. There 
were three buildings successively erected in 
the same spot, and entitled, from the names 
of their builders, the Temple of Solomon, the 
Temple of Zerubbabel, and the Temple of 
Herod. 

The Temple of Solomon. — Until the reign 
of David, the tabernacle (q. v.) continued to 
serve as the central religious edifice of the 
nation. To David it seemed unfitting that 
God should "dwell within curtains" while 
he dwelt in a house of cedar, and early in 
his reign he proposed to erect a temple unto 
God, but by divine direction left this work 
to his son Solomon,^ who, with the co-opera- 
tion of Hiram, king of Tyre, commenced the 
work in the fourth year of his reign (B.C. 
1012), and completed it in seven years (B.C. 
1005). So complete were the previous prep- 
arations, that no sound of axe or hammer 
was heard about the building during its 
whole erection. There is peculiar difficulty 
in describing the result, partly because it 
was like no modern building, partly because 
the materials for such a description are some- 
what scant and not always congruous. It 
was not so much a building as a system of 
buildings, consisting not only of courts sep- 
arated from and rising one above another, 
but provided also with chambers for the use 
of the priests, wliich were appendages to the 
main edifice. On the eastern side was a col- 
onnade or cloister, which formed the only 
outward barrier. The later kings continued 
it all round ; but this alone was ascribed to 
Solomon, and his name, even in the time of 
the second Temple, gave to it, or the cloister 
built upon its ruins, the title of Solomon's 
Porch.^ This porch opened on a large quad- 
rangle, surrounded by a wall, made x>artly 
of stone, partly of cedar. Within this was 
a smaller court, on the highest ridge of the 
hill. Here was the sacred rock bought by 

> 2 Sam. vii.— 2 John x., 23 ; Acts iii., 11 ; v., 12. 



David from Araunah, the ancient Jebusite 
king, on the day of the cessation of the pes- 
tilence.^ On this platform rose the altar; 
probably the very one erected by David, as 
there is no special record of its elevation by 
Solomon. It was much larger than the 
ancient altar of the tabernacle, but was it- 
self to be displaced thereafter by a still 
larger one, as though it grew with the 
growth of the worship. South gf the altar 
was the brazen sea (q. v.). This was used 
for the ablutions of the priests, as they walk- 
ed to and fro barefooted over the rocky plat- 
form. On each side were the ten lesser mov- 
able vessels of brass, on wheels, for the wash- 
ing of the entrails. They are described with 
great detail, as if they were considered won- 
derful works of art.^ Round about the less- 
er court, in two or three stories, raised above 
each other, were chambers for the priests^ 
and other persons of rank, as in a college or 
monastery. In the corners were the kitch- 
ens and boiling apparatus.* Each had bra- 
zen gates.^ Thus far, on the whole, there 
was only an enlarged representation of the 
courts of the tabernacle. But behind the 
altar all was new. Immediately beyond 
arose the " Temple,"^ properly so called, the 
palace of the Lord. The outside view must, 
if we can trust the numbers, have been, ac- 
cording to modern notions, strangely out 
of proportion. In front towered the porch, 
to the prodigious height of more than two 
hundred feet. The front of this porch was 
ornamented by two great brazen pillars, en- 
titled Jachim and Boaz. Their golden ped- 
estals, their bright brazen shafts, their rich 
capitals, their light festoons, were thought 
prodigies of art so remarkable, that the Is- 
raelites were never weary of recounting their 
glories. The gates of the porch usually stood 
wide open. Hung round it, inside, were 
probably the shields and spears that had 
been used in David's army, perhaps also the 
sword and skull of the gigantic Philistine,'' 
which had originally been laid up in the 
tabernacle. Within, another pair of fold- 
ing-doors led into the Holy Place. It would 
have been almost dark, in spite of a few nar- 
row windows from above,^ but for an in- 
novation now first ventured upon. In the 
place of the original single seven - branch- 
ed candlestick, ten* now stood on ten gold- 
en tables, five on each side. The light of 
these revealed the interior. As without, 
so within, the whole was lined with wood ; 
the walls with cedar, the floors with cypress 
or deal.^" But the wood was overlaid with 
gold, and on this were sculptured forms — 



_ 1 2 Sam. xxiv., 21-25.— 2 1 Kings vii., 27-iO. See 
LiAVER.— 3 2 Chron. xxxi., 11; Jer. xxxvi., 10; Ezek. 
xl., 45; xlii., 1.—* Ezek. xlvi., 20-24.— ^ 2 Chron. iv., 
9.-6 Joel ii., IT; Ezek. viii., IG; Matt, xxiii., 35.~ 
^ 1 Sam. xvii., 54 ; xxi., 9 ; 1 Kings vii., 15-22 ; 2 Kin.^s 
xi., 10 ; xviii., 16 ; xxv., 17 ; 2 Chron. ill., 15-17 ; xxiii., 
9 ; xxix., 7 ; Isa. vi., 1 ; Jer. Iii., 21-2.3.— ^ 1 Kings vi., 
4.-9 1 Kings vii., 49 ; 2 Chrou. iv., 20.-1° 1 Kings vi., 
15, 18. 



TEMPLE 



926 



TEMPLE 




TEMPLE 



927 



TEMPLE 




f 



the cherub, with the alternate face of a man 
and of a lion, and the palm, the emblem of 
Palestine. At the end of the chamber were 
the two symbols of nourishment and feast- 
ing — the shew -bread and the altar of in- 
cense. A "wall of partition," penetrated 
by folding-doors of olive-wood, over which 
hung a party-colored curtain, embroidered 
with cherubs and flowers,^ shut in the in- 
nermost sanctuary, the Holy of Holies. He 
who, in the progress of the building, vent- 
ured to look in, would have seen a small 
square chamber, absolutely dark, except by 
the light received through this aperture. 
But in the darkness two huge golden forms 
would have been discerned, in imitation, on 
a grand scale, of the cherubs which had form- 
ed the covering of the ancient ark. But, un- 
like those movable fig- 
ures, these stood firm 
on their feet, one on 
the north, one on the 
south side, waiting to 
receive the ark, which 
was destined to occu- 
py the vacant space be- 
tween them. To mark 
the sanctity of this 
extremity of the Tem- 
ple, the chambers for 
the priests, which ran 
round the rest of the 
building, were not al- 
lowed to lean against 
the outer walls of the 
sanctuary; a passage 
was left free all round 
it outside. The dedi- 
cation of this Temple, 
the grandest religious 
event in the history 
of the Jews between 
the giving of the Law 
on Mount Sinai and 
the crucifixion of their 
Messiah, is described 
in detail in 1 Kings 
viii. ; 2 Chron. vi. Th 
to be the central place of worship for all Ju- 
dea until its destruction by Nebuchadnez- 
zar, B.C. 586.^^ Even during their captivity, 
the Jews continued to pray toward its an- 
cient site.^ 

Temple of Zeruhhahel. — We have very few 
particulars regarding the Temple which the 
Jews erected after their return from the 
Captivity (about B.C. 520), and no descrip- 
tion that enables us to realize its appear- 
ance. It was about one -third larger than 
Solomon's Temple, but probably far inferior 
to it in gold and carving and elaborate or- 
nament. The dimensions are given in Ezra 
vi., 3, 4, but no full description of its char- 
acter. 



Temple of Herod. — Herod, on his accession 
to the throne of Judah, found the Temple in 
a state of ruin. Partly from a personal fond- 
ness for architectural display ; partly from 
an ambition to eclipse the grandeur of Ju- 
dah's most resplendent king, Solomon ; part- 
ly from a politic desire to ingratiate himself 
with the Jewish people, he inaugurated his 
reign by measures for the rebuilding of the ru- 
ined Temple. A thousand wagons were pre- 
pared ; ten thousand skilled workmen were 
gathered from the various parts of Pales- 
tine ; a thousand priests were especially in- 
structed in the arts of the stone-cutter and 
the carpenter. It was forty -six years be- 
fore the last workman finally left the sacred 
edifice. The result was a temple whose ar- 
chitectural magnificence has, perhaps, never 



Wm\ ' 




COURT OF CCNTILES 



W 



■mm. 



E 




» 1 Kings vi., 31 ; 2 Chron. iii., 14. 
-3 Dan. vi., 10. 



See Zedekiah. 



Plan of Herod's Temple, 



been surpassed in ancient or modern times. 
It consisted of a series of courts, one within 
and rising above the other. On the apex 
of the hill it crowned the city, which by its 
presence it made the Holy City. To the 
traveler approaching Jerusalem it was the 
most prominent object of sight, as to the 
Jew everywhere it was the most prominent 
object of a reverential affection. It covered 
an area of over nineteen acres. St. Peter's, 
of Rome, and St. Paul's, of London, combined, 
cover an area not quite so large. The ma- 
terial was white marble, the roof cedar, the 
architecture probably an admixture of the 
Greek and Roman. Huge gates, magnifi- 
cently ornamented, admitted the worshiper, 
who had ascended the holy hill to its outer 
court, which, as the reader will see by refer- 
ence to the annexed ground-plan, complete- 



TEMPTATION OF OUR LORD 928 TEMPTATION OF OUR LORD 



ly encircled the Temple proper within. En- 
tering on the southern side, the visitor found 
himself in the largest of these courts, the 
Stoa Basilica. Alone it comprised an area 
larger than the largest of the English ca- 
thedrals. Four rows of marble pillars of 
dazzling brightness supported a roof whose 
beams and boards of cedar were elaborate- 
ly carved, and divided the court into three 
aisles, like those of a Gothic cathedral. The 
floor was a mosaic of many-colored stones. 
A marble balustrade, magnificently carved, 
surrounded the Temple proper, which was 
built within this court, and raised a few 
steps above it. Inscriptions in Greek and 
Latin forbade the heathen from advancing 
farther under pain of death. But the priv- 
ileged Jew, ascending a flight of steps, and 
passing through one of the richly-ornament- 
ed doors which admitted to the sacred in- 
closure (one of which, the Beautiful Gate of 
the Temple, is referred to in Acts iii., 21), 
found himself in the true Temple, with its 
terraced courts of the women of Israel and 
of the priests, rising one above the other; 
with its doors of cedar and of brass, cover- 
ed with carving and richly gilded ; with its 
treasury-boxes for the gifts, its golden and 
marble tables for the shew-bread, its silver 
table covered with the golden and silver 
utensils for the Temple service, its altar for 
the burnt -offerings, and its inmost temple, 
itself the size of an ordinary modern church, 
within which was the Holy of Holies, veiled 
from even priestly gaze by the impenetrable 
curtain so mysteriously rent in the hour of 
Christ's crucifixion. It was from the outer 
court of this Temple, known as the Court of 
the Gentiles, from the fact that it was the 
only portion of the Temple which Gentiles 
could enter, that Christ twice drove the cat- 
tle and the money-changers ; and it was here 
that he, and subsequently the apostles, car- 
ried on the work of teaching the people.' 
The internal arrangements of the interior 
of the Temple did not, probablj^, differ ma- 
terially from that of Solomon's. It perished 
in the destruction of Jerusalem (q. v.), and 
its site is now occupied by a Mohammedan 
mosque. For the cut which accompanies 
this article we are indebted to J. B. Ford 
& Co., the publishers of Henry Ward Beecli- 
er's " Life of Jesus the Christ," from which 
work it is taken. Though it can not be de- 
pended on as an exact representation of the 
edifice, yet it portrays to the eye the result 
of the best conjectures of scholars, and gives, 
probably, as accurate an idea as we are now 
able to form of this magnificent edifice. 

Temptation of our Lord. One of the 
most singular and mysterious scenes in the 
whole Biblical narration is that of the temp- 
tation of Jesus Christ at the commencement 
of his public ministry, and immediately after 



» Matt, xxi., 12, 13, 23 ; Luke xxiv., 53 ; Johu ii., 14, 
15 ; Acts v., 21, 42. 



his baptism. Innumerable attempts to ex- 
plain the occurrence have been made ; and 
it has been treated on the one hand as a 
mythological and allegorical account of a 
real but inexplicable spiritual struggle, and 
on the other as the record, in symbolical 
language, of a literal but earthly tempta- 
tion, which in fact proceeded from the Jew- 
ish Sanhedrim, Satan being, according to 
this hypothesis, one of the delegation which 
had been sent from Jerusalem to inquire 
into the character of the preaching of Johu 
the Baptist.^ We lay aside all such hy- 
potheses as quite untenable; believing, as 
all must believe who accept the Bible as 
the Word of God, that the account is a 
veritable historical narrative of an event 
which really occurred, although the descrip- 
tion of the event may be couched in figu- 
rative lauguage. It is, for example, hard- 
ly possible that Christ was really asked 
to worship Satan, or that he was literally 
shown all the kingdoms of the earth from 
any mountain. Such a sight could only be 
afforded in a vision, and it is difficult to 
conceive how, to a nature such as that of 
Christ, even as a man, the proposition to 
worship Satan could afford any real temp- 
tation. The sin is too gross, and would be 
abhorrent, even to the least of his followers. 
Assuming, however, the historical verity of 
the narrative, there remain several ques- 
tions which afford the Christian student 
some perplexity. The locality is entirely 
uncertain. Tradition points to a wild and 
desolate region in the neighborhood of Jeri- 
cho called Quarantana. This tradition is 
confirmed by the fact that this region was 
in the vicinity of the place where John 
was baptizing, but nothing else in Scrip- 
ture throws any light on the question of the 
locality. Whether the devil appeared to 
Christ in bodily form, is a disputed question 
which can never be settled. Many evan- 
gelical critics, believing that his visible ap- 
pearance would itself operate to neutralize 
his power, which depends largely upon the 
fact that we do not readily recognize the 
source whence his suggestions of evil come, 
think that the thoughts were suggested to 
the mind of Christ as they are to ours — by 
his invisible agency — but that Christ's purer 
spirit recognized the origin of these sugges- 
tions and instantly rejected them. The true 
interpretation of the temptation itself is at- 
tended with great difficulty. Many Chris- 
tian scholars believe that Christ was not 
literally and in a physical manner taken ei- 
ther to a pinnacle of the Temple to cast him- 
self down, or to an exceeding high mount- 
ain to be shown the kingdoms of the earth. 
Whether we regard these events as literally 
taking place, or only as occurring in a vis- 
ion, as in the case of the revelations to the 
ancient prophets, the signification of the 



1 Johu i., 19-22. 



TEN COM:MAm)MENTS 



929 



TEN COMMANDMENTS 



temptation is the same. And it is well 
noted that the three temptations cover, so 
to speak, the circuit of human experience — 
the first appealing to the body through the 
appetites ; the second, to the love of ap- 
plause ; the third, to the ambition for power 
and success ; the first iuvitiug to the com- 
mission of an act not in itself sinful, and 
only to be condemned because Christ had 
subjected himself to the condition of human 
life, and it did not accord with his incarna- 
tion to work miracles for himself; the sec- 
ond to an act of more doubtful propriety, 
but for which it might be plausibly argued , 
that it would at once insure his acceptance j 
as the Messiah by the Jews ; the third to an j 
act for which there was and could be no jus- I 
tification or palliation. It should be added 
that these temptations were repeated in con- 
stantly varying forms throughout Christ's 
career. He had not where to lay his head, 
and his poverty and tha^t of his disciples 
constantly appealed to him to exert his mi- 
raculous powers on his and their behalf; he 
was repeatedly asked by the Pharisees to 
work miracles for the purpose of exhibit- 
ing his power and proving his Messiahship, 
and uniformly declined; and at any time, 
at least in the earlier part of his career, he 
might have won an instant earthly success, 
and secured the universal suffrages of his 
nation, if he would have consented to hu- 
mor their prejudices and their sins, and thus 
by a course of what would ordinarily be 
termed worldly policy, ally himself to the 
powers of evil. For any more detailed dis- 
cussion of the meaning of the temptation, 
the reader must be referred to the various 
Lives of Christ, and to the Commentaries. 
[Matt, iv., 1-11 ; Mark i., 12, 13 ; Luke iv., 
1-13.] 

Ten Commandments. The Hebrew terms 
rendered in our Bible the Ten Command- 
ments, mean, literally, the ten words or say- 
ings ; but as the Hebrew substantive often 
denotes a mandate, the common English 
rendering may be justified. They are call- 
ed the Law, the Words of the Covenant, the 
Tables of the Covenant, simply The Cove- 
nant, and the Two Tables. The most fre- 
quent name for them in the O. T. is the Tes- 
timony, or the Two Tables of the Testimony. 
In the N. T. they are called simply the Com- 
mandments. The name Decalogue is found 
first in Clement of Alexandria, and was com- 
monly used by the Fathers who followed him. 
We can hardly doubt that the number ten 
was in itself significant to Moses and the 
Israelites. The accepted symbol of com- 
pleteness, it taught the people that the law 
of Jehovah was perfect. The division into 
two tables answered to that summary which 
both Moses and Christ made of the Law into 
two precepts ; so that the first table con- 
tained duties to God, and the second duties 
to oirr neighbor. But the Scriptures do not 
59 



by any direct statements enable us to de- 
termine with precision how the Ten Com- 
mandments are severally to be made out, 
nor how they are to be allotted to the Two 
Tables. On each of these points various 
opinions have been held. That arrange- 
ment with which we are familiar from child- 
hood is only one of three modes, handed 
down from the ancient Jewish and Chris- 
tian churches, to say nothing of modern the- 
ories, and other variations of division used 
at this day by Jews and Roman Catholics. 

1. The modern Jews, following the Talunid, 
take the words which are often called the 
Preface, viz., " I am Jehovah thy God, which 
brought thee out of the land of Egypt, from 
the house of bondage,">as the first command- 
ment, and the prohibitions both against hav- 
ing other gods, and against idolatry, as the 
second ;^ the rest being arranged as with us. 

2. The Roman Catholic and Lutheran church- 
es, following St. Augustine, regard the first 
commandment as embracing all the above 
words, in one comprehensive law against 
false worship and idolatry. Thus our third 
commandment is their second, and so on to 
our ninth, which is their eighth. They then 
make our tenth, against coveting, their ninth 
and tenth. 3. The arrangement adopted by 
the Greek and English churches, following 
Philo, Josephus, and Origen, and all the Lat- 
in fathers, makes the law against having 
other gods besides Jehovah the first com- 
mandment, and that against idolatry the sec- 
ond. There are also three principal divis- 
ions of the Two Tables: (1.) That of the 
Roman Catholic Church, which makes the 
First Table contain three commandments, 
closing with the Sabbath law according to 
their division, and the Second the other sev- 
en. (2.) The familiar division, which re- 
fers the first four to our duty toward God, 
and the other six to our duty toward man. 
(3.) The division recognized by the old Jew- 
ish writers, Josephus and Philo, which places 
five commandments in each table ; and thus 
preserves the pentade and decade grouping 
which pervades the whole code. To these 
Ten Commandments we find in the Samar- 
itan Pentateuch an eleventh added, being 
substantially the command recorded in Deut. 
xxvii., 1-8. The interpolation has every 
mark of being a bold attempt to claim for 
the schismatic worship on Gerizim the sol- 
emn sanction of the voice on Sinai, to place 
it on the same footing as the ten great 
sayings of God. 

We have two distinct statements of the 
Ten Commandments — one in Exod. xx., 1- 
17, and one in Deut. v., 6-21 — apparently of 
equal authority, but differing from each oth- 
er in several particulars. Which actually 
were the words of Jehovah that were en- 
graven upon the Tables of Stone ? Each is 
said with reiterated emphasis to contain the 



1 Exod. XX., 2-6; Deut. v., 6-10. 



TEN COMMANDMENTS 



930 



TERAH 



words that were written by the Lord/ Most 
commentators have supposed that the orig- 
inal document was in Exodus, and that the 
copy in Deuteronomy was made from mem- 
ory, with variations suggested at the time. 
Others think that Denteronomy must fur- 
nish the more correct form, since the tables 
must have been in actual existence when 
the book was written ; but neither of these 
views can be fairly reconciled with the state- 
ments in Exodus and Deuteronomy to which 
reference has been made. A coujecture which 
deserves respect has been put forth by E wald, 
who supposes that the original command- 
ments were all given in the terse and sim- 
ple form in which the first, sixth, seventh, 
eighth, and ninth still appear in both Exo- 
dus and Deuteronomy, a form such as would 
be most suitable for recollection, and that 
the passages in each copy in which the most 
important variations are found were inspired 
comments added Avhen the books were writ- 
ten. In reference to the most important of 
these differences — that relating to the rea- 
son for the observance of the Sabbath — the 
thoughts are in no degree discordant, and 
each sets forth what is entirely worthy of 
and consistent with the divine Law. Slight- 
er verbal or literal variations, with no im- 
portant difference of meaning— such as Iceep 
for remember — may, perhaps, be ascribed to 
copyists. 

The circumstances in which the Ten Com- 
mandments were first given to the people 
surrounded them with an awe which attach- 
ed to no other precept. In the midst of 
the cloud, and the darkness, and the flash- 
ing lightning, and the fiery smoke, and the 
thunder like the voice of a trumpet, Moses 
was called to receive the divine Law. No 
other words were proclaimed in like man- 
ner ; of no other words could it be said that 
they were engraven u^Don stone ^' by the fin- 
ger of God." It is, moreover, to be observed 
that the Decalogue, in respect to its subject- 
matter, does not set forth what is local, or 
temporary, or peculiar to a single nation. 
Its two tables are a standing declaration of 
the true relation between morality and re- 
ligion for all nations and ages. The fourth 
commandment is, in its principle, no excep- 
tion to this. The Decalogue belonged to 
the Israelites, not because the truths ex- 
pressed in it were exclusively theirs, but be- 
cause it was revealed to them in a special 
manner. 

The moral significance and completeness 
of the Ten Commandments is well brought 
out in the following re-statement of them, 
which we copy from the " Corner-Stone :"^ 

I. Duty to God. 
First Commandment.— 1. Your Maker must be the 
highest object of your interest and affecliou. Allow 



1 Exod. XX., 1 ; xxiv., 12; xxxi., 18; xxxii., 15, 16; 
Deut. iv., 13; v., 4, 5, 22; ix., 10. — 2 The " Corner- 
Stoue," by Jacob Abbott. Harper & Brothers. 



nothing to take precedence of him ; but make it your 
first and great desire to please him and to obey his 
commands. 

Second and Third Commandments. — 2. You are nev- 
er to speak of him lightly or with irreverence, and 
you are not to regard any visible object as the repre- 
sentative of him. He is a spirit, invisible from his 
very nature, and you must worship him in spirit and 
in truth. 

Fourth Commandment. — S. Consecrate one day in 
seven to the worship of God and to your own relig- 
ious improvement. Entirely suspend, for this pur- 
pose, all worldly employments, and sacredly devote 
the day to God. 

II. DxncY TO Parents. 
Fifth Commandment.— Yon are placed in this world 
under the care of parents, whom God makes his vice- 
gerents, to provide for your early vi'auts, and to afford 
you protection. Now, you must obey and honor them. 
Do what they command you, comply with their wish- 
es, and always treat them with respect and afi"ection. 

III. Duty to Mankind. 

Keep constantly in view, in all your intercourse with 
men, their welfare and happiness, as well as your own. 
Conscientiously respect the rights of others, in regard, 

Sixth Commandment. — ^1. To the security of life. 

Seventh Commandment— 2. To the peace and hap- 
piness of the family. 

Eighth Commandment. — 3. To property. 

Ninth Commandment. — 4. To reputation. 

Tenth Commandment. — In keeping these commands, 
too, you must regulate your heart as well as your con- 
duct. God forbids the unholy desire as much as he 
does the unholy action. 

For a consideration of the question of the 
perpetuity of the obligation imposed by the 
Ten Commandments, see Law ; Sabbath. 

Tent, a movable dwelliug-place. Subse- 
quent to the erection of the tabernacle, the 
word is frequently applied to that sacred 
dwelling. The early migrations of man- 
kind and their j)astoral occupation would 
naturally lead to tent -life in the earliest 
ages. They were specially fitted for warm 
climates and pastoral life, where the dwell- 
er in them might locate himself according 
to his convenience by some springing well 
or under some shady tree. Skins may have 
been used for the covering of tents; but 
more generally that cloth made of goats' 
hair of which we read, and which is still 
in general use. Hence they are described 
as black. The modern Arabian tents are 
of an oblong shape, varying in size accord- 
ing to the means and wants of the owner. 
Some are from twenty to twenty -five feet 
in length, ten feet broad, and probably eight 
or ten feet high in the middle, the sides slop- 
ing to throw off the rain. They are support- 
ed on poles, and kept steady by cords fasten- 
ed to pins driven into the ground. If a sin- 
gle tent is to accommodate a family, it is di- 
vided by curtains into two or more apart- 
ments. Carpets are spread upon the ground, 
and the various articles of property are dis- 
tributed, much being heaped about the cen- 
tral pole. The tents of great personages 
are often large and magnificent. See En- 
campment. [Gen. iv., 20 ; xviii., 4 ; xxv., 
11; Exod. xxvi., 14; xxxv., 26; xxxvi., 14; 
Judg. iv., 5 ; Sol. Song i., 5 ; Jer. xliii., 10 ; 
Acts xviii., 3.] 

Terah, the father of Abram, Nahor, and 
Haran. The account given of him in the 



TERAPHIM 



931 



THEATEE 



0. T. narrative is very brief. We learn from 
it simply that lie belonged to an idolatrous 
race, though he may not himself have been 
an idolater ; that he dwelt beyond the Eu- 
phrates, in Ur of the Chaldees, and that in 
the south-westerly migration, which, from 
some unexplained cause, he undertook in his 
old age, he went with his son Abram, his 
daughter-in-law Sarai, and his grandson 
Lot, "to go into the land of Canaan, and 
they came unto Haran, and dwelt there;" 
" and Terah died in Haran " at the age of 
two hundred and five years. [Gen. xi., 24- 
32; Josh.xxiv.,2.] 

Teraphim. This word is of frequent oc- 
currence in the Hebrew Scriptures, though 
it appears but seldom in our Bible. It is 
often translated " images," " idolatry," or the 
like, terajjkim being occasionally placed in 
the margin. A plural word, it is apparent- 
ly applied to one object as well as to sever- 
al. It denoted, without doubt, one of the 
earliest instruments of idolatrous worship, 
and one which might be used while the cor- 
ruption was of a comparatively simple kind. 
We have most re- 
markable proofs 
that the worship of 
the teraphim co-ex- 
isted even in pious 
families with the 
worship of Jeho- 
vah, and more than 
one instance of the 
wives of worship- 
ers of the true God, 
not satisfied with 
spiritual worship, 
carrying on some 
private symbolism 
with the teraphim. 
In the strange his- 
tory of Micah, of 
Mount Ephraim, 
terajihim are men- 
tioned, evidently as 
a sign of degenera- 
cy, and some gener- 
ations later Samu- 
el refers to them as 
a foul abomination. 
Their idolatrous 
character is very 
strongly shown by 
the Scripture no- 
tices of them, from two of which, Ezek. xxi., 
2, and Zech. x., 2, it seems clear that they 
were, at least in later times, employed for 
purposes of divination (q. v.). It would 
seem from Rachel's furtive appropriation of 
one, and from the substitution of another 
for David by Michal, that the teraphim were 
not large, resembled somewhat the human 
figure, and had not uncommonly a place 
among household goods. Nothing more def- 
inite as to their structure or use can be in- 




Tei-aphim. 



ferred from the notices we have of them. 
Originally, perhaps, they were merely a spe- 
cies of household images, used as helps to 
devotion, like the Roman Penates, or house- 
hold gods ; but came to be taken for a sort 
of talisman through which, in some way or 
another, the future might be divined, and 
hence were associated with idolatry in its 
most debasing and obnoxious forms. [Gen. 
xxxi., 19, 30, 32-35; xxxv., 24; Judg. xvii., 
5 ; 1 Sam. xv., 23 ; xix., 13, 16 ; 2 Kings xxiii., 
24; Hos. iii., 4.] 

Tetrarch (ruler of a fourth part), properly 
the sovereign or governor of the fourth part 
of a country. In the N. T. it apiDcars to have 
been applied to petty tributary princes with- 
out any such determinate meaning. Herod 
Autipas, Herod Philip, and Lysanias, are de- 
scribed as tetrarchs. [Matt, xiv., 1 ; Mark 
vi., 14, 22 ; Luke iii., 1, 19 ; ix., 7 ; Acts xiii., 

1.] 

Thaiiksgiving-day, a day almost univers- 
ally observed throughout the United States 
as one of religious thanksgiving and social 
festivity. It had its origin at Plymouth, 
Massachusetts, in 1623. Governor Bradford, 
after the gathering of the harvest that year, 
sent out men to get game, who brought it 
home in abundance. A feast was made, and 
to it was invited Massasoit and ninety of his 
Indians. Th e colonists, with overflowing and 
grateful hearts, "thanked God for the good 
things of this world," and there they kept 
the first Thanksgiving. The celebration thus 
commenced in New England has been con- 
tinued there ever since ; it gradually ex- 
tended into other States of the Union, being 
recognized and recommended by public proc- 
lamations issued by the governors of the sev- 
eral States. Up to the administration of 
Abraham Lincoln (1862) there was no agree- 
ment as to the clay, though it was always 
observed in the fall, and generally on a 
Thursday. Presiden»t Lincoln was the first 
president to recognize it as a national day, 
and recommend it by a presidential procla- 
mation ; and since that time it has been an- 
nually recommended by the President of the 
United States, as well as by the govern- 
ors of the several States, and thus uniform- 
ity has been introduced, and the day made 
a national one. It is usually observed with 
religious services in the churches in the 
morning, and with domestic festivities and 
reunions in the afternoon and evening. 

Theatre. The theatres of the ancients 
were usually semicircular in form and open 
to the air ; the seats were ranged round in 
tiers one above another, and the perform- 
ances took place on a stage level with the 
lowest seats on the straight side of the build- 
ing. These edifices were peculiarly fitted 
for public meetings, and were frequently so 
employed among the Greeks. Officers call- 
ed asiarchs were elected by the cities of 
the province of Asia to preside over their 



THEODICY 



932 



THEOLOGY 




Ruins of the Theatre at Ephesus, 

games and religious festivals. These asi- 
archs, or rulers of the games, were the '' chief 
of Asia," who restrained Paul from venturing 
into the theatre during the tumult/ The re- 
mains of the theatre mentioned in Acts xii., 
20-23, are still extant, and attest its vast di- 
mensions and its peculiarly convenient situ- 
ation. 

Thebes, a city of Egypt, famous for its 
monuments. It is known in the Bible only 
under the title of No. The only Scripture 
references to it are Jer. xlvi., 25 ; Ezek. xxx., 
14, 15, 16 ; Nah. iii., 8. Once a populous and 
wealthy city, it is to-day " a nest of Arab 
liovels amidst crumbling hovels and drifting 
sands.'' 

Theodicy (from TJteos, God, and diJce, jus- 
tice), a name given to the exposition of the 
theory of divine Providence, with a view es- 
pecially to the vindication of the attributes, 
and particularly of the sanctity aud jus- 
tice of God in establishing the present or- 
der of things, in which evil, moral as well as 
physical, so largely appears to prevail. The 
•name is of modern origin, dating from the 
close of the seventeenth or the beginning of 
the eighteenth century ; but this branch of 
philosophy, as well as the mysterious prob- 
lem which it undertakes to resolve, is as old 
as philosophy itself. 

Theology, the science of religion. In the 
restricted use of the term, it signifies only 
the science of God and of divine govern- 
ment; but it is now generally used in a 
more extended sense to iuclude the system- 
atic arrangement of all knowledge of or 
belief in sacred things. The sources from 
which theology is drawn are chiefl}^ three : 
our own moral intuitions, the facts of na- 
ture and Providence, and the Bible. Thus, 
for example, we must assume that God is 
truthful, not because his truthfulness has 
been revealed, for we could not believe the 



Acts xix., 31. 



revelation if we did not 
believe him to be true, 
but because our own 
moral instincts lead us 
inevitably to attribute 
truth to the Supreme 
Being ; we believe in his 
wisdom and power be- 
cause innumerable facts 
of nature combine to 
teach us that its creator 
and ruler is and must be 
possessed of those attri- 
butes; and we believe in 
his mercy and forgiving 
kindness because they 
are specially revealed to 
us in his Word. That 
knowledge which is de- 
rived from the first two 
""' ' ' " ' sources is termed natu- 

ral theology ; that which 
is derived from the latter is termed revealed 
religion, or revealed theology. In strict- 
ness of speech, however, theology can not 
be said to have been revealed. That is, 
the Bible does not contain a system of the- 
ology, but only the materials out of which 
the system is composed. It contains no 
creed, and even the most important doc- 
trines of the Christian religion, though the 
Christian world believes them to be all in 
the Scriptures, are not formulated into a 
system there. Thus, for example, the doc- 
trine of the Trinity is nowhere stated in the 
Bible in express terms as a doctrine. The 
only approach to such a statement is that 
contained in the famous passage, 1 John v., 
7, which is admitted by all Christian schol- 
ars to be no part of the original record, but 
a subsequent interpolation. The doctrine 
of the Trinity — three persons in one God — 
is the result of an attempt to harmonize the 
various teachings of the Scripture, which in 
some passages teach very clearly that there 
is but one God, while in others they impute 
the divine attributes and poAvers succes- 
sively to the Father, the Son, and the Holy 
Ghost. All believers in the Scripture in- 
stinctively endeavor to form a harmony be- 
tween these various passages, and whether 
they do this by recognizing the mystery of 
three persons in one God, or by so inter- 
preting each of these passages as to deny a 
proper deity to Jesus Christ and a real per- 
sonality to the Holy Spirit, a theology, i. e., 
a harmonious and systematized belief, is 
equally the result. The Bible itself, how- 
ever, contains no creed except the very gen- 
eral one, " Believe on the Lord Jesus Christ, 
and thou shalt be saved." The first creed 
of the Christian Church, called the Apostles' 
Creed, though there is no reason to believe 
that tlie apostles framed it, embodies no sys- 
tematic theology; it does not even formu- 
late such doctrines as those of the Trinity 



THEOPHILUS 



933 



THESSALONICA 



and tlie atonement. It simply states the 
great facts of the Bible revelation in sim- 
ple language. The first approximation to 
a theological statement of doctrine for the 
purpose of settling doubtful discussions is 
the Mcene Creed, which was formed in the 
beginning of the fourth century after Christ. 
Even this, however, did not embody the doc- 
trine of the Trinity in its present form. And 
when we inquire for the authoritative state- 
ments of the theology of the modern church- 
es, our inquiries do not carry us beyond the 
sixteenth century. The decrees of the Coun- 
cil of Trent, which constitute the authorita- 
tive statement of the Eoman Catholic theol- 
ogy, were framed about the middle of that 
century, and the symbols of the Reformed 
churches, the Lutheran, the Episcopalian, 
and the Presbyterian, were all perfected dur- 
ing that and the following century. For an 
account of the theology of different schools, 
see under their respective titles, as Eoman 
Catholic Church : EpiscoPALiAisrs ; etc. 

Theophilus {lover of God), a person to 
whom Luke addressed both his gospel and 
the book of Acts. It is wholly unknown 
who this person was. Some have supposed 
that it was not a proper name, but an imag- 
inary title, designating all those who love 
God. 

Thessalonians (Epistles to the). These 
epistles have been all but universally recog- 
nized as the undoubted work of Paul. The 
objections proposed by some German critics 
have not found acceptance even in Germany. 

An understanding of the object and nature 
of the epistles requires a brief statement re- 
specting the Church at Thessalonica. It was 
founded by St. Paul in company with Silas 
and Timothy.^ The apostle was received by 
the Thessalonians joyfully ; his stay appears 
to have been short; the burden of his message 
to have been the coming and the kingdom of 
our Lord.^ He left the city suddenly on ac- 
count of a tumult, but sent Timothy back 
to Thessalonica to ascertain the state of the 
faith of the Church.^ Paul had evidently 
been unable to complete his ministry, and 
the Thessalonians were beginning to be rest- 
less, in expectation of the day of the Lord, 
neglectful of their practical duties, and more 
anxious concerning the state of the dead 
than concerning the work of the living. The 
first epistle was written to correct these de- 
fects and misapprehensions ; but, despite it, 
the errors respecting Christ's second coming 
became more serious. The apostle had taught 
them that this event might occur at any 
time ; they claimed that it was actually at 
hand. Some professed to know by the Spir- 
it that it was so ; others alleged that Paul 
had said so when with them. A letter, too, 
purporting to be from the apostle to that ef- 



1 Acts xvii., 1-9.— 2 Comp. 1 Thess. i., 10 ; iv., 1.3-lS ; 
v., 1-11, with Acts xvii., 6, 7.-3 Comp. 1 Thess. iii., 2, 
with Acts xviii., 5. 



feet, seems to have been cu-culated among 
them.^ Some even neglected their daily 
business, and threw fcheniselves on the char- 
ity of others, as if their sole duty was to wait 
for the coming of the Lord. The apostle, 
therefore, in his second epistle, tells them 
(chap, ii.) that before the Lord shall come 
there must first be a great apostasy, and the 
Man of Sin be revealed ; that the Lord's sud- 
den coming is no ground for neglecting daily 
business ; that to do so would only bring 
scandal on the Church, and was contrary to 
his own practice among them (chap, iii., 7- 
9) ; and that the faithful must withdraw 
themselves from such disorderly professors 
(chap, iii., 6, 10-15). In both letters the 
salutations of both Silas and Timothy are 
united with that of Paul.^ Silas and Timo- 
thy were with Paul in Corinth, but appear 
not to have left that city with him.^ It is 
therefore presumed that both letters were 
written from Corinth. This would bring 
their date somewhere between the winter of 
A.D. 52 and the spring of a.d. 54. 

Eationalists have sometimes brought it as 
an objection against the inspiration of the 
apostle that he appears to regard the second 
coming of Christ as near at hand. If he had 
undertaken to foretell the day or year, and 
history had proved him mistaken, the objec- 
tion would be a fatal one ; but he does noth- 
ing of the sort ; he even rebukes those who 
do ; and those who bring this objection for- 
get that all Christians are required by the 
Gospel to live in constant expectation of the 
coming of Christ, the day and hour of which 
no man knows. 

Thessalonica, a city of Macedonia, and 
in Eoman times the capital of the second 
district of the province of Macedonia, and 
the residence of a Eoman prsetor. It is repre- 
sented to have been built on the site of the 
ancient Therme, or peopled from this city 
by Cassandra, son of Antipater, and named 
after his wife Thessalonik^, sister of Alex- 
ander the Great. Under the Eomans it be- 
came rich and populous, was a " free city," 
and in later writers bore the name of '' Me- 
tropolis." Before the founding of Constan- 
tinople it was virtually the capital of Greece 
and Illyricum, as well as of Macedonia, and 
shared the trade of the -^gean with Ephe- 
sus and Corinth. Its importance continued 
through the Middle Ages, and it is now the 
second city in European Turkey, with sev- 
enty thousand inhabitants, under the slight- 
ly corrupted name of Salonika.* 

The Church of Thessalonica was founded 
by Paul, in company with Silas and Timo- 
thy.^ The apostle came to them, yet suffer- 
ing from his persecution at Philippi. But 
they received the word joyfully, amidst tri- 
als and persecutions, and notwithstanding 



1 2 Thess. ii., 2.-2 1 Thess. i., 1 ; 2 Thess. i., 1.— 
3 Acts xviii.,5, 18. — ■* See Thessalonians (Epistles 
TO the).— 5 Acts xvii., 1-9. 



THEUDAS 



934 



THOMAS 




Thessalonica from the Sea. 



the enmity of tlieir own countrymen and of 
the Jews. The great burden of his message 
to them was the approaching coming and 
kingdom of the Lord Jesus ; his chief exhorta- 
tion, that they would walk worthily of their 
calling to that kingdom and glory. He left 
them, as we know from Acts xvii., 5-10, on 
account of a tumult raised by the unbeliev- 
ing Jews, and was sent away by night by 
the brethren to Berea, together with Silas 
and Timothy. 

Theudas, an insurgent to whom Gamaliel 
alludes in his prudent speech to the council 
at Jerusalem. Josephus mentions an out- 
break under a person of this name who pre- 
tended to be a prophet, and carried forth a 
multitude of followers to the Jordan. He 
was unexpectedly attacked, taken, and put 
to death by the Eomans. This, however, 
occurred a.d. 44, eleven or twelve years af- 
ter Gamaliel's speech. Skeptics have drawn 
from this the conclusion that Luke was mis- 
taken in his date, and hence that his whole 
narrative is unreliable. It is far more prob- 
able that Josephus misplaced his Theudas ; 
for he is often chargeable with inaccuracy. 
It is still more probable, however, that the 
two historians refer to two persons of the 
same name. Such impostures were not infre- 
quent at the time, and the name was a com- 
mon one. It is, at all events, hardly possible, 
considering the time and the circumstances 
of the writing of the Acts, and the evident 
supervision of them by Paul, the pupil of 
Gamaliel, that a gross historical mistake 
should have been here put into his mouth, 



even if we did not regard the writer as in- 
spired. [Acts v., 36.] 

Thomas (twin), also called Didymus, the 
Greek equivalent of Thomas, which is of 
Hebrew origin. He was one of the twelve 
apostles, and doubtless a Galilean by birth. 
Only three occurrences in his life, of any 
significance, are recorded in the N. T. ; but 
these indicate very clearly his nature, as 
that of a man possessed of an affectionate 
spirit but a skeptical mind, who loved much 
but believed little. When Chiist proposed 
to go up to Jerusalem, it was Thomas who, 
in the depth of an irrepressible sorrow, 
uncheered by any hope of resurrection, re- 
plied, "Let us go up that we may die with 
him." When in the last conference with his 
disciples Christ uttered that most precious 
word of promise, " In my Father's house are 
many mansions ; I go to prepare a place for 
you," it was Thomas who, unable to believe 
in a mansion which he could not see, re- 
plied, " We know not whither thou goest ; 
how can we know the way ?" And after 
Christ's death it was Thomas who, having 
abandoned the disciples in despair, could be 
induced to believe in the resurrection only 
by the visible appearance of the Lord to 
him.^ He has been well called the rational- 
ist among the disciples. In one sense we 
may say that it was providential that such 
a character should be numbered among the 
twelve, since we may be sure that the fact 
of the resurrection of Christ from the dead 
could never have been accepted by such a 



1 John xi., 16; xiv., 5; xx., 24-29. 



THORN 



935 



TIARA 



nature without tlie clearest and most con- 
vincing proof. Of his history subsequent 
to Christ's ascension nothing is known with 
any certainty ; the Syrian Christians, howev- 
er, claim him as the founder of their Church. 
Thorn. It would be very difficult to de- 
cide in every instance what plants are in- 
tended by the " briers and thorns " of the 
Bible. To the modern traveler the Holy 
Land presents a vast variety. On the cool 
slopes of Lebanon there is the Bosa spinosis- 
sima, and in the southern wadies is the Lyci- 
um sjjinosum, with its lilac flower and bright 
scarlet berries. The fields are infested by a 
prickly Ononis, or rest-harrow ; and trees or 
bushes of fiercely armed buckthorns, called 
nuhk, or 7iahk, by the Arabs, are of almost 
universal occurrence. Such predictions as 
Isa. vii., 23, 24 ; xxxii., 12-15 ; Hos. ix., 6, ac- 
quire additional force from the circumstance 
that it is so often in the midst of magnifi- 
cent ruins, once pleasant '^ tabernacles," or 
in regions which must formerly have been 
rich and fruitful fields, that these thorns 
and briers now maintain their undisputed 
and truculent empire. 




Thorn of Palestine. 



It seems impossible to identify with cer- 
tainty the plant employed in making the 
crown of thorns placed upon the brow of 
Christ. " The acanthus itself," says Dean 
Alford, " with its large, succulent leaves, is 
singularly unfit for such a purpose ; as is the 
plant with very long, sharp thorns, common- 
ly known as Spina Christi, being a hrittle 
acacia (rohinia), and the very length of the 
thorns, which would meet in the middle if 
it were bent into a wreath, precluding it. 
Some flexile shrub or plant must be under- 
stood, possibly some variety of the cactus, or 
l>rickly pear." 

The thorn in the flesh to which Paul re- 
fers^ has given rise to many conjectures. 
His meaning can not be positively deter- 
mined. The most probable hypothesis is 
that which refers it to some difficulty with 
his eyes. The miraculous light which sur- 
prised him on the road to Damascus, not 
only blinded him at the time, but left him 
without sight for three days. His subse- 



1 2 Cor. xii., 7. 



quent references to his bearing about in his 
own body the marks of the Lord Jesus 
Christ, to the early enthusiasm of the Gala- 
tians, who would have plucked out their 
own eyes and given them to him, and the 
fact that he wrote customarily by an aman- 
uensis,^ all indicate that he had some diffi- 
culty with the eye -sight, which may well 
have been a thorn in the flesh to such a 
one as himself. [Numb, xxxiii., 55 ; 2 Sam. 
xxiii., 6, 7 ; Prov. xv., 19 ; xxvi., 9 ; Ezek. 
xxviii., 24 ; Hos. ii., 6 ; 2 Cor. xii., 7.] 

Thugs, a Hindoo sect scattered through- 
out India, who get their food by murder. 
They deduce their origin and laws from the 
bloody goddess -Eaij, who, they allege, author- 
izes and commands them to i)ecome murder- 
ers and plunderers. They are also called 
Phansiagers, the instrument which they use 
when they murder peo];)le being a phansi 
(a noose), which they throw over the necks 
of those whom they intend to plunder, in 
order to strangle them. They are devoutly 
religious in the performance of divine wor- 
ship in honor of their guardian deity. Be- 
fore proceeding on one of their marauding 
expeditions they betake themselves to the 
temple of the goddess ; present their prayers 
and supplications and offerings there ; and 
vow, in the event of success, to consecrate to 
her service a large proportion of the booty. 
Should they not succeed, should they even 
be seized, convicted, and condemned to die, 
they exonerate the goddess from all blame, 
and ascribe the cause of failure wholly to 
themselves. 

Thyatira, a town of Lydia, situated on 
the river Lycus, between Pergamos and 
Sardis. It was a Macedonian colony ; and 
its chief trade was the dyeing of purple. 
There are inscriptions, too, yet existing of 
the guild of dyers at Thyatira. It is a re- 
markable confirmation of the sacred history, 
that we find Lydia of Thyatira a seller of 
purple in the Macedonian city of Philippi. 
One of the apocalyptic epistles is address- 
ed to the Christian Church here, in which 
a false and corrupting teacher termed '^Jez- 
ebel" (q. V.) is specially threatened. Thya- 
tira is still a considerable town, with many 
ruins, called Akliisar. [Acts xvi., 14; Rev. 
i., 11; ii., 18-29.] 

Thyine-Tvood, a costly aromatic wood 
mentioned among the merchandise of the 
mystical Babylon. It was used in various 
ornamental carvings, sometimes inlaid with 
ivory, and was highly prized by the ancients 
on account of its great beauty. It was 
doubtless the citrus of the Romans — the Cal- 
litris quadrivalvis of the modern botanists, a 
coniferous tree closely allied to our " arbor 
vitsB." The wood is of a dark color, close- 
grained and fragrant. [Rev. xviii., 12.] 

Tiara, the name of the pope's triple crown. 
The tiara and keys are the badges of the pa- 



Gal, iv., 15 ; vi., IT. 



TIBERIAS 



936 



TIBERIAS 



pal dignity — the tiara of his civil rank, and 
the keys of his jurisdiction ; for as soon as 
the pope is dead, his arras are represented 
with the tiara alone, without the keys. The 
tiara was a round high cap. John XIII. first 
encompassed it with a crown; Boniface VIII. 
added a second crown ; and Benedict XIII. 
a third. 

Tiberias, a town on the west shore of the 
Sea of Galilee, and toward the southern end 
of the sea. It is mentioned in the N. T. only 
by John, who also gives to the adjoining 
lake the name of Sea of Tiberias. Tiberias 
was not built till after the death of Herod 
the Great, but eventually, as we shall see, 
became a town of great importance, and the 
fact that it is not mentioned bv the other 



named by him in honor of the emperor Tibe- 
rias. Before the Roman war it had already 
become one of the most important towns in 
Galilee. Its ready submission to the Ro- 
mans secured its exemption from the general 
devastation which Vespasian inflicted on the 
Holy Land. It occupied, apparently, the 
site of some older city; at least Josephus 
tells us that many sepulchres had to be re- 
moved to make room for it. This circum- 
stance had caused it to be rejected by the 
Jews as unclean. But after the destruction 
of Jerusalem it became the refuge of the 
Jewish rabbis. The Sanhedrim was removed 
hither. It is said to have contained no few- 
er than thirteen synagogues ; and, in the be- 
ginning of the third century of the Christian 




T/'C>1 




Tiberias aud Lake, looldug to the North-east. 



evangelists, and that they never call the 
lake by its name, affords an incidental evi- 
dence of the early composition of their nar- 
ratives. The hills, which along the greater 
part of the Sea of Galilee come down close 
to the water's edge, on the south-west retire 
to some distance from the shore, leaving be- 
tween their base and the sea a small un- 
dulating plain of about two miles in length 
along the lake. At the northern extremity 
of this plain Tiberias was situated, sheltered 
from the high winds blowing from the west, 
with a fruitful plain beneath it stretching 
to the south, and enjoying, by its close prox- 
imity to the water, every advantage both 
for fishing and for trafiic. It was built by 
Herod Antipas, tetrarch of Galilee,^ and was 



Luke iii., 1. 



era, it became, under Rabbi Judah, " the 
holy," the great centre of Jewish theology 
and learning, one of the four holy cities of 
Palestine, Safed in the north, and Jerusalem 
and Hebron in the south, being the other 
three. And here Maimonides labored and 
died in later times, a.d. 1204. About two 
miles south from the town are the celebra- 
ted warm baths of Emmaus. The healthful 
qualities of these baths were early known, 
and are spoken of by Pliny and by Josephus. 
These baths were supposed to contain me- 
dicinal virtue, and rendered Tiberias a favor- 
ite resort of the Romans of Palestine during 
the time of Christ. They retain their fame 
to the present day, and in 1833 a large new 
bath-house was erected by Ibrahim Pasha on 
the spot. Notwithstanding the large portion 



TIBERIUS 



937 



TIMOTHY 



of Christ's ministry spent in this neighbor- 
hood, he does not appear ever to have visited 
Tiberias. The most probable explanation is 
to be found neither in the mixed character 
of the population nor in the supposed uu- 
cleanness of the city, but in the fact that it 
was the residence of the crafty and cruel Her- 
od Anti pas. Ecclesiastical tradition , howev- 
er, has connected the Saviour with Tiberias, 
and represented the shore of its sea as the 
sx)ot where, after the miraculous draft of fishes 
recorded in John xxi., he gave his last three- 
fold charge to the apostle Peter, '• Feed my 
sheep."^ In memory of this scene a Christian 
church was built upon the spot by the em- 
press Helena, some parts of which may still 
exist in a church dedicated to St. Peter, and 
belonging to the Latin convent of Nazareth. 
The Jews, who yet cherish the hope of the 
Messiah's appearance, believe that ho will 
rise from the waters of the lake near Tibe- 
rias ; and in this hope many an aged Israel- 
ite, when he feels that his end is near, still 
wanders to the spot, that he may be buried 
in the sacred soil, and be ready to welcome 
the dawn of the glorious future. The pres- 
ent city of Tubauyeh is said to contain about 
two thousand inhabitants, and is described 
as one of the meanest aud most miserable 
places in all Palestine. 

Tiberius (Claudius Tiberius Nero), the 
third Roman emperor, in the fifteen th year 
of whose reign John the Baptist commenced 
his public ministry, and under whom our 
Lord taught and suffered. He was the sou 
of Tiberius Claudius Nero and Livia Drusil- 
la, was born in Rome 712 a.u.c, 41 B.C., and 
was in his ninth year when his father died. 
The emperor Augustus married his mother 
Livia, aud formallj^ adopted Tiberius as his 
son in 757 a.u.c, who, after various inferior 
honors, succeeded his stepfather as emper- 
or, 767 A.u.c, 14 A.D. His administration, 
somewhat promising at first, soon degener- 
ated into a gloomy despotism ; and after a 
reign of twenty -three and a half years, he 
died at the age of seventy-eight. He is fre- 
quently alluded to in the N. T. under the 
title of Csesar. [Matt, xxii., 17, 21 ; Mark 
xii., 14, 16, 17 ; Luke xx., 22, 24, 25 ; xxiii., 2 ; 
John xix., 12, 15.] 

Tiglath-pileser (written also in Chroni- 
cles Tilgath-pilneser) was an Assyrian king, 
first mentioned in Scripture in the reign 
of Pekah, king of Israel.^ But according 
to monumental records, he had previously 
(about B.C. 742) conducted a Syrian inva- 
sion, reducing Damascus under Rezin, and 
Samaria under Menahem. The invasion un- 
der Pekah took place a few years later. Af- 
ter this expedition a league was formed be- 
tween Rezin, king of Syria (q. v.), aud Pe- 
kah, having for its object the conquest of 
Judah. At first the confederates were suc- 
cessful, but Ahaz having applied for assist- 



1 John xxi., 1, 15-17.— 2 2 Kiugs xv., 29. 




Figure of Tigiath-pileser I. 
(From a rock tablet near 
Korkbar.) 



ance to the Assyrian king, Tiglath-pileser 
appeared at the head of his army, laid siege 
to Damascus, and slew Rezin, its king.^ Then 
he attacked Pekah, aud carried into captivi- 
ty the two and a 
half tribes east of 
the Jordan.^ Be- 
fore he left Syria 
he received sub- 
mission, not only 
from. Ahaz, but 
from the kings of 
the neighboring 
countries. 

Tiglath-pileser 
does not seem to 
have succeeded 
to the Assyrian 
throne by roj^al 
descent. He was 
probably a usurp- 
er, and the found- 
er of a dynasty. 
From his own 
inscriptions we 
learn that his 
reign lasted at 
least seventeen 
years, and was 
succeeded by that of Shalmaueser as early as 
B.C. 725. He built a royal edifice at Calah, 
where he resided ; but his buildings were de- 
stroyed, aud at last they were appropriated 
by Esar-haddon for the embellishment of Ms 
own residence'. [2 Kings xv., 29 ; xvi., 10 ; 
1 Chron. v., 6, 26 ; 2 Chrou. xxviii., 20, 21.] 

Timothy (honored of God), an early Chris- 
tian minister. He is first mentioned in Acts 
xvi., 1, as dwelling either in Derbe or Lystra, 
but probably the latter.^ He was of a Jew- 
ish mother aud a Gentile father,^ aud had 
probably been converted through the la- 
bors of the apostle on his former visit, for 
Paul calls him his " true child in the faith."^ 
His mother and his grandmother were both 
Christians.^ Though as yet young, Timo- 
th^^ was well reported of by the brethren in 
Lystra and Iconium, and hence, forming, as 
he did by his birth, a link between Jews and 
Greeks, and thus especially fitted for the ex- 
igencies of the time, Paul took him as a help- 
er in the missionary work, having first cir- 
cumcised him, to remove the obstacle to his 
access to the Jews.'' The next time we hear 
of Timothy is in Acts xvii., 14, where he, 
with Silas, remained behind in Berea, on oc- 
casion of Paul being sent away to Athens 
by sea. From this we infer that he had 
accompanied the apostle in the progress 
through Macedonia. He was sent back by 
Paul from Berea to ascertain the state of 
the Thessalonian Church, aud we find him 
rejoining the apostle, with Silas, at Corinth, 



1 2 Kings xvi., 9.-2 1 Chron. v., 26.-3 Acts xiv., 6; 
vi.— 4 Acts xvi., 1-3.-5 1 Tim. 1., 2 ^ 2 Tim. i., 5.— 



xvi. 

■^ Acts xvi., 2-4 



TIMOTHY (EPISTLES TO) 



938 



TIRSHATHA 



having brought intelligence from Thessalo- 
nica/ We have no express mention of him 
from this time till we find him "minister- 
ing " to Paul during the long stay at Ephe- 
sus.^ From Ephesus we find him sent for- 
ward with Erastus to Macedonia and Cor- 
inth.^ He was again with Paul when he 
wrote the Second Epistle to the Corinth- 
ians.^ In the winter following we find him 
in Paul's company in Corinth, where the 
latter wrote the Epistle to the Romans, and 
among the number of those who, on his re- 
turn to Asia through Macedonia, went for- 
ward and waited for the apostle and Luke 
at Troas.^ The next notice of him occurs in 
three of the epistles written during the first 
imprisonment at Rome. He was with Paul 
when he wrote to the Colossians, to Phile- 
mon, and to the Philippians.^ How he came 
to Rome, whether with the apostle or after 
him, we can not say. From this time we 
know no more of him till we come to the 
pastoral epistles. Therein we learn that he 
was left by the apostle at Ephesus to take 
care of the church during the latter's ab- 
sence ; and the last notice which we have, 
in 2 Tim. iv., 13, makes it probable that he 
was about to set out (in the autumn of 
A.D. 67 ?) to visit Paul at Rome. We are 
dependent on tradition for further notices. 
In Eusebius we read, " Timothy is said to 
have been the first elected bishop of the 
district of Ephesus ;" an idea which may 
well have originated with the pastoral 
epistles, and which seems inconsistent with 
the very general tradition, hardly to be set 
aside, of the residence and death of John 
in that city. Nicephorus and the ancient 
martyrologies make him die by martyr- 
dom under Domitian. The character of 
Timothy appears to have been earnest and 
self-denying. We may infer this from his 
leaving his home to accompany the apostle, 
and submitting to the rite of circumcision,''' 
and from the notice in 1 Tim. v., 23, that he 
usually drank only water. The indications 
of weakness and timidity which some crit- 
ics have imagined they discern in him may 
be fairly attributable to his youth and his 
ill-health. [Comp. 1 Cor. xvi'., 10 ; 2 Cor. i., 
5, 7 ; iii., 10, with 1 Tim. iv., 12 ; v., 23.] 

Timothy (Epistles to). There never was 
the slightest doubt in the ancient Church 
that both the epistles to Timothy were writ- 
ten by Paul. Some objections have been 
made in later times, based chiefly on (1) ref- 
erences in the epistles to heresies that are 
alleged to be of a later date ; (2) the detail- 
ed directions relating to church government 
not found in Paul's other epistles ; and (3) 
certain assumed peculiarities of style and 
diction. Without entering into a discussion 



1 1 Thess. Hi., 2, 6.-2 Acts xix., 22.-3 i cor. xvi., 
10; see introduction to 2 Cor. ii., 4.— * 2 Cor. i., 1.— 
5 Acts XX., 3, 4 ; Rom. xvi., 21.— « Col. i., 1 ; Phil, i., 1 ; 
Philem. 1.—''^ Acts xvi., 3. 



of these objections in detail, it is enough here 
to say that they are pronounced by so can- 
did a critic as Dean Alford, "not adequate 
even to raise a doubt on the subject in a 
fair -judging mind." The time when and 
the place from which these epistles were 
written is very uncertain. We think, on 
the whole, that the best opinion is that 
which attributes the First Epistle to Timo- 
thy to an interval subsequent to Paul's first 
imprisonment in Rome recorded in the last 
chapter of Acts, and the second epistle to a 
later imprisonment immediately preceding 
his death. It is true that no such sscond 
imprisonment is recorded in the N. T. ; but 
i the life of the apostle is not completed by 
I the author of the book of Acts ; and the 
I reader who will compare 2 Tim, i., 16 ; ii., 
j 9, 10 ; iv., 6-8, 11, 16, 17, with Acts xxviii., 
j 30, 31, will see a reason to believe that the 
imprisonment referred to in the epistle is a 
very different one from that described in 
the book of Acts. The object of the first 
epistle appears to be to give directions to 
Timothy in respect to the Church at Eph- 
esus, of which he had been left in charge. 
The immediate object of the second epistle 
appears to have been to bring Timothy to 
Rome as soon as possible ; but Paul was un- 
certain whether he should live to see his 
child in the faith, and therefore writes him, 
as from the gate of death itself, a letter full 
of fatherly instruction and affection. These 
two letters, together with that to Titus, 
being written to pastors, are full of instruc- 
tion in respect to church affairs, and afford 
us, incidentally, fuller information in respect 
to the organization of the early churches 
than any other of the epistles. They are 
usually termed the Pastoral Epistles. 

Tin. This metal is mentioned as among 
the spoils of the Midianites, as employed as 
an alloy of other metals by Hebrew workmen, 
and as serving a purpose as plummets. It does 
not exist in Palestine, is referred to as brought 
to Tyre by the ships of Tarshish (q.v.), and 
was probably brought from Spain, or possi- 
bly from the Cornwall miues of Great Britain. 
Tirhaka, a king of Cush, or Ethiopia, who 
checked the advance of the Assyrians into 
Judea, and, forcing Sennacherib to retire 
from the country, restored the influence of 
Egypt in Syria. He may be identified with 
Tarkos, or Tarakos, the third and last king 
of the twenty-fifth dynasty, which was of 
Ethiopians. Professor Rawlinson says he 
did not ascend the throne of Egypt before 
B.C. 690, though he may have been already 
— as he is called in Scripture — King of 
Ethiopia. [2 Kings xix., 9 ; Isa. xxxvii., 9.] 
Tirshatha (severe), the title of the Persian 
governor of Judea. It has invariably the 
article, and is given to Zerubbabel, and to 
Nehemiah, Avho in Neh. xii., 26, has anoth- 
er title, rendered governor in our version. 
[Ezra ii., 63 ; Neh. vii., 65, 70; viii., 9 ; x., 1.] 



TIRZAH 



939 



TOBIT (THE BOOK OF) 



Tirzah (id.), a Canaanitisli city, the king 
of which was one of those destroyed by 
Joshua. It appears to have been proverb- 
ial for its beauty. Tirzah, shortly after the 
disruption of the kingdom, became the resi- 
dence of Jeroboam and his successors, till, 
the royal palace having been burned by Zim- 
ri, and probably the city despoiled, Omri 
built Samaria. We have afterward only a 
brief notice of Tirzah in the time of Mena- 
hem. Its site has not yet been identified, 
though some would fix on Telluzah, a thriv- 
ing place in the mountains north of Nablous. 
[Josh, xii., 24 ; 1 Kings xiv., 17 ; xv., 21, 33 ; 
xvi., 6-24 ; 2 Kings xv., 14, 16 ; Sol. Song vi., 

4.] 

Tithes. From a very early period in the 
history of the Jews the tenth seems to have 
been regarded as a proper proportion of 
property to be devoted to religious uses.^ 
This practice was embodied in the Jewish 
law on the organization of the nation. The 
principal provisions on the subject are to be 
found in Lev. xxvii., 30-33; Numb, xviii., 
8-32; Deut. xii., 5-19; xiv., 22-29. From 
a comjaarison of these provisions we gather 
that tithes of all produce, including iiocks 
and cattle, were to be given to the Levite ; 
that of this tithe, or tenth, one-tenth was to 
be given by the Levite to the priests ; that 
the second tithe was to be bestowed in re- 
ligious feasts and charity at the Holy Place, 
i. e., at the Tabernacle or the Temple ; and 
that every three years this second tithe 
(probably not a third tithe, as some have 
supposed) was to be bestowed at home. This 
was in addition to the first-fruits (q. v.), and 
the money required to be paid by the first- 
born, as a redemption for the priestly serv- 
ice, which, prior to the organization of a dis- 
tinct priestly order, it belonged to him to 
render. See Taxes ; Tribute. 

Tittle ( little liorri). Several of the Hebrew 
letters were written with small points which 
served to distinguish one letter from anoth- 
er. To change a small point of one letter, 
therefore, might vary the meaning of a word 
and destroy the sense. The name -'little 
horn" was given to these points probably 
from the manner in which they were writ- 
ten. It was to this appendage of the He- 
brew letters that the Saviour referred when 
he said, " Not one jot," or little horn, " shall 
pass from the law until all be fulfilled." 
[Matt, v., 18.] 

Titus (pleasing), one of St. Paul's compan- 
ions and fellow-laborers. He was a Gentile 
by birth, and as suchuncircumcised ; was con- 
verted by the instrumentality of Paul, and, 
with Barnabas, accompanied him from Anti- 
och to Jerusalem at the time that the coun- 
cil of apostles and elders was held there.^ 
Afterward, on St. Paul's third missionary 
journey, he sent Titus to Corinth, to promote 
the collection for the saints at Jerusalem, 



1 Gen. xiv., 20; xxviii., 22.-2 Titus i., 4. 



and to ascertain the temper with which the 
apostle's first letter to the Corinthian Church 
was received. He subsequently sent him 
again to Corinth, with the second epistle, to 
complete the collection. We then lose sight 
of Titus ; and it is singular that he is no- 
where mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles. 
We learn from the letter to him that he was 
left in Crete, but that when Tychicus or Ar- 
tenias should arrive he was to hasten to join 
the apostle at Nicopolis (q. v.). Titus prob- 
ably did rejoin him, and subsequently left 
him for Dalmatia. Nothing more of him is 
known with certainty. According to tradi- 
tion, after preaching in Dalmatia, he return- 
ed to Crete, lived long as bishop there, and 
there died in extreme old age. [Titus, _pas- 
sim; Acts xv., 2, with Gal. ii., 3 ; 2 Cor. viii., 
6, 16-18, 22-24 ; xii., 18; 2 Tim. iv., 10.] 

Titus (Epistle to). What we have said 
in respect to the Epistles to Timothy may be 
repeated in respect to this epistle. Its au- 
thenticity is not doubtful, though it has been 
doubted. Its date is uncertain ; we attrib- 
ute it to a period between Paul's first and 
second imprisonments — i. e., after the close 
of the book of Acts. The object of the epis- 
tle is to give instructions to a pastor or bish- 
op who had been left in charge of the church- 
es of Crete. 

Tob, Land of (good), a region, probably 
somewhere to the east of Gilead, to which 
Jephthah withdrew when driven out from 
among his brethren. Its locality is not de- 
fined ; and the name occurs again in Scrip- 
ture only in the references in 2 Sam. x., 6, 8, 
to Ish-tob — i. e., men of Tob. Localities with 
names somewhat approaching to Tob have 
been found in those parts of Arabia which 
border on Gilead; but whether they mark 
what was anciently known as the Land of 
Tob, it is impossible to say. 

Tobiah, an Ammonite, who joined with. 
Sanballat and other enemies of the Jews in 
obstructing Nehemiah's purpose of rebuild- 
ing the wall of Jerusalem. While Nehemiah 
was absent from Jerusalem, opportunity was 
taken to allot Tobiah an apartment in the 
buildings belonging to the Temple. At the 
governor's return this sacrilege was put an 
end to, and the chambers were purified and 
restored to their proper use. [Neh. ii., 10, 
19 ; iv., 3, 7 ; vi., 1-19 ; xiii., 4-9.] 

Tobit (the Book of), one of the books of 
the Apocrypha (q. v.). The natural air of 
this story, and the curious incidents it re- 
lates, have always made it popular; audit 
was referred to or cited with respect by many 
of the early fathers. But it was not deemed 
to have a place in the sacred canon. The 
ancient lists almost unanimously are silent, 
or expressly exclude it. The small evidence 
which has been produced iu its favor is very 
dubious. So that it was not till the Coun- 
cil of Trent (1546) that it became authoritar 
tively canonical in the Romish Church. 



TONGUES (CONFUSION OF) 



940 



TRADITIONS 



The object of this work is to show that a 
truly pious man, who relies on God aud is 
diligent in prayer and good works, will se- 
cure the divine favor and be delivered out 
of difficulties. The author was in all prob- 
ability a Jew of Palestine ; and, though no 
certainty can be arrived at as to the date of 
the composition, it may not unreasonably be 
placed before our Lord's time — perhaps about 
the Maccabean period, or even still earlier. 
And very likely the language in which this 
book was originally written was Hebrew. 
Several translations were made, some of 
them at an early date ; and various texts, 
more or less differing, are now extant. It 
is questioned whether the account of Tobit 
is historically true — whether it has a basis 
of truth with legendary stories grafted there- 
upon, or whether it is altogether fabulous. 
But the improbabilities, the inconsistencies 
of the narrative, and contradictions to what 
authentic history proves and to what we 
know of geography, are so great and glaring, 
that it is not easy to arrive at any other 
conclusion than that the whole is a fiction. 

Tongues (Confusion of). In the account 
of the building of the tower of Babel (q. v.), 
in Gen. xi., 1-9, it is said that the Lord an- 
nounced that he would "go down aud con- 
found their language, that they may not un- 
derstand one another's speech," and that in 
consequence of his execution of this purpose 
the builders were scattered, and the tower 
was left unfinished. The obvious and nat- 
ural meaning of the Scriptural narrative is, 
that by an extraordinary act of divine prov- 
idence the articulate speech by which man- 
kind had hitherto carried on their social in- 
tercourse, as a universal medium of commu- 
nication, underwent changes that rendered 
it unintelligible. In what degree or to what 
extent the language was confounded is a 
problem which it is impossible satisfactorily 
to solve. It was not reduced into chaotic 
disorder, for that must have occasioned a 
complete dissolution of human society, and 
every individual compelled to separate him- 
self from the rest of the species would have 
have had to live apart, as the dumb animals. 
Probably the old language was broken into 
a variety of dialects, by such changes as ren- 
dered the maintenance of general intercourse 
impossible. That this confusion of tongues 
was the origin of the different languages of 
men is not stated by the Scriptures ; nor does 
it follow from the account that languages 
were then formed as they now exist, nor is 
there any thing in the account inconsistent 
with that substantial unit in root forms of 
all languages which recent researches in 
comparative philology have shown to exist. 

Tonsure (Latin tonsura, a shavitu/), a re- 
ligious observance of the Eoman Catholic 
churches. It consists in shaving or cutting 
the hair, as a sign of the dedication of the 
person to the special service of God, and 



commonly to the public ministry of relig- 
ion. It would appear that the usage first 
arose in reference to the monastic rather 
than the clerical life, in the end of the fourth 
or the beginning of the fifth century. Orig- 
inally, the tonsure was merely a part of the 
ceremonial of initiation in orders, and was 
only performed in the act of administering 
the higher order; but about the seventh 
century it came to be used as a distinct and 
independent ceremonial. Tonsure is also 
practiced in the East by the Brahmans and 
the Buddhist priests. 

Topaz, a precious stone of the class de- 
nominated hyaline corundums. It is of a 
brilliant yellow color, and, when fine and of 
large size, of great value. It was one of the 
gems used in the high-priest's garment, and 
is referred to by John as one of the founda- 
tions of the New Jerusalem. [Exod. xxviii., 
17 ; xxxix., 10 ,• Job xxviii., 19 ; Ezek. xxviii., 
13; Rev. xxi.,20.] 

Tortoise, one of the reptiles prohibited to 
the Hebrews for food. There is some uncer- 
tainty as to the proper translation of the He- 
brew word. Some scholars suppose that the 
creature intended is a large lizard. The tor- 
toise is quite common in Palestine. At the 
present day, it is cooked aud eaten by the 
inhabitants who are not Jews, and its eggs 
are in as great request as those of the fowl. 
[Lev. xi., 29.] 

Tovrn-clerk. A prudent officer at Ephe- 
sus is so called, who calmed the uproar of 
the people which Demetrius had excited. 
He was the keeper of the archives and 
public reader of decrees in the assemblies. 
Some have supposed that he had a sacred 
function ; but this was not necessarily the 
case. The Greek word is the same else- 
where translated scribe. [Acts xix., 35.1 

Tradition. The Pharisees supposed that 
when Moses was on Mount Sinai two sets of 
laws were delivered to him ; one, they said, 
was recorded, and is that contained in the 
O. T. ; the other was handed down from fa- 
ther to son, and kept uncorrupted to their 
day. They believed that Moses, before he 
died, delivered this law to Joshua, he to the 
judges, they to the prophets ; so that it was 
kept pure till it was recorded in the Talmud. 
In these books these pretended laws are now 
contained. They are exceedingly numerous, 
and many of them very trifling. They are, 
however, regarded by the Jews as more im- 
portant than either Moses or the prophets. 
These are the traditions referred to by Christ 
in Matt, xv., 2, and other parallel passages. 
Some detailed account of them is given un- 
der the titles Pharisees and Talmud. 

A doctrine analogous to that of the Phar- 
isees re -appears in modern theology. Ro- 
man Catholic theologians maintain, what is 
undoubtedly true,^ that much of our Lord's 
teachings to his apostles was not committed 



1 John xxi„ 25. 



TRANCE 



941 



TEANSUBSTANTIATION 



to writing in the Scriptures; and as the 
teaching of Christ, wherever found, is God's 
word, they hold that, if it he possible to find 
such teaching elsewhere than in the Bible, 
the teaching so found is to be regarded as 
of equal authority. They accordingly hold 
that the traditions of the Church, contained 
in the writings of the Fathers, the decrees 
of councils, the decretals of popes, are a de- 
pository of Christ's teaching, less accessible, 
it is true, but, under certain conditions, not 
less authoritative than the Scripture itself. 
The Protestants, on the contrary, hold that 
there is no authentic record of the teachings 
of Christ and his apostles except that con- 
tained in the N. T. ; that the Scriptures are 
the only authoritative rule of faith ; and that 
the writings of the Fathers are to be accept- 
ed only as an evidence of the ancient inter- 
pretation of the Scriptures. 

Trance, a supernatural state of the mind, 
in which it loses the consciousness of outer 
objects, and is borne away, so to speak, into 
another world of thought. It is a recognized 
mental condition among scientific men, and 
accompanies, at times, certain forms of nerv- 
ous disorder. In the Biblical times revela- 
tions were occasionally made to prophets 
and others in a trance state. The trance 
differs from the dream in that it is uncon- 
nected with any natural sleep. It differs 
from the vision in that in the latter case 
the person retains his consciousness, and 
the object shown to him possesses a real ex- 
istence. [Numb, xxiv., 4, 16 ; Acts x., 10; 
xi., 5 ; xxii., 17.] 

Transubstantiation (change of siibstance), 
the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church, 
that the bread and wine of the Eucharist are 
changed at the moment of consecration into 
the '^body, blood, soul, and divinity of our 
Lord Jesus Christ." Our statement and 
explanation of this doctrine is taken from 
the authorized publications of the Romish 
Church, and is given as nearly as possible 
in their own words. 

According to this doctrine, Christ on the 
cross has offered a sacrifice for our sins ; but 
this is only a part of his sacrifice, which is 
perpetually repeated. It is not enough to be- 
lieve in the sacrifice of the historical Christ. 
On every Sabbath he condescends to come 
to earth and enter into the bread and wine, 
to be mysteriously present, though visible 
only to the spiritual eye of faith. Thus, ac- 
cording to the Romanist, the sacrifice upon 
Calvary is repeated upon the altar of every 
church ; yet the mass is not a different sac- 
rifice from that of the cross, but the same ; 
"because the same Christ who once offered 
himself a bleeding victim to his heavenly 
Father on the cross continues to offer him- 
self in an unbloody manner, by the hands of 
his priests, on our altars." It is by this per- 
petually recurring sacrifice for sin, wrought 
l3y Christ, but through the hands of his 



priests, not by the one death upon the cross, 
that the world, according to the Romanist, 
is redeemed; and faith in this continuous 
sacrifice is, therefore, a fundamental article 
of the Roman -Catholic faith. The actual 
presence of Jesus Christ in the bread and 
the wine is known as the Real Presence, 
and the miraculous change, alleged to be 
wrought about the middle of the mass, when 
the priest, taking into his hand first the 
bread and then the wine, pronounces over 
each separately the sacred words of conse- 
cration, is transubstantiation. At this mo- 
ment " the bread is changed into the body, 
and the wine is changed into the blood of 
our Lord ; nothing of them remains except 
the forms. Besides his body, there is in the 
bread his blood, his soul, and his divinity, 
because all these are inseparable ; and un- 
der the form of wine Jesus Christ is as en- 
tire as under the form of the bread." In a 
word, each element contains " all that he is — 
that is, perfect God and perfect man." It is 
conceded to be true, that after the miracu- 
lous change alleged to have taken place in 
the bread and wine, they appear to the senses 
to be entirely unchanged. In order to ex- 
jdain this anomaly, the Roman Catholic di- 
vines distinguish between what they call 
the form and the substance, or what they 
call the accidents and the essence. It is 
only, they say, the sensible qualities of bod- 
ies, such as their color, shape, taste, and 
smell, which are the proper objects of our 
knowledge ; but with regard to the inward 
matter, or substance of bodies, this is alto- 
gether imperceptible, and they declare " that 
this inward, imperceptible substance of the 
bread and wine is, at the consecration, en- 
tirely taken away by the almighty power 
of God, and changed into the substance of 
the body and blood of Jesus Christ, which 
is substituted in its place ; but that all the 
outward, sensible qualities of the bread and 
wine remain entirely the same as before 
consecration." 

The principal passages of Scripture refer- 
red to in support of the doctrine of transub- 
stantiation are the following : Matt, xxvi., 
26, 28 ; Mark xiv., 22, 24 ; Luke xxii., 19, 20 ; 
John vi., 32-59 ; 1 Cor. xi., 24, 25. Against 
this doctrine are, 1st. That it leads to the ad- 
oration of the Host, or consecrated wafer, 
and thus results in a form of idolatry which 
violates not only the general Scripture teach- 
ing, but is in direct contravention of the 
declaration of Paul, that he will not ever 
know Christ "after the flesh."^ 2d. Unlike 
all the miracles of the Bible, the alleged mir- 
acle of transubstantiation is confessedly not 
apparent to the senses, and so is in no sense 
a witness of the divine power, having noth- 
ing to support it but the naked assertion of 
the priest. 3d. Other passages of Scrix^ture, 
equally explicit with Christ's declaration, 
5^ Cor. v., 16. 



TREE 



942 



TRIAL 



" This is my body," snch as, " God is a rock/' 
and " I am tlie vine," are interpreted by all 
scholars, Romish as well as Protestant, as 
figurative expressions. 4th. In the original 
institution of the Lord's Supper, when Christ 
said, '' This is my body," he was in bodily 
presence with his disciples, so that it is im- 
possible to conceive that the bread and wine 
should then have been changed into his body 
and blood, and such a change would have 
been without significance. 5th. The doc- 
trine of a continuous sacrifice directly con- 
tradicts the express declarations of Scrip- 
ture.^ See CoNSUBSTANTiATiON ; Commun- 
ion. 

Tree — of Life; Tree — of Knowledge 
OF Good and Evil, two trees placed in the 
midst of the Garden of Eden : of the latter 
Adam and Eve were forbidden to eat. Jew- 
ish, and many Christian commentators, con- 
sider that there was a virtue in the first tree 
calculated to preserve from diseases and to 
perpetuate animal life; they have argued 
that the word tree is a noun of number, 
whether in the Hebrew or the Greek, and 
that all the trees of Paradise, except the 
tree of knowledge, "the true test of good 
and evil," were trees of life, in the eating of 
which, if man had not sinned, his life would 
have been perpetuated continually. The Fa- 
thers inclined to the belief that the life to 
be supported by this tree was a spiritual 
life. We may say pretty confidently that, 
whatever was the physical effect of the fruit 
of this tree, there was a lesson contained in 
it, that life is to be sought by man, not from 
within, from himself, in his own powers or 
faculties, but from that which is without 
him, even from Him who only hath life in 
Himself. The lesson of the second tree seems 
to be, that man should not seek to learn what 
is good and evil from himself, but from God 
only ; that he should not set up an inde- 
pendent search for more knowledge than is 
fitting, throwing off the y.oke of obedience 
and constituting himself the judge of good 
and ill. Some have thought that the tree 
had not this name from the first, but that it 
was given it after the Temptation and the 
Fall, either because the tempter had pre- 
tended that it would give wisdom, or be- 
cause Adam and Eve, after they had eaten 
of it, knew by bitter experience the differ- 
ence between good and evil. 

Trial. We give, under the article Judges, 
an account of the appointment of the officers 
of justice under Jewish law; under the arti- 
cles Synagogue and Sanhedrim we refer 
briefly to their two principal courts. Un- 
der this article we shall describe briefly the 
judicial proceedings among the Jews and 
among the Romans, so far as it may be nec- 
essary to throw light on the Scripture nar- 
rative, especially on the accounts of the tri- 
als of Jesus and of the apostle Paul. 

1 Heb. ix., 27, 28 ; x., 12, 18 ; 1 Pet. ii., 24. 



I.Jewish Trials. — There was among the 
Jews the same distinction as among us be- 
tween civil and criminal proceedings. It is 
only of criminal proceedings we write, since 
they alone concern the Bible student. Our 
information is obtained almost wholly from 
the Talmud and late Jewish writings, but it 
is probable that these afford an accurate rep- 
resentation of the theory of criminal juris- 
prudence in the time of Christ. We say the 
theory, for the trials of Jesus, of Stephen, and 
of Paul show very conclusively that both the 
letter and spirit of the law were flagrant- 
ly violated, and that the same turbulence 
and fierceness characterized the courts of 
Judaism in cases where popular feeling was 
aroused as is to be seen in the criminal 
courts of the East to-day. Two courts ex- 
ercised criminal jurisdiction, the great and 
the lesser Sanhedrim (q. v.). It was appar- 
ently a concurrent jurisdiction. The Lesser 
Sanhedrim exercised the. right of pronoun- 
cing the death-sentence, and no system of 
ai^peal was known to Jewish law. The pro- 
vision for a personal appeal to Moses appears 
to have been temporary only; nothing an- 
swering to it is discoverable in later histo- 
ry.^ In case of acquittal, there could be no 
further trial ; in case of conviction, the court 
might award a new trial ; and in case of the 
discovery of new evidence, was bound to do 
so. The jurisdiction of the court was not 
limited to crimes committed within any spe- 
cial districts. The Great Sanhedrim gave 
Saul letters to act as their representative in 
prosecuting the Christians in Damascus, al- 
though that city was not within the prov- 
ince of Judea. During the proceedings of 
the court the Sanhedrim sat in a semicir- 
cle. The Great Sanhedrim Avas presided 
over by a high - priest, who acted as presi- 
dent, or chief judge. Two clerks recorded 
the proceedings, one transcribing what ap- 
peared for the prisoner, the other what ap- 
peared against him. There were no law- 
yers or advocates, and the judges received 
no salaries. The only costs were those en- 
tailed in the preliminary imprisonment and 
subsequent execution of the accused. The 
trial could only be held by day ; it was open 
to the public ; a condemnation required the 
concurrent testimony of at least two wit- 
nesses ; these witnesses must be examined 
in the presence of the accused ; he had the 
opportunity of cross-examination, and the 
right to be heard in his own defense. The 
law forbade a verdict of condemnation on 
the confession of the accused; to prevent 
the danger of haste and passion, it was pro- 
vided that a verdict could never be render- 
ed on the same day as the trial. A simple 
majority could acquit, but a majority of at 
least two votes was required to convict ; af- 
ter conviction, the execution took place im- 
mediately. Snch were the provisions of the 



1 Deut. xvii., 8-13. 



TRIAL 



943 



TRIBUTE 



Jewish criminal law, as they are to be gath- 
ered, not from Scripture, which contains no 
account of the code of practice, hut from 
the Talmud. It is hardly necessary to re- 
mind the reader that these provisions were 
flagrantly violated in the case of Jesus. 
The letter of the law, forbidding trials by 
night, seems to have been regarded,^ but its 
spirit was violated by a midnight exami- 
nation, and by a final trial in the first gray 
twilight of early dawn. A quorum of the 
court was jiresent, but it was convened in 
haste so great, and with notice so inade- 
quate, that at least one of the most influen- 
tial friends of Jesus seems to have had no 
opportunity to participate in its delibera- 
tions.^ Witnesses were summoned, and dis- 
crepancies in their testimony were noted ; 
but the just and reasonable rule requiring 
the concurrent testimony of two was open- 
ly and almost contemptuously disregarded. 
An opportunity was formally offered Jesus 
to be heard in his own behalf, but no ade- 
quate time was afforded him to secure wit- 
nesses or prepare for his defense, and the 
spirit of the court denied him audience, 
though its formal rules permitted him a 
hearing. Finally, all other means of secur- 
ing his conviction liaving failed, in viola- 
tion alike of law and justice, he was put 
under oath, and required, in defiance of his 
protest, to bear testimony against himself.^ 
The law requiring a day's deliberation was 
openly set aside ; and with haste as unseem- 
ly as it was illegal, the prisoner was sen- 
tenced and executed within less than twelve 
hours after his arrest, within less than six 
after his formal trial ; and this in spite of the 
offer of Judas to testify to the innocence of 
the prisoner of the charge brought against 
him — an offer which the court refused with 
contempt of the explicit provisions of their 
own law, as marked as their disregard of the 
evident claims of justice.* The same disre- 
gard of the Jewish rules and regulations ap- 
pears, though in a less marked degree, in the 
subsequent trials of Stephen and PauL^ 

2. Eoman Trials. — There were but few rules 
to regulate the almost absolute power of a 
Roman governor over all questions brought 
before him. He was both judge and jury, 
acted in his own discretion, determined the 
case, not according to precedents or rules, 
but according to his own sense of right or 
the dictates of his own self-interest. The 
extent of his power is indicated in the dec- 
laration of Pilate to Jesus : " Knowest thou 
not that I have power to crucify thee, and 
power to release thee?"^ This was true, 
however, only as regarded foreigners. The 
Roman citizen had rights which no gov- 
ernor dare disregard. It was forbidden to 



1 Luke xxii., 66.-2 Luke xxiii., 51.— ^ Matt, xxvi., 
62-66 ; Luke xxii., 66-71.—* See, for evidence of these 
statements, Matt, xxvi., 57 to xxvii., 10, and parallel 
passaaes in the other gospels.-^ Acts vii. ; xxiii., 1-3. 
— ^ John xix., 10. 



scourge him, and he had a right of appeal 
from the governor to the emperor. The ef- 
fect of this appeal was to remove the case 
at once from the jurisdiction of the subor- 
dinate to that of his royal master. It ap- 
pears, too, that in these provincial courts 
the custom had been introduced from Rome 
of employing paid advocates. The most im- 
portant accounts in Scripture of trials be- 
fore the Roman authorities are to be found 
in John xviii., 28; xix., 16; Acts xxiv.; xxv.; 
xxvi. 

Tribute. The chief facts concerning Jew- 
ish tribute -money have been given under 
Taxes and Tribute. It is only necessary 
here to explain the demand made upon Christ 
for the payment of tribute, and his miracu- 
lous provision for it.^ When the tabernacle 
was first constructed in the wilderness, it was 
by voluntary offerings f but Pharisaism had 
perverted this free-will offering into a legal 
exaction. After a long struggle between 
the Pharisees and the Sadducees, the former 
had triumphed, and a poll-tax was laid upon 
all Israel of a half-shekel for the support of 
the Temple service. They quoted the laws 
of Moses to sustain them in this exaction f 
but to enforce this tax was contrary to the 
free spirit of the Gospel, if not to that of the 
Mosaic commonwealth. Jesus had already 
declared himself openly against the Phari- 
saic exactions. Whether in this controver- 
sy he would side with the Sadducees or the 
Pharisees was to the collector of this church 
tax a matter of uncertainty. He came, there- 
fore, in doubt to Peter with the question, 
" Doth not your master pay tribute ?" Peter, 
still a Jew, readily pledged Jesus to fulfill 
the obligations which no other rabbi would 
refuse to recognize. But Jesus, though quite 
ready to contribute to the support of the ap- 
pointed service even of a corrupted church, 
was not willing to sanction a custom which 
placed the Church of God on enforced tithes 
rather than on free contributions. "We 
are," he says in effect to Peter, " not stran- 
gers and aliens from the commonwealth of 
Israel, but sons of the kingdom; and the 
kingdom must live by the free-will gifts, 
not by the compulsory payments of its chil- 
dren. The Church must be supported, as it 
was built, by willing hearts." The older in- 
terpreters, supposing this to be a Roman tax, 
misunderstood altogether the meaning of the 
incident. The more usual modern interpre- 
tation reads in this incident only a new 
declaration by Christ of his divine Souship, 
which therefore exempts him from the ob- 
ligations of common men. But Christ de- 
clares not merely that the Son, but that the 
children are free, and claims exemption, not 
for himself only, but for his disciples. While 
he thus denies the right of the Church to ex- 
act tribute, he shows his own willingness to 

1 Matt, xvii., 24-27.-2 Exod. xxxv., 5.-3 Exod. xxx., 
12, 13. 



TRINITARIANS 



944 



TROPHIMUS 



contribute to its support, even though the 
Church be imperfect and corrupt, by bidding- 
Peter cast a line into the sea and draw out a 
fish, in whose mouth he shouhl find the money 
required. Thus the incident is at once Christ's 
testimony against maintaining an establish- 
ed church by enforced taxes, and in favor of 
a free and willing contribution to its main- 
tenance by all members of the community. 

Trinitarians, those who hold to the doc- 
trine of the Trinity, a doctrine ordinarily 
expressed by the formula, '' Three persons in 
one God." At the same time, this expres- 
sion is confessedly imperfect and inadequate, 
the term person being used to indicate a dis- 
tinction, the nature and limits of which are 
not understood. The term is objected to 
even by the Trinitarians themselves, who use 
it only because none otlier has been found 
which better expresses the distinction which 
they believe exists in the Godhead, 

In the first ages of the Christian Church 
the followers of Christ were so much engaged 
in controversy with the Gentile world on the 
one hand, and with the Jewish world on the 
other, that they gave very little time or 
thought to the attempt to frame their faith 
into one consistent and harmonious system. 
It is certain, however, that from the apos- 
tolic times they paid worship to Father, 
Son, and Holy Ghost, addressed to them 
their prayers, and included them in their 
doxologies. It was not till the beginning of 
the fourth ceutury that the question began 
to be elaborately discussed how this prac- 
tice, and the experience out of which it 
sprung, should be formed into a doctrine, 
and reconciled with the belief of the Church 
in one God. Out of the endeavor to solve 
this problem sprang the doctrine of the Trin- 
ity, Precisely what that doctrine is, or rath- 
er precisely how it is to be explained, Trini- 
tarians are not agreed arnong themselves. 
Some, accepting in a modified form the doc- 
trines of the Sabellians (q. v.), hold the truth 
to be that there is one divine being who rep- 
resents himself to us in three characters; that 
he is thus revealed only because it is impos- 
sible that through one revelation we should 
get any true conception of his character. 
Others regard the three persons of the Trin- 
ity as one in will, but different in other ele- 
ments of their being. Some, too, seem to 
approach a form of Arianism,^ by teaching 
that there is a subordination of the Son to 
the Father. It must be conceded, too, that 
there are others whose language is such as 
to render them liable to the charge of being 
Tritheists — i. e., believers in three gods. 
Still others, the Swedenborgians (q. v.), 
avoid these difficulties by a mysterious in- 
terpretation of the Trinity, which they some- 
times compare to the union of body, mind, 
and soul in man. We think, on the whole, 
however, the view of modern Trinitarians 



See AiuANs. 



most current may be stated thus. It is not 
possibl'} for the human intellect to compre- 
hend fully the divine nature. The Bible rep- 
resents God to us as Father, Son, and Holy 
Ghost. It represents them as equally en- 
titled to our highest reverence, affection, 
and allegiance. It attributes to all the 
same divine qualities. It even uses these 
titles at times interchangeably.^ We are to 
accept reverently the teaching of the Scrip- 
ture in respect to their relation to us, and to 
pay them equal honor, and render to them 
equal obedience, while we leave the relation 
which they sustain to each other in the eter- 
nal Godhead, among the unsolved and insolu- 
ble mysteries of the divine being — the hid- 
den things Avhich belong unto God. It is a 
curious fact that some traces of belief in the 
Trinity are to be found in most heathen na- 
tions. It is very marked in Hindooism, and 
is discernible in Persian, Egyptian, Roman, 
Japanese, Indian, and the most ancient Gre- 
cian mythologies. From this fact the Trin- 
itarians and their opponents derive, howev- 
er, very opposite conclusions. The one sees 
in it an evidence that God has " diffused and 
perpetuated the evidence of this doctrine 
throughout the successive periods of time," 
while their opponents conclude that it is a 
corruption borrowed from the heathen re- 
ligions, and ingrafted on the Christian faith. 
See Creed ; Unitarians ; Arians ; SociNi- 

ANS. 

Troas, a sea-port town near to the Helles- 
pont, between the promontories Lectum and 
Sigeum, south of the site of ancient Troy ; 
sometimes considered as belonging to the 
Lesser Mysia. It was built by King Antig- 
onus, was made a colony (q. v.) by Augus- 
tus, and must, if we may judge by the ruins, 
have been of considerable extent. Two vis- 
its of St. Paul to Troas are recorded in the 
apostolic history. It is now called JEsM 
Stamboul. [Acts xvi., 8, 11 ; xx., 5, 6 ; 2 Cor. 
ii., 12; 2 Tim. iv., 13.] 

Trogy Ilium, a small town at the foot of 
the promontory of Mycale, opposite to the 
island Samos. The strait between Samos 
and Trogyllium is extremely narrow, being 
hardly a mile across ; the current is rapid, 
and the navigation difficult. St. Paul spent 
a night here, when, at the close of his third 
missionary journey, he was on his way to 
Jerusalem. There is no evidence that he 
landed here; and it is most probable that 
the ship merely remained in this sheltered 
spot during the dark night — for the apos- 
tle's journeying brought him here near the 
time of the new moon — and that at day- 
break she sailed on her way. [Acts xx., 15.] 

Trophimus, a companion of St. Paul. Ho 
was of Gentile descent, and of the town of 
Ephesus ; was among those who accompanied 
the apostle on his return from his third mis- 
sionary journey, through Asia to Jerusalem, 
1 E. g., John xiv., 17, 18 ; Rom. viii., 9. 



TSABIANS 



945 



TYPES, TYPOLOGY 



where lie was the innocent cause of the tu- 
mult that led to the apostle's imprisonment 
at Csesarea. The only further mention that 
occurs of Trophimus is in 2 Tim. iv., 20, 
where St. Paul writes that he had left him 
at Miletus out of health. [Acts xxi., 29.] 

Tsabians.( Hebrew Tsdba, a host), those 
who worship the heavenly hosts. This wor- 
ship was one of the earliest forms in which 
idolatry appeared. It iirst prevailed in Chal- 
dea, whence it spread over all the East, pass- 
ed into Egypt, and thence found its way 
into Greece. The sun, the moon, and each 
of the stars, was believed to be a divine in- 
telligence, exercising a constant influence for 
good or evil upon the destinies of men. 

Tubal, the name of the fifth son of Ja- 
phet. The name next after his is Meshech ; 
and their descendants, still called Tubal and 
Meshech, are always found together in Scrip- 
ture, except in one passage.^ As it is gen- 
erally agreed that Meshech is equivalent to 
Moschi, it has been common to identify Tu- 
bal with their neighbors, the Tibareni, all 
the more readily on account of the frequen- 
cy with which the letters r and I are in- 
terchanged. Moreover, it has been noticed 
that the Moschi and Tibareni are brought 
together in other books besides the Bible; 
for instance, in Herodotus ; and two similar 
names are found associated on the Assyrian 
monuments. These Tibareni once spread 
over the country between the Caspian and 
Euxine ; but in later days occupied a more re- 
stricted territorj^ on the south-eastern shore 
of the Euxine. Copper is still abundant in 
the mountains of northern Armenia ; and 
beautiful slaves have been furnished to the 
Asiatic markets from the neighboring local- 
ities. These are just what Tubal is repre- 
sented as dealing in with Tyre. [Gen. x., 
2 ; 1 Chron. i., 5 ; Ezek. xxvii, 13.] 

Tubal-cain, the son of Lamech by Zillah, 
in the line of Cain. Like his two brothers, 
he is distinguished for his inventions : " he 
was an instructor of every artificer in brass 
and iron." It is not to be objected that this 
was too early for an acquaintance with met- 
als. If Tubal-cain was contemporary with 
Enoch (the descendant of Seth in the same 
degree), he must have been born at least five 
hundred years after the creation of Adam, 
according to the Hebrew chronology, or one 
thousand years, according to the chronology 
of the Septuagint.'^ Whether we understand 
that he learned the use of both copper and 
iron, or only of copper or bronze, which led, 
in course of time, to the further knowledge 
of iron, it may be difficult to decide, from 
the concise and obscure wording of the text. 
That the most ancient inhabitants of Eu- 
rope were ignorant of the use of metal, as 
indicated by the discovery of flint weapons 
in the gravel, can be no proof that they were 
unknown to the early descendants of Adam. 



If the colonists of Australia were for the 
next thousand years to be separated from 
all connection with the rest of the world, 
it is quite possible, notwithstanding their 
present high state of civilization, that they 
might utterly lose many of the arts of civ- 
ilized life, and perhaps, if there were a de- 
ficiency of coal, or lime, or native metals, 
even the use of metallic instruments. [Gen. 
iv., 22.] 

Tubingen School, a name given to a cer- 
tain jjhase of modern rationalistic j)hiloso- 
phy, which took its rise at the University of 
Tubingen, in Germany. The founder of this 
school of thought is Ferdinand Christian 
Bauer; its fundamental principle is, that 
the writings of the N. T. are to be taken 
rather as indications of the spirit of the 
times than as authoritative revelations, or 
even authentic records. Strauss treats the 
narrative of the N. T. as a myth, analogous 
to the mythical accounts of the wonders al- 
leged to have been wrought by heathen dei- 
ties ; Bauer treats them as histories written 
with a dogmatic purpose, that is, for the sake 
of establishing certain sects and opinions in 
the primitive Church, and many of them at 
a time considerably later than that to which 
Christian scholarship has generally assigned 
them. 

Tychicus, one of Paul's companions and 
fellow-laborers. His name first occurs in 
Acts XX., 4, where, with several others, he is 
described as accompanying the apostle on 
his return from his third missionary journey 
to Asia. Both he and Trophimus belonged 
to that country, and were probably natives 
of Ephesus. He was probably left behind 
at Miletus or Ephesus, for only Trophimus is 
mentioned as with St. Paul in Jerusalem.^ 
After an interval of some years he appears 
as sharing the apostle's first imprisonment 
at Eome, and as the bearer, in cod junction 
with Ouesimus, of the epistles to the Colos- 
sians, Ej)hesians, and Philemon. After Paul's 
release from imprisonment, we again find 
Tychicus in his company. Finally, amidst 
the desertion of the apostle's Asiatic friends, 
this faithful disciple remained with him in 
his second imprisonment ^ though at the 
time of writing the Second Epistle to Timo- 
thy he had been dispatched on some mis- 
sion to Ephesus. [Col. iv., 7; Eph. vi., 21 ; 
2 Tim. i., 15; iv., 12.] 

Types, Typology. In theology the term 
type is employed to designate an image or 
representation of some object which is call- 
ed the antitype. It is applied chiefly, al- 
though not exclusively, to those prophetic 
prefigurings of the persons and things of the 
new dispensation which are found in the 
ritual, and even in the history of the O. T. 
The word iype is used by the writers of the 
N. T.'^ And while Paul and other sacred 



1 Isa. Ixvi., 19.— 2 See Cheonology. 
60 



1 Acts xxi., 29.-2 Acts vii., 43; Rom. v., 14; Phil. 
iii., 17. 



TYRE 



946 



TYRE 



writers speak of the ancient types of tliiugvS 
to come, Peter completes tlie parallelism by 
describing baptism as the antitype of the 
ark of Noah/ That much of the O. T. is 
typical, is apparent to the most casual read- 
er, and is confirmed by the express declara- 
tion of the sacred writers. Thus all readers 
would agree that the ancient sacrifices were 
of no value in and of themselves, a truth 
which the prophets reiterated again and 
again, their value being in their siguificance 
as types of certain spiritual truths, though 
all scholars are not agreed in interpreting 
the type — i. e., in their explanation of the 
thing typified. So, again, we have Christ's 
explicit declaration that the brazen serpent 
was a type of his own crucifixion ; and Paul, 
in 1 Cor. x., represents the whole experience 
of the Israelites in their wanderings as typ- 
ical of the Christian pilgrimage. Tj^pes also 
re-appear, though in a less degree, in the N. T. 
Thus, unquestionably, baptism is a type of 
that moral purification which accompanies 
conversion to Christ; and the Lord's Supper 
perpetually teaches us, by means of a most 
significant type, that our spiritual life is de- 
pendent on Christ in us the hope of glory. 
The extent to which the ceremonial, and 
even the history of the O. T. may be regard- 
ed as typical, is one on which writers are not 
agreed, those of more poetical temperament 
looking for types where men of a more pro- 
saic cast see none. That part of theology 
which concerns itself with the discovery and 
interpretation of Scripture types is called 
typology. 

Tyre, a celebrated commercial city of 
Phoenicia, situated on the eastern shore of 
the Mediterranean, and in lat. 33° 17' N. It 
is called Tyre in the historical books, in 
Psalms, Isaiah, and Joel ; but Tyrus in Jere- 
miah, Ezekiel, Hosea, Amos, and Zechariah. 
It was a very ancient city, being founded, 
according to some, before the fall of Troy, 
about 1200 B.C. ; according to Herodotus, 2750 
B.C., or before the Flood. Tyre was a kind 
of double city — a portion being on the main- 
land, now called Palse Tyrus — i. e., Old Tyre, 
and a portion on an island less than a mile 
in length, and separated by a strait of about 
half a mile in breadth. Which of the two 
was the more ancient is a mooted question. 
Both cities are apparently alluded to by 
Ezekiel.^ Old Tyre, or Palse Tyrus, stood 
on the main-land, and stretched along the 
shore for seven miles from the river Le- 
outes on the north to the fountain of Ras-el- 
Ain on the south, the water of which was 
brought by aqueducts into the city. The 
entire circuit of both towns is given by 
Pliny as about nineteen Roman miles (equiv- 
alent to over seventeen of our miles), the isl- 
and town itself being over two miles in cir- 
cumference. To save space, the houses on 
the island were built of many stories, and 



1 1 Pet. iii., 21.— 2 Ezek. xxvi., 7-18; xxviii., 2. 



thus differed from the common Oriental style 
of architecture. Hiram, by a series of sub- 
structures on its eastern and southern sides, 
added a good deal of space, and obtained 
room for a public place called Eurychorus. 
The city had two harbors — the northern or 
Sidoniau, niue hundred feet in length and 
seven hundred in breadth, formed by a nat- 
ural indentation protected by walls ; and 
the southern, or Egyptian, apparently con- 
structed by a prodigious breakwater. The 
harbors might be shut by a boom, and a 
canal running through the city connected 
the two roadsteads. Tyre was thus well 
fitted for commerce and self-defense ; her 
antiquity was of " ancient days," '^ her mer- 
chants were princes, and her traffickers the 
honorable of the earth."^ Her chief deities 
were Baal (q. v.) and Ashtoreth (q. v.). Her 
high-priest was of the royal blood, and his 
office, next in rank to the throne, seems to 
have been hereditary. 

The first mention of Tyre in the Bible is 
in Joshua xix., 29, where it is alluded to as 
the " strong city Tyre," in reference to the 
boundaries of the tribe of Asher. The tribe 
of Canaanites which inhabited the small 
tract of country which may be called Phoe- 
nicia proper was known by the generic name 
of Sidoniaus ; and this name undoubtedly 
included Tyrians, since the inhabitants were 
of the same race, and the two cities less than 
twenty miles distant from each other. In 
close proximity to these Sidoniaus the Is- 
raelites dwelt, and seem never to have had 
any war with that intelligent race. 

Tyre comes into Biblical history in the 
reign of David. The persons who carried 
out his census came to the " stronghold of 
Tyre," and, no doubt, numbered the Jews 
resident therein. Hiram, king of Tyre, fur- 
nished David with timber and workmen for 
his palace, and afterward supplied Solomon 
with material for the Temple. This alli- 
ance, resulting in a treaty, was close and 
friendly ; and, according to Josephus, Hiram 
and Solomon proposed riddles for one an- 
other's solution. These friendly relations 
survived for a time the disastrous secession 
of the ten tribes ; and a century later Anab 
married Jezebel, " the daughter of Ethbaal, 
king of the Sidoniaus," who, according to 
the Ej)hesian historian, Menander, was the 
king of Tyre. When mercantile cupidity 
induced the Tyrians and the neighboring 
Phoenicians to buy Hebrew captives from 
their enemies, and to sell them as slaves to 
the Greeks and Edomites, there commenced 
denunciations, and at first threats of retal- 
iation.* Our knowledge of Tyre fails us 
from a point a little later than Ethbaa.1, till 
the invasion of Shalmaneser, king of Assyr- 
ia. When that monarch had conquered the 
kingdom of Israel, and carried its inhabit- 
ants into captivity, he laid siege to Tyre. 



Isa. xxiii., 7, 8.— ^ Joel iii., 4-8 ; Amos i., 9, 10. 



TYRE 



947 



TYRE 



The Tyrians beat back tbe Assyrian fleet j 
aud army, and held out for five years amidst 
pressing difficulties aud the want of water. 
We have no definite information about the 
result, but the city does not seem to have 
been taken, for it contiuued to prosper and 
to hold for many years the eminence which 
the Hebrew prophets have assigned to it. 
At leugth, when Pharaoh -necho had beeu 
beaten by Nebuchadnezzar at Carchemish, 
aud Jerusalem had been taken, the sea-coast 
was attacked also by the Chaldean conquer- 
or, and Sidon fell with great carnage, pesti- 
lence, and blood. Tyre was next assaulted. 
It had been exulting in the fall of Jerusa- 
lem — "I shall be replenished, now she is 
made waste." For thirteen years did Neb- 
uchadnezzar lay siege to Tyre, and the re- 
sult of the campaign is still matter of de- 
bate. The city, 
however, was so 
greatly weakened 
that, like the rest 
of Phoenicia, it 
yielded easily to 
Persia, and the 
Tyrians became 
subject in name to 
the Persian king, 
if not actually pay- 
ing tribute. In- 
deed, Phoenicia 
furnished no small 
portion of the ar- 
mament of Xerxes 
against Greece. At 
length Persia fell 
before the arms of 
Alexander; Sidon 
soon opened its 
gates to him ; and 
he x)repared to as- 
sault Tyre. But 
he had no fleet, 
and at that time 

Tyre was situated on an island nearly half 
a mile from the main-land, and was com- 
pletely surrounded by prodigious walls, the 
loftiest portion of which, on the side front- 
ing the main-laud, reached a height of not 
less than one hundred aud fifty feet. Car- 
thage sent succor to the Tyrians, and the 
Persians had command of the sea. Alex- 
ander was not, however, to be deterred by 
difficulties from beleaguering the island. 
His only hope was in the construction of 
a mole through the strait which separated 
the island from the main-land. For this 
gigantic work. Old Tyre, which had been 
laid in ruins by Nebuchadnezzar, furnished 
ample materials. Alexander was baffled in 
various ways and by many Tyriau strata- 
gems, and at one time a storm swept the 
erection into deep water. Another mole 
was constructed ; a fleet was gathered, and 
the harbors blockaded ; fierce battles were 



waged; every naval and military artifice 
was on both sides resorted to by engineers, 
soldiers, sailors, and divers. But the end 
came ; the Cyprian fleet entered the Sido- 
nian harbor, and the Phoenician fleet burst 
the boom which closed the Egyptian one; 
the Macedonian hosts stormed the walls, 
and after a siege of seven months Tyre fell 
amidst flames and massacre, July, 332 B.C. 
Eight thousand of the population were put 
to death, thirty thousand sold into slavery, 
and two thousand were crucified to atone 
for the murder of certain Macedonians dur- 
ing the blockade. The mole built by Alexan- 
der remained, dividing the strait, and form- 
ing a peninsula. After Alexander's death 
Tyre passed under the power of the Seleu- 
cidse, having been besieged fourteen months 
by Antigonus. Then it was made over to 




Tyre. 



the Romans, and became, in later times, a 
Christian bishopric ; yet it was still so im- 
portant that it traded with the whole world. 
By -and -by it became a stronghold of the 
Moslem power. The Christian crusading 
host sat down before it on the 11th of Feb- 
ruary, 1124, aud in the following June ob- 
tained possession. It was under Venetian 
control in the thirteenth century, but, re- 
lapsing entirely under Mohammedan power, 
it fell rapidly into decay. Its population is 
now between three thousand and four thou- 
sand, the half being Christians. Its fleet 
has dwindled to a few crazy fishing-boats ; 
the sites of its palaces are now " bare as the 
top of a rock ;" and the fishermen spread their 
nets over its prostrate ramparts. Prophecy 
has been strikingly fulfilled: "What city is 
like Tyrus, like the destroyed in the midst 
of the sea ?"^ 



1 Ezek. xxvii., 32. 



TYEE 



948 



TYEE 



Few cities have undergone such vicissi- 
tudes as Tyre ; none, perhaps, affords a more 
striking evidence of the truth of prophecy. 
Its foundation reaches back to an epoch 
almost lost in antiquity ; and down to the 
thirteenth century its grandeur, though it 
had been often eclipsed, was still visible. 
During its existence Thebes, Nineveh, Bab- 
ylon, Jerusalem, Carthage, and Rome had 
fallen, and some of these cities had risen 
during that period. Its greatness and pride, 
its commerce and luxury, its haughtiness, in- 
dependence, and terrible overthrow are pic- 
tured by the Hebrew prophets. Ezekiel 
xxvii. is a panoramic view of Tyre ; in it 
the mistress of the seas, the mart of the 
world, is spread out to the eye in distinct 
groupings and bright colors. The prophet- 
ic history is instinct with life ; it is Tyre 
in every-day costume and bustle — its ships 
and cargoes, its wharves and sailors, its val- 
uable imports and exports, its great fairs, 
its teeming population of many lands and 
tongues, its scorn of all assaults — "sitting 
in the seat of God in the midst of the seas," 
and its magnificent equipages, armor, robes, 
houses, and towers. From Lebanon she had 
timber for masts, and from Bashan oak for 
her fleets ; sails, cordage, ensigns, and pur- 
ple awnings from Egypt and the Grecian 
isles ; precious metals from Tarshish ; slaves 
and brass from Asia Minor; horses and mules 
from Armenia ; ivory and ebony from the Per- 
sian Gulf; precious stones and fine fabrics 
from Syria ; wheat, oil, and honey from Ju- 
dah; wine andwoolfrom Damascus; wrought 
iron brought by Danite caravans; and the 
fleeces and spices of Arabia and the East. 
Her markets were filled with chests of rich 
apparel, bound with "cords "and made of "ce- 
dar," and were frequented by traders clothed 
in the characteristic dresses and speaking 
the language of all the countries round about 
her ; her sails were spread to every breeze, 
and the stroke of the fifty oars of her great 
penteconters was heard in every sea. When 
her "wares went forth" she "filled many peo- 
ple," and " enriched the kings of the earth." 
The shock of her fall, therefore, would dislo- 
cate the commerce of the world ; would be 
felt by the pearl-divers on the Indian wa- 
ters, by the weavers far up the Nile, and by 
the miners on the coast of Cornwall. All 
the inhabitants of the isles should be as- 
tonished at her downfall. Joel denounced 
Tyre and Phoenicia for appropriating Jeho- 



vah's " silver and his gold, and his goodly 
pleasant things" to their idolatrous wor- 
ship, and threatens retaliation upon them 
for selling into slavery the children of Ju- 
dah and Jerusalem. Amos pours indigna- 
tion and fire upon Tyre for breaking " the 
brotherly covenant." Jeremiah mentions it 
among the nations into whose hands he put 
the wine-cup of divine fury, and upon whose 
necks he put " bonds and yokes." When 
Christ departed into the coasts of Tyre and 
Sidon the old city must still have been in 
good condition, and to a more recent time 
it preserved much of its beauty. Jerome 
describes it in his time as most noble and 
fair. At that period it was still famed for 
nautical science, for the manufacture of 
glass and of purple dye. Its mariners made 
maps according to latitude and longitude, 
and based on records of voyagers — perhaps 
on astronomical calculations. On its own 
coins Tyre was called " sacred and inviolate." 
But though in the days of its glory it " heap- 
ed up silver as the dust, and fine gold as the 
mire of the streets," it is now a scene of ir- 
retrievable and hopeless poverty. A traffic 
of millstones, which are conveyed thither by 
caravans from the Hermon, to be shipped 
thence to Alexandria, is all that is left of its 
once omnivorous commerce. The granite 
columns that formerly flashed back the sun 
from a hundred temples and palaces lie in 
fragments strewing the sea, imperfect, yet 
eloquent witnesses to its former glory. On 
its bald rock, shorn of its ancient architect- 
ural grandeur, the fishermen dry their nets, 
giving to the Word of God a literal fulfill- 
ment;^ while the shallow waters of its once 
busy harbor, offering no haven for modern 
commerce, render certain its perpetual real- 
ization. The fallen fortunes of Tyre can 
never be retrieved. Should an honest gov- 
ernment ever become the heritage of this 
now desolate land; should commerce once 
more cover the waters of the Eastern Med- 
iterranean, and agriculture clothe these now 
barren hills and plains with vineyards and 
fields of waving wheat. Tyre must still re- 
main a terrible witness to the certainty of di- 
vine judgments ; an everlasting monument, 
on whose ruins the traveler will ever read 
the dread decree, " Thou shalt be built no 
more." [ Jer. xxv., 22 ; xxvii., 3 ; Joel iii., 
4-8; Amos i., 9, 10.] 



1 Ezek. xxvi., 14. 



ULAI 



949 



UNCLEANNESS 



U. 



Ulai (strong water f), a river of Susiana, 
on the banks of which Daniel had one of 
his visions. Owing to similarity of names 
it has generally been identified with the 
Eulseus of the Greeks, but which of the riv- 
ers or chauuels in this locality is to be iden- 
tified with Eulsens is a question upon which 
scholars are not agreed. [Dan. viii., 2, 16.] 

Uncleanness. Clean and unclean are 
terms of frequent occurrence in connection 
with the rites and usages of the old cove- 
nant. Like every thing there, while they 
have a primary bearing on the outward 
state and behavior, they have also a higher 
and symbolical import. The first distinc- 
tion of the kind that meets us in Scripture 
is that of cleanness and uncleanness with 
respect to animal food. It appears as an 
already existing distinction so early as the 
Flood, and hence was no new thing at the 
time of the giving of the Law. How far, 
however, the patriarchal rule coincided with 
the Mosaic we are nowhere told. As the 
origin of the distinction is lost in primeval 
antiquity, the principles on which it pro- 
ceeded, and the lines of demarkation it drew, 
can not be known with certainty. The ba- 
sis of the obligation to maintain the dis- 
tinction prescribed in the Mosaic law^ is 
declared in Lev. xi., 43, 47, and emphatically 
repeated in xx., 24-26, to be the call of the 
Hebrews to be the peculiar people of Jeho- 
vah. It was to be something in their daily 
life to remind them of the covenant which 
distinguished them from the other nations 
of the world. It might thus become an apt 
type of the call itself — the clean animals 
answering to the Israelites, and the unclean 
to the Gentiles. Peter's vision^ seems to 
recognize it in this way, and to teach that 
the revelation which had broken down the 
middle wall of partition between Jew and 
Gentile had pronounced every creature of 
God to be clean; that every creature of 
God is good, and nothing to be refused, if it 
be received with thanksgiving.^ 

Various opinions have been formed as to 
what considerations directed the line by 
which clean animals were separated from 
the unclean. It has been held that the food 
forbidden was such as was commonly eaten 
by the neighboring nations, and that the 
prohibition served as a check to keep the 
people from social intercourse with the Gen- 
tiles ; that the flesh of certain animals from 
which the Egyptians abstained because they 
held it to be sacred, was pronounced clean, 
and treated as common food ; and that the 
flesh of other animals which were associated 
with the practice of magic was abominated 



Lev. xi. ; Deat. xiv.— 2 Acts x., 12.— 3 1 Tim. iv., 4. 



as unclean, in order that the Israelites might 
in their daily life bear a testimony against 
idolatry and superstition. Many have con- 
sidered the distinction to be' based mainly 
or entirely upon sanitary grounds ; and oth- 
ers claim that it is impossible to refer the 
line of demarkation to any thing but the 
arbitrary will of God. But the notion that 
has been accepted with most favor is that 
the distinction is based wholly or mainly 
upon symbolical grounds. By some it has 
been connected with the degradation of all 
creation through the fall of man, and the 
apparent reflection of moral depravity in 
the disposition of some animals has l3een 
identified, in rather a loose way, with the 
unclean creatures of the Law. If we look 
more strictly than any of these views seem 
to do at the way in which this law was re- 
garded in the practical life of the Hebrews, 
we shall find that the division which was 
the foundation of the law was not one of 
living animals. Uncleanness, as such, be- 
longed to no creature while it was alive. 
The Hebrew treated his camel and his ass 
with as much care as his ox and his sheep, 
and came into contact with them as freely. 
But according to the whole spirit of the law, 
every dead body was a polluted thing, not 
to be touched. As every living animal was 
clean, so every dead animal, in its natural 
condition, was unclean. But it was neces- 
sary to make provision for human food; 
therefore the Law pointed out those ani- 
mals which divine wisdom decided to be 
the best for the purpose, and it ordained 
that, when they were required as food, they 
should be slaughtered in a particular man- 
ner, and sanctified by being brought to the 
door of the tabernacle. Thus it was made 
clean and fit to be the food of Jehovah's 
people. The chief part of the animal food 
of cultivated nations has, in all ages and 
in all parts of the world, been taken from 
the same kinds of animals. The rumina- 
ting quadrupeds, the fishes with scales and 
fins, the gallinaceons birds, and other birds 
which feed on vegetable matter, are evident- 
ly preferred by the general choice of man- 
kind. The ancient Gentile laws on the sub- 
ject, as far as we are acquainted with them, 
are, with very inconsiderable exceptions, in 
agreement with the law of Moses. The dis- 
tinctive character ascribed in Lev. xi., 43- 
47 ; XX., 25, 26, to that regulation appears to 
be that the ordinance of Moses was for the 
whole nation. It was not like the Egyp- 
tian law, intended for priests alone ; nor 
like the Hindoo law, binding only on the 
twice -born Brahman; nor like the Parsee 
law, to be aiDprehended and obeyed only 



UNICOEN 



950 



UNION CHURCHES 



by those disciplined in spiritual matters: 
it was a law for the people — for every man, 
woman, and child of the race chosen to be 
" a kingdom of priests, an holy nation."^ 

This is the fundamental principle on which 
the various other grounds and occasions of 
uncleanness under the old covenant rest ; 
hence the bodily cleanliness — a bodily holi- 
ness, so to speak — that was inculcated. The 
loss of this cleauliness, this holiness, sepa- 
rated the Hebrew for a time from his social 
privileges, and left his citizenship among this 
people, holy unto God, in abeyance for the 
while. The sacredness attached by the di- 
vine law to the human body is parallel to 
that which invested the Ark of the Cove- 
nant itself. It is as though Jehovah would 
thereby teach his people that the ''very hairs 
of their head were all numbered," and that 
"in his book were all their members writ- 
ten." For example, the mere touch of the 
dead defiled, and whenever death happened 
in a house or tent, all in it and about it re- 
mained uuder a taint of defilement for sev- 
en days.^ Not that there was any thiug sin- 
ful in the contact itself with the dead — for 
this may have come about without the slight- 
est blame, and even in the discharge of imper- 
ative duty — but to impress the individual 
with a salutary horror of sin, whence comes 
death. By all such appointments the Law 
virtually said, "Beware of sin! which is the 
death of the soul, and the ultimate cause 
of all that interferes with the enjoyment of 
life in the kingdom of God." The same ex- 
planation is to be given of the uncleanness 
connected with leprosy (q. v.), a disease 
which was viewed as a sort of living death, 
the most exact image of sin. But another, 
and indeed the only additional class of de- 
filements of a general kind, sprang from 
what may not unfitly be called the oppo- 
site quarter, the generation and birth of 
children. The ordinances concerning these 
seem to point to the inherited depravity 
which, by reason of the Fall, has become in- 
herent in human nature — a fact which, in 
some form or other, has forced itself upon 
every thoughtful mind, and has perpetually 
pressed upon men's attention the great truth 
uttered from the depths of the Psalmist's 
experience, when he cried, " Behold, I was 
shapen in iniquity, and in sin did my moth- 
er conceive me." The fullest and most im- 
portant account of the provisions respect- 
ing uncleanness are contained in Leviticus, 
chaps, xi.-x V. See Purification ; Washing. 

Unicorn, the rendering by our version, 
following the Septuagint, of the Hebrew 
word "reem," a word which occurs seven 
times in the O. T. as the name of some large 
wild animal. From the details of its aspect 
and habits, given by these various passages, 
we discover, since it is mentioned as a visi- 
ble type of divine power, that the reem must 
1 Exod. xix., 6.— 2 Lev. xi. ; Nnmb. xix. 



have been an exceptionally powerful ani- 
mal. Next, from the expression " horns of 
an unicorn" (the Avord reem in the original 
being in the singular, as the margin gives 
it), we see that the reem was not a one-horn- 
ed but a two -horned animal. The reem's 
horns were the emblem of the two tribes, 
Ephraim and Manasseh, that sprung from 
Joseph ; the figure is much more conforma- 
ble, if the two horns sprung from the head 
of one animal. 

Next in the Psalms we find that the pow- 
erful two-horned reem was also a dangerous 
and violent animal. The description in Job 
implies that it was untamable; and Isaiah 
has a passage in which it is evidently 
classed with the ox tribe. A likeness to the 
ox family seems implied in Psalms also : "He 
maketh them to skip like a calf; Lebanon 
and Sirion like a young reem." At the pres- 
ent day, naturalists are nearly all agreed 
that the reem of the O. T. must have been 
the now extinct urns. The urus was a gi- 
gantic relative of the ox and bison, and it 
is evident, from the skulls and other bones 
which have been discovered, that it was a 
most formidable animal, with horns of great 
size and strength. [Numb, xxiii., 22 ; Deut. 
xxxiii., 17; Psa. xxii., 19-21; xxix., 6; Job 
xxxix,, 9-12 ; Isa. xxxiv., 6, 7.] 

Uniformity (Act of), a celebrated act pass- 
ed by the English Parliament in the reign 
of Charles IL, by which all who refused to 
subscribe to the doctrines or to observe the 
rites of the Church of England were ex- 
cluded from its communion, and if ecclesias- 
tics, deprived of their offices. This act came 
into operation on the 24th of August, 1662, 
which has been often termed the "Era of 
Non-conformity," when nearly two thousand 
ministers, lieing conscientiously unable to 
conform, were ejected from their benefices. 

Union Churches. This body of Chris- 
tians, whose full title is Christian Union 
Churclies of the West, assumed definite ex- 
istence and operation in its present form 
about the year 1863. Although churches 
now identified therewith had been establish- 
ed and in successful operation for twenty- 
five years before, the prime object of this 
movement is stated to be the union of all 
Christians upon the essential and funda- 
mental doctrines of Christianity. Their 
principles are officially stated thus : 

"1. The oneness of the Church; 2. Christ the only 
Head ; 3. The Bible the only rule of faith and practice ; 
4. 'Good fruits' the only condition of fellowship ; 5. 
The repudiation of controversy ; C. Each local church 
governs itself; 7. Do not preach partisan politics." 

By the above statement of principles it will 
be observed that the union churches have 
no lumian creed or test of fellowship, and 
are exclusively governed by the Bible. They 
repudiate all controversy on metaphysical 
theology, and all sectarian distinctive opin- 
ions, allowing the right of private judg- 



UNITAEIANS 



951 



UNITARIANS 



ment on all subjects, except those which 
they regard as necessary to salvation. They ^ 
have a Congregational form of church gov- ^ 
ernment, and each one of their independent j 
churches is called a " Church of Christ," and 
the individual members Christians, disciples, 
saints, brethren, or followers of Christ. They 
co-operate with all Christians in Christian 
organizations, such as the '^American Tract 
Society," '' Young Men's Christian Associa- 
tion," and the "American Bible Society." 
All their houses of worship are built free to 
all who preach Christ, or desire to worship 
the Most High. They have strong churches 
in Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, Iowa, 
Missouri, Minnesota, Kansas, Arkansas, Tex- 
as, and elsewhere. They hold a General Coun- 
cil every two years, composed of delegates 
from the different States. Each State also 
holds an Annual Council. They have an or- 
gan of the movement, called the Christian 
Witness, published at M'Arthur, Vinton Coun- 
ty, Ohio. They have a membership of some 
thirty thousand, and are said to be increas- 
ing. They recognize but one order in the 
ministry, that of elder ; and encourage all, 
both learned and unlearned, who feel called 
to work for Christ, to do so. 

Unitarians, a general name given to all 
those who deny the doctrine of the Trinity. 
It is sometimes claimed by them upon .the 
ground that they teach the doctrine of the 
unity of God; but this doctrine the Trinita- 
rians equally maintain. It would be more 
proper to say that they teach that there is 
but one divine person, while the common 
formula of the Trinitarian theology is that 
there are three persons in one God.^ But 
while this is the point in respect to which 
the diiferences between the Unitarians and 
orthodox or evangelical Christians are most 
notable, it is not the only, nor perhaps the 
most important point. Their view of the 
nature of man, the divine government, and 
the srJvation of the soul differs radically in 
many respects from that commonly received 
throughout Christendom. At the same time, 
they diifer scarcely less radically among 
themselves on these points. Agreed only in 
two things — a rejection of the doctrine of 
the Trinity, and a disowning of the doctrine 
of all creeds as authoritative statements of 
doctrine — it is scarcely possible to state fair- 
ly and accurately for them that faith which 
they have never attempted to state author- 
itatively for themselves. Indeed, there is 
probably a greater difference in theological 
views between the various parties in the 
Unitarian churches of America than be- 
tween those of the radical Unitarians and 
avowed unbelievers on the one hand, and 
those of conservative Unitarians and ortho- 
dox, or evangelical, theologians on the other. 

The conservatiA^e Unitarians differ from 
the Trinitarians chiefly in their estimate of 



See Teinitaeians. 



the character of Christ and the Holy Spirit, 
and even in this respect the difference is 
metaphysical rather than practical. Inher- 
iting their faith from the Arians (q. v.), they 
deny the proper deity of Jesus Christ, but at- 
tribute to liim the highest character which it 
is possible to attribute to a created being, a 
character so bright that they often speak of 
him as divine. They profess to accept him 
as the Son of God, the Mediator between God 
and man, the infallible Teacher, and the all- 
sufficient Saviour. They believe in his mir- 
acles, his resurrection, and his sinless char- 
acter ; and that he is worthy of honor, love, 
trust, and obedience. They believe, too, in 
the Holy Spirit, but not in him as a distinct 
person, onlj^ as " a purifying and quickening 
power which proceeds from tlie Father, and 
which was signally poured out upon the ear- 
ly disciples, and which God is ever ready to 
give to them that ask ;" and on the impor- 
tance of this divine presence and energy, real 
though impersonal, they insist with scarcely 
less earnestness than their orthodox neigh- 
bors. At the same time, they differ radically 
from the Trinitarians, in that they declare 
that " the most essential point in the Chris- 
tian faith is not the time when Christ's ex- 
istence began, nor the metaphysical elements 
of his nature, but the degree of his authori- 
ty to speak in the name of God," while to 
the Trinitarian the person and cTiaracter of 
Christ is of transcendentally greater impor- 
tance than his doctrine. In other points 
they use language very similar to that of 
the orthodox teachers, and employ many of 
the same Scriptural texts in stating their 
faith ; but when pressed for an interpreta- 
tion, give a very different explanation of 
them. On other theological points they hold 
that Ave are "born imperfect, with many 
tendencies to evil" — tendencies, to some ex- 
tent, inherited; and that in this sense, and 
in this only, we can be said to haA^e sinned in 
or been affected by the sin of Adam ; but at 
the same time, while the nature is perverted 
and debased, CA^ery man has the power to ful- 
fill the laAV of God, and is sinful only so far 
as he voluntarily yields to temptation and 
chooses disobedience. They maintain, too, 
that nature and conscience combine to teach 
that there is a future retribution ; and that 
while no one can in strictness of speech suf- 
fer the penalty of another's sins, and all the 
language of the N. T. Avhich implies such a 
thing must be interpreted as the language 
of allegory or of strong feeling, nevertheless 
it Avas only by and through the sacrifice of 
Christ that salvation was made possible for 
man. At the same time, they generally re- 
pudiate the idea that it was necessary in 
order to satisfy God's wrath, or to meet the 
claims of his laAv ; and consider its efficacy 
to consist wholly in its effect on the human 
soul, in producing repentance, a sense of the 
heinousness of sin, and a conviction of God's 



UNITARIANS 



952 



UNITARIANS 



readiness to pardon those who turn to him. 
They hold to the necessity of regeneration, 
while they deny that it is miraculous, and 
their language leaves it uncertain whether 
they consider it a radical and instantancQus 
change in the heart, or only a gradual devel- 
opment of the germs of goodness, which, ac- 
cording to their philosophy, every man car- 
ries in himself. Finally, they accept the Bi- 
ble as the Word of God — and as a guide, ap- 
parently an authoritative guide — in matters 
of religion ; hut they hold to the less strict 
theories of inspiration,^ and interpret the 
Scriptures with greater freedom than most 
orthodox scholars. 

The radical Unitarians differ from the con- 
servative Unitarians so widely, that it is diffi- 
cult for one who writes from without the or- 
ganization altogether to comprehend where 
they tind a common ground. They profess to 
believe that "Jesus of Nazareth was led by 
the Spirit of God more constantly and en- 
tirely than any other son of man ; that he is 
therefore called the dearly beloved Son of 
God, and is the best teacher of religion ;" but 
they deny that he was one with God in any 
other than a spiritual sense, i. e., as godly 
men are one with each otlier, and with God 
whom they love and serve ; and they deny 
alike Christ's pre-existence and his miracu- 
lous conception, considering the accounts of 
his birth as mythological tales, invented in 
the second and third centuries of the Chris- 
tian era. They deny the doctrine of the 
Atonement, and consider that men are saved 
only by conforming their life and character 
to God's law, repudiating "justification by 
faith," and insisting that "personal obedi- 
ence to God in all things is the one thing- 
needful" — the only ground of salvation. The 
cross they accept only as an example of 
self-denial. They disown altogether the doc- 
trine of original sin, and believe that the 
actual and indubitable corruption of the 
world is largely due "to the incompetency 
or the neglect, or the evil examples of par- 
ents, or to their mistaken views of human 
nature and of education ;" without, howev- 
er, offering any explanation of the cause of 
that incompetencj^ and neglect. " Regener- 
ation," with them, " is the orderly and nor- 
mal awakening of the spiritual nature from 
its sleep iti the purely animal or merely in- 
stinctive nature ;" and they utterly deny the 
doctrine of " a miraculous change in the 
moral constitution of the soul." It is hard- 
ly necessary to add that they do not accept 
the Scriptures as an authority in religious 
matters. They regard the O. T. only as a 
collection of the sacred writings of the Jews, 
''written in large part by unknown authors 
and under the ordinary lights of human 
knowledge, and with all the ordinary sub- 
jection to human errors ;" and the N. T. as 
"the record of a revelation made by ear 
1 See Inspikation. 



and eye witnesses — by men religiously in- 
spired, yet not free from the prejudices and 
theories, and even practical errors of their 
times." These views, extreme as they ap- 
pear, and subversive of all the conceptions of 
Christianity current in the orthodox church- 
es, have not satisfied all those who are by 
inheritance, and even in some sense by ec- 
clesiastical position. Unitarians. From that 
body there have gone out a party of think- 
ers holding yet more extreme views ; but 
as they hardly recognize themselves, or are 
recognized by their former theological com- 
panions, as Unitarians, it is not right to at- 
tribute their views to that denomination; 
and for them, as interpreted by such think- 
ers as Theodore Parker, O. B. Frothingham, 
and Francis E. Abbott, we refer the reader 
to the article Rationalism. In this ac- 
count of Unitarian belief, we have drawn 
our statements wholly from tracts and ser- 
mons, or doctrinal statements, published by 
the American Unitarian Association, and so 
receiving, in some sense, the sanction of the 
denomination. Between the two extremes of 
belief thus representing the advance and the 
rear guard of Unitarianism, there is room, 
as the reader may readily perceive, for wide 
differences of opinion ; and the gap is actu- 
ally filled by every form of theological opin- 
ion, from the extreme conservative to the 
extreme radical creed. Nearly all Unita- 
rians hold to a doctrine of future retribu- 
tion, while they are also generally agreed in 
disowning the doctrine of everlasting pun- 
ishment, and in maintaining the probabil- 
ity of a final restoration to purity, holiness, 
and the favor of God of the whole human 
race. 

History and Organization. — The early his- 
tory of Unitarianism is partially given else- 
where.^ The first apostle of Unitarianism 
in England was John Biddle, who toward the 
middle of the seventeenth century combated 
the doctrine of the Trinity with great vigor, 
and even violence. His followers were call- 
ed for a time, from his name, Biddelians. 
Both John Milton and Locke are charged 
with having favored the views of the same 
school. It was not, however, till toward the 
close of the eighteenth century that it be- 
came a pre-eminent religious party in En- 
gland, under the teachings of Joseph Priest- 
ley and Thomas Belsham. A large number 
of the Presbyterians became more or less af- 
fected with Unitarian principles through a 
change of views on the part of their clergy, 
who carried their congregations, in many in- 
stances, with them. It is said that a large 
proportion of the buildings now occupied 
in England as churches by Unitarian con- 
gregations belonged originally to the old 
English Presbyterians, who were strictly 
Trinitarian in their views. In the United 



1 See AuiANS; Sooinians; Humanitarians ; Cheis- 

TOLOGY; TkINITABIANS. 



UNITAEIANS 



953 



UNIVERSALISTS 



States the first considerable avowed move- 
ment toward Uuitarianism occurred after, 
and perhaps partly in consequence of, the 
visit of Dr. Priestley to America, in 1794 ; 
though probably the opinions had been en- 
tertained unavowed in the churches prior 
to that time, as they still are in many of the 
professedly Trinitarian churches upon the 
Continent, where Uuitarianism, as a distinct 
denomination, is but little kuown. The set- 
tlement of Dr. Chauniug in Boston, in 1803, 
gave the movement another and more con- 
siderable impulse. He represented what 
would now be regarded as the more con- 
servative wing of the Unitarian Church, but 
attacked the too rigid and ascetic theology 
of the Puritaus with great power, though 
with little controversial bitterness. The 
appointment of Dr. Ware as professor of 
divinity in Cambridge University, in 1805, 
gave rise to a long and protracted contro- 
versy, which was not coufiued to pamphlets 
and pulpits, but extended into the courts 
of law, and which ended with the entire 
separation of the Trinitarian and Unitarian 
churches into distinct organizations. The 
separation thus eifected has contiuued to 
the present day, though the bitterness of 
the controversy has X)assed away, and occa- 
sionally exchanges of pulpits are made be- 
tween Unitarian and orthodox clergymen, 
a thing of common occurrence prior to 1805, 
before which time, indeed, no very clear line 
was drawn between them, but which has 
been almost unknown since that time. 

In 1825 the American Unitarian Associa- 
tion was organized, to act as a Publication 
and Home Missionary Society. There is a 
Natioual Conference of Unitarian Churches, 
which meets biennially, and eighteen local 
Confereuces. There are two theological 
schools, one at Cambridge, Mass., which 
graduated four students in 1873 ; and one at 
Meadville, Penn., which graduated five the 
same year. There are fourteen religious and 
charitable societies supported by and prac- 
tically under the control of this denomina- 
tion, in addition to the Unitarian Associa- 
tion and several Sunday-school societies. It 
sustains four monthly and two weekly pe- 
riodicals. But in addition the Unitarians 
control, to a considerable extent, several 
prominent periodicals of an avowedly sec- 
ular, or at least unsectarian, character, and 
embrace among their number some of the 
most cultivated minds in the country, whose 
influence on behalf of their denomination 
is the more effectual because not exercised 
in the theological arena. Their views, too, 
are embraced by others than their own de- 
nomination, as by the Progressive Friends 
(q. V.) and the Hicksite Quakers (q. v.). 
Their last reports show a total number of 
360 churches, and 403 clergymen in this 
country and Canada. 

Their churches are, in form of church gov- 



ernment, substantially Congregational/ and 
in doctrine aud ecclesiastical discipline en- 
tirely independent. Their conferences do not 
possess any control over the local church- 
es. The Continental Unitarians were also 
Baptists, i. e., they maintained that baptism 
could be administered only to adults; but 
in the churches of the United States it is 
administered to households. The Lord's Sup- 
per is observed, but simply as a commem- 
orative ordinance. Tlie Unitarians, how- 
ever, attach little importance to any rit- 
ual. Usually the forms of worship are of 
the simplest kind, aud the prayers extem- 
pore ; but in some instances a ritual has been 
adopted from the Episcopal Prayer-book, 
the Trinitarian doxologies and other similar 
expressions inconsistent with the Unitarian 
faith being modified or omitted. 

Universalists, a name given to a body of 
Christians, the peculiarity of whose belief is 
that all mankind will eventually be redeem- 
ed from sin and suffering, and brought back 
to holiness and God. Hence the name, which 
is derived from their belief in universal sal- 
vation. Universalism, as a doctriue, is of 
very ancient date. Certain of its adherents 
claim that the Scripture affords authority 
for it. The chief texts cited by those Uni- 
versalists who ground their belief upon the 
Scripture are the folio wiug : John i., 29 ; iii., 
17 ; Eom. v., 6, 12, 18-21 ; viii., 19-24 ; 1 Cor. 
XV., 24-28; Ephes. i., 9, 10 ; iv., 10 ; Phil, ii., 
9-11 ; Cor. i., 19, 20 ; Heb. ii., 9 ; 1 John ii., 
2 ; iii., 8 ; Rev. v., 13. Passages in favor of 
the doctrine are cited from many of the 
church fathers, and it was undoubtedly held 
by Origen. It is said also to have been held 
by some of the Albigenses and Waldenses, 
the Lollards, and the Anabaptists, aud it 
probably had isolated supporters in most 
of the countries into which the Reforma- 
tion penetrated. ISI'or has it wanted illus- 
trious adherents belonging to the Church 
of England and the Non-conformists, among 
whom it is customary to rank Archbish- 
op Tillotson, Dr. Burnet, Bishop Newton, 
Dr. Henry More, William Whitson, Jeremy 
White (chaplain to Oliver Cromwell), Soame 
Jenyns, David Hartley, William Law, and 
(in our own day) Thomas de Quincey and 
Professor Maurice. The same remark is 
applicable to the French and German Prot- 
estant churches. But the existence of Uni- 
versalism as a distinct religious sect is a 
feature of American society. About the 
year 1770, the Rev. John Murray became a 
propagator of Universalist views ; and since 
his time, an organized body has sprung up, 
which, according to the register of the de- 
nomination published in 1871, contains in 
the United States 904 parishes, owning 687 
churches, and ministered to by 621 preach- 
ers. These societies have under their pat- 
ronage ten institutions of learning, includ- 



See, however, Cokgeegationalists. 



UR 



954 



URIM AND THUMMIM 



ing four colleges and seven academies, and 
they support thirteen periodicals. In ec- 
clesiastical government the Universalist 
churches are congregational. 

As a theology Universalism exists in three 
different forms. One class of thinkers hold 
to the old Gnostic theory that sin belongs 
exclusively to the body, and that, accord- 
ingly, when the body drops off at the grave, 
all sin and punishment will cease. A sec- 
ond theory is, that sin is punished by God 
in this life, both by his providence and by 
the remorse of conscience which it entails, 
and that, accordingly, there is no reason to 
believe in any future punishment. Both 
these theories have, however, given place 
generally to that of the Restorationists, who 
hold a system of doctrines very analogous to 
those of other Christians, but who maintain 
that, finally, after a period of punishment, 
which may be of long duration, all mankind 
Avill be brought back to God through the 
influence of his Holy Spirit, and by the ef- 
ficacy of Christ's atoning blood. Most of 
them, though not all, agree with the Unita- 
rians in rejecting the doctrine of the Trini- 
ty, and in interpretiug the atonement as ef- 
ficacious only as a moral iuflueuce upon the 
hearts of men. In this respect their theo- 
logical views, like those of the Unitarians 
(q. v.), are. of various forms; like the Uni- 
tariaus, they generally agree in regarding 
creed as a matter of little or no importance, 
and in treating the daily life as the true 
measure of personal religion. 

Ur (light), a city or place always spoken of 
in Scripture as " Ur of the Chaldees," where 
Abraham's family resided, and from which 
he, with his father Terah and other rela- 
tives, went forth to Haran.^ There are dis- 
cordant opinions as to its locality. Profes- 
sor Rawlinson^ believes that this city, the 
first and most important of the early capi- 
tals of Chaldea, was situated on the Eu- 
phrates, probably at no great distance from 
its mouth. It was, x)robably, the chief com- 
■mercial emporium of early times. The name 
is found to have attached to the extensive 
ruins now six miles from the river on its 
right bank, and nearly opposite its junction 
with the Shat-el-Hie, which are known by 
the name of Mugheir, or " the hitumened." 
Here, on a dead flat, broken by a few sand- 
hills, are traces of a considerable town, con- 
sisting chiefly of a series of low mounds dis- 
posed in an oval shape, the largest diameter 
of which, from north to south, is somewhat 
more than half a mile. In periods of inun- 
dation the ruins are surrounded by water. 
The chief building is a temple, which rises 
seventy feet above the level of the plain, 
and is conspicuous at a coi^iderable dis- 
tance. It is in the form of a parallelogram, 
198 by 133 feet, built in a very rude fash- 



» Gen. xi., 28, 31 ; xv., 7 ; Neh. ix., 7.— ^ " Great Mon- 
archies of the Eastern World." 



ion, of large bricks, cemented with bitumen, 
whence the name by which the Arabs desig- 
nate the place. 

Uriah {light of Jehovah). 1. A valiant of- 
ficer in David's army. He was not a native 
Israelite, but of the Hittite race, hence call- 
ed ^' Uriah the Hittite ;" yet he had evident- 
ly embraced the faith of Israel.' He mar- 
ried Bath-sheba (q. v.), a woman of Jewish 
birth, and possessed of extraordinary beau- 
ty. Of Uriah himself comparatively little 
is told ; but there is undoubted evidence of 
his loyal, chivalrous, and devoted spirit, and 
a true soldier-like sense of honor, the more 
remarkable as it stands in contrast to the 
duplicity and selfishness of his royal master. 
David having attempted every device to 
conceal his own guilt in regard to Bath-she- 
ba, had no resort but the death of Uriah. 
He accordingly ordered that he should be 
given a position in the hottest part of the 
conflict. The device succeeded only too 
well, and Uriah perished on the field of bat- 
tle. [2 Sam. xi.] 

2. Called also Urijah, a high-priest in the 
reign of Ahaz. His parentage is not known, 
and the only thing recorded of him is his 
ready compliance with the idolatrous tend- 
encies of Ahaz in getting an altar erected 
after the pattern of one which Ahaz had 
seen at Damascus. [2 Kings xvi., 10-16; 
Isa. viii.] 

Urijah, a prophet in the reign of Jehoia- 
kim. He prophesied against the king and 
the people, for which he was obliged to flee 
for his life, and so bitter and relentless was 
the feeling against him, that the king sent 
to Egypt for him, and killed him with the 
sword. [ Jer. xxvi., 20-23. ] 

Urim aiid Thummim (light and perfection). 
When the Jewish exiles were met on their 
return from Babylon by a question which 
they had no data for answering, they agreed 
to postpone the settlement of the ditficulty 
till there should rise up " a priest with Urim 
and Thummim.'"^ The inquiry, what those 
Urim and Thummim themselves were, seems 
likely to wait as long for a final and satisfy- 
ing answer. Few matters connected with 
the ancient Hebrew ritual have excited more 
curiosity. On every side we meet with con- 
fessions of ignorance. The Scripture gives 
no description of the things meant. In the 
directions communicated to Moses for the 
high-priest's garments it is simply said that 
the Urim and Thummim are to be put into 
the holy breastplate, to " be upon Aaron's 
heart, when he goeth in before the Lord." 
Bnt it is observable that, whereas certain 
skilled artists made the robes and the fur- 
niture of the tabernacle with the tabernacle 
also, there is no mention of any making of 
Urim and Thummim; it is Moses himself 
who, Avhen all is finished, and Aaron is ar- 
rayed, puts these into the breastplate. They 



1 2 Sara, xi., 11.— 2 Ezra ii., 63 ; Neh. vii., 65. 



URIM AND THUMMIM 



955 



UTENSILS 



are mentioned as things already familiar 
"both to Moses and the people, connected 
naturally with the functions of the high- 
priest, as mediating between Jehovah and 
his people. By means of them counsel from 
the Lord was to be delivered, and the pos- 
session thereof was the crowning glory of 
the priestly tribe,^ Their purpose is clearly 
enough indicated in Numb, xxvii., 21 ; 1 Sam. 
xxviii., 6; and also (as they were evidently 
regarded as belonging to the ephod) in 1 
Sam. xxiii., 9-12; xxx., 7, 8. We are war- 
ranted in concluding that they were visible 
things of some sort by which the will of 
Jehovah, especiallj'^ in what related to the 
wars in which his people were engaged, was 
made known, and that from this time they 
were preserved in the bag of the breastplate 
of the high -priest, to be borne "upon his 
heart before the Lord continually."^ There 
is no instance on record of their being con- 
sulted after the time of David. They were 
certainly not in use after the Captivity, and 
it seems to have become a proverb in refer- 
ence to a qiiestion of inextricable difficulty, 
that it should not be solved " till there stood 
up a priest with Urim and Thummim."^ 

As to the form and material of the Urim 
and the Thummim, and as to the mode in 
which they were consulted by the high- 
priest, there have been many conjectures, 
some of them very wild and startling. The 
different views which have been taken are, 
for the most part, based on three different 
theories : 

I. That the Divine Will was manifested 
through the Urim and the Thummim by 
some physical effect addressed to the eye or 
the ear ; 11. That they were some ordained 
symbol which, when the high -priest con- 
centred his sight and attention on it, be- 
came a means of calling forth the prophetic 
gift ; III. That they were some contrivance 
for casting lots. 

I. Josephus, who identified the stones of 
the breastplate with the Urim and the 
Thummim, says that they signified a favor- 
able answer to the question proposed by 
shining forth with unusual brilliancy. He 
adds that they had not been known to ex- 
hibit this power for two hundred years be- 
fore his time. Others, supposing that the 
Urim and the Thummim were two images, 
or Teraphim, imagined that an angel was 
commissioned to speak through the lips of 
one of them with an audible voice, or that 
an audible voice addressed itself from the 
merc3"-seat as the high-priest stood before it, 
wearing the breastplate on his breast. 

II. Some of those who have held the second 
theory have conceived that the high-priest 
used to fix his eyes on the gems of the breast- 
plate, until the spirit of prophecy came upon 

1 Exod. xxviii., 30 ; Lev. viii.. 8 ; Deut. xxxiii., 8, 9 ; 
Numb, xxvii., 21.— 2 Exod. xxviii., 30.— 3 Ezra ii., 03; 
Nell, vii., G5; comp. Hos. iii., 4. 



him and gave him utterance. Others have 
conjectured that the object of his contem- 
plation was not the gems themselves, but 
some distinct object with sacred associa- 
tions, such as a gold plate or gem of some 
kind, inscribed with the name Jehovah, at- 
tached to the outside of the breastplate. 

III. Still others have supposed that the 
Urim and the Thummim might have been 
three slips, one with yes upon it, one with 
no, and the third plain, and that the slij) 
taken out of the pocket of the breastplate at 
hap-hazard by the high-priest was regarded 
as giving the answer to the question pro- 
posed ; or that they were two images, which 
were used in some mode of casting lots ; or 
diamonds cut in the form of dice, which the 
high-priest, when he sought for an answer, 
took out of the bag, and threw down on the 
table in the sanctuary, drawing a meaning 
from the mode in which they fell. But the 
theory of lots is not necessarily involved in 
these vain conjectures as to the material in- 
struments which may have been employed. 
No attempted explanation seems to be more 
in accordance with such analogy as the his- 
tory of the Israelites afibrds, or more free 
from objection, than that the Urim and the 
Thummim were some means of casting lots. 
We know that appeals to lots were made 
under divine authority by the chosen peo- 
ple on the most solemn occasions ;^ and the 
practice was not wholly discontinued till it 
was exercised in completing the number of 
the twelve apostles. It seems worthy of re- 
mark, that the Urim and the Thummim ap- 
pear to have fallen into disuse as the pro- 
phetic office became more distinct and im- 
portant in and after the reign of David; and 
that we hear nothing of the casting of lots 
in the apostolic history after the day of Pen- 
tecost, when the Holy Ghost was given to 
lead all believers into all truth. In each 
case, the lower mode of revelation appears 
to give way to the higher. 

Utensils. A number of domestic utensils 
are mentioned in Scripture. We have the 
basin, the bowl, the caldron, the charger, the 
cruse, the cup, the dish, the flagon, the gob- 
let, the kettle, the pan, the pitcher, and the 




Modem Oriental Dishes. 



pot. The charger was probably a deep dish, 
though that referred to in Matt, xiv., 8, 11, 



1 Lev. xvi., 8; Numb, xxvi., 55; Josh, vii., 14-18; 
xiii., 6; xviii.,8; 1 Sam. xiv., 41, 42; Actsi.,2G; com- 
pare for a slight indication that this was the use of 
the Urim and Thummim, 1 Sam, xiv. ; particularly 
verses 3, 18, 19, 36, 3T, 41, 42. 



UZAL 



956 



UZZIAH 



was perhaps an ordinary disTi, shallower in 
character, like a plate. The form of the 
cruse is quite uncertain". That of the widow^ 



1o 




Ancient Egyptian Drinking-vessels. 
1, 2, 3. Yase, goblet, and cup from paintings ; 4. Por- 
celain ; 5. Green earthenware ; 6. Coarse pottery ; 
7. "Wood ; 8. Aragonite ; 9. Saucer of earthenware. 

was probably a globular vessel, with a nar- 
row neck and a handle. By iiagon, in Isa. 
xxii., 24, a bottle of skin is probably intend- 
ed. The other terms require no explana- 
tion. These utensils were made variously 
of metal, of earthenware, and of the skins 
of animals.^ 

Uzal {a tvandererf), a son of Joktan. His 
descendants appear to have settled in Ye- 
men, the capital of which, now Sanaa, had 
long the name of Uzal, still perhaps to be 
traced in a suburb Oseir, where about two 
thousand Jews reside. This district was 
noted for its commercial importance. It 
traded with Tyre, and is thought to have 
had Javan as its port. Sanaa stands on a 
plateau four thousand feet above the level 
of the sea; the air is salubrious and the 
temperature equable; but the district suf- 
fers from drought, and is consequently sub- 
ject to famines. The inhabitants are cel- 
ebrated for the manufacture of beautiful 
stuffs. • [Gen. x., 27 ; 1 Chron. i., 21.] 

Uzzah, or Uzza {strength), one of the 
sons of Abinadab, in whose house the ark 
abode for twenty: years. When the ark was 
removed to Jerusalem, it devolved upon Uz- 
zah, with his brother Ahio, to drive the cart 
in which it was placed. When the proces- 
sion reached Nashon's threshing-floor,^ the 



1 1 Kings xvii., 12.— ^ Another Hebrew word, im- 
properly translated "flagon" in our Bible, means a 
pressed cake of dried grapes or raisins (raisin-cake), 
esteemed a delicate and refreshing food {2 Sam. vi., 19 ; 
1 Chron. xvi., 3 ; Sol. Song ii., 5), and offered in sacri- 
fice to idols (Hos. iii., 1, properly, and love-cakes of 
grapes, as offerings to their idols).— ^ Called in 1 
Chron. xiii., 9, " the threshing-floor of Chidon." 



oxen stumbled so as to shake the ark, and 
Uzzah, fearing, doubtless^ lest it should fall 
to the ground, incautiously put forth his 
hand to hold it. The profanation was 
punished by his instant death, to the great 
grief of David, who named the place Pe- 
rez-Uzzah, the hreaMng forth on Uzzah. Va- 
rious opinions have been entertained as to 
the precise nature of the sin of Uzzah. 
But his fate was not merely the penalty of 
his own rashness. The improper mode of 
transporting the ark, which ought to have 
been borne on the shoulders of the Levites, 
was the primary cause of his profanation ; 
and while the stroke fell directly upon 
: him, it was a manifestation of divine dis- 
pleasure toward all. David evidently re- 
garded it in this light. The scene of Uz- 
zah's death was probably about five miles 
west of Jerusalem. [2 Sam. vi., 1-12 ; 1 
Chron. xiii., 7-14.] 

Uzziah {strength of Jehovah). In several 
passages in Kings he- is called Azariah. He 
was the son of Amaziah, and the tenth king 
of Judah, B.C. 810-758. On his father's death 
he was chosen king by the people. Ascend- 
ing the throne at the early age of sixteen, 
he exhibited great capacity for government, 
and under his administration the kingdom 
of Israel soon attained to great strength and 
prosperity. He carried on successful wars 
against the Philistines and the Arabians; 
fortified the walls at Jerusalem with strong 
towers ; built towers also in the wilderness ; 
applied himself to the husbandry of fields 
and vineyards ; and kept up a large and 
well - appointed army.^ But his prosperi- 
ty proved too much for him. He became 
proud and presumptuous, and arrogated to 
himself the right of doing what God had 
expressly reserved to his consecrated priest- 
hood — to burn incense upon the altar. For 
this daring act he was smitten with lep- 
rosy, which clave to him till the day of his 
death.^ After this calamity, he could take 
but little part in public affairs, and his son 
Jotham was associated with him in the king- 
dom. Mention is made by Amos and Zecha- 
riah^ of an earthquake which took place dur- 
ing Uzziah's reign. Josephus also mentions 
it, and connects it with his sacrilegious at- 
tempt to offer incense ; but Scripture itself 
affords no warrant for this. As he was a 
leper, his grave was apart from the royal 
vaults, in the adjacent field.^ He was suc- 
ceeded by his son Jotham. [2 Kings xv., 
1-8; 2Chron.xxvi.] 



1 2 Chron. xxvi., 6-15.— 2 2 Chron. xxvi., 21 ; 2 Kings 
XV., 5.-3 Amos i., 1 ; Zech. xiv., 5.—* 2 Chron. xxvi., 
23. 



VALE, VALLEY 



957 



VESTMENTS 



V. 



Vale, Valley. These words are used iu 
our Euglish Bible to translate several He- 
bre\y words which really possess very differ- 
ent significations. Sometimes it indicates a 
hollow sweep of ground between two more 
or less parallel ridges of laud ; sometimes a 
deep and abrupt ravine, with steep sides 
and narrow bottom ; sometimes a ivady, i. e., 
the bed of a stream which iu the rainy 
season is nearly filled with a foamiug tor- 
rent, while at other times it is nearly or 
quite dry ; sometimes a plain rather than a 
valley, though a plain inclosed by mount- 
ains. In several instances it is used to des- 
ignate the region of country lying between 
the mountains of Judea and the Mediterra- 
nean, which is elsewhere more appropriate- 
ly rendered the Low Country. See Pales- 
tine ; Bbook. 

Vashti (beaatiful woman), the "queen" of 
Ahasuerus, who, for refusing to show her- 
self to the king's guests at the royal ban- 
quet, was repudiated and deposed.^ Various 
attempts have been made to identify both 
her and Esther with historical personages. 
The Persian monarchs, however, invariably 
selected their true wives from princely 
houses, marrying them from reasons of state 
alone. It is probable that both Esther and 
Vashti were simply favorites, or " queens," 
of the royal harem. See Esther ; Harem. 

Veil. At present, females are rarely seen 
without the veil in Oriental countries, so 
much so, that in Egypt it is deemed more 
requisite to conceal the face, including the 
top and back of the head, than other parts 
of the person. Women are even delicate 
about exposing their heads to a physician 
for medical treatment. In remote districts, 
and among the lower classes, the practice is 
not so rigidly enforced. But much of the 
scrupulousness in respect to the use of the 
veil dates from the promulgation of the Ko- 
ran, which forbade women appearing un- 
veiled except in the presence of their near- 
est relatives. In ancient times the veil was 
adopted only in exceptional cases, either as 
an article of ornamental dress or by be- 
trothed maidens in the presence of their 
future husbands, especially at the time of 
the wedding, and, lastly, by women of loose 
character for purposes of concealment. But, 
generally speaking, women, both married 
and unmarried, appeared in public with 
their faces exposed, both among the Jews 
and among the Egyptians and Assyrians, as 
proved by the invariable absence of the veil 
in the sculptures and paintings of these peo- 
ples. But among the Jews of the N. T. age 
it appears to have been customary for the 



women to cover their heads (not necessarily 
their faces) when engaged in public worship. 
For taking the veil, see Nun. [Gen. xxiv., 
16, 65 ; xxix., 10, 25 ; xxxviii., 14 ; 1 Sam. i., 
12 ; 1 Cor. xi., 5-15 ; Sol. Song iv., 1, 3 ; vi., 7.] 

Verger (a tvand), an officer of cathedral 
and collegiate churches iu England and on 
the Continent, who carries the mace before 
the ecclesiastical dignitaries in j)ro6ession, 
or on various ceremonial occasions. The 
mace, however, has no sacred significance, 
but is simx)ly an emblem of dignity. 

Versions. From the earliest times vari- 
ous attempts have been made to translate 
the Bible from the original tongue into the 
common language of the people, or to inter- 
pret it by paraphrases and glosses. The 
most important versions are the Greek, the 
Latin, and the English.^ In addition to 
these the following should be mentioned. 
1. The Targums. The modification which the 
language of the Hebrews underwent during 
their captivity rendered necessary an expo- 
sition, or interpretation of the Scriptures, 
since they were written in the ancient He- 
brew tongue. These interpretations, at first 
oral, were' subsequently committed to writ- 
ing, and constitute what are known as the 
Targums, of which there are several still ex- 
tant. 2. Greek. In addition to the Septu- 

agint (q. v.), there are Greek versions of the 
O. T. by Aquila, Theodotion, Symmachus, and 
others, the whole value of which consists iu 
the incidental aid which they afibrd scholars 
engaged in determining the correct version 

of the text. 3. Syriac. Christianity was 

early preached in Syria, and led to several 
translations into the language of that coun- 
try, the most celebrated of which is the Pe- 
sMto, or literal, so called on account of its • 

close adherence to the original text. 4. 

There are also ancient versions of the Scrip- 
tures in the Arabic, Armenian, Egyptian, 
Ethiopian, Georgian, Gothic, Persian, and 
Sclavonic tongues; besides translations put 
forth during the period of the Keformation 
in the French, German, Irish, Italian, Span- 
ish, and Welsh languages, and innumerable 
versions of a later date. 

Vestments (Ecclesiastical). The follow- 
ing is a list of the principal ecclesiastical 
vestments worn in the ritualistic churches, 
especially in the Romish Church, and by the 
ritualistic clergy of the Church of England. 
Illustrations of the principal ones will be 
found under the article Ornaments. 

The cassock, which entirely hides the ordi- 
nary dress, is regarded as an emblem of the 
spirit of devotion which becomes those who 



Esth. i. 



1 See Samakitan Pentateuch; Septuagint; Vul- 
gate; AuTHOEizED Version. 



VESTRY 



958 



VINE, VINEYARD, VINTAGE 



serve in the sanctuary. It is a long coat, 
buttoning over the breast and reacliiug to 
the feet, and is confined to the waist by a 
broad sash called a circUne ; the collar is 
made to fasten close around the throat. 
This garment is ordinarily black, but colors 
are sometimes used by the higher ecclesias- 
tics on special occasions. The surplice is a 
vestment of liuen, much shorter and fuller 
than the cassock, and worn over it; it is 
made without any openiug in front. The 
cotta is somewhat shorter than the surplice, 
and not quite so full ; the sleeves reach but 
little below the elbows. The rochet is a 
short surplice, generally made of lawn or 
fine linen, with tight sleeves. This and the 
cotta are employed for convenience' sake in 
baptism. The alb is another liuen vestment, 
longer than the surplice, and with tight 
sleeves, like those of the cassock ; it is con- 
fined at the waist by a girdle. The cope is 
a semicircular cloak, generally of silk, em- 
broidered at the edge, thrown loosely over 
the person, and fastened in front. At the 
back of the cope hangs the liood. The clio- 
ral tippet is a cape, usually of black silk, 
worn over the surplice, and reaching about 
half-way between the elbow and the wrist. 
The stole is a narrow piece of siik, usually 
ornamented with a cross and with fringed 
ends, and passed over the neck. There are 
also special vestments for use in the com- 
munion service; among these are the amice, 
a square piece of linen, fastened round the 
neck, and turned back so as to form a kind of 
collar, for which, however, the hands are now 
substituted ; the girdle, a white cord used to 
confine the alb at the waist ; the maniple, an 
ornament resembling the stole, but smaller, 
and worn by the subordinate clergy ; the 
chasuble, an oval garment, without sleeves, 
open at the sides, and having an openiug 
at the neck, through which the priest passes 
his head; very analogous to which is the 
dalmatica. There are, in addition, other gar- 
ments worn only by the deacons, sub -dea- 
cons, and other inferior clergy. The mitre, 
hiretta, and bonnet, are all forms of head-dress 
worn by diiferent clerical orders. In ad- 
dition to these clerical vestments are those 
which belong to the monastic orders, viz., 
the frock ; the cowl, a loose garment worn 
over the frock ; the liood, used as a head- 
dress, and popularly but improperly called 
a cowl ; the scapular, a narrow strip of serge, 
covering the shoulders, and hanging down 
before and behind to near the knee ; the gir- 
dle, or rope ; and the sandals. 

Vestry, in English ecclesiastical law, is a 
meeting of the inhabitants, of the parish, as- 
sembled to deliberate on some matter which 
they have a right to decide ; in the Protest- 
ant Episcopal Church of this country it is 
a committee, chosen annually by the parish, 
who, in conjunction with the church -war- 
dens, manage its temporal concerns. The 



term is also applied to the room adjoining 
the pulpit where, in the Episcopal Church, 
the robes are kept and are put on and off, 
and sometimes, by accommodation, in other 
churches to the rooms provided for lectures, 
prayer-meetings, and other week-day serv- 
ices. 

Viaticum, the provision made for a jour- 
ney. Hence, in the ancient Church, both 
baptism and the Eucharist were called Vi- 
atica, because they were equally esteemed 
men's necessary provision and proper armor, 
ontheir way through this worldto eternallife. 

Vicar, one who is appointed vice, i. e., in 
place of another to perform his functions. 
In the Church of England the vicar is often, 
but not always, an assistant. He has, how- 
ever, only a portion of the ecclesiastical in- 
come of the parish ; a part going to the pa- 
tron (q. v.). In the Roman Catholic Church 
the term is applied to the assistant priests. 
A vicar-general is the vicar or assistant of a 
bishop. 

Vicarious. Properly speaking, this word 
signifies ^' in place of another." It is used in 
theology to indicate the doctrine that Christ 
suffered in place of the sinner, in such a way 
that God accepts his suffering in lieu of the 
punishment which otherwise must have been 
inflicted on guilty man. This is what is 
meant by the doctrine of a vicarious sacri- 
fice, or a vicarious atonement. To the more 
general term sacrifice, or atonement, the term 
vicarious is added, to signify the faith which 
maintains that Christ's sufferings were prop- 
erly a substitute for ours, in contradistinc- 
tion from that of those who hold that the 
object of his sufferings was only to produce 
a moral imi3ression on our hearts. See 
Atonement. 

Villages. Among the Hebrews the towns 
were more like our villages, and the villages 
little more than a few huts or temporary 
residences. The iuclosures sometimes were 
nothing better than tents, but pitched in 
the form of an encampment, as in the case 
still of the Jehalln Arabs, who arrange their 
tents in a sort of circle, for the sake of better 
security and mutual protection. Such, prob- 
ably, were the villages spoken of in connec- 
tion with some of the ancient towns of the 
Israelites. By the Talmudists a village was 
defined as a place destitute of a synagogue. 
Galilee, in our Lord's time, contained many 
villages and village towns ; and Josephus 
says that in his time there were in Galilee 
two hundred and four towns and villages, 
some of which last had walls. In the N. T. 
the term village is applied to Bethphage, 
Bethany, Emmaus, and Bethlehem ; and a 
distinction between city or town and village 
is recognized. [1 Chron. xxvii., 25; Neb. 
vi., 2; Matt, xxi., 2; Luke viii., 1; x., 38; 
xxiv., 13; John vii., 42; xi., 1.] 

Vine, Vineyard, Vintage. The grape-vine 
anciently flourished to a great degree in the 



VINEGAR 



959 



VOW 



Holy Land, and its produce is frequently re- 
ferred to in connection with corn and oil, 
as indicating a fertile country. It is first 
spoken of in the history of Noah ; was culti- 
vated in Egypt ; was reported by the spies 
as very prolific in Palestine, whence they 
brought back an immense bunch of grapes, 
as a specimen of the fruitfnlness of the coun- 
try ; and is frequently employed by the later 
writers as a symbol either of fruitfulness in 
righteousness, or, by reference to the wild 
grapes, of the reverse condition.^ 

The cultivation of the vine was, therefore, 
an important part of Jewish husbandry. It 
was necessary, of course, for a vineyard to 
be fenced off, to keep out the various wild 
animals — boars, foxes, or jackals^ — which 
would be likely to do damage. A sunny as- 
pect would be chosen for a vineyard : hence 
it was often on a hill,^ the ground being 
well cleared of stones. A tower or lodge 
was provided for the vine - dresser, and a 
wine-press was made.* The vineyard was 
not to be sown with divers seeds f and it 
was to lie untended in the Sabbatical and 
jubilee years.'' Fig-trees were occasionally 
planted in vineyards;'^ hence the dwelling 
quietly under one's own vine and fig-tree 
was a proverbial expression for general 
l^eace and security. 

The vintage, in autumn, about September, 
was a joyous and festive season. The x^eo- 
ple turned out of their habitations, and 
dwelt in lodges and tents. The grapes were 
gathered amidst shouts and songs, and were 
carried in baskets to the wine-press,® which 
consisted of two vats: an u^^per one, in which 
the grapes were trodden out under the feet 
of bare-legged men, who accompanied their 
rude dance with songs, and a lower one, into 
which the expressed juice ran. The glean- 
ings of the vineyard were left for the poor 
and the stranger f and persons who passed 
through a vineyard might eat there at 
their pleasure, provided they carried noth- 
ing away.^° See Wine. 

Vinegar. The Hebrew word translated 
"vinegar" was applied to a beverage con- 
sisting generally of wine or strong drink 
turned sour, but sometimes artificially made 
by an admixture of barley and wine, and 
thus liable to fermentation. It was acid, 
and by itself was not a palatable draught, 
but was used by laborers. It was similar 
to the acetum of the Romans — a thin, sour 
wine, drunk by soldiers. This was the bev- 
erage of which the Saviour partook in his 
dying moments. [Ruth ii., 14 ; Psa. Ixix., 
21 ; Prov. x., 26 ; Matt, xxvii., 48 ; Mark xv., 
36: John xix., 29, 30.] 



1 Gen. is., 20; xl., 9-11 ; Kumb. xiii., 23, 24; xx., 5; 
Isa. v., 1-7 ; Jer. ii., 21 ; Ezek. xix., 10-14 ; Ho.-s. x., 1.— 
2 Numb, xxii., 24; Psa. Ixxx., 12, 13 ; Sol. Song ii,, 15. 
—3 Isa. v., h — 4 Matt, xxi., 33.-5 Dent, xxii., 9.— 
6 Exod. xxiii., 11; Lev. xxv., 11.— ^ Lulve xiii., 6, T.— 
^ Judc?. ix., 27: Isa. xvi., 10; Jer. vi., 9; xxv., 30.— 
9 Deut. xxiv., 21; Jer. xlix., 9 ^ Dent, xxiii., 24. 



Vishnu, the second person of the Hindoo 
Triad, being the personification of the proc- 
ess of preservation. In theVedas he occu- 
pies a subordinate place, as a merely ele- 
mental god, but in later Brahmanism he has 
been invested with the attributes of the Su- 
preme Being, and worshiped in preference to 
his rival, Siva (q. v.). In Hindoo mythology 
Vishnu is represented as having undergone 
nine metamorphoses, or incarnations. A 
tenth is yet to come. These metamorphoses 
are termed in Hindoo theology " avators." 
They represent him as descending in form to 
earth to accomplish certain specific purposes. 
These ten avators, or incarnations, of Vishnu 
portray him, 1. Like a fish ; 2. Like a tor- 
toise ; 3. Like a hog ; 4. Like a lion ; 5. Like 
a dwarf; 6. As Purushu-ram ; 7. As Ram ; 8. 
As Krishna ; 9. As Buddha ; 10. As Kulkee, 
or in the form of a horse. Each' of these in- 
carnations is represented in a separate idol. 

Visitation. The bishop in the Episcopal 
Church is required to visit the churches 
throughout his diocese statedly, for the pur- 
pose of examining generally into their con- 
dition, and also for the purpose of adminis- 
tering the rite of confirmation to such as are 
prepared to receive it. This office is termed a 
"visitation." There is also in the Episcopal 
Prayer-book a special service, prepared for 
such as are sick or sjjecially infirm, known 
as The Visitation of the Sick, or, more fully, 
The Order for the Visitation of the Sick. 

Vow. In the religion of the old covenant 
the principle of vowing or dedicating some- 
thing to a sacred use was recognized as in 
itself a suitable expression of the religious 
sentiment, and as such was placed under 
certain regulations, but not, except in a few 
special cases, imposed as an obligation on 
the individual conscience. The Lord never 
said. Thou shalt vow, but, If thou shouldst 
make a vow, then let such and such con- 
ditions be observed. The conditions speci- 
fied in the Law related almost exclusively to 
the faithful performance of what had been 
freely undertaken by the worshiper; he was 
on no account to draw back from his plight- 
ed word, but conscientiously to carry it into 
effect, since otherwise a slight would mani- 
festly be put upon God, and a stain left upon 
the conscience of the worshiper.^ In the 
great majority of cases vows took the form 
of certain free-will ofierings, to be presented 
to God in consideration of marked benefits 
received from his hand, or in anticipation of 
such benefits asked and hoped for ; and as 
usually some time must elapse, occasionally 
even a series of years, before the vow could 
be performed, there was always a danger 
of the pious feeling that dictated it subsid- 
ing, and some excuse being fallen upon 
for leaving the obligation undischarged. 
Hence such passages as Psa. xxii., 25, and in 
Eccles. v., 4-6. The provisions of the law on 

1 Deut. xxiii., 21-23 ; Eccles. v., 5 ; Nahum 1., 15. 



VULGATE 



960 



WALDENSES 



this subject were practically set aside by the 
rabbiuical teachers, who, under various pre- 
tenses, absolved the person making the vow 
from its fulfillment, if it involved any diffi- 
culty or self-denial. The vow made by Paul, 
and referred to in Acts xviii., 18, is thought 
to have been the a^ow of a Nazarite (q. v.). 

Vulgate, the received Latin version of the 
Bible. There existed in the second century 
a Latin version of the Bible made in Africa, 
and used by the African Fathers. In the 
course of time this became so corrupt, that 
Jerome, at the request of Damasus, under- 
took a systematic revision. In the prose- 
cution of this work he produced the Roman 
Psalter. He had not, however, proceeded 
far with his task of revising the old version, 
when he was so strongly impressed with the 
inaccuracy of the O. T. text, as derived from 
the Septuagint, that he resolved, urged too 
by friends, to translate it anew from the 
Hebrew. On this he was engaged from per- 
haps A.D. 385 to A.D. 405. It was only by de- 
grees that this translation gained its place 
in public estimation. There was great op- 
position to it at first, and much hostile crit- 



icism ; but at length, by the approbation of 
Gregory I., it acquired such authority that 
since the seventh century, with some mix- 
ture of other ancient translations, it has been 
exclusively adopted (the Psalter, as above 
noted, excepted) in the Western Church, and 
has borne the name of the Vulgate, or current 
text. By the Council of Trent it was ordain- 
ed that the Vulgate alone should be esteemed 
authentic in the public reading of the Scrip- 
tures, in preaching, and in expounding, and 
that no one should dare to reject it under 
any pretext whatever. There are two prin- 
cipal editions of this version, called respect- 
ively, from the popes under whom they were 
prepared, the Sixtine and the Clementine. 
The latter is the standard in the Romish 
Church at the present day, and is the basis 
of the Douay Bible, so called from the place 
where the translation of the O. T. was pub- 
lished by the authority of the Romish Church. 
Even Romish divines have felt the imperfec- 
tions of the Douay Bible, arising both from 
errors in the Vulgate and in the translation, 
and have acknowledged the superiority of 
the Authorized Version (q. v.). 



W, 



Wafers, thin cakes of bread, used in the 
Eucharist by the Romanists, and by Luther- 
an Protestants, in the Lord's Supper. 

"Waldenses. The, etymology of this word, 
as well as the origin of the Christian sect 
which it describes, is involved in considera- 
ble obscurity. By some writers the sect is be- 
lieved to have sprung uj) in the twelfth cen- 
tury, under the teaching of one Peter Waldo, 
of Lyons, and to have derived its name from 
him. According to this opinion, the Wal- 
denses are historically distinct, though doc- 
trinally identified with the Vaudois. We 
think the better opinion identifies the two. 
According to this opinion, the Waldenses are 
neither French nor Swiss, but Italian ; and 
the terms Vaudois in French, Vallenses in 
Latin, Valdese or Vallese in Italian, and Wal- 
denses in English, have the same signifi- 
cance, viz., '^ men of the valleys." It is not 
impossible, however, that Peter Waldo may 
have derived indirectly his own reformed 
faith from these men of the valleys ; and be- 
ing instrumental in extending a faith which 
had before been only locally important, may 
have given incidentally a new significance to 
a name destined from his time to become im- 
portant in the history of the European Ref- 
ormation. They are not, however, to be con- 
founded with the Albigenses (q. v.), though 
both may have derived their common faith 
from a common stock, the Albigenses being 
descended from the primitive Christians of 
Gaul, the Waldenses from original Christian 
settlers in the valleys of Piedmont. 



Up to the eleventh or twelfth century we 
have no other material for writing their his- 
tory than such as is furnished by their own 
traditions. According to this, their Church 
was founded by the labors of the apostles 
Paul and James. The Scriptures which from 
those revered hands their ancestors received 
were never lost or laid aside; the simple 
sacraments of the Baptism and the Lord's 
Supper were never relinquished or overlaid 
by additional ceremonies ; the simple for- 
mula known as the Apostle's Creed was nev- 
er added to by faiths borrowed in reality 
from heathen worship. The creed and the 
rites of the Apostolic Church, if we may be- 
lieve their story, were maintained uncor- 
rupted during the dark ages which inter- 
vened between the origin of Christianity 
and its final enfranchisement in the sixteenth 
century. However that may be, it is certain 
that in the eleventh century there existed 
in the valleys of the Piedmont a people 
whose ritual was exceedingly simple, and 
whose faith was as child-like as it was ear- 
nest and devout. Their home was among 
the wildest and most secluded of those Al- 
pine fastnesses which lie between the Clu- 
sone and the Pelice, two mountain torrents 
which fall into the river Po. Subjects of 
the King of Sardinia, and inhabiting a terri- 
tory on the frontiers of France, they were nei- 
ther exactly French nor altogether Italian 
in manners, customs, religion, or language. 
Their entire territory embraced scarcely six- 
teen square miles. The three valleys which 



WALDENSES 



961 



WALDENSES 




61 



WALDENSES 



962 



WALDENSES 



tLey occupied never could have contained 
more than a population of twenty thousand. 
A confession of their faith, heariug date a.d. 
1120, still exists in MSS. in Cambridge, En- 
gland. A catechism of a little later date — 
the thirteenth century — is also preserved. 
The authenticity of these documents is un- 
doubted. They exhibit a faith not material- 
ly different from that of the later Reformers. 
They show that as early as the twelfth ceu- 
tury, if not, as they claim, from the earliest 
ages, the Waldenses held to the doctrine of 
the Trinity, the inspiration of the Scriptures, 
original sin, salvation through Christ, a fu- 
ture life of punishment andreward, a univers- 
al Church, and the two sacraments of Bap- 
tism and the Lord's Supper ; and that they 
emphatically rejected salvation by works, 
the intercession of the saints, the adoration 
of the Virgin Mary, holy water, mass, and 
the five additional sacraments of the Roman 
Catholic Church. They maintained that sal- 
vation consisted in — not, the reader will ob- 
serve, was attained or accomplished by — 
*' faith, hope, and charity ;" faith in God and 
in his son Jesus Christ, charity " by which 
the soul is reformed in the will," and hope 
resting alone on the merits and mediation of 
Jesus Christ. Their church organization was 
as simple as their faith. Their only church 
officers appear to have been their pastors 
(whom they termed iarhes; that is, uncles) 
and deacons. They acknowledged no bishop, 
though one of the barbes exercised a sort of 
general oversight as presiding pastor. Their 
only theological school was in the almost in- 
accessible solitude of the Fra del Tor, a deep 
gorge, which was perhaps selected less for the 
facilities which it afforded for study and med- 
itation than because it was a refuge from the 
relentless persecutors by whom they were con- 
stantly pursued. Here they learned by heart 
the gospels of Matthew and John, the cath- 
olic epistles, and a portion of those of Paul. 
They were further instructed in Latin, old 
French, and Italian ; and were finally or- 
dained as ministers by the administration 
of the sacrament and the laying on of hands. 
These ministers were supported by the vol- 
untary contribution of the people, distrib- 
uted annually through a General Synod. 
But they were not dependent on this contri- 
bution for support. They were always in- 
structed in some trade or jirofession, and, 
like Paul, lived often by the labor of their 
own hands. Like him, too, they Avere, for 
the most part, unmarried, and for the same 
reason ; their toils, privations, and dangers 
usually forbade them the privilege of a mar- 
ried life. But the celibacy of the clergy was 
not a part of their creed. Among these harhes 
were not only domestic pastors, but mission- 
aries and evangelists as well. These itiner- 
ant preachers traveled in apostolic fashion in 
pairs, usually one young and one old man ; 
there is, indeed, some reason to believe that 



this itinerant ministry was a part of the nec- 
essary preparation for the oifice of a pastor. 
A synod of the churches was held every year, 
when the past conduct of the pastors was 
investigated, and changes of residence were 
regulated. These changes took place among 
the younger pastors every third year. The 
moderator, who answered somewhat to the 
office of presiding elder, was also chosen at 
the same time. In fact, in several respects 
their faith, practice, and methods of opera- 
tion bear a striking resemblance to that of 
the early Methodists, whom they also resem- 
bled in the simple but somewhat austere 
virtues of their lives. 

This Church, originating, if not in apos- 
tolic times, at all events in periods so re- 
mote that history is unable to gainsay their 
own account of their origin, did not occu- 
py a position which gave them any public 
prominence until about the twelfth centu- 
ry. Then the increasing restiveness of the 
people under clerical usurpation began to 
manifest itself. At the same time, the pa- 
pal despotism increased rather than relax- 
ed its demands. The simple faith of the 
Waldenses began to spread to other lands, 
whether borrowed from these " men of the 
valleys " or from that Bible from which they 
had drawn, it is impossible to say. The Wal- 
denses, at all events, ceased to be exclusively 
'' men of the valleys." Their Church extend- 
ed into France, Switzerland, Moravia, Bohe- 
mia, Germany, and, it is said, even into En- 
gland. It is quite as likely that Peter Wal- 
do borrowed his name from the sect as that 
the sect borrowed its name from him. In 
other words, it is not improbable that in con- 
sequence of his faith he was called Peter the 
Vaud, and that from this was derived the 
name Peter Waldo. He was a wealthy cit- 
izen of Lyons who, toward the close of the 
twelfth century, became possessed of their 
faith, or of one in all substantial respects 
the same. He gave all his possessions to 
the poor, and himself to the work of preach- 
ing the Gospel. It began to spread. At 
almost the same time, the Roman Catholic 
Church began vigorous endeavors, first to 
prevent the propagation of the heresy, then 
to extirpate it altogether. In 1179 the preach- 
ing of the Waldensian faith was forbidden 
by the pope. In 1242 this prohibition was 
repeated, and its disregard was punished by 
death. It was not, however, till the fifteenth 
century — a.d. 1487 — that Rome formally an- 
nounced, by a bull of Innocent VIIL, its res- 
olution to extirpate a people who lived in 
the centre of the papal empire, and almost 
in sight of the Holy City, and yet dared re- 
fuse allegiance to its religion. The perse- 
cutions which ensued lasted, almost without 
intermission, to the close of the seventeenth 
century. History contains no bloodier page 
than that which records the woes of this 
people, who have never been accused of 'M\y 



WALDENSES 



963 



WALDENSES 



other crime than a refusal to assent to the 
Roman Catholic creed. The campaigns of 
the Dake of Alva in the Netherlands do not 
surpass in atrocity those of the legions of 
Rome in the valleys of the Vaud. Wher- 
ever Roman arms triumphed neither age nor 
sex was spared, and human ingenuity Avas 
racked to invent cruelties adequate to break 
the resolute spirits of the invincible mount- 
aineers. They were burned, they were bur- 
ied alive, they were impaled, they were 
roasted over slow fires, they were hurled 
from the heights of rocky precipices, they 
were torn asunder, _^^^ 

their mouths were "" -^^=--^ 

filled with gunpow- 
der and their heads 
blown off, they were 
cast, bound hand and 
foot, into blazing ov- 
ens. In one winter 
fourteen thousand 
prisoners filled the 
dungeons of Turin, 
w^here eleven thou- 
sand perished of 
starvation and pes- 
tilence. Yet they 
did not lack cour- 
age, and against fear- 
ful odds and with 
a patient heroism 
which scarcely has 
a parallel in histo- 
ry fought to defend 
their homes. 

Their victories 
were not less mar- 
velous than their 
patient endurance 
of defeat, and their 
dreadful deaths. The 
battle of Pra del Tor, 
in which, after a four 
days' contest, a few 
hundred Waldenses 
put to flight the com- 
bined troops of Italy 
and Spain, has well 
been called the Mar- 
athon of Italian 
Christianity. And 
there is perhaps no 

campaign in history more singularly roman- 
tic than that which is known in their records 
as the "Glorious Return," under Arnaud, in 
the close of the seventeenth century.^ Since 
that time, though sufiering more or less, 
sometimes from bitter persecution, at other 
times only from civil disabilities, they have 
enjoyed a period which, compared with their 
earlier history, may be regarded as one of 



relative prosperity. In 1848 Sardinia grant- 
ed them full religious and ecclesiastical lib- 
erty, and the successful revolution of 1859- 
'60, which enlarged Sardinia into the king- 
dom of Italy, gave them the same rights 
throughout the Apennine peninsula, except 
in Rome and Venice. Besides the popula- 
tion of the valleys, which numbers some 
twenty thousand, embraced among fifteen 
churches, Waldenses are now to be found 
scattered throughout the united kingdom, 
with congregations at many of the principal 
cities. AVhen Florence was made the capi- 





1 Harper's Magazine for July, 1870, vol. xli., page 
161, contains a very graphic acconnt of the history of 
the VandoiP, or Waldenses, to which the reader is re- 
ferred for details. 



Pra del Tor. 

tal of Italy they made it also the centre of 
their denomination, and they have now es- 
tablished there a theological seminary, a 
printing-press, a book depository, a mission- 
ary society, and several day schools. 

The simple piety of this noble people has 
not wholly escaped the injurious influence 
which the rationalism and infidelity of the 
close of the last century exercised over al- 
most all the churches of Europe. But though 
some, both of theVaudois students and pas- 
tors, were tainted with a corrupt theology, 
the greater number remained proof against 



WAR 



964 



WASHING 



the pernicious priuciples of that age. And 
to this hour, with some few exceptions, they 
hold fast their integrity of principle and pa- 
rity of practice. ^' Perhaps there is no com- 
munity/' says Dr. Thompson, " in the world 
among whom morality is so high-toned and 
universal. Intemperance, licentiousness, 
falsehood, and dishonesty are crimes almost 
unknown. The fall of a Vaudois into any 
tiagrant sin is so rare as to excite, when it 
happens, universal sorrow. A recent trav- 
eler mentions the deep horror that was pro- 
duced hy a case of suicide, and the relief 
that was given to the entire community 
when the medical judgment was announced, 
that insanity and not crime had been the 
cause. Prayer-meetings, which are among 
the surest thermometers of the spiritual 
warmth of a people, are on the increase ; the 
ancient hahit of storing large portions of the 
Bible in the memory of the Vaudois youth 
has not grown obsolete ; and the fifteen tem- 
jjles of the valleys are filled from Sabbath to 
Sabbath with worshipers, whose long jour- 
neys and laborious descent from those aerial 
cottages, that appear like eagles' nests far 
up among the rocks, are ungrudged by men 
who love the place where prayer is wont to 
be made." These fifteen Waldensiau parish- 
es are supplied with pious and well-educated 
pastors, and also with a most useful class of 
men, who act not only as school-masters, but 
as readers (q. v.) also, and precentors, or lead- 
ers, of the psalmody. In addition to these 
regular instructors attached to each parish, 
there are about one hundred and sixty win- 
ter teachers, who pass from house to house 
at the inclement seasons of the year, teach- 
ing the children, and partaking of the hum- 
ble fare which even the poorest family pro- 
vides. The consequence is that edu- 
cation in the valleys is universal. In 
connection with the Church they main- 
tain also a college, which has eight 
professors and one hundred students, 
with a library containing about five 
thousand volumes. The entire curric- 
ulum of study extends over a period 
of ten years. 

"War. The Israelites were much en- 
gaged in war. At their entrance into 
Canaan they had to take possession of 
their allotted inheritance by conquest; 
and, as they spared many of the clans 
whom they were to exterminate, and 
frequently by their sins brought down 
God's chastisement upon them, gener- 
ally in the shape of being subjected by some 
neighboring nation, they were consequently 
seldom long without having recourse to arms. 
In advancing against an enemy terms of sur- 
render were to be offered, except in the case 
of the devoted Canaanitish nations ; and 
only if these terms were refused was the as- 
sault to be made.^ The impending onset of 
1 Deut. XX., 10-18. 



battle was announced by the sound of the 
sacred trumjiets, and by the shoutings of 
the troops. Sometimes, too, the men were 
encouraged by an address from the com- 
mander-in-chief.^ Stratagems were prac- 
ticed, spies sent out,^ and ambuscades con- 
trived. In besieging a city, banks were cast 
up, and military engines placed on these to 
batter the walls, or attempts were made by 
scaling-ladders to climb over them. Some- 
times fire was employed to destroy the gates 
of a town or fortress.^ A victory was cele- 
brated with great rejoicings. And, as those 
who had distinguished themselves were spe- 
cially praised, so for the dead in battle 
dirges were composed, and lamentations 
made.* Trophies were set up when a vic- 
tory was gained ; and the arms of the van- 
quished were kept in the sanctuaries of the 
conquerors. But the then customary feroci- 
ties were much mitigated in the case of the 
Hebrews, who were charged to show more 
mercy to their enemies during the hostilities, 
and afterward, than could be obtained from 
other victors.^ Personal strength and skill 
were far more important in wars in which 
battles were rather a series of personal com- 
bats than in modern warfare, carried on by 
means of fire-arms. Hence a single cham- 
pion of great size and prowess might strike 
terror into a whole army, and even a cam- 
paign might be decided by the issue of a con- 
test between two chosen warriors.^ See 
Arms; Army. 

"Washing. Bathing, in the ordinary sense, 
had no place in the religious ordinances of 
the old covenant. The more active form of 
washing was required by the Law to sym- 
bolize with greater distinctness the idea of 
purification from the defilement of sin. It 




Washing TJteusils. 

was applied sometimes, as at the consecra- 
tion of the priesthood, to the whole body ; 
sometimes, as in the daily ministrations at 



1 Namb. x., 9; 2 Sam. x., 11, 12; 2 Chron. xx., 20.— 
2 Josh, ii., 1 ; viii., 4-9.-3 ju^g. ix., 48, 49, 52 ; 2 Kings 
xix., 32; 2 Chron. xxxii., 2-5; Isa. xxix., 3.—* Judg. 
xi., 34; 1 Sam. vii., 12; xv., 12; xviii., 6, T; xxi., 0; 
xxxi., 10 ; 2 Sam. i., 19, 27 ; 2 Chron. xx., 26, 28 ; xxxv., 
25.-5 Dent, xx., 14, 19, 20 ; 1 Kings XX., 31, 32.-6 i yam. 
xvii., 8, 9, 23, 24, 51. 



WASHING 



965 



WAY 



the tabernacle, to the hands and 
feet ; sometimes to the clothes.^ 
But the Law confined itself, iu 
these respects, to prescriptions of 
a strictly religions nature, and im- 
posed no ordinances of washing in 
connection with meals or the pro- 
prieties of social and domestic life. 
Its object was not cleanliness, but 
moral purification. The Pharisees, 
however, among their additions to 
the law of Moses and perversions of 
its nature, introduced a ritual of 
washing into every-day life.^ These 
ablutions became a matter of rig- 
orous religious observance with 
them, and were always performed 
in public. An elaborate code pre- 
scribed the method of the ritual ; 
for to cleanse the hands was not 
enough: they must be ceremonial- 
ly clean. For this purpose they 
must be plunged into the water 
three times up to the wrists; to pour the 
^ater upon them did not suffice. The 
open palm of the one hand must be rubbed 
with the closed fist of the other. The wa- 
ter must be fresh ; must have done no 
work ; must not be running, but contained 
in a proper vessel; must be in quantity a 
full quartern. Any failure to observe these 
and kindred rules vitiated the whole cere- 
mony. Combined, they constituted a consid- 
erable treatise in the Jewish Mishna. The 
commentaries on them would fill a volume ; 
for what really constituted compliance with 
them was a perpetually perplexing problem. 
The water must be fresh ; but is that which 
has been kept so by the intermixture of vin- 
egar or lemon-juice ceremonially fresh ? It 
must not have done any work ; but has that 
water done any work in which fish have been 
bred or eggs have been boiled ? Such were 
the religious problems which, with serious 
faces, the Pharisaic doctors of the law dis- 
cussed. On these they made the salvation 
of the soul depend. This ceremonialism 
was denounced by our Lord as contraven- 
ing the spirit of the Law under a pretense 
of honoring it; as tending to turn men's 
thoughts from a spiritual into a merely cor- 
poral direction; to associate purity with 
the food they ate rather than with the sin- 
ful thoughts and desires they cherished. 

It was customary to wash the hands after 
meals, because from the usual mode of eat- 
ing the fingers were sure to be defiled ; but 
there was nothing religioiis in this. Nor 
was there any thing of this character in the 
very common practice of washing one's feet 
or presenting to guests water for this pur- 
pose. In the hot, arid, dusty regions of the 
East this was a species of refreshment which 
all classes so much required that the lack of 




1 Exod. xxix., 4; xxx., 18-20; Lev. xvi., 26; Numb, 
xix., 7.-2 Mark vii., 2-4. 



Washing of Hands. 

it could not be long suffered, and at visits 
and entertainments it was even a mark of 
incivility to neglect it.^ But at his last 
Passover our Lord turned this customary 
washing into a symbolical action when he 
washed his disciples' feet, partly as a lesson 
of humility, partly to teach them that they 
would need constantly to repair to him for 
cleansing from the defilements they would 
be ever contracting in the world.^ It is 
plain, however, that the act was peculiar to 
the occasion, and not intended, as some have 
imagined, to form a standing ordinance in 
the Church. 

Watches of Night. The Jews, like the 
Greeks and Romans, divided the night into 
military watches instead of hours, each watch 
representing the period for which sentinels 
or pickets remained on duty. The proper 
Jewish reckoning recognized only three such 
watches — the first, or "beginning of the 
watches," the middle watch, and the morn- 
ing watch. These would last respectively 
from sunset to 10 p.m.; from 10 p.m. to 2 
A.M. ; and from 2 a.m. to sunrise. After the 
establishment of the Roman supremacy, the 
number of watches was increased to four, 
which were described either according to 
their numerical order — e. g., as the first, sec- 
ond, third, and fourth watches — or by the 
terms "even, midnight, cock -crowing, and 
morning." These terminated respectively at 
9 P.M., midnight, 3 a.m., and 6 a.m. See Day ; 
Hour. [Exod. xi v., 24 ; Judg. vii., 19 ; 1 Sam. 
xi., 11 ; Lam. ii., 19 ; Matt, xiv., 25 ; Mark 
xiii., 35.] 

Way. This word has now, in ordinary 
parlance, so entirely forsaken its original 
sense (except in combination, as in "high- 
way," "causeway"), and is so uniformly 
employed in the secondary or metaphorical 
sense of a "custom," or "manner," that it 
1 Geo. xviii., 4; Luke vii., 44.— ^ John xiii. 



WEASEL 



966 



WELL 



is difficult to remember that iu the Bible 
it most frequently signifies an actual road 
or track. It may be truly said, however, 
that there is hardly a single passage in 
which the word occurs which would not be 
made clearer and more real if " road to " 
were substituted for " way of;" e. g., Mark x., 
32, " They were on the road going ui^ to Je- 
rusalem ;" Matt. XX., 17, "And Jesus took the 
twelve disciples apart in the road" i. e., out 
of the crowd of pilgrims, who, like them- 
selves, were bound for the Passover. 

It is difficult now to judge what were the 
roads of Palestine during Bible times. There 
are references to chariots and carriages, and 
to the formation and improvement of roads,^ 
which show that public highways were made 
to some extent, but they could never have 
compared favorably with our own modern 
roads. It is not probable that iu the main 
they differed widely from those in use at the 
I^resent day. For the most part they were 
wild, rocky, and often dangerous paths, lead- 
ing over the mountains and down steep ra- 
vines where carriages could not go. The 
customary conveyance was a two -wheeled 
cart (q. v.), generally drawn by oxen; and 
this was of little use in the hill country. 
The men generally traveled on foot ; the 
women and children on mules, or sometimes 
camels. The Romans, however, constructed 
roads wherever they went, and those in Pal- 
estine were, some of them, of a very substan- 
tial character, as is testified by their ruins, 
which remain to the present day. 

"Weasel, one of the animals pronounced 
unclean in the Mosaic law. The Hebrew 
name is derived from a root signifying " to 
glide." The weasel might be so called from 
its swift, gliding motion, or its gliding into 
holes. Possibly, however, the mole may be 
meant. [Lev. xi.,29.] 

"Week. The division of time into periods 
of six daj^s, each separated by one of rest, 
appears from a very early period and among 
many nations. It was recognized not only 
among tlie Jews but also among many hea- 
then nations. The origin of this division of 
time is lost in remote antiquity ; but the 
fact that it existed in so many nations and 
from so early a period has given rise, or 
rather lent confirmation, to the opinion that 
the division was instituted, together with 
the Sabbath, at the creation of the world. 
It undoubtedly rested in the Jewish nation 
upon religious considerations, as it does at 
the present time with us. See Sabbath. 

"Weights. The weights mentioned in 
Scripture are a " gerah," implying a grain or 
berry ; a " shekel," signifying weight, with 
its subdivisions of half-shekel and quarter- 
shekel; a^maneh," meaning part; and a 
" talent," the Hebrew equivalent for which 

1 Gen. xlv., 19, 21 ; 1., 9 ; Josh, xvii., 16 ; Judg. i., 19 ; 
iv., 13 ; 2 Kinors ix., 16, 21, 24 ; x., 16 ; Isa. ii., T ; xl., 3, 
4: Acts viii., 28. 



m.eans a globe or mass. There is reason to 
believe that anciently weights were of stone; 
subsequently, perhaps, of lead. There have 
also been found in the Nineveh ruins bronze 
weights, in the shapes of lions and ducks, 
with certain marks upon them indicating 
how much they were. In Egypt, also, there 
were lions' heads and bulls' heads used for 
the same purpose. The shekel of the sanct- 
uary was probably the standard preserved 
in the tabernacle, or Temple.^ The follow- 
ing statement, taken from the " Treasury 
of Bible Knowledge," indicates the English 
equivalents of these weights : 

Maneh = 13,200 grains. 
Talent = 660,000 



Gerah = 11 grains. 
Bekah = 110 " 
Shekel =220 " 



There appears, however, to have been dif- 
ferent standards of weight in the case of 
gold or copper coins ; these equivalents rep- 
resent the supposed weight of silver coins. 
The first and most important utility of 
weights was in trade, the money being meas- 
ured by weight long before coined money 
was invented. See Money ; Measures. 

"Well. The Hebrew word en refers to wa- 
ter finding its way up to us ; hence spring, 
or fountains. The Hebrew word deer refers 
to our finding our way down to the water ; 
hence well. This distinction between well 
and fountain is strongly marked in the Bi- 
ble. The wells of Scripture are numerous, 
and some of them remain to this day — in 
part, at least — the same as in olden times. 
They seem to have been sunk much deeper 
into the soil, or rock, than is usual with us. 
The risk of running dry in summer made 
this necessary in these hot climates, where 
even in very favorable positions they are al- 
most exhausted by the summer drought, and 
become " wells without water." Some of 
them have been sunk into the solid rock so 
deep that all the rubbish of centuries has 
not filled them up. Jacob's Well, at which 
Christ met the woman of Samaria, still re- 
tains a depth of seventy-five feet. In some 
j)laces, where not liable to be filled up by 
drift, they are quite uncovered, and have 
steps descending to them. Such is the well 
of Beersheba, which remains much the same 
as when the patriarchs watered their flocks 
at it, though the masonry of the upper parts 
and the stone troughs set around have been 
renewed. Sometimes a bucket and sweep 
were attached. Usually the brims are fur- 
nished with a curb, or low wall, of stone. 
Some of these bear marks of high antiquity 
in the furrows worn by the ropes used in 
drawing water by hand. In the desert wells 
taper toward the top, something like a bot- 
tle, so that their aperture is easily covered 
over and sealed against the sand. The well 
of Palestine was, and still is, a romantic and 
sacred spot. It constituted a valuable prop- 
erty ; it was often a subject of fierce con- 



1 Exod. XXX., 13 ; comp. 2 Sam. xiv., 



WHALE 



967 WILDERNESS OF THE WANDERING 



tention. Even amoug the barbarous tribes 
of the East, to destroy a well was a viola- 
tiou of the law of war. When near a town, 
it afforded a gathering-place to the inhabit- 
ants, who usually came to draw in the cool 
of the evening. In this respect it was to 
the Jewish town what a post-office is to an 
American village — a sort of social centre. 

Whale. The Hebrew word tonnin, which 
is sometimes translated *^ whales " in our ver- 
sion, seems to be a term for any great mon- 
ster, whether of the laud or the sea, being, 
indeed, more usually applied to some kind 
of serpent or reptile, but uot exclusively re- 
stricted to that sense. See Dragon; Jo- 
nah. [Gen. i., 21 ; Job vii., 12.] 

"Wheat. This well-known valuable cere- 
al, cultivated from the earliest times, is first 
mentioned in Gen. sxx., 14, in connection 
with Mesopotamia. Egypt in ancient times 
was celebrated for the growth of its wheat ; 
the best quality was all bearded ; and the 
same varieties existed in ancient as in mod- 
ern times, among which may be mentioned 
the seven-eared quality described in Pha- 
raoh's dream.^ Babylonia was also noted 
for the excellence of its wheat and other 
cereals. Syria and Palestine produced wheat 
of fine quality and in large quantities, and 
the common wheat, and one or two other 
kinds — one of which appears to be the same 
as the many-spiked Egyptian variety — are 
cultivated there now, producing in good 
ground a hundred grains in the ear.^ 

Wheat is reaped toward the end of April, 
in May, and in June, according to the difil"er- 
ences of soil and position; it was sown either 
broadcast, and then x)lowed in or trampled 
in by cattle, or in rows, if we rightly under- 
stand Isa. xxviii., 25, which seems to imply 
that the seeds were planted apart in order 
to insure larger and fuller ears. The wheat 
was put into the ground in the winter, and 
some time after the barley. In the Egyp- 
tian plague of hail, consequently, the barley 
suffered, but the wheat had not appeared, 
and so escaped injury. 

Parched corn, grains of wheat roasted in 
a pan or on an iron plate, or green ears held 
in a blaze till the chaff is burned off, was 
and is still a favorite article of food in Pal- 
estine f and persons are often seen now 
plucking the ears in the wheat-fields, rub- 
bing them in their hands, and eating the 
grains unroasted, just as the disciples did.* 
This was permitted by the Mosaic law.^ 
But neither parched corn nor green ears 
were to be eaten till the first-fruits had 
been presented before the Lord.® 

Wilderness of the Wandering, The 
historical magnitude of the Exodus as an 
event — including in that name the whole 



1 Geu. xli., 22.-2 Matt, xiii., 8.-3 Ruth ii., 14; 1 
Sam. xvii., IT; 2 Sam. xvii., 28; Isa. xxxii., 20.— 
* Matt, xii., ] ; Mark ii., 23; Luke vi., 1. — 6 Deut. 
xxiii., 25.— « Lev. xxiii., 14. 



of the journeying from Egypt into Canaan 
— the strange scenery in which it was en- 
acted, and the miraculous agency sustained 
throughout forty years, has given to this lo- 
cality an interest which is heightened, if 
possible, by the constant retrospect taken by 
our Lord and his apostles of this portion of 
the history of the race of Israel, as full of 
spiritual lessons necessary for the Christian 
Church throughout all ages. Hence this re- 
gion has derived a moral grandeur and ob- 
tained a reverential homage which has spread 
with the spread of Christianity. Indeed, to 
Christian, Jew, and Moslem it is alike holy 
ground. It lay within what is called the 
peninsula of Sinai, or, that peninsula ex- 
tended, i. e., within the angle formed by the 
two branches of the Red Sea — the Gulf 
of Suez and the Gulf of Akabah, or the lines 
of those branches produced, having the Holy 
Land to the north of it, Egypt to the west, 
and Edom or Mount Seir to the east. It 
was that part of Arabia called Arabia Pe- 
trsea, or Rocky Arabia, from its rocky and 
ragged character. It consisted of three great 
groups or districts of mountains, and in its 
widest extent — i. e., the region in which the 
children of Israel at one time or another dur- 
ing the last thirty-eight years of their wan- 
derings seem to have sojourned — included 
the wilderness of Sinai to the south, the wil- 
derness of Paran to the north of that extend- 
ing toward the north-west, and the wilder- 
ness of Zin to the north-east. The whole 
of this region was deficient in water; hence 
the occasion for the miraculous stream which 
flowed from the smitten rock. It was de- 
ficient also in food for man ; hence the con- 
stant supply of manna from heaven, which 
continued to fall, from the first time they 
needed it m the wilderness of Zin, until they 
had partaken of the old corn of the land of 
Canaan. But there was apparently no de- 
ficiency Of food for cattle. There is no in- 
timation of a miraculous supply for their 

I flocks and herds. Many of the valleys, es- 
pecially in the region round Feiran and the 
back or west sides of Mount Sinai, where 

I Moses led the flock of Jethro to feed, abound 

' in herbs and shrubs, tufts and bushes, afford- 
ing sufficient pasture for the many flocks 
which are still kept by the Bedouins in those 
parts ; and there is no doubt that the wilder- 
ness formerly afibrded far greater resources 
than now. This is proved l3y abundant ev- 
idence. There are unmistakable traces in 
many parts of ancient fertility. There are 
the ruins of cities, and the memory pre- 
served of many more; there are indications 
of water in different wadies, a proof that, 
had not the trees been so recklessly destroy- 
ed as they have been even in late years, veg- 
etation would have flourished. Besides, va- 
rious peoples inhabited the region when the 
Israelites passed along; so that, though there 

i were districts wild and solitary enough^ yet 



WILDERNESS OF THE WANDERING 968 WILDERNESS OF THE WANDERING 




Map of the Exodus aud Wauderiugs.i 



there was not throiigli the whole sweep of 
country the utter desolation which some 
have imagined. 

The mystery which enshrouds by far the 
greater number of localities, even those as- 
signed to events of great magnitude, rather 
inflames than allays the eagerness for iden- 



i This map, copied from M'Clintock and Stroug's 
*'Cyclop{Edia," indicates the general routes of the He- 
brews during the Exodus, the Wanderings, and the 
final march to Palestine. The heavy black line shows 
the routes actually ascertained ; the dotted lines those 
presumed, but not absolutely verified. The numbers 
(1-59), taken in their order, show the direction and or- 
der of the journey. Starting in April from Rameses 
(1), crossing the head of the Gulf of Suez, the western 
branch of the Red Sea, the emigrants skirted its east- 
ern shore, and then striking across the peninsula, 
reached Sinai (14) in early summer. Here they re- 
mained nearly a year ; and then, in the spring or early 
summer, set out for Canaan. Their journey (15-20) to 
Kadesh, on the borders of the Promised Land, occu- 



tification, and a larger array of tourists than 
has probably ever penetrated any other coun- 
try of equal difficulty has penetrated this. 
Yet with all the material for fixing the lo- 
calities of the Exodus there is often a pov- 
erty of evidence where there seems to be 
abundance, and the single lines of informa- 



pied about nine months, making two years from the 
time when they left Rameses. The numbers from 20 
to 43 show the probable routes of the journeys during 
the thirty-eight years of the Wanderings. Most of 
these are meVely incidentally mentioned m the Penta- 
teuch. At Ezion-Geber, which they must have passed 
in their first journey, though the fact is not specially 
recorded, and which they, or at least a part of them, 
subsequently (37) revisited, we find the whole assem- 
bled (43) for the march to Canaan. The numbers 43-59 
show the route to the time when, crossing the Jordan, 
they debouched at Jericho, and began the conquest of 
Canaan. Upon a few points there is still some ques- 
tion ; but the general accuracy of the map is confirmed 
by the results of the Sinai Exploring Expedition. 



WILDERNESS OF THE WANDERING 969 WILDERNESS OF THE WANDERING 



tion do not weave 
up into a fabric 
of clear knowledge. 
Still it is possible, 
by the internal evi- 
dences of the coun- 
try itself, to laj^ 
down, not the act- 
ual route of the Is- 
raelites, but the 
main alternati\ es 
between which v>e 
must choose, and m 
some cases the veiy 
spots themselves. 

The itinerary of 
their journeying is 
given with much 
particularity m 
Numb, xxxiii., 1-49 ; 
and incidental no- 
tices of the direc- 
tion they pursued 

and the places at which they halted are 
found in other parts of the Pentateuch.^ 
Generally it is clear that after passing the 
sea their course was south or south-east to 
Sinai, and then nearly due north to Kadesh, 
from which place they turned southward to 
Ezion-geber; and that it was by a circuit 
round the Edomitish territory that they 
at length came to the so-called " plains of 
Moab," nearly opposite to Jericho. But 
when we examine their route more particu- 
larly, the uncertainties commence from the 
very outset. It is impossible to fix the point 
at which in " the wilderness of Etham"^ Is- 





Wady Fen .111. 

rael, now a nation of freemen, emerged from 
that sea into which they had passed as a 
nation of slaves. The vicinity of Suez was 



The Ras Sufsafeh from the Plain. 

probably the point of their crossing.^ From 
thence their route lay southward down the 
east side of the Gulf of Suez, and at first 
along the shore. They marched for three 
days through the wilderness of Shur, or 
Etham, to Marah, where the bitter waters 
were sweetened — perhaps the present bit- 
ter spring of Ain Aivarah — and to Elim, 
Avhose twelve wells and three-score palms 
mark it as one of the wadies that break 
the desert, either the Wady Ghurundel or 
Wady Useit. After passing the Wady Tai- 
yibeh, the route descends through a defile 
to a beautiful pebbly beach, on which Dean 
Stanley places the 
encampment by the 
Red Sea, which is 
mentioned in Num- 
bers next to Elim,^ 
but is omitted in Ex- 
odus. Here the Is- 
raelites had their last 
view of the Red Sea 
and the shores of 
Egypt, and, striking 
inward, entered the 
wilderness of Zin (q. 
v.), which leads up 
from the shore to 
the entrance to the 
mountains of Sinai. 
Here, when the un- 
leavened bread was 
exhausted, they mur- 
mured for the flesh- 
pots of Egypt, and 

^^ _ God began the mi- 

^'^ "~^~ ~ raculous supply of 

manna, teaching 
them to look to him for their daily bread. 
From this valley, by a series of steep as- 



1 See Itinerary, in Appendix,— 2 Numb, xxxiii. 



10. 



See ExopDs of the Israelites. — ^ Numb, xxxiii., 



WILDERNESS OF THE WANDERING 970 WILDERNESS OF THE WANDERING 



centSj there led up into the recesses of Si- 
nai other valleys resembling waterless river- 
beds, and separated by defiles which some- 
times become staircases of rock. Such were, 
no doubt, the stations of Dophkah and Alush,^ 
and such are the wadies Shellal and Muka- 
tieb. From the latter the road passes into 
the long and winding Wady Feiran, which 
answers in every respect to Rephidim, the 
very name of which, resting-places , implies a 
long halt. Here the cry for water burst 
forth into angry rebellion, and God vouch- 
safed a miracle for their supply. From the 
circumstances the place was called Massah, 
temptation, andMeribah, strife, or chiding. The 
spring which flowed from the smitten rock 
seems to have formed a brook which the 



rites," the highlands of southern Palestine. 
The two extremes are the camp before Sinai 
on the south, and the city of Kadesh, or Ka- 
desh - barnea, on the north. The distance 
between these points was eleven days' jour- 
ney — about one hundred and sixty-five miles 
— "by the way of Mount Seir." Of the 
most important stations Taberah, a turning, 
is made memorable by the awful judgment 
that befell the people who now began anew 
to murmur against Jehovah. Kibroth-hat- 
taavah, the graves of lust, receives its name 
from the great plague with which tbey were 
smitten when they loathed the manna, de- 
manded flesh, and surfeited themselves for a 
whole month on the quails which God sent 
them. Hazeroth is the place of the seditious 




The Wilderuess of Kadesh. 



Israelites used during their whole sojourn 
near Sinai.^ Hence arise several figurative 
expressions in both the N. T. and O. T.^ Tlie 
next stage brought them to the wilderness 
of Sinai, and the mount near which they so- 
journed — an eventful year.* The Scriptur- 
al accounts of the receiving of the two ta- 
bles, the worship of the golden calf, Moses's 
vision of God, and the visit of Jethro, are 
too well known to need special mention here. 
From Sinai the general direction of the route 
is northward to the " Mount of the Amo- 



1 Numb, xxxiii., 12, 13.— 2 Exod. xvii., 1-7; Dent, 
ix. 21 : comp. Psa. Ixxviii., 15, 16; cv., 41.— 3 Isa. Iv., 
1; Zech. xiv., S; John iv., 14; vii., 35; 1 Cor. x., 4; 
Rev. xxii,, 1, 17.— ^ See Sinai. 



opposition to Moses by Miriam and Aaron, 
and of Miriam's punishment. We are not 
told at what point they passed from .Haze- 
roth into the wilderness of Paran (q. v.), 
nor how many stages they made of it ; and 
this is the Gordian knot of the topography. 
There appear to have been sixteen halting- 
places between Horeb and Kadesh, the first 
and second of which are not named, Moseroth 
being near to Kadesh, and, as some think, 
another name for Mount Hor.^ It was from 
Kadesh (q. v.), or shortly before reaching it, 
that the spies were sent into Canaan; and 
at Kadesh that the fatal refusal to march on 
was made, and sentence of penal wandering 



1 Numb. X., 33 ; xxxiii. 



16-30. 



WILDERNESS OF THE WANDERING 971 



W^ILL (FREEDOM OF) 



]>assed on the obstinate nation.^ The execn- 
tion of the sentence was to begin on the mor- 
row, by their tnrning into the wihlerness by 
the way of the Red Sea. There they were to 
Avander forty years — a year for each day that 
the spies had searched the land — till all the 
men of twentj^ years old and npward were 
dead in the desert, and then their children, 
sharers of their wanderings and pnpils of 
their misfortnnes, should enter on their in- 
heritance. Too late the people changed their 
mind, and tried, against God's will and in 
spite of the warning of Moses, to seize the 
lost opportunity. The Amalekites, and Ca- 
naauites, and Amorites defeated them with 
great slaughter, and chased them as far as 
Hormah, and even to Mount Seir.^ The thir- 
ty-eight years, or rather thirty -seven and 
a half, occupied in the execution of God's 
judgment, form almost a blank in the sa- 
cred history. The rebellion of Korah (q. v.) 
occurred during this period, and certain ad- 
ditional statutes were given. ^ We have also 
a brief record of stations from Kadesh to 
Ezion-geber, and from Ezion-geber to Ka- 
desh. But the main portions of the narra- 
tive are difficult to assign to their proper 
place — whether to the first or final stay at 
Kadesh, or to the years between. The mys- 
tery which hangs over this j)eriod seems like 
an awful silence, into which the rebels sink 
away. The phrase in Dent, i., 46, "abode in 
Kadesh many days," may possibly cover the 
whole period of the Wandering ; and Kadesh 
may very well be taken for a general name 
of the wilderness.* It is probable that the 
time was occupied by marches and counter- 
marches between Ezion-geber and Kadesh, 
till at last, in the fortieth year of the jour- 
neying, they came once more to Kadesh, 
with better hopes, and encamped in the wil- 
derness of Zin, to the east of the city.^ 
There was still suifering, sin, and death. 
Miriam died. Moses and Aaron offended, and 
were told they should not enter the Promised 
Laud. An application made to Edom for a 
passage through their country was churlishly 
refused, and the Israelites turned away from 
Edom. When near Mount Hor (q. v.), Aaron 
died. From Mount Hor they journeyed down 
toward the Red Sea, crossed the Akabah (q. 
v.) from west to east, perhaps somewhat 
above Ezion-geber, compassed the laud of 
Edom, passed the brook Zered to the east of 
Moab, and at length came north of the Ar- 
non into a district which had once belonged 
to Moab and still retained its name, though 
now appropriated by the Amorites.^ Mauj 
(;ventful things happened during this cir- 
cuit, among which were the plague of the 
fiery serpents,'' and the destruction of Sihon 
and Og, as the Israelites pushed through 



1 Numb, xiii., 26; xiv., 25, 34.-2 Numb. xiv. ; Deut. 
1., 41-44.— 3 Numb, xv.-xix.— * Psa. xxix., 8.— ^ Numb. 
XX., 1 ; xxxiii., 36.-8 Numb, xxi., 4-13, lS-20 ; xxii., 1 ; 
iJeut. ii., 8, 13, 14, 24; Judg. xi., 16-18.- '^ See Sekpent. 



Gilead and Bashan. Then they sat down 
by the Jordan, opposite to Jericho. And af- 
ter this even there was the attempted curse 
of Balaam, and the chastisement of Midian. 
Finally came the last solemn charge of Mo- 
ses, recapitulating God's law and his won- 
derful dealings with his people. After the 
death of the great lawgiver, his successor, 
Joshua, led the Israelites across the Jordan, 
and established them in their inheritance. 

Thus they spent forty years in accomplish- 
iug a journey which might have been ac- 
complished in a few months but for their 
want of faith in the power and promises of 
God, and their want of obedience to his will. 
Their pilgrimage is often referred to in lit- 
erature as an appropriate type of the Chris- 
tian's pilgrimage to heaven ; and this use 
of the history is abundantly justified by the 
references to it in the N. T.' 

Will (Freedom of). By the term will, as 
usually employed in metaphysics, is meant 
the power or faculty of choosing between 
two or more objects. Whether there is any 
such faculty or not is, indeed, a matter of 
dispute, the phrenologists and some other 
school -men of modern times maintaining 
that the will is only the balance or prepon- 
derance of the desires and affections, or rath- 
er the mental recognition or consciousness of 
such preponderance; but in general the ex- 
istence of an independent power or faculty 
is recognized by the metaphysicians. Into 
the metaphysical question connected with 
the will it is not our province in this work 
to enter, nor into the theological discussions 
which have been waged concerning the free- 
dom of the will ; it must suffice simply to 
state what that controversy is. In general 
terms, there may be said to be two parties. 
One of these reasons from that interior con- 
sciousness of moral responsibility which ev- 
ery man possesses. When he has done wrong 
he feels guilty ; when he has done right he 
feels a sense of self-ajiprobation. But it is 
said no man is responsible except for his own 
voluntary action ; he can not be responsible 
for what he can not help; therefore the will 
is and must be free — i e., every man must 
have a power given him to choose between 
right and wrong, and this irrespective of the 
motives wiiich have been addressed to him, 
the education he has received, and the influ- 
ences that surround him ; he must be sup- 
posed to have in himself a power of choos- 
ing the right in spite of these motives and 
iufluences, otherwise he would not be respon- 
sible for his choice and conduct. This is the 
doctrine of what is known as the self-deter- 
mining power of the will — i e., the doctrine 
that the will is a separate faculty, and has 
an inherent i)ower in itself to choose, irre- 
spective of the influences which are brought 
to bear upon it. The other class of reason- 
ers approach the question from the outside : 



1 Cor. X., 1-13 ; Heb. iii., T-19. 



WILLOWS 



972 



WINE 



they argue that there must be certain fixed 
and definite laws of the mind ; that it can 
not be a mere creature of chance ; that if it 
is not subject to law, then it is not subject 
to God (which is an irreligious doctrine), 
nor a factor in nor subject to moral gov- 
ernment, in which case man would not be 
a moral creature ; and that, in fact, the will 
or choice must act in accordance with the 
stronger motive presented to it, otherwise 
it would act in accordance with the weak- 
est motive, i e., the Aveakest motive would 
be stronger than the strongest, which is ab- 
surd. They couclnde, therefore, that the 
will has no self-determining power, that the 
mind necessarily chooses according to the 
strongest motive, and that moral responsi- 
bility lies not merely in the act of the will, 
but in those elements of character which lie 
back of the will and determine its course. 
All those of Arminian tendencies, i. e., who 
tend to look on life from the human side, 
considering mainly human duty and obliga- 
tion and responsibility, tend to hold to the 
self- determining power of the will, while 
those of Calviuistic tendencies, i e., who 
tend to look on life from the diviue side, 
and to rest in a sense of God's supreme and 
absolute control of all events, are inclined 
to deny the self- determining power of the 
will, and to hold that it is controlled by the 
strongest motive, and that the moral nature, 
guilt and innocence, vice and virtue, lie real- 
ly back of the will in the propensities and 
desires which they think control the will. 

Willows. The Hebrew word translated 
in our Bible wdllows is generic, and includes 
several species of the large family of Salices, 
which is well represented in Palestine and 
the Bible lands. With respect to the tree 
upon which the captive Israelites hung their 
harps, there can be no doubt that the w^eep- 
ing- willow (Salix Bdbylonica) is intended. 
This tree grows abundantly on the banks 
of the Euphrates, and in other parts of Asia 
as well as in Palestine. Isaiah mentions a 
brook of the willows, which is generally be- 
lieved to be identified with the river of the 
wilderness, mentioned in Anios.^ The two 
words in the original are nearly identical. 
It was a wady which constituted one of the 
boundaries of the country of Moab. [Lev. 
xxiii., 40; Job xl., 22; Psa. cxxxvii., 2 ; Isa. 
xliv., 4.] 

■Window. The windows of the Eastern 
house have no glass, but have instead a fine 
lattice-work, which affords shade from the 
sun, and fresh air tlirough its openings. The 
apertures of the windows in Egjqitiau and 
Eastern houses generally are small, so as to 
exclude heat, and they often project consid- 
erably beyond the lower part of the build- 
ing. From the allusions in Scripture we 
gather that, though there was usually but 
one latticed window in a room, there were 



1 Isa. XV., 7 ; Amos vi., 14. 



sometimes several. The projecting nature 
of the window, and the fact that a divan, or 
raised seat, encircles the interior of each, so 
that usually persons sitting in the window 
are close to the aperture, explains how Aha- 
ziah may have fallen through the lattice of 
his upper chamber, and Eutychus from his 
window-seat. [Josh, ii., 15; Judg. v.,28; 2 
Sam. vi., 16 ; 2 Kings i., 2 ; ix., 30 ; xiii., 17 ; 
Dan. vi., 10 ; Acts xx., 9.] 

Winds. That the Hebrews recognized 
the existence of four prevailing winds as is- 
suing, broadly speaking, from the four car- 
dinal points, north, south, east, and west, 
may be inferred from their custom of using 
the expression '^four winds" as equivalent 
to the "four quarters" of the hemisphere. 
The north wind, or, as it was usually called, 
" the north," was naturally the coldest of the 
four, and its presence is hence invoked as fa- 
vorable to vegetation in Cant, iv., 16. It is 
described in Prov. xxv., 23, as bringing rain ; 
in this case we must understand the north- 
west wind. The north-west wind prevails 
from the autumnal equinox to the beginning 
of November, and the north wind from June 
to the equinox. The east wind crosses the 
sandy wastes of Arabia Deserta before reach- 
ing Palestine, and was hence termed "the 
wind of the wilderness." It blows with vi- 
olence, and is hence supposed to be used gen- 
erally for any violent wind. In Palestine 
the east wind prevails from February to 
June. The south wind, which traverses the 
Arabian x)eninsula before reaching Palestine, 
must necessarily be extremely hot. The 
west and south-west winds reach Palestine 
loaded with moisture gathered from the Med- 
iterranean, and are hence expressively term- 
ed by the Arabs "the fathers of the rain." 
Westerly winds prevail in Palestine from 
November to February. In addition to the 
four regular winds, we have notice in the 
Bible of the local squalls to which the Sea 
of Gennesareth was liable. In the narra- 
tive of St. Paul's voyage we meet with the 
Greek term Lips, to describe the south-west 
wind; the Latin Cams or Caurus, the north- 
west wind ; a:ndEu7'oclydon, a wind of a very 
violent character coming from the east-north- 
east. [Job i., 19 ; xxvii., 21 ; xxxvii., 17 ; 
xxxviii., 24; Psa. xlviii., 7; Jer. xiii., 24: 
Ezek. xxvii., 26; xxxvii., 9; Dan. viii., 8; 
Zech. ii., 6 ; Matt, xxiv., 31 ; Mark iv., 37 ; 
Luke viii., 23 ; xii., 55 ; Acts xxvii., 12, 14.] 

Wine. The manufacture of wine has 
been practiced ever since the days of Noah. ^ 
The process of manufacture, though sim- 
ple, did not differ radically from that now 
in use. We described it under the article 
Vine (q. v.). In this article we shall con- 
sider the Biblical teaching concerning its 
use. There are few practical subjects con- 
nected with Bible interpretation which have 
given rise to greater discussions, or on which 
i~Gen. ix., 20, 21. 



WINE 



973 WISDOM OF SOLOMON (BOOK OF) 



there is among Christian scholars a greater 
diversity of opinion. We shall briefly in- 
dicate, iirst, the nature of the difficulty, by 
pointing out the two classes of passages 
which appear respectively to commend and 
to condemn the nse of wine ; and, secondly, 
the two principles of interpretation afforded 
of these passages. 



I. The Bible, then, 
Commends Wine. 

As an offering to God, ivith 

oil and wheat : 
Numb, xviii., 12. 
Neh. X., 37-39. 

As a blessing to man: 

Geu. xxvii., 2S-3T. 
Dent, vii., 13. 
Judg. ix., 13. 
Prov. iii., 10. 
Isa. Ixv., 8. 
Joel iii., 18. 
Psa. civ., 15. 
Zech. ix., 17. 

As an emblem of spiritual 
blessing : 

Isa. Iv., 1. 

Sol. Soug vii., 9. 

As a perpetual memorial 
of Chrisfs atoning sacri- 
fice : 

Matt. XX vi., 26-29. 

Mark xiv., 22-25. 

1 Cor. X., 16. 

As a medicine: 

Prov. xxxi., 6, 7 
1 Tim. v., 23. 

By the example of Jesus 

Christ : 
John ii., 1-11. 
Luke vii., 34. 



Condemns Wine. 

As a cause of violence and 
ivoe : 

Prov. iv., 17 ; xxiii., 29-32. 

Of self -security and irre- 

ligion : 
Isa. xxviii., 7; Ivi., 12. 
Hab. ii., 5. 

As a poison: 
Dent, xxxii., 33. 
Prov. xxiii., 31. 
Hos. vii., 5. 

As an accompaniment of 

ivickedness : 
Isa. v., 22. 

As an emblem of divine 

wrath : 
Psa. lx.,8; Ixxv., 8. 
Isa. Ii., 17. 
Jer. XXV., 15. 
Rev. xiv., 10; xvi., 19. 

By the example of priests 
on entering the taberna- 
cle: 
Lev. X., 8-11. 

Of Rechabites : 
Jer. XXXV., 6. 

Of Nazarites: 
Numb, vi., 2, 3. 

Of Daniel: 
Dan. i., S, 12. 



The reader who is anxious to pursue this 
subject further may easily do so by examin- 
ing, with the aid of a concordance, the vari- 
ous instances in the Bible in which the word 
wine or strong drink occurs, and may thus 
complete the table for himself. The contrast 
is apparent and unmistakable. 

II. To reconcile these seemingly conflict- 
ing teachings two principal hypotheses have 
been proposed. The first is that different 
kinds of drink are intended, that the one 
class of passages commend the unfermented 
juice of the grape, the others condemn a fer- 
mented liqnor. There is no doubt that there 
were three principal kinds of wine known 
to the ancients. First, there was fermented 
wine. It contained what is the only objec- 
tionable element in modern wines, a per- 
centage of alcohol. It was the least com- 
mon, and the percentage of alcohol was 
small. Distilled licpiors were almost, if not 
utterly, unknown. Second were the new 
wines. These, like our new cider, were 
wholly without alcohol, and were not intox- 
icating. They were easil}' preserved in this 
condition for several months. Third were 
wines in which, by boiling or by drugs, the 
process of fermentation was prevented and 
alcohol excluded. These, answering some- 



what in composition and character to our 
raspberry shrub, were mixed with water, 
and constituted the most common drink of 
the land. But it is not so clear that the 
Bible recognizes or maintains any distinc- 
tion between these Avines. It employs dif- 
ferent Hebrew words in describing wines 
and liquors, but scholars are not agreed in 
respect to the various meaning of these 
terms. It is tolerably clear that the general 
words "wine" and "strong drink" do not 
necessarily implj'- fermented liquors, the for- 
mer signifying only a production of the vine, 
the latter the iiroduce of other fruits than 
the grape ; but the attempt to show philo- 
logically that the various passages which 
condemn wines refer to intoxicating liquors, 
and those connnending it to unfermented 
liquors, can neither be pronounced a failure 
nor a success. On the one hand, this opin- 
ion is condemned by such scholars as Dean 
Alford, and apparently by Smith's "Bible 
Dictionary " and Kitto's " Biblical Cyclopae- 
dia ;" on the other hand, without mention- 
ing the temperance advocates, who may be 
thought to be prejudiced by their advocacy 
of that cause, it is enough to give a respect- 
able support to their opinion that so emi- 
nent and impartial a Bible critic as Professor 
Moses Stuart sustains it. He says, "My 
final conclusion is this, viz., that when the 
Scriptures speak of wine as a comfort, a 
blessing, or a libation to God, and rank it 
with such articles as cummin and oil, they 
mean, they can mean, only such wine as con- 
tained no alcohol that could have a mischievous 
tendency; that wherever they denounce it 
and connect it with drunkenness and revel- 
ry, they can mean only alcoholic or intoxi- 
cating wine." The other interpretation is 
that the one class of passages denounce only 
the excessive use of wines and the drunken- 
ness which results therefrom, and that the 
other class of passages commends wine if 
used in moderation. Tliis is the view uni- 
versally accepted by those scholars who 
think that the Bible does not teach the doc- 
trine of total abstinence ; it is also adopted 
by some writers who are i)ractical advocates 
of the total abstinence movement, but who 
think that the only true ground on which 
to place that movement is a due regard to 
the weakness of those who, in the present 
state of society, are unable to resist the 
temptation of using wines to excess if their 
companions and friends use them in moder- 
ation. 

"Wisdom of Solomon (the Book of), one 
of the books rightly placed among the apoc- 
ryphal writings. For, though it bears the 
name of Solomon, it can not possibly have 
been written by that monarch. There is 
strong evidence in the style that the orig- 
inal langTiage was Greek, and there are pas- 
sages which indicate a later time than that 
of Solomon. Tlie wildest conjectures have 



WITCHCRAFT 



974 



WITCHCEAFT 



been made as to the date and authorship, 
bnt nothing can be said with any approach 
to certainty, except that it was probably 
written by an Alexandrian Jew, sometime 
between B.C. 145 and B.C. 80. This book has 
always been highly regarded. It has been 
called Panaretos, or " the treasury of virtue," 
and its literary character is both remarka- 
ble and interesting. It was called forth by 
the circumstances of the times, when many 
of the Jews were located in Egypt under a 
foreign lord, and required tbe comfort which 
the remembrance of God's dealings with their 
fathers was well calculated to impart. Hence 
the writer dilates on the perfections of God, 
and the ways of his providence, in order to 
confirm the faithful, and give them hope of 
deliverance from their trials. The precepts 
are of excellent moral tendency, and the 
whole work a valuable exhibition of the 
contemporary Jewish religious mind, tinged 
with Alexandrianism, and possibly in a de- 
gree evincing an Oriental cast of thought. 
Some have imagined the Book of Wisdom 
the production of more than one author, or 
that it has come down to us in a fragmenta- 
ry shape ; but careful investigation will dem- 
onstrate its unity and completeness. It falls 
naturally into three divisions: 1. (i.-vi.) An 
encomium on wisdom, with an earnest ex- 
hortation to strive after it; 2. (vii.-ix.) An 
instraction concerning the means of obtain- 
ing it, its source, its nature, and its blessings ; 
3. (x.-xix.) A recommendation of it by the 
examples of Israelitish history. It has been 
asserted that the Book of Wisdom is cited or 
alluded to in the N. T. Some of the instances 
produced will be found by comparing Wisd. 
iii., 7, with Matt, xiii., 43 ; ii., 18, with Matt, 
xxvii., 43 ; xiii., 1, with Rom. i., 20 ; v., 18, 19 ; 
vii., 26 ; ix., 13, with Rom. xi., 34 ; Eph. vi., 13, 
14, 17 ; Hel3. i., 3 ; etc., etc. Many of these, 
however, are doubtful ; still, as profane au- 
thors are cited in the N. T., it can not be 
thought incongruous or surprising if allu- 
sion is made to Jewish uninspired litera- 
ture. 

Witchcraft, a term used to signify the 
arts employed by a person supposed to be 
attended by a familiar spirit. Witchcraft 
in Christian times has been held to imply a 
compact with the prince of the power of the 
air, by which the wizard or witch forfeited 
all hope of salvation, and covenanted in re- 
turn for certain supernatural powers which 
were to be exercised by the aid of a subor- 
dinate evil spirit, and were to be employed 
solely for evil. According to this idea, a 
witch, in consequence of her compact with 
Satan, written in her own blood, received, 
among other advantages, the power of trans- 
forming herself into any shape she pleased, 
transporting herself through the air on a 
broomstick, sailing on the sea in a sieve, 
gliding through a key -hole, and inflicting 
diseases upon mankind and cattle. Against 



such a theory as this no argument can be 
needed at the present time, and the wild le- 
gends that make up the history of medisBval 
witchcraft will rarely bear repetition. The 
belief in the existence of such persons can 
not be traced higher than the Middle Ages, 
and is thought by some to be derived from 
the wild and gloomy mythology of the North- 
ern nations, among whom the Fatal Sisters 
were prominent and popular agencies of evil, 
and by others to have arisen from the no- 
tices of witchcraft in the O. T., and in par- 
ticular from the narrative of Saul's visit to 
the witch of Endor (q. v.). This modern 
idea of witchcraft, as involving the assist- 
ance of Satan, is inconsistent with Scrip- 
ture, which represents Satan as powerless 
except as God gives him a limited commis- 
sion, as in the case of Job. A very different 
idea was conveyed by the Hebrew word, 
which probably denotes a sorceress, or ma- 
gician who pretended to discover, and even 
to direct the effects ascribed to the operation 
of the elements, conjunctions of the stars, the 
influence of lucky and unlucky days, the pow- 
er of invisible spirits and of the inferior dei- 
ties.^ The witchcraft or sorcery of the O. 
T. is, in. reality, a trafficking with idols, and 
asking counsel of false deities, or, in other 
words, idolatry, and hence, in Scripture, is 
uniformly associated with idolatry. The 
word occurs but six times in our Bible ; but 
there are many passages in which the prac- 
tices of witchcraft are referred to under oth- 
er names, and in the Mosaic code there were 
enactments altogether prohibiting them as 
professedly dealing with a power that was, 
from its very nature, opposed to the sover- 
eign will and authority of Jehovah.^ 

The witch of Endor (q. v.), as she is com- 
monly but improperly called, belongs to an- 
other class of pretenders to supernatural 
powers. She was a necromancer, or one of 
those persons who pretend to call up the 
spirits of the dead to converse with the liv- 
ing. The term for wizard in the N. T. indi- 
cates a dealing, not so much with evil spir- 
its as with deadly drugs, and resolves that 
class of witchcraft to which it applies into 
poisoning and philtre-making. It is by no 
means improbable that this was the magic 
practiced by Manassed and Jezebel. These 
were among the "curious arts" professed at 
Ephesus, which city and Pergamos were, in 
the apostolic times, the chief seats of divi- 
nation. As to the existence of any genuine 
witchcraft, it has been contended that such 
an art must have been at all times an im- 
posture ; that the woman at Endor was sim- 
ply a pretender; that the prohibition of Mo- 
ses was directed against a species of jug- 
gling equally fraudulent and impious ; that 

1 See Divination; Magic— ^ Exod. xxii., 18; Lev. 
XX., G, 27; Dent, xviii., 9-14; 1 Sam. xv., 23; 2 Kings 
ix., 22; Mic. v., 12; Nah. iii., 4; Gal. v., 20; Rev. 
xxi., 8. 



WITCHCRAFT 



WITCH OF ENDOR 



miracles, even by the Divine baud, were rare ; 
and that it is unreasonable to believe that 
God would allow the order of uature, which 
is but a part of his universal providence, to 
be interfered, with by the most worthless of 
the human race. While it may be safe to 
accept this conclusion with regard to mod- 
ern times, it is quite clear that our Lord 
claimed and exercised for himself, and con- 
ferred upon his disciples, the power of cast- 
ing out evil spirits ; that on certain occa- 
sions these spirits acknowledged his diviue 
authority and were silenced by him. Wheth- 
er it were possible for a compact to be made 
with the powers of darkness to obtain the 
aid of a spirit is yet another question, and 
one concerning which Scripture furnishes 
no information ; but it may be taken for 
granted that no compact could be valid by 
which any human being renounced his Sav- 
iour and his hopes of salvation. It seems 
strange that a doctrine like this should have 
been held by multitudes of grave, learned, 
and pious men almost to our own days, but 
the fact was so, and affords many illustra- 
tions of ''■ the fears of the brave and the fol- 
lies of the wise," one of which is that gro- 
tesque tragedy enacted in our own New En- 
gland, and called the Salem witchcraft. 

The first settlers in this country had 
brought a belief in witches with them from 
Europe, and six or eight witches had been 
executed between 1648 and 1655. In 1688 
an old half-witted Irish woman was accused 
of bewitching some children in Boston, and, 
after some investigation of the case by Cot- 
ton Mather, was hanged. In 1692 other ac- 
cusations were made in Danvers, then a part 
of Salem ; the excitemeut spread ; and soon 
adults as well as children complained of 
being bewitched, and accused those against 
whom they had any pique. Such men as 
Cotton Mather, Judge Stoughton, Rev. Mr. 
Noyes, of Salem, and Increase Mather, Presi- 
dent of Harvard College, proclaimed this to 
be an attempt of the devil to conquer the 
saints, and encouraged arrests. In one year 
twenty persons — among them several of the 
most reputable citizens of Massachusetts — 
were executed, nineteen by hanging and one 
by being pressed to death ; eight were cou- 
demued, one hundred and fifty confined await- 
ing trial, two hundred accused, and a con- 
siderable number of suspected had tied the 
country. But a reaction took place, which, 
in connection with King William's veto of 
the witchcraft act, led to the pardoning of 
those condemned, and the discharge of those 
imprisoned. There were a few who, in the 
height of the excitement and at the immi- 
nent peril of their lives, opposed the cry for 
the execution of the alleged witches. Some 
of the judges and ministers afterward ac- 
knowledged that they had been deluded, and 
made attempts at reparation ; others, like 
Mather and Stoughton, clung to their belief, 



and justified the executions. See Divina- 
tion ; Demon, Demoniac ; Magic. 

"Witch of Endor. The story of the witch 
of Endor is one of the most ditficult in Scrip- 
ture, and one concerning which there has 
been a very great difference of opinion among 
the most conscientious and Christian schol- 
ars. Jewish law forbade all intercourse with 
evil spirits, which it certainly seems to have 
regarded as something other than merely an 
imposture. Despite this law, wizards and 
real or pretended necromancers were notun- 
conmion in the land of Israel, one of whom 
had escaped the zeal of Saul, who in the 
early part of his reign treated them with 
great, though perhaps not undeserved, se- 
verity. According to the Septuagint, she 
was a ventriloquist. Of the narrative of 
his interview there are two interpretations. 
One asserts that in reply to her incanta- 
tions the spirit of Samuel really rose from 
the dead, and that he spoke to Saul, ask- 
ing why he had been summoned from the 
grave, audi prophesying his defeat and death 
upon the morrow. In support of this view 
it is asserted that the Bible treats through- 
out of incantations, and necromancy, and 
the dealing with familiar spirits as a real 
crime, not as a mere imposture; that the 
plain narrative of the Scripture conveys un- 
mistakably the impression of a real appear- 
ance ; that the woman's terror at his ap- 
pearance was nndissembled and unmistak- 
able ; that Saul himself and his compan- 
ions were couviuced of the reality of Sam- 
uel's presence ; that the verification on the 
morrow of the prophecy is sufficient evi- 
dence of its supernatural origin ; and, final- 
ly, that it is not necessary to suppose that 
God endowed the woman with power to call 
up the dead, but that only on this occasion 
God himself called up Samuel, to the terror 
of the witch herself, as well as of the king. 
On the other hand, it is said that Scripture 
relates events as they ai)pear to the wit- 
nesses; that experience and reason unite in 
branding necromancy as an imposture, and 
that it was as an inqiosture that the laws 
of Moses forbade and punished it ; that Saul 
saw nothing: only the witch saw, or pretend- 
ed to see, the apparition ; that Saul himself, 
wearied with anxiety, faint from hunger, and 
worn with watching and his journey, was in 
a state of mind easy to be imposed upon by 
very self-evident delusions; and that his own 
discouragement and the whole circumstances 
of the case were such, that it needed no 
supernatural power to perceive that Saul's 
reign was nearly ended, that victory on the 
morrow was hopeless, and that defeat would 
be likely to result in his death. The am- 
biguity of the narrative is enhanced by the 
fact that we have no means of knowing from 
whom it has been derived. The witch would 
not be likely to disclose either the scene or 
the secrets of her art; and it is contended 



WOLF 



976 



WORSHIP 



that if the narrative comes either from Saul 
or his compauions, it is to be interpreted in 
the light of their superstitious fears. On 
the whole, we think the former of these opin- 
ions, i. e., the reality of the apparition, is en- 
tertained by the larger number of tlie best 
commentators, but both views are supported 
by able thinkers. See Magic. [2 Sam. 
xxviii.] 

"Wolf, a well-known wild animal, repeat- 
edly mentioned in Scripture, but always in 
a metaphorical sense. As wolves were for- 
merly very numerous in Palestine, it seems 
remarkable that the Scripture has no histor- 
ical account of encounters with them. The 
rapacity of the wolf is mentioned, and its 
fierce prowling by night. It is also used as 
a figure to designate cruel adversaries of 
the Church. [Gen. xlix., 27 ; Jer. v., 6 ; Hab. 
i., 8 ; John x., 12 ; Acts xx., 29.] 

"Wool. Wool was an article of highest 
value among the Jews as the staple ma- 
terial for the manufacture of clothing. Its 
importance is incidentally shown by the no- 
tice that Mesha's tribute was paid iu a cer- 
tain number of rams " with the wool." The 
wool of Damascus was highly prized iu the 
mart of Tyre. 

The Israelites were forbidden to wear a 
garment mingled of woolen and linen. There 
has been some difficulty in explaining the 
reason of this prohibition ; Josephus says 
because only the priests were allowed to 
wear such a garment. A more probable ex- 
planation is that it was the spinning of two 
threads, woolen and linen, into one thread, 
which was forbidden, perhaps because it af- 
forded an opportunity for fraud. [Lev. xiii., 
47 ; xix., 19 ; Deut. xxii., 11 ; 2 Kings iii., 4 ; 
Jol) xxxi., 20 ', Prov. xxxi., 13 ; Ezek. xxvii., 
18; xxxiv., 3; Hos. ii., 5.] 

Word of God. Volumes have been writ- 
ten concerning the meaning of this phrase, 
whose significance, especially as employed 
by John in the opening chapter of his gos- 
pel, is important on account of its bear- 
ing on the character and work of Christ. 
Without entering into the discussion, we 
must coutent ourselves with saying that we 
think the phrase is its own best interpreter. 
Words are the expression of thoughts, which 
are necessarily entirely unknown until they 
are uttered in language. So God is invisi- 
ble, and therefore unknown until he is re- 
vealed in Jesus Christ, who, because he is 
the manifestation of God iu the flesh, is 
termed the Word of God, i. e., the utterance 
or disclosure of God to humanity. See Me- 
diator. 

"Worm. There are several Hebrew words 
so rendered in our version ; some of them 
improperly so. Sds, a word signifying ''the 
leaper," must mean some species of moth.^ 
Rimmah seems to describe the maggots bred 
in any putrefying substance, as in the man- 
i~Isa. li., 8. 



na.' Tolaath is used for any maggot or cater- 
pillar.'^ Sometimes it designates the worm, 
or insect, Coecus ilius, from which the scarlet 
or crimson dye is obtained. The words rim- 
mali and tolaaih often seem to be employed 
indiscriminately. Thus both are represent- 
ed as feeding on the bodies of the dead. 
The death of Herod Agrippa was caused by 
worms f according to Josephus, his death 
took place five days after his departure from 
the theatre. Whether the worms were the 
cause or the result of the disease is uncer- 
tain. 

'Worni'wood, a plant belonging to the genus 
Artemisia, remarkable for the intense bitter- 
ness of many of its species. This genus is 
distinguished by the multitude of fine divis- 
ions into which the leaves are usually sep- 
arated, and the numerous clusters of small, 
round, drooping, greenish -yellow or brown- 
ish flower -heads with which the branches 
are loaded. Probably the Scripture term is 
general, comprising various bitter plants; 
but, if an individual be intended, we may 
fairly suppose it to he, Artemisia Judaica. The 
term is commonly employed in a figurative 
sense in the Scriptures. It also represents 
the disastrous nature of an Antichristian 
power which should corrupt and imbitter 
the pure water which it touched. [Deut. 
xxix., 18 ; Prov. v., 4 ; Jer. ix., 15 ; xxiii., 15 ; 
Lam. iii., 15, 19 ; Eev. viii., 11, 12.] 

Worship. The origin of public worship 
lies back of historical times, and is proba- 
bly due to the tendency of men to act togeth- 
er in those matters in which they possess a 
common sympathy. Public worship, in oth- 
er words, is the social activity of l)iety. All 
nations, accordingly, have possessed, togeth- 
er with a faith in a god or gods, some kind 
of public or joint worship; and we not only 
have abundant examples in the Bible for 
public Avorship, but also many precepts di- 
rectly or indirectly enjoining it.* The first 
formal service of the Jews was organized iu 
connection with the Tabernacle (q. v.), and 
this was elaborated and perfected under Da- 
vid, and inaugurated with a most magnifi- 
cent public service under Solomon, at the 
time of the dedication of the Temple (q. v.). 
The principal element in the Temple service 
consisted of sacrifices (q. v.). These, how- 
ever, were accompanied with public prayers, 
the rehearsing of the commandments and 
other parts of the Scripture, the pronuncia- 
tion of a benediction on the people by the 
priests, taken from Numb, vi., 24-26, and a 
musical service, both vocal and instrument- 
al.^ There appears to be no doubt that this 
service was liturgical in its character at the 
time of Christ, and the germs of the litur- 
gy are to be found as early as the days of 



1 Exod. xvi., 24.-2 Dent, xxviii., 39; Jon. iv., 7.— 
3 Acts xii., 23.-4 Geu. xxxv., 1 ; Exod. v., 1 ; Dent, 
xxxi., 11-13 ; Psa. xlv., 11 ; Ixxvi., 11 ; xcvi., 8, 9 ; Joel 
ii., 15-17 ; Matt, xvlii., 19, 20 ; Acls 11., 1-4; Heb. x., 26. 
— s See^Musio. 



WORSHIP 



977 



WRITING 



Moses.^ It is equally clear that the Church 
was not coufined to the use of these litur- 
gical prayers.^ There were special services 
for special feast-days, accompanied at times 
with processions and illuminations.^ There 
was nothing in the Temple service answer- 
ing to the modern sermon ; religious instruc- 
tion was afforded by the prophets (q. v.) 
and the Levites (q. v.); hut preaching, in 
the modern sense of the term, dates from 
the period of the restoration under Nehe- 
miah. The service of the synagogue is 
thought to have been adapted from the 
Temple service. It consisted of the chant- 
ing of certain psalms, the reciting of bene- 
dictions and prayers, the reading of Scrip- 
ture lessons in course, and an oral discourse 
or sermon.* There is very little in the N. T. 
descriptive of the method of worship pur- 
sued in the Apostolic Church, and scholars 
are not agreed respecting the nature of its 
services. It is clear that they were in- 
formrtl and simple in their character, being 
held at first in private houses, frequently 
without any official leader; they included 
prayer, praise, religious instruction, mutual 
exhortation, and the " breaking of bread," 
i. e., probably a meal of a social and a re- 
ligious character, for it is not 
X)robable that the Lord's Supper 
was celebrated daily; and it is 
said that they broke bread daily 
from house to house.^ It seems 
clear, however, that from the be- 
ginning baptism was adminis- 
tered in the form prescribed by 
Christ, though not always in the 
name of the Father, Son, and 
Holy Ghost, ^ and that a simple 
but definite form accompanied 
the administration of the Lord's 
Supper.'^ It is probable, also, B 
that the Lord's Prayer was cus- 
tomarily used, and there are indi- P 
cations that the Apostolic Church 
borrowed from the synagogue jr 
some of its prayers, benedictions, 
and doxologies. The preaching 
was simple in its character, and ^ "* 
ordinarily extempore. Any at- 
tempt to trace the past Biblical G 
history of public worship would 
carry us beyond all reasonable x ^ cr: 
limits. It is certain that liturgic- 
al forms were in general use in the 
fourth century, and equally certain that the 
elaborate ritualism of the Roman Catholic 
Church is a gradual growth, and finds noth- 
ing to sustain it in the N. T., and little even 



in the O. T. For a discussion of the ad- 
vantages and disadvantages of set forms 
of worship, see Liturgy ; for an account of 
particular forms, see Bre\t:aky; Missai.; 
Prayer-book. See, also, Music ; Preach- 
ing. 

"Writing. The history of the origin of 
writing is considerably obscure. The first 
attempt to convey ideas by signs addressed 
to the eye was, doubtless, by pictures, such 
as are used to this day by the North Ameri- 
can Indians. In this first stage a single 
picture represented an entire word. The 
next stage was the syllabic, in which the 
picture originally intended for the entire 
word was used for its first syllable. When 
the picture thus became merely a conven- 
tional sign, it soon was itself drawn with 
the fewest possible lines, until it often mere- 
ly suggested, or even ceased to suggest, the 
object of which it had been a picture. The 
Egyptian hieroglyphics are the best exam- 
ples of these two stages. Thus it is pure 
picture-writing by which a man, woman, or 
child is represented by outline drawings, 
as the verb to strike, by a man raising a 
stick. By a more distant connection of 
ideas, month is expressed by a moon ; motlw 







D 



\ \ 



u ^ 



•zn 



1 See Dent, xxvi., 5-15; Numb, x., 35, 36: comp. Psa. 
Ixviii. — 2 See, for example, 1 Kings viii., 22-53; 2 
Kings xix., 15-19.— ^ See Tabernacles (Feast of).— 
* See Synagogue.— 5 Acts ii., 46; for other Scripture 
references to N. T. worship, see verses 41, 47 ; v., 42 ; 
xiii.. 1-3 ; Rom. xvi., 5 ; 1 Thess. iv., IS ; v., 11 ; Ephes. 
v., 19, 20.— 6 Acts viii., 16; x.,4S; xix., 2-5; Rom. vl, 
3.-7 Matt, xxviii., 19, 20 ; 1 Cor. xi., 24-26. 
62 



TS 



M 



N 



RorL 



SH 



KH 



HH 



H 



Egyptian Hieroglyphic Letters. 

by a vulture, because that species was sup- 
posed to consist entirely of females; and Icing 
by a bee, because of its monarchical govern- 
ment. The hieroglyphics represented fre- 
quently the first syllables of the words, and 
even the fijst letter ; so that an oivl becomes 
m, and a Itand becomes d. In the cuneiform 
alphabet of Assyria there are several hun- 
dred known characters which represent 
words ; as many more which represent sim- 
ple syllables, like ia; and as many more 



^ < 


^) 


^- 


) T 


/VrWA -) 


V ^ 


<C=> 


h 


P- 


\ ^ 


-- n 


s? . 


• 


; c- 


I 


t 



WEITING 



978 



WRITING 



wliicli represent a compoimd syllable, like 
tad. The cuneiform alphabet, or syllabary, 
rather, whose origin we do not know, has 
lost nearly all resemblance to the original 
pictures from which it degenerated; and the 
same is true of the Egyptian hieratic writ- 
ing, which was a sort of running hand, used 
in writing on papyrus. The Egyptians pos- 
sessed the hieroglyphic system at the ear- 
liest period at which we meet their monu- 
ments, and we have in the Papyrus Prisse 
a specimen of hieratic writing going back 
as far as the Exodus. Even the immediate 
successor of Menes, the founder of the first 
dynasty, is said to have written a book on 
surgery. 

Biblical and modern scholars are more par- 
ticularly interested in the origin of the old 
Hebrew or Phcenician alphabet in which 
the O. T. was originally written, and from 
which was derived nearly every other al- 
phabet of ancient or modern times, as is in- 
dicated in the Greek legend that letters were 
introduced by Cadmus, that is, from Kadm, 
the East. The old Phcenician, or, more prop- 
erly, the Shemitic alphabet, as we first meet 
it at a period about 1000 B.C., was extended 
over the west coast of Asia, from Arabia to 
the central portion of Asia Minor. How 
much earlier it existed we do not know. 
Probably it had its origin in Egypt, but 
with the Canaanites at the time when they 
with their Shepherd kings ruled over Egypt. 
This seems to be indicated by the resem- 
blances which we find between the oldest 
forms of the hieratic and the Phcenician 
letters. In half of the Phcenician letters or 
more, such a resemblance can be detected. 
At first, no doubt, the letters had names de- 
rived from the objects which they resem- 
bled. Yet in comparatively few cases is the 
resemblance at all evident in the Phcenician 
alphabet, as we have received it ; and it is 
not improbable that it never was much more 
so at the first origin of that alphabet. The 
triangle was accepted from the Egyptian 
hieratic as d; and as it happened to resem- 
ble in shape the opening into a tent more 
than any thing else whose name began with 
d, it was called by the Phcenician name of 
dalelli, a door. The same principle probably 
went through the nomenclature of the en- 
tire alphabet, and it is of little use now to 
try to trace resemblances to material ob- 
jects when the resemblances were but fan- 
ciful at the first. But we can learn some- 
thing of the domestic life of the Canaanite 
race that first developed these letters which 
we call Phcenician. The fact that they need- 
ed them at all, and that they should have 
been compelled to develop from the exceed- 
ingly complex Egyptian system such a sim- 
ple and purely alphabetic system, seems to 
indicate such a general call for writing as 
would be felt by a nation that was begin- 
ning to develop trade. At the same time, 



the absence of all names connected with 
maritime life, unless it be the doubtful case 
of the "fish" and the '^fish-hook," does not 
suggest that the Phoenicians or their kin- 
dred Canaanites had at this time developed 
their sea-faring tastes. But we do have the 
"ox" and the "camel," two animals which 
were not domesticated in Egypt until the 
Shepherd invasion; also the "tent," the 
"tent door," and the "tent pin," all sug- 
gestive of a race which, like the Midianites 
who carried Joseph into Egypt, very soon 
after the Shepherd dynasty was expelled, 
mingled a trading with a roving Bedouin 
life. To some such race did the Shepherd 
kings belong, although we do not know to 
what Shemitic family — very possibly to the 
Hittites, or Khatti, who were for a long 
time the strongest of the Canaanite stock, 
and whose name has sometimes been ex- 
X)lained by an Arabic word meaning "to 
write." 

It is no longer a question whether the al- 
phabet was in existence as far back as the 
time of Moses. The Hebrew lawgiver was, 
no doubt, acquainted with both hieroglyph- 
ic and Phoenician letters, and used the lat- 
ter. No certain reference is made to writ- 
ing in the book of Genesis. The seal of Ju- 
dah^ was not necessarily engraved with let- 
ters ; and the same is true of Pharaoh's riug.^ 
To be sure, we find that on the plate of the 
holy crown was to be placed " a writing of 
the engravings of a signet, 'Holiness unto 
the Lord ;' "^ but this simply means that it 
was to be cut in intaglio, like the device of 
a signet, and not that the signet always had 
writing. The most ancient Assyrian seals 
generally have no writing on 
them. The most ancient Phce- 
nician seal which we possess 
has on it an engraving of the 
Egyptian Thoth, and the name 
of the owner, " Shallum." Writ- 
ing is first distinctly mentioned 
in such a connection as to show 
lum, B.C. 1000. ^j^g^ .^ ^^^ .j^ common use for 

historical purposes.* Moses is commanded 
to preserve the memory of Amalek's on- 
slaught by committing it to writing. And 
Jehovah said unto Moses, ^^ Write this for 
a memorial in the dooh" (not " a book," as in 
the Authorized Version), " and rehearse it in 
the ears of Joshua." After this references 
to writing are frequent. It was done on 
gold in the case of the "holy plate" above 
referred to ; on stone in the case of the ta- 
bles of the law ; or on plaster in the case 
of the great stones on which the Law was 
to be written. The curses against the adul- 
teress were to be written^ in the book as 
before, and blotted out with water. This 
implies the use of some kind of ink, and 
of a material like parchment, which would 

1 Gen. xxxviii., IS, 25.-2 Gen. xli., 42.-3 Exod. 
xxxix., 30.-4 Exod. xvii., 14.— « Numb, v., 23. 




Seal of Shal- 





WEITING 


979 




WKITING 






English. 


Phoenician of 
Cadmus. 
1000 B.o. 


Greek. 


Italic. 


Eight to left. 


Left to right. 


Right to left. 


Left to right. 


Aleph. 






800 B.O. 


600 B.C. 


700 B.C. 


600 ij.o. 


A 


^ 


X] 


A 


A 


A 


Beth. 


B 


i 


^ 


^ 


a 


B 


Gimel. 


CG 


1 


1 


r 


> 


< C 


Daleth. 


D 


A 


A 


A 


a 


D 


He. 


E 


n 


^ 


p 


5 


E 


Vav. 


FV 


V 


^ 


F 


D 


F 


Zayin. 


GZ 


X 


T 


I 


I 


G 


Cheth. 


H 


H B 


a 


B 


B 


H 


Teth. 




6 


% © 


© 






Yod. 


1 


^ 


h 


1 


1 




Kaph. 


K 


-} 


)\ 


K F 


>l 


K 


X-amed. 


L 


I 


-A 


A 


4 


\ 1 


Mem. 


M 


7 


7 


/^ 


W\ 


A^ 


Nun. 


N 


y 


y 


r 


^ 


A/ ' 


Samekh, 




* 


I 


I 






Ayin. 








Q 











Pe. 


P 


1 


n 


r 


1 


p 


Tsade. 




fv 


^ 


/A 


^ 




Koph. 


a 


? 


9 


9 


9 


9 


Eesh. 


R 


A 


4 


^ 


s^ 


1^ 


Shin. 


s 


NA/ 


^ 


^ 


^ ? 


<> s 


Tav. 


T 


X 


T 


T 


T 


T 



The Archaic Alphabet. 



WEITING 



WRITING 



not be affected by water. The command, 
in Deut. xxiv., 1, 3, to the man who wish- 
ed by a summary process to be separated 
from his wife for her infidelity, "Let him 
write her a bill" (literally "book") "of di- 
vorcement, and give it into her hand, and 
send her out of his house," seems to imply 
that the knowledge of writing was quite 
general. Still, it is probable that in these 
cases the professional scribes, whom we first 
hear of as marshals of the army,^ or perhaps 
the priests, who are everywhere a learned 
class, would have been applied to for such 
an official document. After this period writ- 
ing is frequently mentioned in the Bible. 
The present square Hebrew characters are 
quite different from the old Hebrew or Phoe- 
nician letters which Moses, David, and the 
Maccabees used. The Jews call them As- 
syrian, and they were adopted, probably, as 
gradually developed during the time of the 
captivity, or at least some time before Christ. 
The steps in their development are still part- 
ly evident. The Aramaean inscriptions show 
the first stage, and the Palmyrene are almost 
square Hebrew. 

The earliest inscriptions that we have 
separate words by a point ; and the Moabite 
inscription also separates sentences by a 
perpendicular line. Still it is doubtful if 
this was universal even then. It 
was rare in the later Phoenician to 
employ any marks of separation. 
There were no vowels employed, and 
the Septuagint translation abounds 
in instances where the translators 
supplied different vowels from those 
now in use. Cases where words were 
differently separated are quite rare. 
The necessity for a system of vowel 
signs was not felt until the Hebrew 
had ceased to become a colloquial 
language, and it was felt to be nec- 
essary to fix its pronunciation scien- 
tifically. Hence the origin of the 
vowel signs and the accents. It was 
not till the sixth century that the vowel 
system was developed, probably in imita- 
tion of the Arabic, in which a similar but 
imperfect system had long been in use. 

The table on the preceding page gives the 
oldest known form of the Shemitic alphabet. 
The characters are generally taken from the 
Moabite stone, nearly 900 B.C., although one 
or two antique forms are taken from other 
monuments. Following this, in the succeed- 
ing columns, are the earliest forms of the 
Greek and the Latin alphabets, which, as it 
will be seen, are almost pure Phoenician. 
When written from right to left, as in the 
case of the most ancient Greek monuments, 
the letters are not distinguishable from the 
Phoenician. Probably the Chinese is the 
only system now in common use that is not 
lineally descended from the alphabet used by 
1 Judg. v., 14. 



Moses in writing the Pentateuch. Through 
the Cadmus of mythology the Greeks took 
their alphabet from the Phoenicians, and 
from the Greek is derived the Russian. 
From the Latins, whose Phoenician origin is 
equally evident, came the alphabets of the 
rest of Europe and of America. Weber and 
Briusep have shown that the ancient San- 
scrit alphabet probably came from the Phoe- 
nician, and from the Sanscrit are derived 
the alphabets of India, Burmali, Thibet, and 
Java. The old Persian is also shown by 
Spiegel to have a similar origin ; and Klap- 
roth has proved that the Mongolian, Tun- 
gusian, and Manchu alphabets are from the 
Phoenician, through the Syriac, though modi- 
fied by the perpendicular columnar arrange- 
ment of the Chinese. Add to these the Sa- 
maritan, Ethiopic, and Syriac, the Arabic, 
with its characters modified or unmodified, 
as accepted by Turks, Persians, Malays, Hin- 
doostanees, and Touareks, and we have only 
the Chinese remaining that can claim an in- 
dependent origin. 

The writing materials of the ancients 
were various. Stone, bricks, metals, gems, 
were all employed at an exceedingly ancient 
period. Wood was used on some occasions.^ 
The "lead," to which allusion is made in Job 
xix., 24, is supposed to have been poured, 




Writing Materials. 

when melted, into the cavities in the stone 
made by the engraved letters for the sake of 
insuring greater durability. As the Egyp- 
tians had great skill in preparing skins, it is 
probable that the Hebrews also used parch- 
ment for writing from a very early period, 
although they may also have used papyrus, 
which was employed by the Egyptians from 
the most remote times. The pen used was 
an iron graver in the case of the harder ma- 
terials, or a reed for writing on parchment. 
The ink was of lamp-black, or sometimes 
of vitriol, mixed with gall -juice. Modern 
scribes in the East carry with them at all 
times, suspended to their girdles, a case (the 
"writer's ink-horn" of Scripture), made of 
brass or ebony, consisting of a tube for hold- 
ing their reeds, and a bulb attached at one 
end for the ink. 



Numb, xvii., 3. 



YEAR 



981 Y. M. CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS 



Y. 



Year. The year was used by the ancient 
Hebrews from the time of the Exodus, and 
was probably then instituted. It commenced 
with the month Abib (April), and was essen- 
tially a solar year, though the months were 
lunar, i. e,, the duration of the year was de- 
termined by the revolution of the earth 
around the sun, while the duration of the 
months was determined by the revolution of 
the moon around the earth. The twelve lu- 
nar months do not make up exactly the so- 
lar year; there must, therefore, have been 
some adjustment, but exactly how this ad- 
justment was arranged is uncertain. The 
later Jews are commonly said to have had 
two years, a civil and a sacred. The former 
commenced with Abib, the latter with Tisri 
(October). The year was divided into sea- 
sons, months, weeks, and days, as with us. 
See those titles respectively; see, also, Sab- 
batical Year. 

Yoke. The yol^^'of ancient times does 
not appear to hafv^vdiffered very materially 
from the modern one. s The reader will find 
an illustration of it under the title Plow. 
The term is sometimes employed as a meas- 
ure of land,^ in which case as much is desig- 
nated as a yoke of oxen could plow in a day. 
The term is often used in the Bible symbol- 
ically. [Gen. xxvii., 40; Dent, xxviii., 48; 
1 Kings xii., 4, 9-11 ; Lam. i., 14 ; iii., 27 ; Isa. 
ix., 4 ; Jer. ii., 20 ; xxviii., 14 ; Matt, xi., 29, 
30 ; Acts XV., 10 ; Gal. v., 1.] 

Young Men's Christian Associations.^ 
These organizations originated in a gather- 
ing of a dozen clerks in London, who agreed 
to meet for an hour a day for prayer. Oth- 
ers joined them ; the circle grew rapidly ; 
and in June, 1844, there was formed, as a 
result of this prayer-meeting, a " society for 
improving the spiritual condition of young 
men in the drapery and other trades." This 
was the foundation of the Young Men's 
Christian Associations, at this present writ- 
ing embracing from twelve to fifteen hun- 
dred local organizations, extending from En- 
gland to the Continent, and over this coun- 
try, and including over a hundred thousand 
members in the United States and Canadas 
alone. Almost simultaneously with the per- 
fected organization of the Young Men's Chris- 
tian Association of England, similar organi- 
zations were perfected in Montreal and Bos- 



1 1 Sam. xiv., 14; Isa. v., 10.— 2 For a fuller history 
of the organization and work of the Young Men's 
Christian Associations, see an article by the editor 
of this volume, in Harper^s Magazine, vol. xli., p. 641. 
October, 1870. 



ton. New York, Washington, Buffalo, and 
Cincinnati quickly followed ; then smaller 
towns. In one year from the date of the 
first organization on this continent, at Mont- 
real, December, 1851, thirteen were report- 
ed. There are now over seven hundred in 
the United States and the Canadas. These 
Associations meet generally in hired halls. 
In the larger cities, and in some of the flour- 
ishing towns, they own the buildings they 
occupy ; and, as in New York city, they have 
in some instances approached magnificence 
in outlay. A recent report estimates that 
not less than a million and a half of dollars 
are invested and under the control of the 
Young Men's Christian Associations in the 
United States. 

The condition of membership in this coun- 
try is that the applicant be a member of 
some evangelical Church; others are admit- 
ted as associate members, with all the priv- 
ileges except those of voting and of holding 
office. In London any person is eligible to 
membership " who gives decided evidence 
of his conversion to God." In Holland any 
young man of good moral character is ad- 
mitted to membership. Young men only are 
allowed to be active members ; but there is 
no well-defined standard by which to de- 
termine who are young. Americans are al- 
ways young; Frenchmen until they marry; 
Englishmen until sixty. The average fixed 
on by the Association is forty; but those 
over forty are admitted as "counseling mem- 
bers," with restricted privileges. In one or 
two Associations women are admitted to equal 
membership, on the same condition as men. 
This is the case in Brooklyn. In Boston and 
elsewhere these Young Women's Christian 
Associations are separately organized. All 
the Associations of the United States and of 
the Canadas are united in an International 
Convention, which meets once a year for mu- 
tual discussion, but which exercises no leg- 
islative authority whatever over the local 
organizations. A committee is appointed by 
this Convention, however, to supervise and 
attend to the common interests of all the 
bodies represented in the Convention. The 
Illustrated Christian Weekly serves as an offi- 
cial organ for the report of the work of these 
associated bodies. Some of the local Associ- 
ations also publish sheets, partly as a means 
of reporting their work, partly as a means 
of carrying it on. 

The primary work of the Young Men's 
Christian Association is to provide for the 



Y. M. CHEI8TIAN ASSOCIATIONS 982 Y. M. CHRISTIAN ASSOCIATIONS 




Library, Young Men's Christian Association Building, New York. 



intellectual, moral, and social welfare of 
young men. The urgency which called these 
organizations into existence was the need 
of some substitute for a home for the home- 
less young men in the great towns and cit- 



ies. For these provision is made by read- 
ing-rooms, free libraries, courses of lectures, 
prayer-meetings, social gatherings, and oth- 
er similar instrumentalities. In some of the 
rooms care is taken to provide innocent and 




Gymuatiuni, Yuuug iMeu's (JurisLiuu Ati&uciuiion Jjuildmg, ISew York. 



ZACCHEUS 



ZACHARIAS 



healthful recreations. In some of them there 
are chess and checkers, in others a gymna- 
sium. Subsidiary to this, the great work of 
these associatious, are various other forms of 
Christian activity. The Christian Commis- 
sion organized during the civil war for the re- 
lief of soldiers was the product of a conven- 
tion of delegates from the various Christian 
Associations of the North in New York city. 
The Pacific Eailroad Mission, similarly or- 
ganized by a Christian Association Conven- 
tion, sent out Christian delegates to visit 
the various stations along the line of that 
railroad while it was in process of construc- 
tion, and to endeavor by the preaching of 
the Gospel to counteract the evil influence 
of the liquor -shop, and the gamblers who 
swarmed all along the line of the road. 
Street-preaching in the cities, accompanied 
by tract distribution and tenement -house 
visitation, has been carried on very vigor- 



ously by these Associations in most of the 
large towns. In other instances the liquor 
and gaming saloons have been visited and 
made the tield of religious work, and even 
the proprietors converted by the labors and 
the praj^ers of the young men of these or- 
ganizations. Employment bureaus are also 
connected with many of the Associations, 
whose business it is to provide work for 
those who are out of it and are worthy of 
employment. Other committees introduce 
the stranger to the church and to the board- 
ing-house, where he may depend on proper 
treatment, and may be kept free from irre- 
ligious and godless influences. In a word, 
these Associations are less particular about 
the form of work than about the end in 
view. Their flexible organization permits 
them to do any thing which promises to 
serve the cause of Christ in the young men 
of the community. 



Zaccheus (pure). Of this man the N. T. 
tells us nothing except what is recorded in 
Luke xix., 1-10. He was — this much we 
gather from the narrative and from our 
knowledge of the times — a chief among pub- 
licans, i. e., a farmer of the public revenues, 
who paid the government a stipulated sum 
for the privilege of collecting, much at his 
own discretion, the customs in a certain dis- 
trict. He belonged to an ancient Jewish 
family, whose name held an honorable place 
in the archives of the period of the Resto- 
ration ;^ but by his calling he was universal- 
ly regarded as having disgraced his name; 
and all his wealth could not secure him en- 
trance into Jewish society in Jericho, which 
was at once a city of publicans and a city 
of priests. Christ's choosing him for a host 
was a rebuke to the religious aristocracy of 
that age ; at the same time it secured for 
Zaccheus what in our N. T. reads like a boast 
of his past excellences, but what was in re- 
ality a confession of his sins and a promise 
of reformation. As a tax-gatherer he had 
been the willing instrument of Roman ex- 
tortion ; he emphasized his repentance by 
promising, so far as he could ascertain the 
victims of his extortions, to restore to them 
fourfold, and in addition to give half his 
goods to the poor. Of his subsequent his- 
tory nothing is known. 

Zachariah, more properly written Zecha- 
riah (ivliom Jeliovah remembers), was the four- 
teenth king of Israel, the son of Jeroboam, 
and succeeded him in a short reign of only 
six months. There is a difficulty about the 
date of his reign. His accession to the throne 
is x>laced B.C. 773, and, as Jeroboam died B.C. 
784, there is an interregnum of eleven or 
twelve years. It is probable that this was 



1 Neh. viL, 14. 



a period of anarchy, or the government may 
have been administered by an Assyrian offi- 
cer. Zechariah was slain in a conspiracy 
by Shallum (q. v.), who succeeded him, and 
thus the prophecy was accomx)lished, that the 
children of Jehu should sit upon the throne 
of Israel only until the fourth generation.^ 
The year of his death was remarkable for a 
great eclipse, visible in Palestine, and proba- 
bly alluded to by the prophet Amos. [Amos 
viii., 9 ; 2 Kings xv.,8-12.] 

Zacharias (the Greek form of ZecJiariah). 
1. A prophet whose death is referred to by 
Christ as a marked event in Jewish histo- 
ry.^ Some difficulty has been experienced 
in identifying him, owing to the descriptive 
words in Matthew, where he is called the 
"son of Barachias." This would identify 
him with the prophet Zechariah, whose book 
is among those of the minor prophets, but of 
whose death nothing is known. Some schol- 
ars would identify him with a Zacharias, son 
of Baruch, mentioned by Josephus as being 
slain in the Temple just before the destruc- 
tion of Jerusalem, and subsequent, therefore, 
to the death of Christ. But there is noth- 
ing to indicate that Christ spoke prophetic- 
ally. A tradition that Zacharias, the father 
of John the Baptist, was slain in the TemxDle, 
is mentioned by Origen, but has nothing to 
support it. It is probable that the refer- 
ence is to Zechariah, the son of Jehoiada, and 
that the description added in Matthew is the 
result of a transcriber's error. This Zecha- 
riah succeeded his father in the office of high- 
priest. He might well have claimed the 
royal protection, since Joash owed both his 
throne and his life to Zechariah's father and 
mother.^ But on the king's defection Zecha- 

1 2 Kings X., 30 ; xv., 12.— 2 Matt, xxiii., 35 ; Luke 
xi., 51. — 3 See Joasu ; Jehoiada. 



ZADOK 



984 



ZEALOTS 



riali openly denonnced him, and was stoned 
to death by a mob, who acted at the king's 
instigation. [2 Chron. xxiv., 20-23.] 

2. Father of John the Baptist. He is de- 
scribed as of the course of Abia, i. e., the 
eighth of the twenty -four courses of the 
priests.^ The time of the appearance of the 
angel to him in the Temple Is thought to 
have been September 30 to October 6 of the 
sixth year before the Christian era. See 
John the Baptist. [Luke i.] 

Zadok. {the righteous), one of the two chief- 
priests in the time of David, Abiathar being 
the other. He represented the house of Ele- 
azar, Abiathar that of Ithamar. He first ap- 
pears joining David at Hebron after Saul's 
death. The hypothesis that he had been 
before made high-priest by Saul in place of 
Abiathar, the son of Ahimelech, is plausible, 
but is not sustained by any direct historical 
evidence. David seems to have settled the 
rival claims of the two families by dividing 
the priesthood between them, as appears to 
have been done before in the case of Eleazar 
and Ithamar, and in that of Hophui andPhin- 
eas. During David's reign the two priests 
seem to have been regarded as of nearly 
equal dignity. Zadok ministered before the 
tabernacle at Gibeon. Abiathar had care, 
though not exclusively, of the ark at Jeru- 
salem.^ When Absalom revolted, and David 
fled from Jerusalem, Zadok and Abiathar, 
with all the Levites bearing the ark, accom- 
panied him, and it was only at the king's 
express command that they returned to Je- 
rusalem, and became the medium of commu-^ 
nication between the king and Hushai the 
Archite, and after the death of Absalom be- 
tween the king and the people. When Ado- 
nijah, in David's old age, set up for king, 
and had persuaded Joab and Abiathar, the 
priest, to join his party, Zadok was unmoved, 
and was employed by David to anoint Solo- 
mon to be king in his room. For this fidel- 
ity he was rewarded by Solomon, who " thrust 
out Abiathar from being priest unto the 
Lord," and " put in Zadok the priest " in his 
room. From this time, however, we hear 
little of him. It is said in general terms, 
in the enumeration of Solomon's officers of 
state, that Zadok was the priest, but no sin- 
gle act of his is mentioned. Josephus, how- 
ever, says that he lived to witness the dedi- 
cation of Solomon's Temple, of which he 
was the first high-priest, a somewhat doubt- 
ful story. [2 Sam. xv., 24-36 ; xvii., 15-22 ; 
1 Kings i. ; ii., 35 ; iv., 4.] 

Other persons of the same name are men- 
tioned in 2 Kings xv., 33 ; 2 Chron. xxvii., 
1 ; Neh. iii., 4, 29 ; x., 21. The names of 
Ahitub and Zadoc in 1 Chron. vi., 12, are 
supposed to have been inserted by a tran- 
scriber's error from the preceding verses. 
A person of the same name, spelled, howev- 



1 See Priests; AmjAii. 
39 ; 2 Sam. xv., 24, 25, 29. 



1 Chron. xv., 11 ; xvi.. 



er, Sadoc, is supposed to have been the found- 
er of the sect of the Sadducees (q. v.). 

Zalmunna (shelter is denied him), one of 
the Midianitish kings who, with Zebah, hav- 
ing escaped from the first onset of Gideon, 
and passed the Jordan safely, was lying se- 
cure in Karkor with about fifteen thousand 
men, when Gideon unexpectedly came up, 
attacked them, took, and afterward slew, the 
chiefs. Zalmunna and Zebah are distin- 
guished in the narrative from Oreb and 
Zeeb. The first are styled kings, the latter 
princes. [Judg. viii., 5-21; Psa. Ixxxiii., 
11.] 

Zaphnath-paaneah, a title given by Pha- 
raoh to Joseph when appointed to the dig- 
nity of ruler next under the king. Schol- 
ars have widely differed in the derivations 
they have proposed for this title. Those 
who prefer a Hebrew origin say it means 
" the revealer of mysteries." But there can 
be no doubt that Pharaoh would have giv- 
en his Grand Vizier an Egyptian, not a He- 
brew name, just as the name of Daniel was 
changed to Belteshazzar. The true mean- 
ing appears to be *'the food of life," or "of 
the living;" and the name was probably 
given to him with reference to the provis- 
ion which, under the divine guidance, he 
proposed for the approaching famine. [Gen. 
xli., 45.] 

Zarephath {smelting -house), a town near 
Sidon, to which Elijah was sent during the 
latter part of the great drought in his time. 
In the N. T. it is written Sarepta ; it now 
goes by the name of Surafend, and is only a 
tel, or hill, with a small village on it, at the 
distance of seven or eight miles from Sidon, 
and near the Zaharaui River. The ancient 
town or village, however, appears to have 
stood on the shore, and not on this height ; 
as there the. ruins of a place of some size are 
found, and among them a chapel erected by 
the Crusaders on what was supposed to be 
the site of the widow's house with whom 
Elijah staid. The ruins comprise, besides 
broken columns, marble slabs, sarcophagi, 
and other relics of a flourishing and wealthy 
city. [1 Kings xvii., 9 ; Luke iv., 26.] 

Zarthan {tribulation), a place in the plain 
of the Jordan, between which and Succoth 
Solomon had cast brazen articles for the 
Temple. The corresponding passage in 2 
Chron. iv., 17, has Zeredathah. The word is 
the same, also, in the original with the Za- 
retan of the Authorized Version, in Josh, iii., 
16, near which the city of Adam is said to 
have been situated, beyond which the swell- 
ing of the Jordan rose. But these places 
and their names have alike vanished. It is 
plain, however, that Zarthan and Zereda- 
thah, as well as Zaretan, are so manj'^ varia- 
tions of the same name. [1 Kings vii., 46.] 

Zealots, a numerous party of fanatical 
Jews who, from religious prejudices, were 
opposed to the idea of paying taxes to the 



ZEBULUN 



ZECHAEIAH 



Eomans as being a foreign power, and cher- 
ish ed the vain hope of restoring the Jewish 
kingdom. The principles of the Zealots 
spread widely and rapidly, leading to ex- 
cesses which, in no small degree, contrib- 
uted to bring on the Roman invasion and 
the final destruction of Jerusalem. The 
apostle Simon was, according to Luke vi., 
15, and Acts i., 13, called Zelotes, i. e., he was, 
previous to his conversion, a Zealot, though 
this was before the fanatical violence of the 
party had reached its height. According to 
Josephus,^ the Judas mentioned in Acts v., 
37, was the founder of this sect ; but the fact 
that Simon is termed a Zealot — and there 
appears to be no doubt that such is the 
meaning of the appellation Zelotes — indi- 
cates that at least the germ of the party 
existed some time previous to the days of 
Judas. 

Zebulun (a habitation), the sixth son of 
Jacob by his wife Leah. Nothing is record- 
ed of Zebulun's personal history, save that 
he had three sons, heads of the families of 
the tribe. According to Jewish tradition, 
he was one of those whom Joseph presented 
to Pharaoh — Dan, Naphtali, Gad, and Ash- 
er being the others. The prophetic blessing 
of Jacob on Zebulun declared that he should 
dwell on the coast of the sea and the coast 
of shi^DS, his border extending unto Zidou ; 
and this, as . we shall see, was remarkably 
fulfilled in the location of the tribe of Zeb- 
ulun.^ 

This tribe multiplied fast. At the first 
census in the wilderness they numbered fif- 
ty-seven thousand four hundred; their po- 
sition in the encampment was to the east 
of the tabernacle, and on march they fol- 
lowed third under the standard of Judah. 
At the second census they had increased to 
sixty thousand five hundred. In the par- 
tition of the Holy Land among the tribes, 
Zebulun's lot was cast in the north-eastern 
districts of Palestine, between Asher and 
Naphtali on the north, and Issachar on the 
south. It is doubtful whether it touched 
the Lake of Gennesaret eastward, but in the 
west it must have reached to Carmel, Ki- 
shon, and, if not to the Mediterranean, at 
least to the Phoenician territory denomi- 
nated Zidon, from the mother - city. The 
frontier line is described in Josh, xix., 10- 
16 ; but several of the cities there enumer- 
ated have not been identified.^ Within the 
borders of this tribe lay Gittah - hepher, or 
Gath-hepher, the birthplace of Jonah, and 
also certain towns most noted in oar Sav- 
iour's history, such as Nazareth and Cana. 

The people of Zebulun, like many of their 
brethren, were slow to possess themselves 
of the whole of their inheritance. Situated 



1 Antiq. xviii.. ch. i., §§ 1, C— 2 Gen. xxx., 19, 20; 
xlv.,14; xlvii.,2; xlix.,13; Numb, xxvi., 26.— 3 Nnmb. 
i., 30, 31 ; ii., 5, 6 ; x., 14, 16 ; xxvi., 26, 2T ; Deut. xxxiii,, 
IS, 19 ; Matt, iv., 13. 



so far from the centre of government, they 
kept aloof, alike with Asher, Issachar, and 
Naphtali, from the great historical move- 
ments of Israel. We find them, indeed, join- 
ed with Naphtali under Barak; and their 
prowess is celebrated in the song of Debo- 
rah; and at a later period a large number 
of them, evidently experienced warriors — 
fifty thousand — joined David at Hebron.^ 
But with these exceptions, the tribe was 
content with dwelling "at the 'shore' of 
the sea." It extensively engaged in com- 
mercial enterprises, venturing on distant 
sea- trade, and greatly enlarging its reve- 
nues and connections. The chief articles 
of its commerce seem to have been the cost- 
ly X)urple dyes prepared from the juice of 
the shell- fish. Thus Zebulun sucked "of 
the abundance of the seas." He sucked 
also "of treasures hid in the sand," i. e., 
glass, which was made from the sands of 
the river Belus, and to the manufacture 
and exportation of which they may have 
applied themselves. Their maritime expe- 
ditions compelled them, further, to study the 
arts and sciences indispensable for success- 
ful navigation. They thus at an early pe- 
riod acquired the reputation of literary ac- 
complishment ; and the poet sang of them, 
"From Zebulun are the men who handle 
the pen of the scribe."^ Besides the prophet 
Jonah, Zebulun gave birth to one, most prob- 
ably two, eminent men. Elon the Zebulun- 
ite was an Israelite judge ; and Ibzan, who 
preceded him, was in all likelihood a native 
of the Zebulunite Bethlehem. The proxim- 
ity of Zebulun to the idolatrous Phoenicians 
doubtless contributed to introduce into Is- 
rael the worship of the gods of the Zidoni- 
ans. Retribution, however, overtook them ; 
the northern tribes were first carried away 
captive into Assyria, and, though some of 
Zebulun humbled themselves and repaired 
to Jerusalem to keep the Passover under 
Hezekiah, yet ere long the Eastern conquer- 
or again appeared, and the land lay desolate. 
But God will not always afflict his people. 
Through Zebulun the footsteps of the Sav- 
iour trod ; and the prophecy of Isaiah was 
fulfilled in the bright shining of Gospel light 
upon those pleasant hills and fruitful val- 
leys. [ Judg. 8-12 ; 2 Kings xv., 29 ; 2 Chron. 
XXX., 11 ; Isa. ix., 1, 2 ; Matt, iv., 15, 16.] 

Zechariah (Jehovah remembei^ed) was of a 
sacerdotal family. His father, Berechiah, 
was a son of Iddo, one of the priests who re- 
turned with Zerubbabel and Joshua from 
Babylon.^ He must have been born in Bab- 
ylonia, and have been young at the time of 
his arrival in Judea. He was contemporary 
with Haggai, and, like him, received his pro- 
phetic commission in the second year of Da- 
rius Hystaspes, B.C. 520. Both prophets were 



1 Jndsr. i., 30; iv., 6, 10 ; v., 18; 1 Chron. xiL, 33.— 
2 Gen. xlix., 13 ; Deut. xxxiii., 19 ; Judg. v., 14.— 3 Neh. 
xii. , 4. 



ZECHAEIAH 



986 



ZEDEKIAH 



employed in encouraging Zerubbabel and 
Joshua to carry forward the building of the 
Temple. 

The most remarkable portion of his book 
is that contained in the first sis chapters. 
It consists of a series of visions which were 
vouchsafed to the prophet in a single night, 
in which the disxDensations of Divine Provi- 
dence relative to the nations that had op- 
pressed the Jews, the entire removal of idol- 
atry from the latter, the re-establishment of 
the city and Temple of Jerusalem, and the 
certaiuty of the Messiah's advent, were strik- 
ingly and impressively revealed. The sev- 
enth and eighth chapters contain an answer 
to a question which had been proposed re- 
specting the observance of a certain fast. 
The remaining six chapters contain predic- 
tions respecting the expedition of Alexander 
the Great along the coast of Palestine to 
Egypt; the divine protection of the Jews 
both at that time and in that of the Macca- 
bees ; the advent, sufferings, and reign of the 
Messiah ; the destruction of the Jews, and 
dissolution of the Jewish polity ; the suffer- 
ings of the Jews during their dispersion; 
their conversion and restoration, and the sa- 
cred character of their future worship, in 
which the Gentiles should join. 

The authenticity of this last portion has 
been contested. Not only has it been de- 
nied to be the production of Zechariah, but 
it has been broken up into fragments, and 
attributed to various anonymous authors. It 
is thought, from there being no reference in 
these last six chapters to the completion of 
the Temple, and the restoration of Jewish 
affairs after the Captivity, that they must 
have been written previously, or long after 
these events had become matters of public 
history. That they were written before is 
the position maintained by most of those 
who dispute their authenticity; but it is 
based upon too feeble and precarious a foun- 
dation to recommend it to the adoption of 
any impartial inquirer. No hint is drox3j)ed 
which would lead us to infer the existence 
of a separate political or religious establish- 
ment in northern Palestine, nor any thing to 
induce the conclusion that a king reigned in 
Judah. On the contrary, the general tenor 
of the book, and its minute description of 
the character of the Jewish rulers and the 
condition of the Jewish people in immediate 
connection with the sufferings of the Mes- 
siah, the destruction of Jerusalem, and the 
consequent fate of the people, goes convin- 
ciugiy to show that the Captivity must have 
taken place, and that the whole of the last 
six cha]Dters has respect to times future to 
those in which the prophet flourished. As 
to differences in style between the first and 
last portions, though they are considerable, 
they have been greatly exaggerated by ra- 
tionalizing critics. The fact that the refer- 
ence to Christ's betrayal in chap, xi., 12, 13, is 



attributed by Matthew to Jeremiah,' has con- 
firmed in some minds the opinion that this 
portion of the book belonged to an earlier 
date, and was transferred by some tran- 
scriber from the writings of Jeremiah. Sev- 
eral hypotheses have been suggested to ac- 
count for the fact, which is a perplexing 
one ; as that Matthew quoted from memory 
and inaccurately ; that there was a similar 
passage in some book of Jeremiah now lost ; 
that Matthew quoted from the book of the 
prophets by referring to the one who, in the 
ancient Jewish order, was placed first among 
the prophetical books, and that his quota- 
tion is therefore to be read as if it were 
''that which is written in the book of the 
prophets;" or that Jeremiah was substi- 
tuted for Zechariah by some ancient tran- 
scriber, a change which might occur the 
more easily, since in the original the change 
of a single letter would suffice to produce 
the error. If this were the case, the error 
must have crept into the copy at a very ear- 
ly date, since nearly all the manuscripts and 
versions read Jeremiah. 

In point of style Zechariah varies, accord- 
ing to the nature of his subjects, and the 
manner in which they were presented to his 
mind. He now expresses himself in simple 
conversational prose, now in poetry. At one 
time he abounds in the language of symbols ; 
at another in that of direct prophetical an- 
nouncement. His symbols are, for the most 
part, enigmatical, and require the explana- 
tions that accomxDany them. His prose re- 
sembles most that of Ezekiel ; it is diffuse, 
uniform, and repetitious. His prophetic po- 
etry possesses much of the elevation found 
in the earlier prophets, only his rhythm is 
sometimes harsh and unequal, w^hile his par- 
allelisms are destitute of that symmetry and 
finish which form some of the principal beau- 
ties of Hebrew poetry. 

Zechariah is not to be confounded with 
the Zecharias who was slain in the reign of 
Joash, though the reference to him in Matt, 
xxiii., 35, as the son of Barachias has led 
to some confusion between the two. See 
Zacharias. 

Zedekiali (righteousness of Jelwvah), son 
of Josiah, and twentieth and last king of 
Judah, reigned eleven years, B.C. 599-588. 
His original name was Mattaniah, and was 
changed to Zedekiah by Nebuchadnezzar, 
who placed him on the throne in room of his 
uncle, Jehoiachin^ (q. v. ), who had been taken 
captive to Babylon. Zedekiah was but twen- 
ty-one years old when as a vassal king he 
was left as ruler over the enfeebled remnant 
of Judah. In defiance of a solemn oath he 
had made to Nebuchadnezzar (q. v.), he re- 
belled against him, and put himself at the 



1 Matt. xxviL, 7-10.— 2 He is spoken of as the brother 
of Jehoiachiu in 2 Chron. xxxvi., 10 : but the word is 
evidently used in a general way for relative. Compare 
1 Chron. iii., 15, and Jer. xxxvii., 1. 



ZEDEKIAH 



987 



ZEPHANIAH 



head of a league of the neighboring kings 
against the Chaldean power. This viola- 
tion of his oath, which occurred, according 
to Josephus, in the eighth year of his reign, 
was the crowning sin of the weak king of 
degenerate Judah/ Nebuchadnezzar imme- 
diately invaded the land. The succor af- 
forded by Pharaoh proved, as Jeremiah had 
declared it should, brief and ineffectual.^ 
The prophet himself, fleeing from the doom- 
ed city, was arrested as a deserter to the 
Chaldeans, and cast into prison.^ In one 
year from Zedekiah's rebellion the Chalde- 
ans were in force before the walls of Jerusa- 
lem.^ The siege progressed slowly to the con- 
summation foretold by the prophet. Eound 
the walls were reared the gigantic mounds 
by which the Oriental armies conducted 
their approaches to besieged cities.^ The 
summer-houses of the kings of Judah were 
swept away.^ The vassal kings of Babylon 
planted their thrones before the city gates.' 
Famine and pestilence ravaged the crowd- 
ed population within the walls. The store 
of bread was exhausted.^ Jeremiah, the im- 
prisoned prophet, was fed out of the royal 
store by the king's command; but this was 
ere long exhausted, and he came near per- 
ishing with hun ger.^ The wealthy women of 
Jerusalem in their despair were to be seen sit- 
ting on the dunghills." The cry of the chil- 
dren for bread was terrible; the hardened feel- 
ing of parents whom hunger had brutalized 
was yet more so.^^ At length, after eighteen 
dreadful months, at midnight, on the ninth 
day of July, the breach was made in the 
walls. By that time famine had so exhaust- 
ed the inhabitants that there was no fur- 
ther power of resistance.^^ The entrance was 
effected by the northern gate.^^ Through the 
darkness of the night the Chaldean guards 
silently made their way from street to street, 
till they suddenly appeared in the centre of 
the Temple court. A clang and cry resound- 
ed through the silent precincts at that dead 
hour of night. Then the sleeping city awoke. 
The first victims were those who were the 
habitual occupants of the sacred buildings 
and those who had resorted thither for safe- 
ty. The vii-gin marble of the courts ran red 
with blood, like a rocky wine-press in the 
vintage.^* The alarm soon spread to the pal- 
ace, and before the sun had risen the king, 
with his wives and children and royal guard, 
escaped from the city.^^ In the plains of 
Jericho he was overtaken by the Chaldean 
soldiers, and there was fought the last fight 
of the expiring monarchy. Zedekiah's troops 
fled, and were scattered to the winds.^" He 



1 2 Chron. xxxvi., 13.— 2 Jer. xxxvii., 5-10 ; Ezek. 
xvii., 12-18; xxi., 25-27.-3 Jer. xxxvii., 11-21. See 
Jeremiah. — * Jer. lii., 4.-5 Jer. xxxii., 24; lii., 4; 
Ezek. iv., 2.-8 Jer. xxxiii., 4.—'^ Jer. i., 15.— ^ Jer. 
lii., 6; Ezek. iv., IG; v., 16; xii., 19.-9 jgr. xxxvii., 
21; xxxviii., 9. — i" Lam, iv., 5; Ezek. iv., 12, 15.— 
" Lam. ii., 11, 12, 19, 20; iv., 3, 4, 10; Ezek. v., 10, 11. 
— ^2 Jer, xxxviii., 9. — 13 Ezek. ix., 2.— 1* Lam. i., 15.— 
^5 Jer. xxxix., 4.— is Jer. i. ; ii., 8; Ezek. xii., 14. 



and his family were brought to Nebuchadnez- 
zar, who, with a refinement of cruelty charac- 
teristic of those times, ordered his sons to be 
executed before his sight, and his own eyes 
to be put out.^ He was then bound in chains 
and carried to Babylon, after which time 
nothing is known with certainty concern- 
ing him. Jeremiah foretold that he should 
die in peace and receive the honors of a royal 
burial f but history gives no account of the 
fulfillment of this prediction. Meanwhile 
the city of Jerusalem was given up to pillage 
and destruction. The Temple, the palaces, 
the houses of the nobles, were set on fire. The 
sepulchres, even the consecrated tombs of the 
kings, were opened, and the bodies thrown 
out to the vultures and beasts of prey.^ The 
spoils of the Temple were swept away to 
adorn the temples of the Babylonian court. 
The havoc and carnage in the streets was 
such that passers-by avoided every one they 
met, lest they should be defiled by their 
bloody touch.^ Old and young, men and 
women, alike fell victims to the passion or 
the cruelty of the conqueror.^ Nor did the 
work of destruction cease till the shout of 
the heathen spoilers, " Ease it, rase it, even 
to the foundation thereof,'"' was literally ac-' 
complished. So perished the city of David. 
"How doth the city sit solitary that was 
full of people ! how is she become as a wid- 
ow ! she that was great among the nations, 
and princess among the provinces, how is 
she become tributary r'' [2 Kings xxiv., 
17-20; XXV., 1-8; 2 Chron. xxxiv., 11-21; 
Jer. xxi., 1-11; xxiv., 8-10; xxvii., 12-22; 
xxxii., 1-5 ; xxxiv., 2-8 ; xxxvii., 1-6, 16-21 ; 
xxxviii., 5, 14-27.] 

Zemarites, a tribe mentioned among the 
descendants of Canaan, and doubtless form- 
ing part of the population by which the 
land was anciently occupied. They appear 
in Gen. x., 18, and 1 Chron. i., 16, between 
the Arvadite and the Haraatliite. These 
other two tribes are known to have settled 
far north, but of the Zemarites nothing is 
known, unless we have traces of them in 
the town and mount of Zemaraim,^ the site 
of which is uncertain. 

Zephaniah (whom Jehovah has concealed). 
All that is known of this prophet is furnish- 
ed by the title to his book, in which it is 
stated that he was the son of Cushi, grand- 
son of Gedaliah, great-grandson of Amariah, 
and great-great-grandson of Hizkiah." As 
in no other instance do we find the pedigree 
of a prophet carried back so far, it has been 
inferred that he belonged to a family of con- 
siderable note. Whether the Hezekiah men- 
tioned refers to the king of that name or to 
some other person, can not be determined 
with certainty. As Zephaniah is stated to 



1 2 Kings XXV., 7; Jer. i. ; ii., 10, 11.— 2 Jer. xxxiv,, 
4, 5.-3 Jer. viii., 1, 2.-4 Lam. iv., 14, 15.— s 2 Chron. 
xxxvi., 17.—® Psa. cxxxvii., 7. — "^ Lam. i., 1.—^ 2 Chron. 
xiii., 4.-9 Zeph. i., 1. 



ZERAH 



ZIKLAG 



have received liis prophecies in the days of 
Josiah/ he must have flourished about B.C. 
642-611. This statement is corroborated by 
certain circumstances in his book which ex- 
actly agree with the state of things in Ju- 
dah from the twelfth to the eighteenth year 
of Josiah. 

The predictions contained in the book are 
chiefly directed against the Jews on account 
of their idolatry, and other sins of which they 
were guilty. The fearful judgments to be 
executed upon them and the neighboring na- 
tions by the Chaldeans are denounced with 
great force and eflect. Toward the close of 
the book the restoration and prosperity of 
the Jewish people are introduced. In re- 
spect to style, Zephaniah is not distinguish- 
ed either for sublimity or elegance. His 
rhythm frequently sinks down into a kind 
of prose, but many of the censures that have 
been passed upon his language are either 
without foundation or much exaggerated. 
In point of purity it rivals that of any of 
the prophets. 

Zerah {a rising, as of light), an Ethiopian 
king or general, probably Usarken I., second 
king of the Egyptian twenty-second dynas- 
*ty, who invaded Judea during the reign of 
Asa, and was defeated at the battle of Mare- 
shah. See Asa ; Mareshah. 

Zereda, the place to which Jeroboam be- 
longed: he is described as an "Ephrathite 
of the Zereda." No further explanation is 
given of it, and the place is never mention- 
ed again. The Septuagint, in the long in- 
sertion they have here, represent it as a 
strongly fortified place in Mount Ephraim, 
where Jeroboam first set up his kingdoni, 
and occasionally substitute Tirzah for it. 
But as the passage is found only in the Sep- 
tuagint, it is uncertain what value should 
be attached to the things related. The lo- 
cality of Zereda is nnkuown. [1 Kings xi., 
26.] 

Zerubbabel, an eminent descendant of the 
royal line- of David, born, as his name indi- 
cates, in Babylon during the captivity. He 
is generally called in Scripture the son of 
Salathiel, or Shealtiel f but in 1 Chron. iii., 
17-19, he is said to be the son of Pedaiah, 
the brother or son of Salathiel. Perhaps, 
according to a common usage of the word 
" son," he was Salathiel's grandson, or reck- 
oned as his son by virtue of the levirate 
law, though really his nephew. Zerubba- 
bel, termed in Persian Sheshbazzar, was the 
leader of the Jews who returned from cap- 
tivity under the decree of Cyrus.^ In con- 
junction with the high - priest, Joshua, he 
erected an altar, and began to rebuild the 
Temple. The mixed people that inhabited 
Samaria desired to associate themselves with 
the Jews, but Zerubbabel refused their ad- 
vances ; on which, by their intrigues at the 



1 Zeph. i., 1.— 2 Hag. i., 1 ; Matt, i., 12 3 Ezra i. 

11; ii.,2; v., 14, 16; Neh.vii.,T; xii.,1. 



Persian court, the work was suspended. Ze- 
rubbabel does not appear quite blameless for 
this long delay, since the difficulties in the 
way were not such as need have stopped the 
work; and during this long suspension of 
sixteen years he and the rest of the people 
had been busy in building costly houses for 
themselves. Ultimately, in the reign of Da- 
rius Hystaspes, renewed permission was ob- 
tained for building ; and, encouraged by the 
prophets Haggai and Zechariah, Zerubbabel 
resumed his labors, and completed the holy 
house.^ The only other works of Zerubba- 
bel, of which we learn from Scripture, are 
the restoration of the courses of priests and 
Levites, and the provision for their mainte- 
nance, according to the institution of David; 
the registering of the returned captives ac- 
cording to their genealogies ; and the keeping 
of a Passover in the seventh year of Darius. 
He appears to have been provincial govern- 
or under the Persian rule, and to have typ- 
ically represented his divine descendant.^ 

Nothing further is related of Zerubbabel 
in Scripture ; the story of him in the Apoc- 
ryphal book of Esdras is undeserving of 
credit. He is called Zerobabel in the N. T. 
[Matt, i., 12, 13 ; Luke iii., 27.] 

Zeruiah, the sister of David, and the moth- 
er of three leadiug heroes of his army, Abish- 
ai, Joab, and Asahel. Her husband's name is 
not given. Josephus mentions him by the 
name of Souri, but his reference is not con- 
firmed either by Scripture or Jewish tradi- 
tion. See Nahash. [2 Sam. ii., 18 ; iii., 39 ; 
viii., 16 ; xvi., 10 ; 1 Chron. ii., 16 ; xviii., 15.] 

Ziklag, a place which possesses special 
interest from its having been the residence 
and the private property of David. It is 
first mentioned in the catalogue of the towns 
of Judah in Josh, xv., where it is enumerated 
among those of the extreme south. It next 
occurs, in the same connection, among the 
places which were allotted out of the terri- 
tory of Judah to Simeon. We next meet 
with it in the possession of the Philistines, 
when it was, at David's request, bestowed 
upon him by Achish of Gath. He resided 
there for a year and four mouths. It was 
there he received the news of Saul's death. 
He then relinquished it for Hebron. Ziklag 
is finally mentioned, in company with Beer- 
sheba, Hazar-shual, and other towns of the 
south, as being re-inhabited by the people of 
Judah after their return from ihe Captivity. 
The situation of the town is difficult to de- 
termine, notwithstanding so many notices. 
The hypothesis that there were two places 
of this name is not generally accepted, nor 
have any eflbrts at its identification with 
modern sites been fully successful. We can 
only say that it was somewhere in the south 
country, and on or in the neighborhood of 



1 Ezra iii., 2/8; iv., 2, 3; v., 2; Hag. i., 12, 14; ii. 
2, 4 ; Zech. iv., 0, 10.— 2 Ezra vL, 14 ; Neh. vii., 5 ; xii., 
4T ; Hag. ii., 20-23. 



ZIMRI 



ZOAN 



the "boundary between Pliilistia and Judah. 
[ Josli. xix., 5 ; 1 Sam. xxvii., 6, 7 ; xxx., 14, 
26 ; 2 Sam. i., 1 ; iv., 10 ; 1 Chron. xii., 1, 20 ; 
Nell, xi., 28.] 

Zimri {celebrated). 1. Fifth king of Is- 
rael, B.C. 929. He appears to have been left 
in command of the palace at Tirzah during 
the absence of the army at the siege of Gib- 
bethan (q. v.). He there conspired against 
king Elah, slew him with all his father's 
family, and proclaimed himself king. The 
absent army, hearing of the murder, pro- 
claimed Omri king, who marched at once 
against Tirzah and took it. Zimri retreated 
into the palace, set it on fire, and perished 
in the flames. His reign lasted seven days. 
See Elah ; Omri. [1 Kings xvi., 8-20.] 

2. The " kings of Zimri," mentioned in Jer. 
XXV., 25, are thought to be chieftains of an 
Eastern tribe, and are possibly descended 
from the Zimran mentioned in Gen. xxv., 
2; 1 Chron. i., 32. 

Zin, a desert on the south of Palestine, 
and westward from Idumea, in which was sit- 
uated Kadesh-barnea. Its locality is there- 
fore fixed by the considerations which fix 
the site of Kadesh in the western jjart of 
the Arabah, south of the Dead Sea. See 
Kadesh. [Numb. xiii., 21 ; xx., 1 ; xxvii., 14 ; 
xxxiii.,36; xxxiv., 3; Josh, xv.,1.] 

Zion (Mount), one of the hills on which 
Jerusalem is built. Until very lately it was 
agreed by all scholars tliat Mount Zion was 
not the hill on which the Temple was erect- 
ed, which was the Mount Moriah of the Bi- 
ble, but the opposite eminence, the south- 
western promontory. Some recent writers 
have endeavored to shake this conclusion. 
Mr. Fergusson regards the south-eastern or 
Temple hill as the Mount Zion of the Bible; 
while Captain Warren has j)ropounded the 
theory that it was the northern hill, now 
known as Akra. Without entering into the 
discussion here, it is enough for us to say 
that we think the general and better opin- 
ion remains unshaken, and that Mount Zion 
is to be regarded as the south-western spur 
on the opposite side of the Tyropoeon Valley 
from Mount Moriah and the Temple. See 
Jerusalem (Topography of), p. 493, note. 

Ziph (hloiving). 1. A town in the south 
country of Judah. It has been conjectured 
that the name may still be found in the 
modern Sufdh. In this case the site should 
be sought near the top of the ascent Akrab- 
bim. [Josh. XV., 24.] 

2. A town in the hill country of Judah, 
chiefly memorable in O. T. history for the 
refuge sought by David, first in a wood, then 
in a wilderness in its neighborhood. The 
wood has long since disappeared ; but what 
seem to be the ruins of ancient Ziph still ex- 
ist on a small rising ground, a little to the 
east of a round eminence, rising to the height 
of one hundred feet or upward. The locali- 
ty was visited by Robinson, who says of the 



ruins, that " little is to be seen except bro- 
ken walls and foundations, most of them of 
unhewn stones, but indicating solidity, and 
covering a considerable tract of ground." 
Cisterns also remain ; and there is a low, 
massive, square building, of square stones, 
and vaulted with pointed arches, bespeak- 
ing a date subsequent to the Mohammedan 
conquest. It is supposed that the higher 
eminence, which still bears the name of Tell 
Ziph, was the acropolis, or fortified part of 
the town, probably that specially fortified 
by Rehoboam. This hill is about five Ro- 
man miles to the south of Hebron. [Josh. 
XV., 55; 2 Chron. xi., 8.] 

Zipporali (a little Urd), the daughter of 
the priest or prince of Midian, and wife of 
Moses. In connection with her occurs an 
incident narrated in Exod. iv., 24-26, the 
account of which, it must be confessed, is 
somewhat obscure. On Moses's way to 
Egypt to fulfill the commission with which 
God had intrusted him — the deliverance of 
Israel — it is said that the Lord met him and 
sought to kill him, whereupon Zipporah 
circumcised her son, exclaiming to her hus- 
band at the same time, ^' A bloody husband 
art thou to me." " So," continues the narra- 
tive, *' he let him go." The most probable 
interpretation is that God brought a danger- 
ous illness on Moses because, perhaps yield- 
ing to his wife's influence, he had failed to 
circumcise his son, who was thus not brought 
under the divine covenant. Unable, from 
his illness, to perform the rite, his wife her- 
self performed it, declaring, at the same 
time, that by this bloody rite she was anew 
attached to her husband, having thus, as it 
were, become herself an Israelite by accept- 
ing and fulfilling its covenant sign. Where- 
upon God let Moses go, i. e., he recovered. 
Zijiporah seems then to have returned to her 
father's home, whence she joined Moses in 
the wilderness after the Exodus. We hear 
nothing further of her. [Exod. ii., 21, 22 ; 
iv., 20, 24-26 ; xviii., 1-6.] 

Zoan (the meaning is uncertain), a very 
ancient town in Lower Egypt, situated on 
the east of the Tanitic branch of the Nile, 
and not far from its mouth. It is better 
known under the classical name of Tanis, 
which is only a variation of the Hebrew, or 
of the Coptic Jani, Jane, and the Arabic San. 
Its antiquity is incidentally noted in Numb, 
xiii., 22, where it is stated to have been built 
only seven years later than Hebron. That 
it was a place of great political importance 
is evident from the allusions to it in the 
prophets.^ The allusion also in Psa. Ixxviii., 
12, to the "field of Zoan," as the theatre on 
which the wonders wrought by the hand of 
Moses were displayed, renders it probable 
that about the time of the Exodus Pharaoh 
had his usual residence there. A whole dy- 
nasty of kings, the twenty - first, bears the 



Isa. xix., 11, 13 ; XXX., 4 ; Ezek. xxx., 14. 



ZOAR 



990 



ZOROASTEIAN EELIGION 



name of Tanite, and, dnring the usurpation 
of the shepherd race, it is said to have af- 
forded shelter to the royal house and nobili- 
ty of Memphis. It is now the habitation of 
a few fishermen, and much exposed to the 
attacks of fever from the marshy nature of 
the ground in the vicinity. There is scarce- 
ly a village to be seen in the whole plain, and 
the land is for the most part lying desolate. 

Zoar (smallness), a town in the neighbor- 
hood of the Dead Sea. It originally bore 
the name of Bela, but apparently got the 
name of Zoar, on account of the pleading of 
Lot that the place, from its very littleness, 
might be spared to him in the day of his ca- 
lamity, and that he might be allowed to find 
a refuge in it. Its exact site has been a 
matter of controversy ; and the evidence is 
somewhat conflicting. This much appears 
clear, that it was east of the Jordan, for it is 
classed among the cities of Moab, and some- 
what farther from the original lake than 
Sodom toward the mountainous region. 
[Gen. xiv., 2, 8 ; xix., 20-22 ; Isa. xv., 5 ; Jer. 
xlviii., 34.] 

Zoba, Zobah (station), a part of Syria 
which formed a separate kingdom in the 
earlier days of the Hebrew monarchy. Its 
kings are represented as making war suc- 
cessively on Saul and David. The region is 
nowhere well defined ; but it seems to have 
adjoined the territory of Damascus, and to 
have stretched toward the Euphrates ; there- 
fore probably somewhat to the east of what 
was afterward called Ccele-Syria. In the 
times of Saul and David this little kingdom 
must have existed in considerable strength 
to be able to bring such forces into the field 
as it appears to have done ; but it sustain- 
ed a heavy blow from David, from which it 
would seem to have never more than par- 
tially recovered. Zobah, however, though 
subdued, continued to cause trouble to the 
Jewish kings. A man of Zobah, Rezon, son 
of Eliadah, made himself master of Damas- 
cus, where he proved a fierce adversary to 
Israel all through the reign of Solomon. 
This is the last that we hear of Zobah in 
Scripture. The name, however, is found at 
a later date in the inscriptions of Assyria. 
[1 Sam. xiv., 47; 2 Sam. viii., 3; x., 6; 1 
Kings xi., 23-25 ; 2 Chron. viii., 3.] 

Zophini (sjnes), Field of, an elevated pla- 
teau on Pisgah,to whichBalaam was conduct- 
ed by Balak, that he might more distinctly 
see the encampments of Israel. It was prob- 
ably a tract of table-land on the Abarim or 
Nebo range of mountains in Moab ; and per- 
haj)s received its name from the fact that 
spies were stationed there in times of dis- 
turbance. The exact spot indicated by the 
name is quite unknown. 

Zorah, Zoreah (Iwrnefs nest), a town orig- 
inally belonging to Judah, but subsequent- 
ly allotted to the tribe of Dan, probably on 
account of its suitableness as a border fort- 



ress; for it was situated near the summit 
of a " sharp point or tell, as steep and reg- 
ular almost as a volcanic cone." It is iden- 
tified Avith the modern Surah. It was the 
residence of Manoah,^ and the birthplace 
of his distinguished son Samson, the future 
judge of Israel. His early familiarity with 
the stirring incidents of a frontier outpost 
would serve as a fitting introduction to his 
subsequent career. An additional signifi- 
cance is imparted to the divine injunction 
communicated to the mother of Samson, that 
neither she nor her son should " drink wine 
or strong drink," nor even " eat any thing 
that Cometh of the vine," from the fact that 
the neighborhood of Zorah was one of the 
principal vine-producing districts of Pales- 
tine. The mention of the "seven green 
withes" with which Samson was bound, 
probably made of vine tendrils, is also ex- 
ceedingly appropriate in connection with 
Zorah, and is one of those minnte touches 
of truthfulness which so remarkably distin- 
guish the Bible. Zorah was subsequently 
fortified by Rehoboam, and inhabited after 
the Captivity, when it was called Zoreah. 
[Josh. XV., 33 ; xix., 41 ; Judg. xiii., 2, 25 ; 
xvi., 31; xviii., 2-11; 2 Chron. xi., 10; Neh. 
xi.,29.] 

Zoroastrian Religion, the religion of an- 
cient Persia. It takes its name from its 
founder, Zoroaster, concerning whom, how- 
ever, absolutely nothing is known with cer- 
tainty. Niebuhr pronounces him a myth. 
The generally received opinion, however, re- 
gards him as a historical character, but the 
epoch of his life is variously placed at from 
the fifth century to the thirteenth or four- 
teenth century before Christ. Professor 
Whitney, of New Haven, places him at 1000 
B.C. ; Dr. Dollinger at 1300 B.C. ; while a 
comparatively modern Parsee work (1851) 
places him as late as the reign of Darius 
Hystaspes, in the sixth century before 
Christ. The general theology or philosophy 
of the Zoroastrian religion is contained in 
the Zendavesta, or Avesta, the sacred writ- 
ings of this ancient religion. Its essential 
principle is belief in the existence of two 
contending spirits, or influences, or forces, 
personified in Ormuzd and Ahriman:'^ the 
good and the evil, light and darkness, life 
and death. One makes life, the other de- 
stroys it, but only in this sphere ; in the here- 
after, Ahriman has no power over death. 
All duty is summed up in obedience to Or- 
muzd the Good, to whom alone allegiance 
and worship are due. There is a future life, 
in wliich the pure and holy will receive their 
reward, the wicked will undergo punish- 
ment. The ideas of the resurrection of the 
body, and the appearance of a Messiah su- 
pernaturally born, who shall restore the 
dead to life and hold the last judgment, . 
also appear in the Zendavesta. The Zo- 



1 Judcr. xiii., 2.-2 See Oemuzd. 



ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION 



991 



ZUZIMS 



roastrian religiou approaches the Christian 
iu that it regards all life as a battle between 
good and evil, waged by a communion, or 
army, of the good against all adherents of 
the bad. It differs from Christianity iu giv- 
ing much greater prominence to the spirit 
or power of evil, and in representing the bat- 
tle as one more equally poised ; Avhile, ac- 
cording to Christian theology, Satan him- 
self has no more power for evil than God 
permits him, for wise though inscrutable 
reasons, to exercise. The Zoroastrian relig- 
ion also contains important resemblances to 
Buddhism. Like that, it is a reformation, a 
revolt from the superstitions and errors of a 
more ancient religion ; but, unlike that, it 
recognizes in life a far deeper problem. It 
goes more to the root of things, and is a 
more truly spiritual religion. '' Zoroaster," 
says James Freeman Clarke,' "bases his law^ 
on the eternal distinction between right and 
wrong ; Sakya-muni on the natural laws 
and their consequences, either good or evil. 
. . . Zoroaster teaches providence, the monk 
of India teaches prudence ; Zoroaster aims 
at holiness, the Buddha at merit ; Zoroaster 
teaches and emphasizes creation, the Buddha 
knows nothing of creation, but only nature 
or law. . . . Zoroaster recognizes all morali- 
ty as having its root within, in the eternal 
distinction between right and wrong mo- 
tives, therefore in God ; but Sakya-muni finds 
it outside of the soul, in the results of good 
and evil action, therefore iu the nature of 
things. The method of salvation, therefore. 



'Ten Great Religious," p. 1S2. 



according to Zoroaster, is that of an eter- 
nal battle for good against evil ; but accord- 
ing to the Buddha, it is that of self-culture 
and virtuous activity." As a distinct relig- 
ion Zoroastrianism is now nearly extinct, 
though its influence still lingers in the Chris- 
tian world unrecognized. The popular con- 
ception of Satan is probably derived, through 
the Jews, quite as much from the religion of 
Zoroaster as direct from the Bible. Such a 
picture as that by Retysch, of the devil play- 
ing chess 'With the young man for his soul; 
such a picture as that by Guido, of the con- 
flict between Michael and Satan ; such poems 
as Milton's "Paradise Lost" and Goethe's 
" Faust," could perhaps never have appeared 
iu Christendom, had it not been for the influ- 
ence of the system of Zoroaster on Jewish, 
and, through Jewish, on Christian thought. 
Mohammedanism has nearly blotted it out 
of existence in the country of its birth. It 
remains iu the religious system of the Par- 
sees (q. v.), and in that of Galhrcs, supposed 
to be descendants of the original Zoroastri- 
ans, and numbering in all not over five or 
six thousand persons. 

Zuzims (sjyrouting, or restless), a tribe 
overcome by Chedor-laomer and his confed- 
erates. They were of the same class as the 
Rephaim (q. v.), an ancient people occupying 
the country between the Arnon and the Jab- 
bok, and were no doubt identical wdth the 
Zamzummim, a gigantic tribe occupying the 
same district, w^hom the Ammonites extir- 
pated in a later age. See Giants. [Gen. 
xiv.,5; Deut.ii.,20,21.] 



^ 



APPENDIX. 



THE GREAT PROPHECIES AND ALLUSIONS TO CHRIST IN THE 

OLD TESTAMENT, 

WHICH ARE EXPRESSLY CITED, EITHER AS PREDICTIONS FULFILLED IN HIM, OR APPLIED TO 

HIM IN THE NEW TESTAMENT. 

FROM HALES'S ANALYSIS OF SACRED CHRONOLOGY. 



• FIRST SERIES: 

DESOEIBING OHEIST IN HIS HTJMAN NATTTEE, AS THE PEOMISEP SEED OF THE WOMAN, IN THE GEAND OHAETEE OF 

OtTE EEDEIIPTION (GEN. 3. 15) ; AND HIS PEDIGEEE, SUFFEEINGS, AND 6L0ET, IN HIS SITOOESSIVE 

MANIFESTATIONS OF HIMSELF UNTIL THE END OF THE WOELD. 



I. The Seed of the Woman. — Ge. 
3.15. Gal. 4. 4. 1 Tim. 2. 15. Kev. 
12.5. 

II. BOEN OF A ViEGIN.— Ps. 22. 10 ; 

69. 8 ; 86. 16 ; 116. 16. Isa. 7. 14 ; 49. 
1. Mi. 5. 3. Je.31.22. Mat. 1.23. 
Lu. 1. 26-35. 

III. Of the Family of Shem.— Ge. 
9.26. 

IV. Of the Eaoe of the Hebeews. 
—Ex. 3. 18. Phi. .3. 5. 2 Cor. 11. 

22. 

V. Of the Seed of Abeaham. — Ge. 
12. 3 ; 18. 18 ; 22. 18. Mat. 1. 1. Juo. 
8. 56. Ac. 3. 25. 

"VT. Op the Line of Isaac — Ge. 17. 
19; 21.12; 26.4. Ro.9.7. Gal. 4. 
23-28. He. 11. 18. 

VII. Of Jacob ob Iseael.— Ge. 28. 

4-14. Ex. 4. 22. Nu. 24.7-17. Ps. 
135. 4, etc. Is. 41. 8 ; 49. 6. Je. 14. 
8. Lu.1.63; 2.30. Ac. 28. 20. 



VIII. Of the Teibe of Judah. — Ge. 
49. 10. 1 Ch. 5. 2. Mi. 5. 2. Mat. 
2. 6. He. 7. 14. Re. 5. 5. 

IX. Of the House of David. — 2 Sa. 
7.12-15. 1 Ch. 17. 11-14. Ps.89.4- 
36 ; 132. 10-17. 2 Ch. 6. 42. Is. 9. 7 ; 
11. 1 ; 55. 3, 4. Je. 23. 5, 6. Am. 9. 
11. Mat. 1.1. Lu.1.69; 2.4. Jno. 
7.42. Ac. 2. 30; 13.23. Ro.1.3. 
2Ti,2.8. Re. 22. 16. 

X. BoEN AT Bethlehem, the City 
OF David. — Mi. 5. 2. Mat. 2. 6. 
Lu.2.4. Jno. 7. 42. 

XI. His Passion oe Suffeeings.— 
Ge. 3. 15. Ps. 22. 1-18 ; 31. 13 ; 89. 
38-45. Is. 53.1-12. Da. 9. 26. Zee. 
13. 6, 7. Mat. 26. 31. Lu. 24. 26, 
Jno. 1.29. Ac. 8. 32-35; 26.23. 

XII. His Death on the Ceoss.— Nu. 
21.9. Ps. 16. 10 ; 22. 16 ; 31. 22 ; 49. 
15. Is. 53. 8, 9. Da. 9.26. Jno. 3. 
14 ; 8. 28 ; 12. 32, 33. Mat. 20. 19 ; 
26. 2. 1 Co. 15. 3. Col. 2. 15. Phi. 
2.8. 



XIII. His Intombment and Em- 
BALMENT.— Is. 53. 9. Mat. 26. 12. 
Mar. 14. 8. Jno. 12. 7 ; 19. 40. 1 
Co. 15. 4. 

XIV. His Resueeection on the 
Thied Day. — Ps. 16. 10; 17. 15; 
49.15; 73.24. Jon. 1.17. Mat. 12. 
40; 16.4; 27.63. Jno. 2. 19. Ac. 
2. 27-31 ; 13. 35. 1 Co. 15. 4. 

XV. His Ascension into Heaven. 
— Ps. 8. 5, 6; 47.5; 68.18; 110.1. 
Ac. 1. 11 ; 2. 33. Jno. 20. 17 ; Ep. 
4.8-10. He. 1.3; 2.9. Re. 12. 5. 

XVI. His Second Appeaeanoe at 
the Regeneration. — Is. 40. 10 ; 
62.11. Je.23.5, 6. Ho. 3. 5. Mi. 
5.3. Ha. 2. 7. Da. 7. 13, 14. Mat. 
24. 3-30 ; 26. 64. Jno. 5. 25. He. 
9. 28. Re. 20. 4 ; 22. 20. 

XVII. His Last Appeaeancb at 
THE Ejsd of the Woeld. — Ps. 50. 
l-«. Job 19. 25-29. Ec. 12. 14. Da. 
12.2,3. Mat. 25.31-46. Jno.5.28-30. 
Ac. 17. 31; 24.25. Re. 20. 11-15, 



SECOND SERIES: 

DESOEIBING HIS CHAEACTEE AND OFFICES, HUMAN AND DIVINE. 



L The Son of God.— 2 Sa. 7. 14. 1 
Ch.17.13. Ps.2.7; 72.1. Pr. 30. 
4. Da. 3. 25. Mar. 1.1. Lu.1.35. 
Mat. 3. 17 ; 17. 5. Jno. 1. 34-50 ; 3. 
16-18; 20. 31. He. 1. 1-5. Ro.1.4. 
1 Jno. 4.14. Re. 1.5, 6. 

II. The Son op Man. — Ps. 8. 4, 5 ; 
Da. 7. 13. Jno. 1. 51 ; 3. 13 ; 5. 27. 
Mat. 16. 13 ; 26. 64. He. 2. 7. Re. 
1.13; 14.14. 

III. The Holy One, oe Saint.— De. 
33.8. Ps.16.10; 89.19. Is. 10. 17; 
29. 23 ; 49. 7. Ho. 11. 9. Hah. 1. 
12; 3.3. Mar. 1.24. Lu.1.35; 4. 
34. 1 Jno. 2. 20. 

IV. The Saint of Saints. — Dan. 9. 
24. 

V. The Just One, oe Righteous. — 
Zee. 9.9. Je.23.5. Is. 41. 2. Ps. 
34. 19, 21. Lu. 1. 17. Mat. 27. 19- 
24. Lu. 23. 47. Ac 3. 14 ; 7. 52 ; 
22. 14. 1 Juo. 2. 1, 29. Ja. 5. 6. 



VJ. The Wisdom of God. — Pr 
22-30. Mat. 11. 19. Lu. 11. 49. 
Co. 1. 24. 

63 



VII. The Oeacle (oe Woed) of the 
LoED, OE OF God. — Ge. 15. 1-4. 1 
Sa.3.1-21. 2Sa.7.4. lKi.17.8- 
24. Ps. 33.6. Is. 40. 8. Mi. 4. 2. 
Je. 25. 3. Jno. 1. 1-14 ; 3. 34. Lu. 
1.2. He. 11. 3; 4.12. 1 Pe. 1. 23. 
2Pe.3.5. Re. 19. 13. 

VIII. TheRedeemee, oeSavioue. — 
Job 19. 25-27. Ge. 48. 16. Ps. 19. 
14. Is. 41. 14 ; 44. 6 ; 47. 4 ; 59. 20 ; 
62.11; 63.1. Je.50.34. Mat. 1.21. 
Jno. 1.29; 4.42. Lu. 2. 11. Ac. 
5.3L Ro.11.26. Re. 5. 9. 

IX. The Lamb of God.— Ge. 22. 8. 
Is. 53. 7. Jno. 1.29. Ac. 8. 32-35. 
1 Pe. 1. 19. Re. 5. 6 ; 13. 8 ; 15. 3 ; 
21.22; 22.1. 

X. The Mediatoe, Inteecessoe, oe 
Advocate.— Job 33. 23. Is. 53. 12 ; 
59. 16. Lu. 23. 34. 1 Ti. 2. 5. He. 
9.15. 1 Jno. 2.1. Re. 5. 9. 

XL Shit.oh, the Apostle.— Ge. 49. 
10. Ex. 4. 13. Mat. 15. 24. Lu.4. 
18. Jno. 9. 7 ; 17. 3 ; 20. 21. He. 
3.1. 

XII. The Hi6h-Peie8t.— Ps. 110. 4. 
Is. .59. 16. He. 3.1; 4.14; 5.10; 
9.11. 



XIII. The Peophet like Moses. — 
Deu. 18. 15-19. Lu.24.19. Ma. 6. 
15. Jno. 1.17-21; 6.14. Ac. 3. 22, 
23. 

XIV. The Leader, oe Chief Cap- 
tain.— Jos. 5. 14. 1 Ch. 5. 2. Is. 
55.4. Mi. 5. 2. Da. 9. 25. Mat. 2. 
6. He. 2. 10. 

XV. The Messiah, Christ, King 
of Israel.- 1 Sa. 2. 10. 2Sa.7. 
12. lCh.17.11. Ps. 2.2; 45.1,6; 
72. 1 ; 89. 36. Is. 61. 1. Da. 9. 26. 
Mat. 2, 2-4; 16.16. Lu.23. 2. Jno. 
1. 41-49 ; 6. 69. Ac. 4. 26, 27 ; 10. 38. 

XVI. The God of Israel.— Ex. 24. 
10,11. Jos. 7. 19. Ju.11.23. ISa. 
5.11. ICh. 17. 24. Ps. 41.13. Is. 
45. 3. Eze. 8. 4. Mat. 15. 31 ; 22. 
32. Jno. 20. 28. 

XVII. The Lord of Hosts, oe the 
LoED.— 2 Sa. 7. 26. 1 Ch. 17. 24. 
Ps. 24. 10. Is. 6. 1-5. Mai. 1. 14. 
Ro. 12. 19. Phi. 2. 9-11. 

XVIII. King of Kings, and Loed of 
LoEDS.— Ps. 89. 27 ; 110. 1. Da. 7. 
13, 14. Mat. 28. 18. Jno. 3. 35 ; 13. 
3. 1 Co. 15. 25. Ep. 1. 20-22. Col. 
3. 1. Re. 19. 16. 



THE NAMES, TITLES, AND CHARACTERS 



SON OF GOD, JESUS CHRIST OUR LORD, 

IN THEIR VAEIETY, AS FOUND IN THE SCRIPTURES. 



They are they which testify of Me. 



The Headings are designed to direct the mind to various Aspects of the Person and Glories of the Lord. Examine 
each text ivith the context, in Proof that the Son of God is the Speaker, or the One spoken of. 



I. — And Simon Petee answeeed and said, Thott art 
THE Christ, the SON of the Living GOD.— Mat. 
16. 16. 

The Son 1 Juo. 4. 14. 

The Sou of God Juo. 1. 34. 

The Son of the living God Mat. 16. 16. 

His only begotten Sou Juo. 3. 16. 

The ouly begotten Sou of God Juo. 3. 18. 

The Son of the Father 2 Juo. 3. 

The ouly begotten of the Father Juo. 1. 14. 

The ouly begotten Son which is iu) -r,,^ i iq 

the bosom of the Father | Juo. l. is. 

The first-born of every creature Col. 1. 15. 

His own Son Ro. 8. 32. 

A Son given Is. 9. 6. 

Oue Sou (his well-beloved) Mar. 12. 6. 

My Sou Ps. 2. 7. 

His dear Son (or the Son of his love). . .Col. 1. 13. 

The Son of the Highest Lu. 1. 32. 

The Sou of the Blessed (Secret, Ju. 13.) t.,-„„ h . (.^ 

18.-Wonderful, Is. 9. 6) / ^^^^^- ^*' ''^• 



Testimony borne to the SON by the Father, by 
jEsrs Himself, by the Spirit, by Angels, Saints, 
Men, and Devils. 

My Beloved Son, Mat. IT. 5 God the Father. 

I am the Son of God, Juo. 10. 36 Jesus Himself. 

The son of God, Mar. 1.1 Hel^il'" 

The Son of God, Lu. 1. 35 ; Lu. 2. 11 ... . Gabriel. 

This is the Sou of God, Juo. 1. 34.*. John Baptist. 

The Christ, the Son of God, Juo. 20. 31. John, Apostle. 

He is the Son of God, Ac. 9. 20 Paul, Apostle. 

Thou art the Son of God, Mat. 14. 33. . . .Disciples. 
Rabbi, thou art the Son of God, Jno, 1.) jq-^thanael 

The Christ,' the Sou of God, Juo. ii, 27. .Martha. 
Jesus Christ is the Son of God, Ac. 8. 37.Euuuch. 
Traly this was the Son of God, Mar.) ceuturion. 
15. 39 j 

Thou art the Son of God, Mar. 3. 11 . . . {^^j^g^^^ ^P"'" 

Thon Son of the Most High God, Mar.) r^j^^ Leo-ion. 



II.— Unto the Son He saith. Thy Throne, O GOD, is 
EOR ever and ever. — He. 1. 8. 

God Jno. 1.1; Mat. 1.23; Is. 40. 3. 

Thy throne, O God, is for ever and ever.He. 1. 8. 

The Mighty God Is. 9. 6. 

The Everlasting God Is. 40. 28. 

The True God 1 Jno. 5. 20. 

My Lord and my God Juo. 20. 28. 

God my Saviour Lu. 1. 47. 

Over all, God blessed for ever. Amen. .Ro. 9. 5. 

The God of the whole earth Is. 54. 5. 

God manifest in the flesh 1 Ti. 3. 16. 

Our God and Saviour {marg.) 2 Pe. 1. 1. 

The Great God and our Saviour Jesus) m;* o iq 

Christ I iit.2.1d. 

Emmanuel, God with us Mat. 1. 23. 

The God of Abraham 
The God of Isaac... 
The God of Jacob . . . 
The Highest 



.Lu. 1. 76. 



As to the Antjel of the Lord who 
spake as the God of Abraham 
being the Son of God, comp. 
Ju. xiii. 18, 22 {marq.) with Is. 
Is., 6 ; also Da. iii. 25, 28. 



III. — ^Verily, Verily, I say tjnto you, Before Abra- 
ham WAS, I AM.— Jno. 8. 58. 

Holy, holy, holy is JEHOVAH of Hosts.— Is. 
6.3. 

Jehovah Is. 40. 3. 

The Lord Jehovah Is. 40.10. 

Jehovah my God Zee. 14. 5. 

Jehovah of Hosts Is. 6. 3; Juo. 12. 41. 

Jehovah God of Hosts Ho. 12. 4, 5; Gen. 32. 24. 

The King, Jehovah of Hosts Is. 6. 5. 

The Strong and Mighty Jehovah Ps. 24. 8. 

Jehovah, mighty iu battle Ps. 24. 8. 

The Man, Jehovah's Fellow Zee. 13. T. 

Jehovah-tsidkenu (the Lord our Right-) t„ oo a 

eousness j- d e. ^d. b. 

The Lord Ro. 10. 13 ; Joel 2, 32. 

The Lord of Glory 1 Cor. 2. 8. 

The Same He. 1. 12 ; Ps. 102. 27. 

I am Ex. 3. 14; Jno. 8. 24. 

I am (before Abraham was) Jno. 8. 58. 

I am (whom they sought to kill) Jno. 18. 5, 6. 

I am (the Son of Man lifted up) Jno. 8. 28. 

I am (the Resurrection and the Life) . . .Jno. 11. 25. 



IV. — HE IS before all things, and by HIM ALL 

THINGS CONSIST. — Col. 1. 7. 

The Almighty, which is, and which) -Dp i o 

was, and which is to come j 

The Creator of all things Col. 1. 16. 

The Upholder of all things He. 1. 3. 

The Everlasting Father (or -Father of) t„ q « 

Eternity) j- i^. ». o. 

The Beginning Col. 1. 18. 

The Beginning and the Ending Re. 1. 8. 

The Alpha and the Omega Re. 1. 8. 

The First and the Last Re. 1. 17. 

The Life 1 Jno. 1. 2. 

Eternal Life 1 Juo. 5. 20. 

That Eternal Life which was with the) -, t,-,^ i o 

Father ]■ 1 Jno. 1. 2. 

He that liveth Re. 1. 18. 



v.— The Name of the Lord is a Strong Tower. — 
Pr. IS. 10. 

The Strength of the Children of Israel. Joel 3. 12-16. 

A Strength to the Poor Is. 25. 4. 

A Sa-eugth to the Needy in distress Is. 25. 4. 

A Refuge from the Storm Is. 25. 4. 

A Covert from the Tempest Is. 32. 2. 

The Hope of His People, or Place of") 

Repair {marg.), or Harbor of His V Joel 3. 12-16. 

People {marq.) ) 

A Horn of Salvation Lu. 1. 69. 

VI.— Who was FAITHFUL to Him that appointed 
Him.— He. 3. 2. 

The Truth Jno. 14. 6. 

The Faithful and True Re. 19. 11. 

A Covenaut of the People Is. 42. 6. 

The Testator, or Covenantor He. 9. 16, 17. 

The Faithful Witness Re. 1. 5. 

The Faithful and True Witness Re. 3. 14. 

A Witness to the People Is. 54. 4. 

The Amen Re. 3. 14. 



NMIES AND TITLES OF THE SON OF GOD. 



995 



VII,— No Man hath seen God at any Time. HE uath 
DECLARED HIM.— Jno. 1. 18. 

The Word Jno. 1. 1. 

The Word was with God Juo. 1. 1. 

The Word was God Juo. 1. 1. 

The Word of God Re. 19. 13. 

The Word of Life 1 Jno. 1. 1. 

The Word was made flesh Jno. 1. 14. 

The Image of God 2 Cor. 4. 4. 

The Image of the Invisible God Col. 1. 15. 

The Express Image of his Person He. 1. 3. 

The Brightness of his Glory He. 1. 8. 

Wisdom Pr. 8. 12, 22. 

The Wisdom of God 1 Cor. 1. 24. 

The Power of God 1 Cor. 1. 24. 

My Messenger Is. 42. 19. 

The Messenser of the Covenant Mai. 3. 1. 

The Angel o'^f Jehovah Gen. 22. 15. 

The Angel of God Gen. 31. 11, 13 ; Ex. 14. 19. 

The Angel of his presence Is. 63. 9. 



VIII. — TUOTT HAST MADE HIM A LITTLE LOWEK THAN 

THE Angels.— He. 2. 7. 

The Man Juo. 19. 5. 

The Man Christ Jesus 1 Ti. 2. 5. 

A Man approved of God Ac. 2. 22. 

The Second Man, the Lord from Heaveu.l Cor. 15. 47. 

The Son of Man Mar. 10. 33. 

The Son of Abraham Mat. 1. 1. 

The Son of David Mat .1. 1. 

The Son of Mary Mar. 6. 3. 

The Son of Joseph (reputed) Jno. 1. 45. 

The Seed of the Woman Gen. 3. 15. 

The Seed of Abraham Ga. 3. 16, 19. 

Of the Seed of David Ro. 1. 3. 



IX.— Lo, I COME TO DO Tht will, O God.— He. 10. 9. 

The Babe Lu. 2. 12. 

The Child Is. 7. 16. 

The Young Child Mat. 2. 20. 

A Child Born Is. 9. 6. 

The Child Jesus Lu. 2. 43. 

Her First-born Son Lu. 2. 7. 

The Sent of the Father Jno. 10. 36. 

The Apostle , He. 3. 1. 

A Prophet Ac. 3. 22, 23. 

A Great Prophet Lu. 7. 16. 

The Prophet of Nazareth Mat. 21. 11. 

A Prophet mighty in deed and word . . .Lu. 24. 19. 

A Servant Phil. 2. 7. 

The Servant of the Father Mat. 12. 18. 

My Servant, O Israel Is. 49. 3. 

My Servant, the Branch Zee. 3. 8. 

My Righteous Servaut ; Is. 53. 11. 

A Servant of Rulers Is. 49. 7. 

A Nazarene, or Nazarite '. Mat. 2. 23. 

The Carpenter '. Mar. 6. 3. 

The Carpenter's Son (reputed) Mat. 13. 55. 

He huinbled Himself unto death. 

A Stranger and an Alien Ps. 69. 8. 

A Man of Sorrows Is. 53. 3. 

A Worm, and no Man Ps. 22. 6. 

Accursed of God (or the Curse of God) -n^ oi no 
-^marg.) ;► ue. Zl. 23. 



I 



X. — I WILL SET TTP ONE SHEPHERD over them, 
AND He shall feed them.— Ez. 34. 23. 

One Shepherd Jno. 10. 16. 

Jehovah's Shepherd Zee. 13. 7. 

The Shepherd of the Sheep He. 13. 20. 

The Way Jno. 14. 6. 

TheDocn- of the Sheep Jno. 10. 7. 

The Shepherd of Israel Ez. 34. 23. 

The Shepherd and Bishop of Souls 1 Pe. 2. 25. 

The Good Shepherd (that laid down) y,,^ m n 

His Life) / J"0- 10. 11. 

The Great Shepherd (that was broughtl xr i o on 

again from the dead) >■ ±ie. irf. /O. 

The Chief Shepherd (that shall againl ^ p ^ . 

appear) j ^ ^^' ^' *• 

XI.— He that is HOLY, He that is TRUE.— Re. 3. 7. 

The Just 1 Pe. 3. 18. 

The Just Oue Ac. 7. 52, 

Thine Holy One Ac. 2. 27. 

The Holy One and the Just Ac. 3. 14. 

The Holy One of Israel Is. 49. 7. 

The Holv One of God Mar. 1. 24. 

Holy, Holy, Holv Is. 6. 3 ; Jno. 12. 41. 



XII. — TiiKv DEANK OF that Sfikitual Rook that 

JOLLOWED THEM, AND THAT ROCK WAS CHRIST. 

—1 Cor. 10. 4. 

The Rock Mat. 16. 18, 

My Strong Rock Ps. 31. 2, 

The Rock of Ages (marg.) Is. 26. 4. 

The Rock that is higher than I Ps. 61. 2. 

My Rock and my Fortress Ps. 31. 3. 

The Rock of my Strength Ps. 62. 7. 

The Rock of my Refuge Ps. 94. 22. 

A Rock of Habitation (marg.) Ps. 71. 3. 

The Rock of my Heart {marg.) Ps. 73. 26. 

The Rock of my Salvation .." 2 Sa. 22. 47. 

My Rock and my Redeemer (marg.) Ps. 19. 14. 

That Spiritual Rock 1 Cor. 10. 4. 

The Rock that followed them 1 Cor. 10. 4. 

A Shadow from the Heat Is. 25. 4. 

XIII.— God HATH GIVEN Him a NAME avhich is above 

EVEKY NAME.— Phil. 2. 9, 10. 

Jesus Mat. 1. 21. 

Jesus Himself Lu. 24. 15. 

I, Jesus Re. 2-2. 16. 

A Saviour, Jesus Ac. 13. 28, 

The Saviour of the World 1 Jno. 4. 14. 

A Saviour, which is Christ th« Lord Lu. 2. 11. 

Jesus Christ Re. 1. 5. 

The Lord Jesus Christ Col. 1. 2. 

Our Lord Jesus Christ, Himself 2 Thes. 2. 16. 

Jesus the Christ Mat. 16. 20. 

Jesus Christ our Lord Ro. 5. 21, 

Jesus Christ, the Righteous 1 Jno. 2, 1. 

Jesus Christ, the same, yesterday, to-) tt^ io q 

day, and forever j- Me. irf. 8. 

Jesus of Nazareth Ac. 22. 8, 

Jesus Christ of Nazareth Ac. 4. 10, 

Lord Jesus Ac. 7. 69. 

Christ Jesus 1 TL 1. 15. 

Christ Mat. 23. 8. 

Messiah, which is called Christ Jno. 4. 25. 

Anointed Ps. 2. 2 ; Ac. 4. 26. 

Christ, the Lord Lu. 2. 11, 

The Lord Christ Col, 8. 24. 

The Christ of God Lu. 9. 20. 

The Lord's Christ Lu. 2. 26. 

The Christ, the Son of the Blessed Mar. 14. 61. 

The Christ, the Saviour of th« World . .Jno. 4. 42. 

XIV.— Worthy is the LAMB that was slain to ee- 
CEivR Power, Riohes, Wisdom, Strength, Honor, 
Glory, and Blessing.— Re. 5. 12. 

The Lamb of God Jno. 1. 29. 

A Lamb without blemish and without) i r.. -, -.r, 
spot j- i re. 1. ly. 

The Lamb that was Slain Re. 5. 12. 

A Lamb as it had been Slain Re. 5. 6. 

The Lamb in the midst of the Throne . .Re. 7. 17. 

The Bridegroom Mat. 9. 15 ; Re. 21. 9, 

The Lamb (the Temple of the City) ....Re. 21. 22, 

The Lamb (the Light of the City) Re. 21. 28. 

The Lamb (the Overcomer) Re. 17. 14. 

XV,— In His TEMPLE every WHIT of it tjttereth 
His Glory {marg.).—P6. 29. 9. 

The Temple t Re. 21. 22. 

A Sanctuary Is. 8. 14. 

The Minister of the Sanctuary and of) tt^,, q „ 

the True Tabernacle / ^^"- ^- ^• 

Minister of the Circumcision Ro. 15. S. 

The Veil (His Flesh) He. 10. 20. 

The Altar He. 18. 10. 

The Offerer He. 7. 27. 

The Oflering Ep. 5. 2. 

The Sacrifice Ep. 5. 2. 

A Ransom (His life) Mar. 10. 45. 

The Lamb Re. 7. 9. 

The Lamb Slain Re. 13. 8. 

Within the Veil, 
The Forernuuer (for us entered, even) xTa « on 

Jesus) I Me. b. 20. 

The Mercy-seat (or Propitiation) Ro. 3. 25. 

The Priest He. 5. 6. 

The High-Priest He. 8. 1. 

The Great High-Priest He. 4. 14. 

The Mediator 1 Ti. 2. 5, 

The Daysman Job 9. 38. 

The Interpreter Job 33. 23. 

The In tercessor He. 7. 25. 

The Advocate 1 Jno. 2.1. 

The Surety He, 7. 22. 



996 



NAMES AND TITLES OF THE SON OF GOD. 



XVI.— The TREE OF LIFE, in the midst of the 
Paeauisb of God. — Re. 2. 7. 

The Root of Jesse Is. 11. 10. 

The Root of David Re. 5. 5. 

The Root and Oflfspriug of David Re. 22. 16. 

A Rod out of the Stem of Jesse Is. 11. 1. 

A Branch out of his roots Re. 11. 1. 

The Branch Zee. 6. 12. 

The Branch of the Lord Is. 4. 2. 

The Branch of Righteousness Je. 33. 15. 

A Righteous Branch Je. 23. 5, 

The Branch strong for Thyself Ps. 80. 15. 

The Vine Jno. 15. 5. 

The True Vine Jno. 15. 1. 

The Tree of Life Re. 2. 7. 

The Corn of Wheat Jno. 12. 24. 

The Bread of God Jno. 6. 33. 

The True Bread from Heaven Jno. 6. 32. 

The Bread which came down from) j,,^ „ ,-, 

Heaven / '^^^' ^- ^^^ 

The Bread which cometh down from ) jr,^ r k(\ 

Heaven ^Jno.6.50. 

The Bread of Life Jno. 6. 35. 

The Living Bread Jno. 6. 51. 

The Hidden Manna Re. 2. 17. 

A Plant of Renown Ez. 34. 29. 

The Rose of Sharon Ca. 2, 1. 

The Lily of the Valleys Ca. 2. 1. 

A Bundle of Myrrh Ca. 1. 13. 

A Cluster of Camphire Ca. 1. 14, 



XVII. — I AM the LIGHT OF the world : he that fol- 
LovvETH Me shall have the Light of Life. — Jno. 
8.12. 

The Light Jno. 12. 35. 

The True Light Jno. 1. 9. 

A Great Light Is. 9. 2. 

A Light come into the World Jno. 12. 46. 

The Light of the World Jno. 8. 12. 

The Light of Men Jno. 1. 4, 

A Light to lighten the Gentiles Lu. 2. 32. 

A Light of the Gentiles Is. 42. 6. 

A Star Nu. 24. 17. 

The Morning Star Re. 2. 28. 

The Bright and Morning Star Re. 22. 16. 

The Day Star 2 Pe. 1. 19. 

The Dayspring from on High Lu. 1. 78. 

The Sun of Righteousness Mai. 4. 2. 



XVIIL— GiKD thy SWORD upon thy thigh, O Most 
Mighty, with thy Gloey and thy Majesty.— Ps. 
45. 3. 

The Captain of the Host of the Lord Jos. 5. 14. 

The Captain of Salvation He. 2. 10. 

The Author and Finisher of Faith He. 12. 2. 

A Leader Is. 55. 4. 

A Commander Is. 55. 4. 

A Ruler Mi. 5. 2. 

A Governor Mat. 2. 6. 

The Deliverer Ro. 11. 26. 

The Lion of the Tribe of Judah Re. 5. 5. 

An Ensign of the People Is. 11. 10. 

The Chiefest among ten thousand (in) ^ « -.^ 
an army), or Standard-bearer (margf.}j * 

A Polished Shaft Is. 49. 2. 

The Shield Ps. 84. 9. 



XIX.— A GIFT IS AS A PKEorotJS Stone in the byes 

OP HIM THAT HATH IT : WHITHEKSOEVEE IT TUBNETH, 
IT PR08PERETH. — Pr. 17. 8. 

The Gift of God Jno. 3. 16 ; Jno. 4. 10. 

His Unspeakable Gift 2 Cor. 9. 15. 

My Beloved, in whom my soul is well) -^t„^. -,n ia 

pleased f ^^^^- ^^- ^^^ 

Mine Elect, in whom my soul delight-) To ao i 

eth j- is. 42. 1. 

The Holy Child Jesus Ac. 4. 27. 

The Chosen of God Lu. 23. 35. 

The Salvation of God Lu. 2. 30. 

The Salvation of the daughter of Zion. .Is. 62. 11. 

The Redeemer Is. 59. 20. 

The Shiloh (Peace-maker) Gen. 49. 10. 

The Consolation of Israel Lu. 2. 25. 

The Blessed Ps. 72. 17., 

The Most Blessed forever Ps. 21. 6. 



XX. — That in ALL things HE might have the 
PRE-EMINENCE.— Col. 1. 18. 

The Beginning of the Creation of God.. Re. 3. 14. 

My First-born Ps. 89, 27. 

The First-born from the dead Col. 1. 18. 

The First-begotten of the dead Re. 1. 5. 

The First-born among many Brethren .Ro. 8. 29. 

The First-fruits of them that slept 1 Cor. 15. 20. 

The Last Adam 1 Cor. 15. 45. 

The Resurrection Jno. 11. 25. 

A Quickening Spirit 1 Cor. 15. 45. 

The Head (even Christ) Ep. 4. 15. 

The Head of the Body the Church Col. 1. 18. 

The Head over all things to the Church.Ep. 1. 22. 

The Head of every Man 1 Cor. 11. 3. 

The Head of all Principality and Power.Col. 2. 10. 



XXL— Other FOUNDATION can no man lay than 
that is laid, which is Jesus Christ. — 1 Cor. 3. 11. 

The Builder He. 3. 3 ; Mat. 16. 18. 

The Foundation 1 Cor. 3. 11. 

A Sure Foundation Is. 28. 16. 

A Stone Is. 28. 16. 

A Living Stone 1 Pe. 2. 4. 

A Tried Stone Is. 28. 16. 

A Chief Corner-stone 1 Pe. 2. 6. 

An Elect Stone 1 Pe. 2. 6. 

A Precious Stone 1 Pe. 2. 6. 

The Head-stone of the Corner Ps. 118. 22. 

A Stone cut out without hands Da. 2. 34, 45. 

But unto them which, are disobedient, 

A Stone of Stumbling 1 Pe. 2. 8. 

A Rock of Offense 1 Pe. 2. 8, 



XXII.-HIM HATH GOD EXALTED to be a PRINCE 
and a SAVIOUR.— Ac. 5. 31. 

The Messiah the Prince Da. 9. 25. 

The Prince of Life Ac 3. 15. 

A Prince and a Saviour Ac. 5. 31. 

The Prince of Peace Is. 9. 6. 

The Prince of Princes Da. 8. 25. 

The Prince of the Kings of the earth . . .Re. 1. 5. 

A Prince (among Israel) Ez. 34. 24. 

The Glory of thy people Israel Lu. 2. 32. 

He that filleth all in all Ep. 1. 23. 



XXIIL— ALL POWER is given unto ME in Heaven 
and in Earth.— Mat. 28. 18. 

The Lord 1 Cor. 12. 3. 

One Lord Ep. 4. 5. 

God hath made that same Jesus both) a „ o qk 

Lord and Christ j- Ac. ^. db. 

Lord of Lords Re. 17. 14. 

King of Kings Re. 17. 14. 

Lord both of the dead and living Ro. 14. 9. 

Lord of the Sabbath Lu. 6. 5. 

Lord of Peace 2 Thes. 3.16. 

Lord of all Ac. 10. 36. 

Lord over all Ro. 10. 12. 



XXIV.— HE shall reign for ever and ever.— 
Re. 11. 15. 

The Judge Ac. 17. 31. 

The Righteous Judge 2 Ti. 4. 8. 

The King Zee. 14. 16. 

King of Kings Re. 19. 16. 

Lord of Lords Re. 19. 16. 

A Sceotre (out of Israel) Nu. 24. 17. 

The King's Son Ps. 72. 1. 

David their King Je. 30. 9. 

The King of Israel Jno. 1. 49. 

King of the daughter of Zion Jno. 12. 15. 

The King of the Jews (born). Mat. 2. 2 ; Mar. 15. 2. 

The King of the Jews (crucilied) Jno. 19. 19. 

The King of Saints (or King of Nations) Re. 15. 3. 

King over all the Earth Zee. 14. 4, 5, 9. 

The King of Righteousness He. 7. 2. 

The King of Peace He. 7. 2. 

The King of Glory Ps. 24. 10. 

The King in his beauty Is. 33. 17. 

He sitteth King forever Ps. 29. 10. 

Crowned with a Crown of Tliorns Jno. 19. 2. 

Crowned with Glory and Honor He. 2. 9. 

Crowned with a CroAvn of pure Gold. . .Ps. 21. 3, 
Crowned with many Crowns Re. 19. 12. 



QUOTATIONS FEOM THE OLD TESTAMENT. 



997 



ALLUSIONS, CHARACTERISTICS, AND EPITHETS. 



As a Refiner's Fire 

As Fuller's Soap 

As the Light of the Morning, when the) 

sun riseth, a morning, without clouds/ 
As the Tender Grass, by clear shining) 

after rain / 

As a Tender Plant (to God) 

As a Root out of a dry ground (to man) . . 

As Rain upon the mown grass 

As Show^ers that water the earth 

As Rivers of Water in a dry place 

As the Shadow of a great Rock in a) 

weary land j 

As a Hiding-place from the wind 

As Ointmeiit poured forth 

Fairer than the Children of Men 



Mai. 3. 2. 
Mai. 3. 2. 

2 Sa. 23. 4. 

2 Sa. 23. 4. 

Is. 53. 2. 
Is. 53. 2. 
Ps. 72. 6. 
Ps. 72. 6. 
Is. 32. 2. 

Is. 32. 2. 

Is. 32. 2, 
Ca. i. 3. 
Ps. 45. 2. 



A glorious high Throne from the begin-) 
ning is the place of our sanctuary. . . / 

For a glorious Throne to his father's) 
house j 

A Crown of Glory 

A Diadem of Beauty 

A Stone of Grace {marg.) 

A Nail fastened in a sure plac® 

A Brother born for adversity 

A Friend that sticketh closer than a) 
brother j 

A Friend that loveth at all times 

His Countenance is as the sun 

His Countenance is as Lebanon 

Yea, He is altogether lovely 

This is my Beloved, and my Friend 



Je. 17. 12. 



Is. 22. 28. 


Is. 28. 5. 


Is. 28. 5. 


Pr. 17. 8. 


Is. 22. 23, 24. 


Pr. 17. 17. 


Pr. 18. 24. 


Pr. 17. 17. 


Re. 1. 16. 


Ca. 5. 15. 


Ca. 5. 16. 


Ca. 5. 16. 



PASSAGES IN THE OLD TESTAMENT QUOTED OR ALLLT)ED TO 
IN THE NEW TESTAMENT, 

This list contains not only the direct or indirect citations, but also the allusions which are particularly worthy of 
attention; and the passages are given in the order of the books of the New Testament. 

The mere allusions are marked a. 



MATTHEW. 






MATTHEW. 






MARK. 






lap. 1.23.... 


Isa. 


T.14. 


chap. 21. 42. . . . 


Psa. 


118. 22, 23. 


chap. 13. 14.... 


a Dan. 


9. 2T. 


" 2. 6.... 


Mic. 


5. 2. 


" 2L44.... 


a Isa. 


8.14. 


" 18.14.... 


a Dan. 


8.13. 


" 2.15.... 


Hos. 


11. 1. 


" 21.44.... 


a Zee. 


12. 3. 


" 13.14.... 


a Dan. 


11. 31. 


" 2.18.... 


Jer. 


31. 15. 


" 21.44.... 


a Dan. 


2. 34, 35, 


" 13.14.... 


a Dan. 


12. 11. 


" 3. 3.... 


Isa. 


40. 3. 






44. 


" 18.24.... 


a Isa. 


13. 9,10. 


" 4. 4.... 


Deut 


8. 3. 


" 22.24.... 


Deut 


.25. 5. 


" 18.24.... 


a Joel 


3.15. 


" 4, 6.... 


Psa. 


91. 11, 12. 


" 22.82.... 


Ex, 


3. 6. 


" 14.27.... 


Zee. 


13. 7. 


" 4. 7.... 


Deut 


6.16. 


" 22.37.... 


Deut 


6. 5. 


" 15.28.... 


Isa. 


58. 12. 


" 4.10.... 


Deut 


6.13. 


" 22.39.... 


Lev. 


19. 18. 


" 15.34.... 


Psa. 


22. 1. 


" 4.10.... 


Deut 


10. 20. 


" 22. 44. . . . 


Psa. 


110. 1. 








" 4. 15, 16. 


Isa. 


9. 1, 2. 


" 23.35.... 


a Gen. 


4. 8. 


LUKE. 






" 5. 5.... 


a Psa. 


87. 11. 


" 28.35.... 


a 2 Chr. 24. 21, 22. 


chap. 1.10.... 


a Lev. 


16. 17. 


" 5.21.... 


a Ex. 


20. 18. 


" 23.88.... 


a Psa. 


69. 25. 


» 1.17.... 


Mai. 


4. 5, 6. 


" 5.21.... 


Deut 


5.17. 


" 23.38.... 


a Jer. 


12. 7. 


" 1.33.... 


a Mic. 


4. 7. 


" 5.27.... 


a Ex. 


20. 14. 


" 23. 38. . . . 


a Jer. 


22. 5. 


" 1.55.... 


a Gen. 


22. 18. 


" 5.27.... 


Deut 


5.18. 


" 23.39.... 


a Psa. 


lis. 26. 


•' 1.73.... 


a Gen. 


22. 16. 


" 5.31.... 


a Deut 


24. 1. 


" 24.15.... 


a Dan. 


9. 27. 


" 2. 21, 22. 


a Lev. 


12, 8, 4. 


" 5.33.... 


a Ex. 


20. 7. 


" 24.15..,. 


a Dan. 


8.13. 


" 2.28.... 


Ex. 


13. 2. 


" 5.83.... 


a Lev. 


19. 12. 


" 24.15.... 


a Dan. 


11. 31. 


" 2. 24. , . . 


Lev. 


12. 8. 


" 5. 38.... 


a Ex. 


21. 24. 


" 24.15.... 


a Dan. 


12. 11. 


" 2.84.... 


a Isa. 


8. 14, 15. 


" 5. 38. . . . 


a Lev. 


24. 20. 


" 24.29.... 


a Isa. 


13. 9.10. 


" 3. 4, 5, 6. 


Isa. 


40. 3, 4, 5. 


" 5.38.... 


Deut. 


19. 21. 


" 24.29.... 


a Joel 


8, 15. 


" 4. 4.... 


Deut 


8. 3. 


" 5.48..., 


a Lev. 


19. 18. 


" 24.29.... 


a Eze. 


32. 7, 


" 4. 8.... 


Deut 


6.13. 


" 7.23.... 


Psa. 


6. 8. 


" 24.37.... 


a Gen. 


7. 4. 


" 4. 8.... 


Deut 


10. 20. 


" 8. 4.... 


a Lev. 


14. 2. 


" 25,41,.., 


Psa. 


6. 8. 


" 4. 10, 11. 


Psa. 


91. 11, 12. 


" 8.17.... 


Isa. 


53. 4. 


" 26.81.... 


Zee. 


13. 7. 


" 4.12.... 


Deut 


6.16. 


" 9.13.... 


Hos. 


6. 6. 


" 26.67.... 


a Isa. 


50. 6. 


" 4. IS, 19. 


Isa. 


61. 1, 2. 


" 10. 35, 36. 


a Mic. 


7. 6. 


" 27, 9, 10. 


Zee. 


n. 13. 


" 4. 25, 26. 


a 1 Ki. 


17. 1, 9. 


" 11. 5.... 


a Isa. 


35. 5. 


" 27.35.... 


Psa. 


22. 18. 


" 4. 25, 26. 


alKi. 


18. 1, 2. 


" n. 5.... 


a Isa. 


29. 18. 


" 27.48..., 


a Psa. 


22, 7, 8, 9. 


" 4.27.... 


a 2 Ki. 


5.14. 


« 11.10.... 


Mai. 


3. 1. 


" 27.46.... 


Psa. 


22. 1. 


" 5.14.... 


a Lev. 


14. 2. 


" 11.14.... 


a Mai. 


4. 5. 








" 6, 3, 4. 


a 1 Sa. 


21. 6. 


" 12. 3.... 


alSa. 


21. 6. 


MARK. 






" 6.24..., 


a Amos 6. 1. 


" 12. 5.... 


a Num 


28. 9, 10. 


chap. 1. 2, 3. 


Mai. 


3. 1. 


" 7.27..., 


Mai. 


8. 1. 


" 12. 7.... 


Hos. 


6. 6. 


" 1. 2, 3. 


Isa. 


40. 3. 


" 8.10.... 


Isa. 


6. 9. 


" 12.18.... 


Isa. 


42. 1. 


" 1.44.... 


a Lev. 


14. 2. 


" 10. 4.,,, 


a 2Ki. 


4.29. 


" 12. 40. . . . 


a Jem. 


1. 17, etc. 


" 2. 25, 26. 


a 1 Sa. 


21. 6. 


" 10.27.... 


Deut 


6. 5. 


" 12.42.... 


alKi. 


10. 1. 


" 4.12.... 


Isa. 


6. 9. 


«' 10.27.... 


Lev. 


19. 18. 


" 13. 14. . . . 


Isa. 


6. 9,10. 


" 7. 6, 7. 


Isa. 


29. 13. 


" 10.28.... 


a Lev. 


IS. 5. 


" 13. 35. . . . 


Psa. 


78, 2. 


" 7.10.... 


Ex. 


20. 12. 


" 11.80.... 


a Jon. 


1.17. 


" 15. 4.... 


Ex. 


20. 12, 


" 7.10.... 


Dent 


5.16. 


" n. 31.... 


alKi. 


10, 1, 


" 15. 4.... 


Deut 


5.16. 


" 7.10.... 


Ex. 


21. 17. 


" n. 51.... 


a Gen. 


4, 8. 


" 15. 4.... 


Ex. 


21. 17. 


" 7.10.... 


Prov 


20. 20. 


«' 11.51.... 


a 2 Chi 


. 24, 21, 22. 


" 15. 4.... 


a Lev. 


20. 9. 


" 9.11.... 


a Mai. 


4. 5. 


" 18,27.... 


Psa. 


6. 8. 


" 15. 4.... 


a Prov 


20. 20. 


" 9.44.... 


a Isa. 


66. 24. 


" 18.35.... 


a Psa. 


lis. 26. 


" 15. 8, 9. 


Isa. 


29. 18. 


" 10. 4.,., 


a Deut 


24. 1. 


" 13.85.... 


a Jer. 


12. 7. 


" 17.10.... 


a Mai. 


4, 5. 


" 10. 6.... 


Gen. 


1.27. 


" 13.35... 


a Jer. 


22. 5. 


" 18.16.... 


a Lev. 


19. 15, 


" 10. 7.... 


Gen. 


2.24. 


" 14. 8,... 


a Prov 


25. 6. 


" 19. 4.... 


a Gen. 


1. 27. 


" 10.19.... 


Ex. 


20. 12, etc. 


" 14.26.... 


a Mic. 


7. 6. 


" 19. 5.... 


Gen. 


2.24. 


" 1L17.... 


Isa. 


56. 7. 


" 17. 3.... 


a Lev. 


19, 17. 


" 19.18.... 


Ex. 


20. 12, etc. 


" 11.17.... 


Jer. 


7. 11. 


" 17.27.... 


a Gen. 


7. 7. 


" 19.19.... 


Lev. 


19. 18. 


" 12. 1.... 


a Isa. 


5. 1. 


«' 17. 29. . . . 


a Gen. 


19. 16. 


" 21. 5.... 


Zee. 


9. 9. 


" 12, 10, 11. 


Psa. 


118. 22, 23. 


" 17.32.... 


a Gen. 


19, 26, 


" 21. 9.... 


Psa. 


118. 26, 


" 12. 19 


Deut 


25. 5. 


" 18.20.... 


Ex. 


20, 12. 


" 21.13.... 


Isa. 


56. 7. 


" 12. 26 


Ex. 


8. 6. 


" 18.20.... 


Deut 


5. 17, 18, 


" 21.13.... 


Jer. 


7. 11. 


" 12. 29, 30. 


Deut 


. 6. 4, 5. 






etc. 


" 21.16.... 


Psa. 


8. 2. 


" 12.31.... 


•Lev. 


19. IS. 


" 19.46.... 


Isa. 


56. 7. 


" 21.33.... 


a Isa. 


5. 1. 


" 12.86.... 


Psa. 


110. 1. 


" 19.46.... 


Jer. 


7.11. 



998 



QUOTATIONS FEOM THE OLD TESTAMENT. 



LUKE. 




ACTS. 




EOMANS. 




chap. 20. 9... 


a Tsa. 5. 1. 


chap. 8. 32, 33 


Isa, 53, 7, 8. 


chap. 15. 9... 


Psa. 18. 49. 


" 20.17... 


Psa. 118. 22, 23. 


" 10.34... 


, a Deut. 10. 17. 


" 15.10.,, 


Deut. 32, 43. 


" 20.18... 


a Isa. 8. 14. 


" 10.34... 


a Job 34. 19. 


" 15.11,,. 


Psa. 117. 1. 


" 20.18... 


a Zee. 12. 3. 


" 13.17.,, 


, a Isa. 1. 2. 


" 15. 12. , , 


Isa. 11. 10. 


" 20.18... 


a Dan. 2. 44. 


" 13.17.., 


. a Ex, 12. 37. 


" 15.21... 


Isa. 52. 15. 


" 20.28... 


Deut. 25. 5. 


" 13.18,.. 


a Deut. 1. 31. 






" 20.37... 


a Ex. 3. 6. 


" 13.22... 


1 Sa. 13. 14. 


1 COEINTHIANS. 


" 20. 42, 43 


. Psa. 110. 1. 


" 13.22... 


Psa. 89. 20. 


chap. 1,19.,. 


Isa. 29. 14. 


" 22. 3T. . . 


Isa. 53. 12. 


" 13.33,., 


Psa. 2. 7. 


" 1.20,,. 


a Isa. 44. 25. 


" 23.29... 


a Isa. 54. 1. 


" 13,34.,, 


Isa, 55. 3. 


" 1.20... 


a Isa. 88. 18. 


" 23.30... 


a Hos. 10. 8. 


" 13.35,., 


Psa. 16,10. 


" 1,31.., 


. Jer. 9. 24. 


" 23.46... 


Psa. 31. 5. 


«' 13. 36. . , 


, a 1 Ki. 2. 10. 


" 2. 9... 


Isa. 64. 4. 






" 13, 41 . . . 


Hab. 1. 5. 


" 2.16,,, 


Isa. 40, 13. 


JOHN. 




" 13,47,,, 


Tsa, 49, 6. 


" 3. 8... 


a Psa. 62,12. 


chap. 1.23... 


Isa. 40. 3. 


" 13.47,,. 


a Isa. 11, 10. 


" 3.19,,. 


Job 5, 13, 


'' 1.51... 


a Gen. 28.12. 


" 15. 16, 17 


. Amos 9. 11, 12. 


" 3.20,,, 


Psa, 94, 11. 


" 2. IT... 


Psa. 69. 9. 


" 17.31... 


. a Psa. 9, 9. 


" 5,13,.. 


« Deut, 17. 9. 


" 3.14... 


aNu. 21. 8, 9. 


" 17.31... 


a Psa, 96. 13. 


" 5.13.,. 


a Dent. 19. 19. 


" 4. 3T... 


a Mic. 6. 15. 


" 17.31... 


a Psa. 98. 9. 


" 5. 13. . . 


a Deut. 24, 7. 


" 6.31... 


Psa. 78.24. 


" 23. 5,,, 


Ex. 22. 28. 


" 6.16.,, 


Gen. 2, 24. 


" 6.45... 


Isa. 54. 13. 


" 28, 26, 27 


Isa. 6. 9, 10. 


" 9, 9... 


Deut. 25, 4. 


" 6. 49. . . 


a Ex. 16. 15. 






" 10. 1... 


a Ex, 13. 21. 


" 7.22... 


a Lev. 12. 3. 


KOMANS. 




" 10. 1.,, 


a Ex, 14, 22. 


" 7.38... 


a Isa. 55. 1. 


chap. 1.17... 


Hab. 2. 4. 


" 10. 1... 


a Num. 9. 18. 


" 7.38... 


a Isa. 58. 11. 


" 1.22... 


a Jer. 10. 14. 


" 10. 3.,, 


a Ex. 16, 15. 


" 7. 88. . . 


a Isa. 44. 3. 


" 2. 6... 


a Prov. 24. 12. 


" 10. 3.,, 


a Ex, 17. 6. 


" 7.38... 


a Zee. 13. 1. 


" 2.11,,, 


a Deut. 10. 17. 


" 10. 8.,, 


a Num, 11. 4. 


" 7.38... 


a Zee. 14. 8. 


" 2.11... 


a Job 34. 19. 


" 10. 3,., 


a Num, 20. 11. 


" 7.42... 


a Psa. 89. 4. 


" 2.24... 


Isa. 52. 5.. 


" 10, 3.,, 


a Num. 26. 64, 65. 


" 7.42... 


a Psa. 132. 11. 


" 2.24... 


Eze. 36. 20. 


" 10. 7... 


Ex. 32. 6. 


" 7.42... 


a Mic. 5. 2. 


" 3. 4... 


Psa. 116. 11. 


" 10. 8, 10 


. a Num, 25. 1, 9. 


" 8. 5... 


a Lev. 20. 10. 


" 3. 4.,, 


Psa, 51. 4. 


" 10. 8. 10 


. a Num, 21. 4, 


" 8. 5... 


a Deut. 22. 21. 


" 3, 8,,. 


a Jer. 17. C. 


" 10. 8. 10 


. a Num. 14. 2.36. 


" 8.17... 


Deut. 19. 15. 


" 3. 10, 11 


1 Psa. 14. l,etc. 


" 10, 8. 10 


. a Psa. 106. 14. 19. 


" 10.35... 


Psa. 82. 6. 


12 


" 10.20... 


Deut, 82. 17. 


" 9.31... 


a Prov. 28. 9. 


" 3.13,,. 


Psa. 5. 9. 


" 10.26... 


Psa, 24, 1. 


» 12.13... 


a Psa. 118. 26. 


" 3.13... 


Psa. 140. 3. 


" 14.21... 


Isa. 28. 11, 12, 


" 12. 14, 15 


Zee. 9. 9. 


" 3,14.,, 


Psa. 10. 7, 


" 14,34,,, 


a Gen. 3. 16. 


" 12.34... 


a 2 Sam, 7. 13. 


" 3, 15,etc 


. Isa. 59, 7, 


" 15, 3.,, 


a Isa, 53, 8, 9, 


" 12. 34. . . 


a Psa. 89. 30, 37. 


" 3.18,,, 


Psa, 86. 1. 


" 15. 8... 


. a Psa. 22. 


" 12. 34 . . 


a Psa. 110. 4. 


" 4. 3... 


Gen, 15, 6. 


" 15. 3,,, 


a Psa. 40. 


" 12.38... 


Isa. 53. 1. 


" 4, 7, 8 


Psa. 82. 1, 2. 


" 15. 4... 


a Psa. 16.10. 


" 12.40... 


Isa. 6. 9. 


" 4. 11 . . , 


Gen, 17, 10, 


" 15.25... 


Psa. 110. 1. 


" 13.18... 


Psa. 41. 9. 


" 4.17.,. 


Gen. 17. 5. 


" 15. 27, , , 


Psa. 8, 7. 


" 15. 25. . . 


Psa. 109. 3. 


" 4.18... 


Gen. 15. 5. 


" 15.32,,. 


Isa. 22. 13, 


" 15.25... 


Psa. 35. 19. 


" 7. 7... 


Ex. 20. 17. 


" 15.45,.. 


Gen. 2, 7. 


" 17. 12. . . 


a Psa. 41.10. 


" 7. 7,,. 


Deut. 5, 21. 


" 15.54,., 


Isa. 25. 8. 


" 17. 12. . . 


a Psa. 109. 8, 17. 


" 8.86,,. 


Psa. 44. 22. 


" 15. 55, , . 


Hos. 13.14. 


«' 19.24... 
" 19.28... 


Psa. 22. 19. 
a Psa. 69. 21. 


" 9. 7... 
" 9, 9,,. 


Gen. 21. 12. 
Gen, 18, 10, 


2 CORTNTH 


lANS. 


" 19.36... 


Ex. 12. 46. 


" 9.12,,. 


Gen. 25, 23. 


chap, 3,13.., 


a Ex. 34, 33, 


" 19.36... 


a Num. 9. 12. 


" 9.13... 


Mai. 1, 2, 3. 


" 4.13.,, 


Psa, 116. 10. 


*' 19.37... 


Zee. 12. 10. 


" 9.15.,. 


Ex. 33. 19. 


" 5.17,,, 


Tsa. 48, 18, 19. 


•' 20.17... 


a Psa. 22.22. 


" 9.17,., 


Ex. 9. 16, 


" 6, 2,.. 


Isa, 49, 8. 






" 9.20... 


a Isa. 45, 9. 


" 6.16,,. 


Lev. 26,11,12. 


ACTS. 




" 9,21... 


a Jer. 18. 6. 


" 6, 17, 18 


. Isa. 52, 11, 12. 


chap. 1. 20... 
" 1.20... 


Psa. 69. 25, 


" 9.25.,, 


Hos. 2, 23. 


" 6. 17, IS 


Jer. 31. 9. 


Psa. 109. 8. 


" 9,26.., 


Hos. 1. 10. 


_ " 6. 17, 18 


2 Sa. 7. 14. 


" 2.17... 


Joel 2. 28. 


" 9. 27, 28 


Isa. 10. 22, 23. 


" 8.15,,, 


Ex, 16, 18. 


" 2.25... 


Psa. 16. 8. 


" 9.29,., 


Isa. 1. 9. 


" 9. 7.., 


a Prov. 22. 8. 


•' 2.30... 


a 2 Sam. 7. 12. 


" 9.83,., 


Isa. 8. 14. 


" 9. 9,,, 


Psa. 112. 9. 


" 2.30... 


a Psa. 89. 4. 


" 9,33... 


Isa. 28. 16. 


" 10.17... 


Jer. 9. 24 


" 2.31... 


Psa. 16. 10. 


" 10, 5... 


Lev. IS. 5. 


" 13. 1... 


Deut. 19. 15. 


" 2.U... 
" 3. 22, 23 


Psa. 110. 1. 
Deut. 18, 15, 19. 


" 10, 5... 
" 10. 6. . . 


Eze, 20, 11. 
a Deut, 80. 12, 


GALATTAN 


3. 


" 3.25... 


Gen. 22. 18. 


" 10. 8.., 


Deut, 30. 14. 


chap. 2. 6.,, 


Deut. 10. 17. 


" 3.25... 


a Gen. 12. 3. 


" 10.11... 


Isa, 28. 16, 


" 2.16.... 


a Psa. 143. 2. 


" 4.11... 


Psa. 118. 22, 23. 


" 10.13... 


Joel 2. 32. 


" 3. 6,,.. 


a Gen. 15. 6. 


" 4.11... 


a Isa. 28, 16. 


" 10,15.... 


Isa. 52. 7. 


" 8. 8... 


Gen. 12. 3. 


" 4. 25, 26 


. Psa, 2. 1, 2. 


" 10.15.,, 


Nah. 1. 15. 


" 3. 8... 


a Gen, 22. 18. 


" 7. 3... 


Gen. 12. 1. 


" 10.16... 


Isa. 58. 1. 


" 3,10.,,. 


Deut. 27. 26. 


" 7. 6, 7 


. Gen. 15. 13, 14. 


" 10.18... 


Psa. 19. 4. 


" 3.11..,. 


Hab, 2. 4. 


" 7. 8... 


a Gen. 17. 10. 


" 10.19... 


Deut. 32. 21. 


" 8.12,... 


Lev. 18. 5. 


" 7. 9... 


a Gen. 37. 28. 


" 10. 20, 21 


Isa. 65. 1, 2. 


" 3.13,,.. 


Deut. 21. 23. 


" 7. 9... 


a Gen. 39. 1. 


" 11. 1... 


a Psa. 94, 14. 


" 3,16,... 


Gen. 22,18. 


" 7.17... 


a Ex. 1. 7. 


" 11. 3... 


1 Ki. 19. 14. 


" 3,17.... 


a Ex. 12. 40. 


" 7.20... 


a Ex. 2. 2. 


" 11, 4,., 


IKi, 19.18, 


" 4,22,,.. 


a Gen. 21. 2, 9. 


«' 7.24... 


a Ex. 2, 11. 


" 11. 8... 


Tsa. 29. 10. 


" 4. 22. . , , 


a Gen. 16. 15, 


" 7.26... 


Ex. 2. 13, 14. 


" 11. 8.,, 


a Tsa. 6, 9. 


" 4.27,,.. 


Isa. 54, 1, 


«' 7.30... 


a Ex. 3. 2. 


" 11. 9, 10 


Psa. 69.23, 


" 4.80,,,, 


Gen, 21,10. 


" 7.32... 


Ex, 3. 6. 


" 11. 26, 27 


Isa. 59. 20, 21, 


" 5,14.,,, 


Lev. 19. 18. 


«' 7. 33, 34 


. Ex. 3. 5, 7, S, 
10. 


" 11.34... 
" 11.35... 


Isa. 40, 13, 
a Job 41. 11. 


EPHESTANS 


. 


" 7.35... 


Ex. 2. 14. 


" 12. 9,,, 


a Amos 5. 15. 


chap. 2. 17.,, 


a Isa, 57, 19. 


" 7.37... 


Deut. 18. 15. 


" 12,16,,, 


a Tsa. 5. 21. 


" 4, 8... 


Psa, 68. 18. 


*' 7. 38. . . 


a Ex. 19. 3. 


" 12,16... 


Prov. 3, 7, 


" 4,25... 


Zee. 8. 16. 


" 7.40... 


Ex. 32. 1. 


" 12.19... 


Deut. 32. 35. 


" 4.26... 


Psa, 4. 4. 


" 7. 42, 43 


Amos 5. 25, 26. 


" 12. 20. , , 


Prov. 25. 21, 22. 


" 5,31... 


Gen. 2. 24. 


" 7.44... 


a Ex, 25. 40. 


" 13. 9... 


Ex, 20, 13, 17. 


6. 2, 3 


. Ex. 20. 12. 


" 7.45... 


a Josh. 3. 14. 


" 13. 9... 


Deut, 5. 19, 20. 


" 6. 2, 3 


Deut, 5. 16. 


" 7.46... 


a 2 Sam. 7, 2. 


*' 13. 9.,, 


Lev. 19. 18. 


" 6, 9... 


a Deut, 10. 17. 


" 7.46... 


a Psa. 132. 5. 


" 14.11.., 


• « Isa. 45, 23. 


" 6. 9... 


a Job. 34. 19. 


" 7. 49, 50 


. Isa. 60, 1. 2. 


" 15, 3... 


Psa. 69. 9. 


" 6,17... 


a Isa. 59. 17. 



QUOTATIONS FEOM THE OLD TESTAMENT. 



999 



PHILIPPIANS. 




HEBREWS. 




chap. 2. 10 — alsa. 


45. 23. 


chap 


11.32.... aJud. 


6. 4,11 


" 4. 5.... aPsa. 


119 & 141. 






15. 


" 4. 5.... aPsa. 


145. IS. 


C( 


11.32.... a?lSa. 
11. 32 a? 2 Sa. 


7. 
2. 


COLOSSIANS. 




(< 


11.33.... a?2Sa. 


8. 


chap. 2. 11 a Deut. 


10. 16. 


" 


11.33.... a?Jud. 


14. 


" 3. 25.... a Deut. 


10. 17. 


" 


11. 33 a? Dan. 


6. 


" 3. 25.... a Job 


34. 19. 


(( 


11. 34 a? Dan. 

11. 35.... a?2Ki. 


3. 

4. 20. 


1 THESSALONIANS 




" 


12. 5, 6. Prov. 


3. 11, 12 


chap. 5. 8 alsa. 


59. 17. 


" 


12. 9.... a?Num 


. 27. 16, 


" 5. 15.... aProv. 


17. 13. 


«' 


12. 12, 13. a Isa. 


35. 3, 


2 THESSALONIANS 




u 


12. 12, 13. a Prov. 
12. 15.... a Deut. 


4.26. 
29. 18. 


chap, 2. 4 a Dan. 


11. 36. 


" 


12. 16.... a Geu. 


25. 31. 


" 2. 8.... a?Isa. 


11. 4. 


it 


12.18.... aEx. 
12. 20 Ex. 


19. 16. 
19. 12, 13 


1 TIMOTHY. 




u 


12.21.... Deut. 


9.19. 


chap. 2.13 a? Gen. 


1.27. 


" 


12.26.... Hag. 


2. 6. 


" 2. 14.... a Gen. 


3. 6. 


" 


12.29 Deut. 


4.24. 


" 5.18.... Dent. 


25. 4. 


" 


13. 5.... Deut. 


31. 8. 


" G. 7.... a Job 


1. 21. 


" 


13. 5.... Josh. 


1. 5. 


" 6. 7 aEcc. 


5.15. 


" 


13. 6.... Psa. 


118. 6. 


" 6. 7.... a?Psa. 


49. 17. 


" 


13. 11 a Lev. 


4. 12, 21 


2TIM0THi:. 




u 


13.11.... a Lev. 
13.11.... a Num. 


16. 27. 
19. 3. 


chap. 2.19 a Num. 


16. 5. 


" 


13. 14....aMic. 


2.10. 


" 3. 8.... aEx. 


7. 11, 22. 












JAMES. 




HEBREWS. 




chap 


1.10.... alsa. 


40. 6. 


cbap. 1. 5 Psa. 


2. 7. 


" 


1. 19 a? Prov 


, 17. 27. 


" 1. 5.... 2Sa. 


7. 14. 


«' 


2, 1.... aLev. 


19. 15. 


" 1. 6.... Psa. 


97. 7. 


" 


2. 1.... a Prov. 


24. 23. 


" 1. 7.... Psa. 


104. 4. 


(( 


2. 8.... Lev. 


19. 18. 


" 1. 8, 9. Psa. 


45. 6, 7. 


«« 


2.11.... Ex. 


20. 13, 14 


" 1. 10, 11,1 Psa. 
12.; 


102, 25, 26, 






15 


27. 


K 


2.21.... a Gen. 


22. 9. 


" 1.13.... Psa. 


110. 1. 


'« 


2.23.... Gen. 


15. 6. 


" 2. 6.... Psa. 


8. 5. 


(( 


2. 25 a Josh. 


2. 1. 


" 2.12.... Psa. 


22. 23. 


" 


2. 25..., a Josh, 


6. 17, 23 


" 2.13.... Isa. 


8.18, 


(( 


4. 6.... Prov. 


3.34. 


" 2.13.... Psa. 


18. 2. 


" 


5. 3.... a? Prov 


. 16. 27. 


■ " 2.13.... 2Sa. 


22. 2, 


" 


5. 11 a Job 


1. 21, 22 


" 3. 2.... a Num. 


12, 7, 


U 


5. 11.... a Job 


42. 1-17. 


" mJ-.u:}!"^'- 


95. 7, etc. 


(( 


5. 17, 18. a 1 Ki. 
5. 17, 18. a 1 Ki. 


17. 1. 

18. 41. 


" 3.15.... Psa. 


95. 7, 8, 9, 










10, 11. 


1 PETER. 




" 3. IT.... a ? Num. 14. 35; 36. 


chap 


1.16.... Lev. 


11. 44. 


" 4. 3 Psa. 


95. 11. 




1. 24, 25. Isa. 


40. 6. 


" 4. 4.... Geu. 


2. 3. 


" 


2. 3.... a? Psa. 


34. 8. 


" 4. 7.... Psa. 


95. 7, 8. 


I' 


2. 4 a Psa. 


118. 22. 


" 5. 4.... a ? 1 Chr. 23. 13. 


<( 


2. 6.... Isa. 


28. 16. 


" 5. 5.... Psa. 


2. 7, 


»t 


2. 7,... Psa. 


118. 22, 23. 


" 5. 6.... Psa. 


110. 4. 


({ 


2. 9 Ex, 


19. 6. 


" 6.14.... Gen. 


22. 16, 17. 


" 


2.10.... aHos. 


2. 23. 


" 7. 1 a Gen. 


14. 18. 


«i 


2. 17.... a Prov. 


24. 21. 


" T. 17, 21. Psa. 


110. 4. 


(( 


2.22,,.. Isa. 


53. 9. 


" 8. 5.... Ex. 


25. 40. 


" 


2.24.... Isa, 


53. 5. 


" 8. 8, 9,1 Jer. 
" 10,11,12.; 


31. 31, 32, 


u 


3. 6 a Geu. 


18. 12. 


33, 34. 


t' 


3. 7.... a? Prov 


17, 13. 


" 9. 2.... aEx. 
" 9. 2.... aEx. 


25. 
26. 36, 


" 


3. 14, 15. ? Isa. 


34. 13, etc. 


" 9. 2....a?Ex. 


40. 3, 


u 


8. 12, 13. 


" 9. 13.... a Lev. 


16. 14, 


(C 


3. 20.... a Gen. 


6. 3, 12. 


" 9. 14..,. a? Num. 14. 36. 


u 


4. 8 Prov. 


10. 12. 


" 9.20..., Ex. 


24, 8, 


(C 


4. IS.... a Prov. 


11. 31. 


" 10. 5, 6. Psa. 


40. 6, 


(( 


5. 5.... a Prov, 


3. 34, 


" 10. 12, 1.3. a Psa. 


110. 1. 


(( 


5, 7 a Psa. 


55. 22, 


" 10. 16, 17. Jer. 


31. 33, 34, 








" 10. 27.... a? Isa. 


64. 1, 


2 PETER. 




" 10. 28.... a Deut. 


17. 6, 


chap 


2. 5 a Gen, 


7,23, 


" 10.30.... Deut. 


32. 35, 36. 




2, 5.... a Gen. 


8, 


" 10. 37, 38. Hab. 


2. 3, 4. 


a 


2. 6.... a Gen. 


19, 


" 11. 3.... a Gen. 


1. 1. 


<( 


2. 15, 16. a Num. 


22. 


" 11. 4.,,. a Gen. 


4. 4, 


u 


2.22.... Prov. 


26. 11. 


" 11. 5.... a Gen. 


5.24, 


(i 


3. 4.... a?Eze. 


12. 22. 


'' 11. 7.... a Gen. 


6. 8,14. 


CI 


3. 5, 6. a Gen. 


1. 1, 2, 6. 


" 11. 8.... a Gen. 


12, 1, 2. 


«' 


3. 5, 6. a Gen. 


7.21. 


" 11. 13.,,. a? Gen 


47, 9. 


u 


3. 8.... a Psa. 


90. 4. 


" 11.13.... a? Psa. 


39. 13. 


(( 


3. 10.... a? Psa. 


102. 26, 27. 


" 11. 14.... a?Hos. 


14. 2, 


«' 


3.13.... alsa. 


65. 17. 


" 11. 17..., a Gen. 


22, 1, 


«i 


3. 13.... alsa. 


66. 22. 


" 11. 18.... a Gen. 


21. 12. 








" 11.20.... a Gen. 


27. 28. 


1 JOHN. 




" 11.21.... Gen. 


47. 31. 


chap 


1. 8.... a Prov. 


20. 9. 


" 11. 22.... a Gen, 


50. 25, 


«' 


3. 5 a? Isa. 


53. 4. 


" 11. 23.... aEx. 


2. 2. 


(( 


3. 12.... a Gen. 


4. 8. 


" lL28..,,aEx, 


12. 11, 18. 


" 


3. 12.... a?Num 


.22. 


" 11. 29.... aEx. 


14. 22. 


" 


3. 12.... aNum. 


16. 1,31. 


" 11. 30.... a Jos. 


6.20. 








" 11. 31.... a Jos. 


2. 1. 


REVELATION. 




" 11. 31.... a Jos, 


6. 17, 23. 


chap 


1, 6.... a? Ex. 


19. 6. 



REVELATION. 

chap 



1. 7.... a? Dan. 


7.13. 


1. 7.... a? Isa. 


40. 5. 


1. 7.... a? Zee. 


12. 10-14. 


1. 8.... a? Isa. 


41. 4. 


1. 8.... a? Isa. 


44. 6. 


1.12.... a? Zee. 


4. 2, 


1. 14, 15. a? Dan. 


7, 9. 


1.14, 15. a? Dan 


10, 5, 6, 


1. 14, 15. a ? Eze. 


1.27. 


1. 14, 15. a? Eze. 


8. 2. 


1.14, 15. a? Eze. 


43. 2. 


1.16.... a? Isa. 


49. 2. 


1.17.... a? Dan. 


8.17. 


1.17.... a? Dan. 


10. S,etc. 


1. 17.... a? Isa. 


44. 6. 


2. 1.... a?Deut 


. 23. 14. 


2. 7.... a? Gen. 


2. 9. 


2.14.... a?Num 


.25. 2. 


2.14.... a?Num 


. 31. 16. 


2. 20.... a?lKi. 


16. 31. 


2.20.... a?lKi, 


21. 23. 


2. 20.... a?2Ki, 


9. 33. 


2.23.... a? Jer. 


17, 10. 


2.27.... a? Psa, 


2, 9. 


3, 7.,,. a?Isa. 


22, 22. 


3, 7.... a? Job 


12. 14. 


3. 9.... a? Isa, 


60, 14, 


3.17.... a?Hos. 


12. 8, 


3. 19.... a? Prov 


. 3, 11, 12. 


3, 21,... a? Psa. 


110. 1. 


4. 2, 3. a ? Eze, 


1, 26, 28. 


4, 5.... a? Ex, 


19. 16. 


4. 5..,, a? Eze, 


1, 


4, 5.... a? Eze. 


11, 


4. 5.... a? Isa. 


6, 


4. 6.... a? Eze, 


1,22. 


4. 6.... a? Ex. 


24. 10. 


4. 6 .... a ? Eze. 


1, 5. 


4. 6.... a? Eze, 


10. 12. 


4, 7.... a? Eze, 


1, 10. 


4, 8.... a? Isa, 


6. 2. 


5, 1..,, a? Eze. 


2. 9. 


5, 6..,. a? Isa. 


53, 7. 


5. 6.... a? Zee. 


4.10. 


5. 6.... a?2Ch 


16. 9. 


5. 8.... a? Psa. 


141. 2. 


5. 10.... rt?Ex. 


19. 6. 


5. 11.... a? Dan, 


7.10. 


6. 8.... a? Eze, 


14. 21. 


6. 12, 13. a ? Isa. 


24. 18, 23. 


6. 12, 13, a ? Isa. 


13. 13. 


6. 12, 13. a ? Hag. 


2. 6. 


6. 12, 13. a? Joel 


2.31. 


6. 12, 13. a ? Isa. 


34. 4. 


6.14.... a Psa. 


102. 26. 


6.14.... alsa. 


84. 4. 


6. 15, 16. a ? Isa. 


2. 9,etc. 


6. 15, 16. a ? Isa. 


2. 19, etc. 


6. 15, 16. a Hos. 


10. 8. 


6. 15, 16. a Isa. 


13. 13. 


6. 15, 16. a Psa. 


110. 5. 


6. 15, 16. a Joel 


2.11. 


7. 2,etc.a?Eze. 


9. 2,etc. 


7.16.... Isa. 


49. 10. 


7.17.... Isa. 


25. 8. 


8. 3.... aLev. 


16. 12,etc. 


8. 3.... a? Ex. 


30. 8. 


8. 3....aPsa. 


141. 2. 


8. 5.... a?Eze. 


10. 2. 


8. 7.... a Joel 


2. 3C. 


8. 7.... aEx. 


9. 23. 


8. 8 a? Ex. 


7.20, 


8. 11.... a Jer. 


9.15. 


8.12.... a Eze. 


32. 7. 


9. 4 a Eze. 


9. 6. 


9. 6.... a Jer. 


8. 3. 


9. 7, 8, 9. a Joel 


2. 4. 


9. 7, 8, 9. a Joel 


1, 6. 


9. 7, 8, 9. a Joel 


2, 5, 


9. 20 a Psa. 


115. 4. 


9. 20 a Psa. 


135. 15. 


10. 2.... a Eze. 


2. 9. 


10. 3.... a Jer. 


25. 30. 


10. 4.... a Dan. 


8.26. 


10. 5 a Dan. 


12. 4, 7, 9. 


10. 8,etc. aEze. 


2. 8. 


10. 11 ... . a ? Jer. 


1. 9. 


11. 1 o?Eze. 


40. 3. 


11. 1.... a? Eze. 


41. 13. 


11. 1.... a? Eze. 


40. 47. 


11. 2.... o?Dan. 


7. 25. 


11. 4.... a Zee. 


4. 3, 11. 


IL 5.... a?2Ki. 


1, 9-12, 



1000 



OLD TESTAMENT PROPHECIES. 



KEVELATION. 




REVELATION. 






REVELATION, 




hap. 11. 6... 


. alKi. 


17. 1. 


chap. 15. 7 aEze. 


10. 7. 




chap. 19. 5. 


. , a Psa, 


135. 1,20, 


" 11. 6... 


. a Ex. 


7.20. 


" 15. 8.... aEze. 


10. 4. 




" 19. 5. 


., a Psa, 


115. 13. 


" 11. 7... 


. a Dan. 


7.21. 


" 15. 8 a Isa. 


6. 4. 




" 19. 8, 


, , a Psa, 


45,14. 


" 11.10... 


. aEs. 


9. 22. 


" 15. 8.... alKi. 


8. n. 




" 19. 8, 


.. a Isa, 


61, 10. 


" 11.15... 


. a? Dan. 


2.44. 


" 16. 2.... a?Eze. 


10. 2. 




" 19, 11. 


,. a?Psa, 


72. 2,etc 


" 11.15... 


. a Dan. 


7. 14. 


" 16. 2.... a? Ex. 


9.10. 




" 19. 12. 


, . a Dan, 


10. 6. 


" 11.18... 


aPsa. 


2. 1-5. 


" 16. 3,etc.a?Ex. 


7. 19, 


20. 


" 19. 13. 


, , a Isa, 


63. 1. 


" 11.18... 


aPsa. 


46. 6. 


" 16. 6.... a? En. 


7.21. 




" 19. 15. 


,, a Psa, 


2. 9. 


" 11.18... 


a ? Dan. 


7. 10, 22. 


" 16. 6.... a?Eze. 


16. 38. 




" 19. 15. 


.,. a Lam, 


1.15. 


" 11.18... 


?Psa. 


115. 13. 


" 16. 10.... a?Ex. 


10. 22. 




" 19. 15. 


, ,. a Isa. 


63. 3, 


" 11.18... 


. a? Dan. 


11.44. 


" 16. 12.... a? Isa. 


11. 15, 


16. 


" 19. 17, 


18. a ? Isa, 


34, 6, 


" 12. 1,2. 


a ? Mic: 


4. 9,10. 


" 16. 12.... a? Jer. 


50. 38. 




" 19. 17, 


18. aEze. 


39, 17-20. 


" 12. 1,2. 


a ? Isa. 


66. 7. 


" 16. 14, 16. a ? Zeph 


. 3. 8. 




" 19. 19. 


...a Psa. 


2, 2. 


" 12. 3... 


a Dan. 


7. 7. 


" 16. 14, 16. a ? Joel 


3. 2. 




" 19, 20. 


...a? Isa. 


30. 33. 


" 12. 4... 


a ? Dan. 


8.10. 


" 16. 14, 16. a ? Zee. 


14. 2. 




" 19. 20. 


... a? Dan. 


7. 11, 26, 


'* 12. 5... 


a Isa. 


66. 7. 


" 16. 21..., a Ex. 


9. 24, 34. 


" 20. 4. 


. . . a ? Dan. 


9. 22, 27. 


" 12. 5... 


a ? Psa. 


2.10. 


" 17. 1.... aJer. 


51. 13. 




" 2L 1. 


...a Isa. 


65. 17. 


« 12. 6... 


a ? Dan. 


7.25. 


'• 17. 2.... a Jer. 


51. 7, 




" 21, 2, 


. . . a ? Eze. 


40. &4S. 


" 12. 7... 


a? Dan. 


10. 13, 21. 


" 17. 3. ... a ? Dan. 


7, 7, 


8, 


" 21, 3. 


... aEze, 


37. 27. 


" 12. 7... 


a ? Dan. 


12. 1. 






25. 


" 21, 4. 


, ,, a Isa, 


25. 8. 


" 12.14... 


a ? Dan. 


7. 25. 


" 17. 4.... a? Jer. 


51, 7. 




" 21. 4. 


,,. a Isa. 


65. 19. 


" 12.14... 


a ? Dan. 


12. 7. 


•' 17. 8.... a? Dan. 


7, n. 




" 21. 5. 


. , . a Isa, 


43. 19. 


" 13. 1... 


a ? Dan. 


7. 3, 7. 


" 17. 12.... a Dan. 


7.20, 


24. 


" 21. 6. 


... a Isa. 


55. 1. 


" 13. 2. . 


a Dan. 


7. 5, 6. 


" 17. 14.... a Dan. 


8,25, 




" 21. 10, 


... aEze, 


40. 2. 


" 13. 5, 6. 


a Dan. 


7. 8. 


" 17. 15.... a Isa. 


8, 7, 




" 21. 12. 


... aEze. 


48.31. 


" 13. 5, 6. 


a Dan. 


7.25. 


" 17. 15.... a Jer. 


47, 2, 




" 21. 15. 


... a Zee. 


2. 1. 


" 13. 7... 


a ? Dan. 


8. 10, 24. 


" 18. 2.... Isa. 


21, 9, 




" 2L 15. 


... aEze. 


40. 3. 


" 13. 7... 


a Dan. 


5.19. 


" 18. 2.... a Jer. 


51. 8, 




" 21. 19. 


... a Isa. 


54. 11, 12. 


" 13. 7... 


a Dan. 


2.37. 


" IS. 2.... a Isa. 


13. 21. 




" 21, 23, 


...a Isa. 


60. 19. 


" 13.10... 


a Isa. 


14. 2. 


" 18. 3.... Jer. 


51. 7. 




" 21, 23. 


, . . a ? Eze. 


48. 35. 


" 13.10... 


a Gen. 


9. 6. 


" 18. 3.... aNah. 


3. 4. 




" 21, 24, 


25, a Isa, 


60. 3,11, 


" 13.14... 


a •? Dan. 


3. 


" IS. 4.... a Isa. 


52. 11. 








20. 


" 14. 1... 


a Psa. 


2. 6. 


" 18. 4.... a Jer. 


50. 8. 




" 21. 27. 


,., a Isa, 


52. 1. 


« 14. 1... 


a Isa. 


59. 20. 


" 18. 4.... a Jer. 


51. 6, 


9, 


" 21. 27. 


,.. aEze. 


44. 9. 


" 14. 5... 


a Psa. 


32. 2. 






45. 


" 22. 1, 


2. a Zee, 


14. 8. 


" 14. 8... 


a Isa. 


21. 9. 


" 18. 6.... a Jer. 


50. 15, 


29, 


" 22, 1, 


2. a Eze, 


47. 1, 7, 


" 14. 8... 


aJer. 


51. 8. 


" 18, S.... a Psa. 


137. 8. 








12. 


" 14. 8... 


a ? Dan. 


4.27. 


" 18. 7, 8, a Isa. 


47. 7, etc. 


" 22, 3. 


...a? Zee, 


14. 11. 


" 14.10... 


a ? Psa. 


75. 8. 


" 18. 7. 8. a Jer, 


50. 31. 




" 22. 5, 


... a Isa. 


24. 23. 


" 14.10... 


a Isa. 


51. 22. 


" IS. 11.... aEze. 


27. 




" 22. 5. 


... a Isa. 


60. 19. 


" 14.10... 


a Jer. 


25. 15. 


" IS. 11.... a Isa. 


23. 




" 22. 5. 


... aEze. 


48.35. 


" 14.11... 


a Isa. 


34. 10. 


" 18. 18.... a Isa. 


34. 10, 




" 22. 10. 


. . . a ? Dan 


8.26. 


" 14.14... 


a Dan. 


7.13. 


" 18. 20.... a Isa. 


44. 23, 




" 22. 10. 


...a? Dan, 


12. 4. 


" 14.14... 


a? Isa. 


19. 1. 


" 18. 20.... a Jer. 


51. 48, 




" 22. 12. 


.,, a Isa, 


40. 10. 


" 14.15... 


a Joel 


3.13. 


" IS. 21.... a Jer. 


51, 63, 


64, 


" 22. 13. 


. .. a Isa. 


41. 4. 


" 14. 19, 20 


a Joel 


3.13. 


" IS. 22.... a Isa. 


24. 8. 




" 22. 13. 


... a Isa. 


44. 6. 


" 14. 19, 20 


a Isa. 


63. 3. 


" 18. 22.... a Jer. 


7.34. 




" 22. 16. 


...a Isa. 


11. 1,10. 


" 14. 19, 20 


a Lam. 


1. 15. 


" 18. 22.... a Jer. 


25. 10. 




" 22. 17. 


... a Isa. 


55. 1. 


" 15. 2... 


aEze. 


1. 22. 


" 18. 23.,.. a Isa. 


23. 8, 




" 22,18, 


... aDeut, 


4. 2. 


" 15. 3... 


a Ex. 


15. 11. 


" 18, 24..,, a Jer, 


51, 49, 




" 22, IS, 


...a Dent. 


12. 32. 


" 15. 4... 


Jer. 


10. 7. 


" 19, 2,,,, aDeut, 


32, 4, 


43. 


" 22. 20. 


. . , a ? Hab. 


2. '3. 


« 15. 4... 


Psa. 


86. 9. 


" 19. 3.... a Isa. 


34, 10. 











INDEX^ 

SHOWING THE PROBABLE OCCASION ON WHICH EACH OF THE 0. T. PROPH- 
ECIES WAS UTTERED, WITH ITS DATE, AND ITS CHRONOLOGICAL PLACE 
IN THE O. T. SCRIPTURE. 



PBOPHSCY. 



Isaiah. 

i,l 

2, to end , . . . 
ii.-vi 

vii.-x. 1-4 

5, to end ; 
xi,-xiv. 1-27.. 

28, to end 

XV,, xvi 

xvii 

xviii., xix 

XX. 



2 Ch. 26. 21 



2 Ch.28. 
Ob. 21 


19 


2Ch. 


26. 


21 


2Ki. 


16. 


4„ 


Is. 23. 18 




2Ch. 


28. 


27 


2Ch. 


31. 


21 


Is. 10. 4, 




2Ki, 


18. 


8„ 



2 Ki. 18.16.. 



(General preface to the Prophecies of Isa-) 

( iah f 

On the desolate state of Judea on Pe-) 

kah's invasion j 

/Designation of Isaiah to the prophetic of-) 

\ flee I 

jOn the invasion of Judea by Eezin and) 

1 Pekah [ 

JOn the first invasion of Palestine by the\ 

i army of Sennacherib / 

f On the death of Ahaz and the accessioni 

1 of Hezeldah j" 

(On the approaching? invasion of Moab by| 

( Shalmaueser j 

f Agaiust Damascus on the invasion of Re-) 

( ziu f 

(On the approaching captivity of the ten* 
( tribes, and against Egypt / 

On the capture of Ashdod 



740 

758 
742 
715 
726 
726 
742 
721 

713 



Internal Evidence. 

[Bp. Newton, Taylor, 
I Internal Evidence. 
I LoAvth, Lightfoot, Bp. 

Horsley. 
'Is. 7, 1 ; comp. 2 Ki. 

16. 5. 
'Bp. Horsley, Internal 

Evidence, 
iBp. Horsley, Lowth, 

Prideaux. 

Archbp.Usher,Lowth. 

Lowth, Prideaux. 

(Bp. Horsley, Is. IS; 
1 comp. with 19. 
(Is. 20. 1 ; comp. 2 Ki. 
< 18.13; Prideaux,Bp. 
( Lowth. 



From TowDsend'a Bible. For similar tables of Psalms, see the body of this dictionary (art. Psalms, p, 780). 



OLD TESTAMENT PROPHECIES. 



1001 



Is AT AH. 
xxi 

xxii. 1-14. . . . 
15, to end. . 

xxiii 

xxiv.-xxvii. . 
xxviii 

xxix.-xxxi. . 



xxxii.-xxxv. . 




2 Ki. 20. 11 


xxxvi., xxxvi 

xxxviii. 1-S .. 

9-20 


•1 


Is. 35. 10 . . 


21,22. 




xxxix 




xl., xli., to eud ] 
of the Book V 
of Isaiah { 


2 Ki. 19. 3T 


Jeremiah. 






i.-iii. 1-5 




2Ch.34.T.. 


6, to end... 




2 Ch. 35. 19 


iv.-vi 




Je. 3. 25 . 


vii.-x 


Hab. 3.19.. 


xi xii 




Je. 10. 25 . 


xiii.-xx 


(2 Ki. 23. 37 
\Je.l9.15.. 




xxi 




Je.37.21.. 


xxii. 1-23 .... 




Je. 20. 18 . . 


24, to end. . . 




2 Ki. 24. 9.. 


xxiii 




Je. 22 30 


xxiv 


Je. 52.3... 






Je. 35.19.. 


xxvi 


Je. 22. 23.. 


xxvii., xxviii. 




Je. 31.40.. 


xxix 




Je. 24.10.. 


XXX., xxxi 




Je. 29. 32.. 


xxxii.,xxxiii. 




Je. 34.10.. 


xxxiv.1-10... 




Je. 37.4... 


11, to end... 




Je. 37.10.. 


XXXV 




Je. 46.12.. 


xxxvi. 1-S.... 




Je. 25. 38.. 


9, to end.... 




2Ki.24.4.. 


xxxvii. 1-4 .. . 




2 Ki. 37. 4,. 


5 




Je. 33. 26. . 


6-10 




Je. 47.7... 


xxxvii. 11, to) 

eud ; 


Je. 34.22.. 


xxxviiL 




Je. 21.14.. 


xxxix. 1 

2 




2 Ch. 36. 21 


3.. 




Je. 52.6... 


4-9 




10 




Je. 52.16.. 


11-14 




Je. 52.11.. 



Is. 22. 14 . . 

Is. 27. 13 . . 
2 Ki. 21.16. 
Nah. 3. 19.. 
Is. 14. 27. . . 
2 Ki. 16. 9 . 

Is. 20. 6 . . . 



fOn the appearance of the Medes and Per-) 

\ sians in Sennacherib's army j 

fOn the expected appearance of Sennach-) 
( erib's army j 

On the luxury and pride of Shebna 

(On the exultation of the Syrians after the) 
\ retreat of Shalmaueser ) 

On the desolation by Sennacherib's army 
(To the ten tribes after the destruction of) 
\ Damascus j 

On Hezekiah's alliance with Egypt 

On Hezekiah's recovery . . . i 

THistory of Sennacherib's invasion 

History of Hezekiah's sickness 

^ Hezekiah's thankssjiving on his recovery 

I Kecovery of Hezekiah 

I^Visit of Merodach-baladan 

nVritteu in the latter years of the reign of"] 
I Hezekiah, while the kingdom enjoyed I 
I peace, after the destruction of Sennach- j 
[_ erib's army J 

("On the designation of Jeremiah to the) 

( prophetic office j 

fOn the backsliding after the reformation) 

\ by Josiah j 

(On the sorrows of the approaching Cap-) 

1 tivity / 

On the near approach of the Captivity . . 
(To remind the people of Josiah's cove-) 

( nant i 

Appeals to the people before the Captivity^ 
On Jeremiah's imprisonment by Pashur. j 
(Jeremiah repeats his predictions to Zed-\ 

( ekiah J 

(On the approaching fate of Shallum and) 

( Jehoiakim ( 

(On the approaching captivity of Jehoia-\ 

( chin j 

(On the overthrow of the temporal king-) 
( dom of the Jews j 

On Jehoiachiu being carried to Babylon 

(On the immediate approach of Nebuchad-) 
( nezzar's army j 

Apprehension of Jeremiah 

(On the approaching ruin of Zedekiah and) 

( of the surrounding nations / 

(Letter from Jeremiah to the captives at) 
\ Babylon / 

Prediction of the restoration of the Jews 

(Imprisonment of Jeremiah, and purchase) 

( of the field ofHanaueel / 

(On the commencement of the siege of) 

( Jerusalem j 

|0n the recall of the Hebrew slaves to) 

( their former servitude / 

(On the Rechabites taking refuge in Je-) 
\ rusalem j 

First reading of the roll by Baruch 

Second reading of the roll by Baruch . . . 

Zedekiah sends for Jeremiah 

(Part of the narrative of the siege of Jeru-) 

( salem j 

/Prediction of the return of Pharaoh's) 

\ army / 

J Jeremiah attempts to escape from Jeru-) 

1 salem i 

jjeremiah committed to the dungeon of \ 
\ Malchiah j 

Commencement of the siege of Jerusalem 

Capture of Jerusalem 

(Part of the history of the capture of Je-) 
( rusalem j 

Flight of Zedekiah 

Account of those who were left in Judea) 
by Nebuzar-adan j 

Jeremiah committed to the care ofNebu-) 
zar-adan ( 



713 

713 
698 
715 
715 
740 

713 

713 

713 
713 
713 
713 
713 

710 
to 
699 

628 

612 

612 
612 
610 

609 

588 



599 
599 
606 
60S 
595 
597 
597 



589 
606 

606 

605 

590 

589 

589 



590 

588 



Blay- 



Internal Evidence. 

(Is. 22. 1 and 9 ; comp. 
\ 2 Ch. 32. 5. 
Internal Evidence. 

Prideaux. 

Lightfoot, Bp. Lowth. 

{Bp. Lowth, Taylor, 
Lightfoot. 
Bp. Lowth, Is. 20. 6 ; 
comp. 30. 2-8 and 31. 
1. 
Is. 32, 1 ; comp. 1 Ki. 
20.7; Lightfoot, Bp. 
[ Lowth, Bp. Horsley. 
Internal Evidence. 
Internal Evidence. 
Internal Evidence. 
Internal Evidence. 
Internal Evidence. 

Bp. Lowth, Lightfoot. 



(Internal Evidence,Dr. 
1 Blayney. 
jBr. Blayney, Internal 
\ Evidence. 

Internal Evidence. 

Dr. Blayney. 
(Lightfoot, Dr, 
t ney. 
JLightfoot, Dr. Blay- 

(Prideaux,Internal Ev- 
\ idence. 

Dr. Hales, Home. 

(Prideaux, Lightfoot, 
\ Hales. 

Dr. Hales. 

( Dr. Bl ayn ey, Prideaux, 
\ Je.4.1. 

Je. 25. 1 ; Dr. Blayney. 

( Je. 26. 1 : Dr. Blayney, 
\ Lightfoot, Taylor. 

(Bp. Lowth, Dr. Blay- 
\ ney. 

Internal Evidence. 

(Lightfoot, Dr. Blay- 
\ ney, and others. 

Je. 32. 1 ; Dr. Blayney. 
Internal Evidence. 

Internal Evidence. 

(Dr. Blayney, Taylor, 

( Internal Evidence. 

(Prideaux, Lightfoot, 
■< Taylor, Internal Ev- 

( idence. 

(Prideaux, Lightfoot, 
< Archbp. Uslier, Cal- 

( met. 

Internal Evidence. 

Internal Evidence. 
Internal Evidence. 
Internal Evidence. 
Internal Evidence. 



Internal 
Internal 



Evidence. 
Evidence. 



Internal 
Internal 
Internal 

Internal Evidence 



Evidence. 
Evidence. 
Evidence. 



1002 



OLD TESTAMENT PEOPHECIES. 



PBOPHECY. 




AFTER WHAT 
SCEIPTURE. 




jEKEiMIAH. 






xxxix., 15-18 . 




Je. 38.28.. 


xl.,xli.l-10... 




2 Ki. 25. 22 


11, to end... 




Je. 41.10.. 


xlii., xliii. 1-7. 

8, to end . . . 

xliv 




Je. 41. 10.. 
Je. 43. 7... 
Je. 46.28.. 


xlv 




Je. 38.8... 


xlvi.1-12 




Je. 36. 24. . 


13, to end. . . 
xlvii 




Je.43.13.. 
Je. 37.5... 


xlviii.,xlix... 




Je. 28. 17. . 


l.,li 




Je. 49.30.. 


lii. 1-3 




2 Ch. 36. 10 


4 




(I 


5-11 




(( 


12-14 


Je. 52. 27.. 


15 16 




Je 52 23 


17 23 




Je 52 14 


24-27 


Je. 39.14.. 


28-30 

31, to end... 




Je. 44. 30.. 
Dan. 4. 37. . 


Lamet^tat'ns 




2Ki.25.21. 


EZEKIBL. 






i.-iii. 1-21 .... 




Dan. 1. 22.. 


22, to end 
iv.-vii 




Ez.3.21... 


viii.-xi. 1-21. . 




Ez.7. 27... 


22, to end 
xii.-xix 




Ez.11.21.. 


xx.-xxiii 




Ez.19.14.. 


xxiv 




Ez. 23. 49 . . 




Ez. 33. 33.. 


xxvi.-xxviii. . 


Ez. 25. 17. . 


xxix. 1-16 




Ez. 24.27.. 


17, to end 

XXX. 1-19. . . 
XXX. 20, tc 

end ; xxxi. . 
xxxii. 1-16 

17, to end., 
xxxiii. 1-20. . . 
xxxiii. 21, tc 

end 




Ez.48. 35.. 

Ez.29.16.. 

Ez.28.26.. 
Ez.32.32.. 
Je. 52.30.. 


xxxiv.-xxxvii. 


Je. 33.20.. 


xxxviii. -xxxix 

xl., to the end 

of the book. 


L) 


Ez.37.28.. 
Ez.39.29.. 


Daniel. 






i.1-7 




Jer. 45. 5.. 


8, to end . . . 
ii 




Lam. 5. 22. 
Ez.,30. 19. 
Dan. 2. 49. 
Dan. 3. 30. 
Ps. 123... 
Ps. 102... 
Je. 52.34. 
Dan. 5. 31. 
Dan. 8. 27. 

Ps. 129... 




iii , . 

iv 




V ... 




vi 




vii 




viii 








x.-xii 




HOSEA. 

l.-iii 




2 Ki. 14. 27 


iv 




2 Ki. 14. 2f 





The promise of Ebed-melech 

^Conduct of Jeremiah after his captnre by^ 
-< Nebuzar-adan ; conspiracy of Ishmael > 

( against Gedaliah j 

(Johanan rescues the captives from Ish-> 
\ mael j" 

Jeremiah reproves Johanan 

On the arrival of Jeremiah in Egypt 

Predictions of Jeremiah at Tahpanhes. . 

Address to Baruch on reading the rolls . 

(On the defeat of Pharaoh-necho at Car-) 
\ chemish j 

On the arrival of Jeremiah in Egypt 

Before the conquest of Gaza by Pharaoh 
(On the ruin of the surrounding nations — \ 
t Nebuchadnezzar. ; j 

On Seraiah's going to Babylon 

Part of the life of Zedekiah 

(Nebuchadnezzar commences the siege of) 

( Jerusalem ...j 

j Part of the history of the siege of Jeru-1 
( salem j 

Burning of the Temple of Jerusalem 

(Account of those who were left in Judea) 
( by Nebuchadnezzar j" 

Account of the Jewish spoils 

(Murder of the chief priest after the cap-) 
( ture of Jerusalem j" 

Recapitulation of the captivities 

Release of Jehoiachin 

Jeremiah laments the desolation of Judea 

Commission of Ezekiel 

(Prediction of the destruction of Jerusa-) 
i lem / 

On the idolatries which occasioned the 
Babylonish captivity 

On the approaching ruin of Zedekiah, the 
false prophets, and the'Jewish nation. 

On Ezekiel's being consulted by the Jew- 
ish elders 

On the commencement of the siege of Je- 
rusalem / 

On hearing of the capture of the city. . . . 

Prophecy of the destruction of Tyre 

fOn Pharaoh's retreat before Nehuchad-) 

( nezzar j 

(After the siege of Tyre — final prediction) 

1 against Egypt ( 

jOn Pharaoh's retreat before Nebuchad-I 

( nezzar ( 

jOn hearing of the fall of Jerusalem— \ 
( against Egypt j 

To the captives in Babylon 

On hearing of the fall of Jerusalem 

(Appeal to the heads of the Jewish nation) 

\ after the fall of Jerusalem j 

Prophecy of Gog and Magog 

Vision of the Future Spiritual Temple . . 



Capture of Daniel by Nebuchadnezzar . . 

Condition of Daniel at Babylon 

Nebuchadnezzar's first dream 

The golden image set up 

Nebuchadnezzar's second dream 

Belshazzar's feast 

Daniel is cast into the den of lions 

Daniel's vision of the four living creatures 
Daniel's vision of the ram and the he-goat 

Prophecy of the seventy weeks 

On the interruption to the building of the) 
second Temple j 

In the distress of Israel in the reign of) 
Jeroboam the Second j" 

On the state of the country during the 
interregnum — after the death of Jero- 
boam the Second 



DATE AUTHORITY FOR ITS PLACE IN 
THE ARRANGEMENTS. 



588 



581 

587 
587 
587 

606 



606 

587 
589 

595 

595 
599 

588 



588 



595 
595 
594 

594 
593 

591 

587 
587 

589 
572 

588 

589 

587 
587 

587 
587 
574 

606 

606 
570 
570 
569 
539 
537 
541 
539 
538 



Internal Evidence. 
Je. 40. 1-13. 

Internal Evidence. 

Internal Evidence. 

Internal Evidence. 

Internal Evidence. 
(Taylor, Internal Evi- 
-< dence. Dr. Blayney, 
( Lightfoot. 

Dr. Blayney, Jer. 46. 3. 

Je. 46. 14 ; comp. 43. 7. 

Internal Evidence. 

Apparent connection 

with Je. 28. 
(Lightfoot, Taylor, Dr. 
( Blayney. 

Internal Evidence. 

Internal Evidence. 



Internal 

Internal 

Internal 

Internal 

Internal 

Internal 
Internal 



Evidence, 

Evidence. 

Evidence. 

Evidence. 

Evidence. 

Evidence. 
Evidence. 



Internal Evidence. 



(Ez. L 1, 2; Archbp. 
\ Newcome. 

Internal Evidence. 

jEz. 8. 1-5 ; Prideaux, 
l Archbp. Newcome. 

Archbp. Newcome. 

JArchbp. Newcome; 
"1 Ez. 20. 1. 

Ez. 24. 1. 

Archbp. Newcome. 
Archbp. Newcome. 

Ez. 29. 1. 

Ez. 29. 17, 18. 

Internal Evidence. 

Internal Evidence. 
Internal Evidence. 
Ez. 33. 21. 

Internal Evidence. 
Order of the chapters. 
Ez. 40. 1. 



f Prideaux; Da. 1. 12: 
( comp. 2 Ch. 36. 7. 

Da. 1. 8. 

Internal Evidence. 

Internal Evidence. 

Internal Evidence. 

Internal Evidence. 

Internal Evidence. 

Internal Evidence. 

Internal Evidence. 

Da. 9. 1. 

Da. 10. 1. 

Lightfoot, Dr. Wells, 
Blair, Dr. Gray, Tay- 
lor. 

Dr. Wells, Taylor. 



OLD TESTAMENT PROPHECIES. 



1003 



PROPHECY. 




AFTEK -WHAT 
SCRIPTUKE. 


L AMEN TAT 'NS 






v., vi 




2 Ch. 28. 25 


vii., to eud of) 
the book..../ 


2Ki.lT.4.. 


Joel. 






i.-iii 




2 Ch. 26. 15 


Amos. 






i.-vii. 1-9 ... . 




Hos. 3. 5 . . 


10, to end of ) 
the book..../ 


2 Ki. 14. 28 


Obadiah. 




2 Ch. 28. 19 


Jonah. 






i,-iv 




Am. 7.9. .. 


MiOAH. 




i., ii 


'} 


2 Ki. 15. 35 


iii., to end o 
book 


Is. 16. 14 . . 


Nahum. 






i.-iii 




Is. 19. 25 . . 


Habakkuk. 








Je. 6.30... 


ZErHANIAH. 




i.-iii 




1 Ch. 34. 32 


Haggai. 




i. 1-11 




Ezra 5. 1 . . 


12, to end 

ii.1-9 

10, to end... 


} 


Ezra 5. 2 . . 
Zee. 1.6... 


ZECHAEIAn. 

i. 1-0 

7, to end;) 
ii.-vi / 

vii., viii 

ix., to end of) 
the book..../ 


Hag. 2. 9 . . 
Hag. 2. 23.. 
Ps.138.... 
Ezra 10. 44 


MAT.AOUI. 






i.-iii. 1-lG .... 




Ps. 119 ... . 


16,to end ; iv 


. 


Neh. 13. 31 



On Ahaz's alliance with Tiglath-pileser . 
On the revolt of Hosea from Assyria 



On Uzziah's increasing his army 

In the reign of Jeroboam the Second . . . 

(On being accused of a conspiracy against) 
\ Jeroboam the Second ) 

Against Edora on their assisting Pekah. 

(Soon after the accomplishment of Jo-) 
\ nah's first prophecy (2 Ki. 14. 25) / 

On the continuance of idolatry in the) 
reign of Jotham ( 

Written to support the reformation by) 
Hezekiah / 

(Against Nineveh, immediately after the) 
\ captivity of the ten tribes / 

(On the backslidiug after the reformation) 
\ by Josiah / 

To assist the reformation by Josiah 

(On resuming the building of the second) 
\ Temple / 

To encourage builders of second Temple 

Address to the builders of second Temple 

Exhortation to repentance 

Address to the builders of second Temple 

To messengers from Babylon 

(Probably about the time of Ezra's ref-) 
\ ormation / 

(On the corruptions introduced after the) 
( reformation by Nehemiah / 

(After the completion of the reformation) 
\ by Nehemiah j 



739 
725 



787 

793 

784 

740 
787 

753 
722 

720 
612 

624 

520 

520 
520 

520 
520 
519 
457 

443 
400 



Lightfoot. 

(Ho. 7. 11 ; 12. 1 ; comp. 
\ 2Ki.l7.4. 



[Blair, Lightfoot, Dr. 
Gray, Internal Evi- 
[ dence. 

fArchbp. Usher, Light- 
I foot, Dr. Hales, 
f Am. 7. 10 ; Lightfoot, 
t Wells, Taylor. 

fDupin, Internal Evi- 
I dence. 



fBlair, Archbp. New- 
come. 



(Taylor, Lightfoot, Mi. 
\ 1. 1. 

( Je. 26. 18 ; comp. Mi. 
\ 1.6, and 3. 9. 



Archbp. Newcome. 



(Dr. Wells, Gray, Pat- 
\ rick. 



(Zee. 1. 9 ; comp. 2 Ki. 
■< 23. 5-12 ; Lightfoot, 
( Gray. 

(Ez. 5.1; comp. Hag. 1. 
1 1. 

Internal Evidence. 

Prideaux, Hag. 2. 10. 

Zee. 1. 1. 

Zee. 1. 7. 

Zee. 7. 1, 2, 3. 
(Lightfoot, Internal 
( Evidence. 

Mai. 2. 11 ; comp. Neh. 
23. 27, and Mai. 1.10, 
with Neh. 13. 10, 11. 

•nal Evidence. 



In ten 



LAWS OF MOSES. 



This tabular statement of the Laws of Moses is taken from " Smith's Dictionary of the Bibles Compare with it, 

in this Dictionary, article Jews. 



In giving an analysis of the substance of the 
Laws of Moses, as contained in the Pentateuch, 
it will be convenient to treat it, as any other sys- 
tem of laAvs is usually treated, by dividing it into 
— (I.) Laws Civil; (IL) Laws Criminal; (HI.) 
Laws Judicial and Constitutional; (IV.) Laws 
Ecclesiastical and Ceremonial. 



(I.) LAWS CIVIL. 

(A) OF PERSONS. 

(a) Father and Son. — The power of a Fa- 
ther to be held sacred ; cursing, or smiting (Ex. 
21. 15, 17 ; Lev. 20. 9), or stubborn and willful 
disobedience, to be considered capital crimes. 
But uncontrolled power of life and death was ap- 
parently refused to the father, and vested only 
in the congregation (Deut. 21. 18-21). Right of 
the first-horn to a double portion of the inherit- 
ance not to be set aside by partiality (Deut. 21. 
15-17). Inheritance hy daughters to be allow- 
ed in default of sons, provided (Num. 27. 6-8, 
comp. ch. 36) that heiresses married in their own 
tribe. Daughters unmarried to be entirely de- 
pendent on their father (Num. 30. 3-5). 

(h) Husband and Wife. — The power of a 
Husband to be so great that a wife could never 
be sui juris, or enter independently into any en- 
gagement, even before God (Num. 30. 6-15). A 
widow or divorced wife became independent, and 
did not again fall under her father's power (ver. 
9). Divorce (for uncleanness) allowed, but to be 
formal and irrevocable (Deut. 24. 1-4). Mar- 
riage within certain degrees forbidden (Lev. 18. 
etc.). A slave wife, whether bought or captive, 
not to be actual property, nor to be sold ; if ill- 
treated, to be ipso facto free (Ex. 21. 7-9 ; Deut. 

21. 10-14). /S/anc^er against a wife's virginity to 
be punished by fine, and by deprival of power of 
divorce ; on the other hand, ante-connubial un- 
cleanness in her to be punished by death (Deut. 

22. 13-21). The raising up of seed (Levirate 
law) a formal right to be claimed by the widow, 
under pain of infamy, with a view to preserva- 
tion of families (Deut. 25. 5-10). 

(c) Master and Slave. — Power of Master 
so far limited, that death under actual chastise- 
ment was punishable (Ex. 21. 20) ; and maim- 
ing was to give liberty ipso facto (ver. 26, 27). 
The Hebrew slave to he freed at the Sabbatical 
year,* and provided with necessaries (his wife 
and children to go with only if they came to his 
master with him), unless by his own formal act 
he consented to be a perpetual slave (Ex. 21. 1- 
6; Deut. 15. 12-18), In any case, it would 
seem, to be freed at the jubilee (Lev. 25. 10), 
%vith his children. If sold to a resident alien, 

* The difficulty of ecforcing this law is seeu iu Jer, 
34. 8-16. 



to be always redeemable, at a price proportional 
to the distance of the jubilee (Lev. 25. 47-54). 
Foreign slaves to be held and inherited as prop- 
erty forever (Lev. 25. 45, 46) ; and fugitive slaves 
from foreign nations not to lae given up (Deut. 
23. 15). 

{d) Strangers. — They seem never to have 
been sui juris, or able to protect themselves, and 
accordingly protection and kindness toward them 
are enjoined as a sacred duty (Ex. 22. 21 ; Lev. 
19. 33, 34). 

(B) LAW OF THINGS. 

(a) Laws op Land (and Property). — (1) 

All land to be the property of God alone, and its 
holders to be deemed his tenants (Lev. 25. 23). 
(2) All sold land therefore to return to its orig- 
inal owners at the jubilee, and the price of sale 
to be calculated accordingly ; and redemption on 
equitable terms to be allowed at all times (25. 
25-27.) A house sold to be redeemable within 
a year ; and, if not redeemed, to pass away al- 
together (25. 29, 30). But the Houses of the Le- 
vites, or those in unwalled villages, to be redeem- 
able at all times, in the same way as land ; and 
the Levitical suburbs to be inalienable (25. 31- 
34). (3) Land or houses sanctified, or tithes, 
or unclean firstlings to be capable of being re- 
deemed, at six -fifths value (calculated accord- 
ing to the distance from the jubilee-year by the 
priest) ; if devoted by the owner and unredeem- 
ed, to be hallowed at the jubilee forever, and 
given to the priests ; if only by a possessor, to re- 
turn to the owner at the jubilee (Lev. 27. 14-34). 
(4) Inheritance. 



(1) Sons. I 

(2) BaugMers.* \ 

(3) Brothers. 

(4) Uncles on the Father^s side. 

(5) Next Kinsmen, generally. 

(b) Laws of Debt. — (1) All debts (to an Is- 
raelite) — to be released at the 7th (Sabbatical) 
year ; a blessing promised to obedience, and a 
curse on refusal to lend (Deut. 15. 1-11^. (2) 
Usury (from Israelites) not to be taken (Ex, 22. 
25-27 ; Deut. 23. 19, 20). (3) Pledges not to 
be insolently or ruinously exacted (Deut. 24. 6, 
10-13, 17, 18). 

(c) Taxation. — (1) Census-money, a poll-tax 
(of a half-shekel), to be paid for the service of the 
tabernacle (Ex. 30. 12-16). All spoil in war to 
be halved ; of the combatant's half, one five-hun- 
dredth, of the people's, one-fiftieth, to be paid for 
a " heave-offiering " to Jehovah. 

(2) Tithes, (a) Tithes of all produce to be 
given for maintenance of the Levites (Num, 18. 
20-24). (Of this one-tenth to be paid as a heave- 
offering for maintenance of the priests ,.. 24-32.) 

* Heiresses to marry in their own tribe (Num. 27. 
C-8: 3G. 



LAWS OF MOSES. 



1005 



(/3) Second tithe to be bestowed in religious feast- 
ing and charity, either at the Holy Place, or ev- 
ery third year at home (?) (Ueut. 14. 22-28). 
(y) First-fruits of corn, wine, and oil (at least 
one-sixtieth, generally one-fortieth, for the priests) 
to be offered at Jerusalem, with a solemn decla- 
ration of dependence on God the King of Israel 
(Deut. 26. 1-15; Num. 18. 12, 13.) Firstlings 
of clean beasts ; the redemption - money (five 
shekels) of man, and (half-shekel, or one shekel) 
of unclean beasts, to be given to the priests after 
sacrifice (Num. 18. 15-18).^ 

(3) Poor Laws, (a) Gleanings (in field or 
vineyard) to be a legal right of the poor (Lev. 
19. 9, 10; Deut. 24. 19-22). (/?) Slight trespass 
(eating on the spot) to be allowed as legal (Deut. 
23. 24, 25). (y) Second tithe (see 2 /5) to be 
given in charity. (J) Wages to be paid day by 
day (Deut. 24. 15). 

(4) Maintenance of Priests (Num. 18. 8-32). 
{a) Tenth of Levites' tithe. (See 2 a.) (P) The 
heave and wave offerings (breast and right shoul- 
der of all peace-offerings), (y) The meat and 
sin offerings, to be eaten solemnly, and only in 
the Holy Place. {S) First-fruits and redemp- 
tion-money. (See2y.) (e) Price of all devoted 
things, unless specially given for a sacred service. 
A man's service, or tliat of his household, to be 
redeemed at fifty shekels for man, thirty for 
woman, twenty for boy, and ten for girl. 



(11.) LAWS CRIMINAL. 

(A) OFFENSES AGAINST GOD (of the nature of 
treason). 

First command. Acknowledgment of false 
gods (Ex. 22. 20), as, e.g., Molech (Lev. 20. 1-5), 
and generally all idolatry (Deut. 13. 17. 2-5). 

Second command. Witchcraft and false 
prophecy (Ex. 22. 18 ; Deut. 18. 9-22 ; Lev. 19. 
31). 

Third command. Blasphemy (Lev. 24. 15, IG). 

Fourth command. Sabbath-breaking (Num. 
15. 32-3G). 

Punishment in all cases, death by stoning. 
Idolatrous cities to be utterly destroyed. 

(B) OFFENSES AGAINST MAN. 

Fifth command. Disobedience to, or cursing 
or smiting of , parents (Ex. 21. 15, 17 ; Lev. 20. 
9 ; Deut. 21. 18-21), to be punished by death by 
stoning, publicly adjudged and inflicted ; so also 
of disobedience to the priests (as judges) or Su- 
preme Judge. Comp. 1 Kings 21. 10-14 (Na- 
both) ; 2 Chr. 24. 21 (Zechariah). 

Sixth command. (1) Murder, to be punished 
by death witliout sanctuary or reprieve, or sat- 
isfaction (Ex. 21. 12, 14; Deut. 19. 11-13). 
Death of a slave, actually under the rod, to be 
punished (Ex. 21. 20, 21). (2) Death by negli- 
gence, to be punished by death (Ex. 21. 28-30). 
(3) Accidental homicide: the avenger of blood 
to be escaped by flight to the cities of refuge till 
the death of the high-priest (Num. 35. 9-28 ; 
Deut. 4. 41-43 ; 19. 4-10). (4) Uncertain mur- 
der, to be expiated by formal disavowal and sac- 
rifice by the elders of the nearest city (Deut. 21. 
1-9). (5) Assault to be punished by lex talionis, 
or damages (Ex. 21. 18, 19, 22-25 ; Lev. 24. 19, 
20). 



Seventh command. (1) Adultery to be pun- 
ished by death of both offenders ; the rape of a 
married or betrothed woman, by death of the 
ofl^'ender (Deut. 22. 13-27). (2) Rape or seduc- 
tion of an unbetrothed virgin, to be compensated 
by marriage, with dowry (fifty sliekels), and with- 
out power of divorce ; or, if she be refused, by 
payment of full dowry (Ex. 22. IG, 17; Deut. 
22. 28, 29). (3) Unlawful marriages (incestu- 
ous, etc.), to be punished, some by death, some 
by childlessness (Lev. 20). 

Eighth command. (1) Theft to be punished 
by fourfold or double restitution ; a nocturnal 
robber might be slain as an outlaw (Ex. 22. 1- 
4). (2) Trespass and injury of things lent to be 
compensated (Ex. 23. 5-15). (3) Perversion of 
justice (by bribes, threats, etc.), and especially 
oppression of strangers, stiictly forbidden (Ex. 
22. 9, etc.). (4) Kidnapping to be punished by 
death (Deut. 24. 7). 

Ninth command. False witness, to be pun- 
ished by lex talionis (Ex. 23. 1-3; Deut. 19. IG- 
21). Slander of a wife's chastity, by fine and 
loss of power of divorce (Deut. 22. 18, 19). 

A fuller consideration of the tables of the Ten 
Commandments is given elsewhere. (See Ten 
Commandments.) 



(in.) LAWS JUDICIAL AND CON- 
STITUTIONAL. 

(A) JURISDICTION. 

(a) Local judges (generally Levites, as more 
skilled in the law) appointed, for ordinary mat- 
ters, probably by the people with approbation of 
the supreme authority (as of Moses in the wil- 
derness) (Ex. 18. 25 ; Deut. 1. 15-18) through all 
the land (Deut. IG. 18). (6) Appeal to the priests 
(at the Holy Place), or to the judge; their 
sentence final, and to be accepted under pain of 
death. See Deut. 17. 8-13 (comp. appeal to 
Moses, Ex. 18. 2G). (c) Two witnesses (at least) 
required in capital matters (Num. 35. 30 ; Deut. 
17. G, 7). {d) Punishment (except by special 
command), to be personal, and not to extend to 
the family (Deut. 24. IG). Stripes allowed and 
limited (Deut, 25. 1-3), so as to avoid outrage 
on the human frame. 

All this would be to a great extent set aside — 
First, by the summary jurisdiction of the king 
(see 1 Sam. 22. 11-19 (Saul) ; 2 Sam. 12. 1-5, 
14. 4-11 ; 1 Kings 3. lG-28), which extended 
even to the deposition of the high-priest (1 Sam. 
22. 17, 18 ; 1 Kings 2. 2G, 27). The practical 
difficulty of its being carried out is seen in 2 
Sam. 15. 2-G, and would lead of course to a cer- 
tain delegation of his power. Second, by the ap- 
pointment of the Seventy (Num. 11. 24-30) with 
a solemn religious sanction. In later times there 
was a local Sanhedrim of twenty-three in each 
city, and two such in Jerusalem, as well as the 
Great Sanhedrim, consisting of seventy members, 
besides the president, who was to be the high- 
priest if duly qualified, and controlling even the 
king and high-priest. The members were priests, 
scribes (Levites), and elders (of other tribes). 
A court of exactly this nature is noticed as ap- 
pointed to supreme power by Jehoshaphat. (See 
2 Chron. 19. 8-11.) 



1006 



LAWS OF MOSES. 



(B) EOYAL POWER. 

The king's power limited by the Law, as writ- 
ten and formally accepted by the king ; and di- 
rectly forbidden to be despotic (Dent. 17. 14-20 ; 
comp. 1 Sam. 10. 25). Yet he had power of tax- 
ation (to one-tenth) ; and of compulsory service 
(1 Sam. 8. 10-18) ; the declaration of war (1 
Sam. 11.), etc. There are distinct traces of a 
"mutual contract" (2 Sam. 5. 3 ; a "league," 2 
Kings 11. 17) ; the remonstrance Avith Reho- 
boam being clearly not extraordinary (1 Kings 
12. 1-6). 

The princes of the congregation. The heads 
of the tribes (see Josh. 9. 15) seem to have had 
authority under Joshua to act for the people 
(comp. 1 Chr. 27. 16-22 ; and in the later times 
"the princes of Judah" seem to have had power 
to control both the king and the priests (see Jer. 
26. 10-21; 38. 4, 5, etc.). 

(C) ROYAL REVENUE. 

(1) Tenth of produce. (2) Domain land (1 
Chr. 27. 26-29). Note confiscation of crim- 
inal's land (1 Kings 21. 15). (3) Bond service 
(1 Kings 5. 17, 18), chiefly on foreigners (1 Kings 
9. 20-22 ; 2 Chr. 2. 16, 17). (4) Flocks and 
herds (1 Chr. 27. 29-31). (5) Tributes (gifts) 
from foreign kings. (6) Commerce; especially 
in Solomon's time (1 Kings 10. 22, 29, etc.). 



(lY.) ECCLESIASTICAL AND 
CEREMONIAL LAW. 

(A) Law of Sacrifice (considered as the sign 
and the appointed means of the union with 
God, on which the holiness of the people de- 
pended). 

(1) ORDINARY SACRIFICES. 

(a) The whole Burnt-offering (Lev. 1.) of the 
herd or the flock; to be offered continually 
(Ex. 29. 38-42) ; and the fire on the altar 
ncA'er to be extinguished (Lev. 6. 8-13). 

(,/3) The Meat-offering (Lev. 2. ; 6. 14-23) of 
flour, oil, and frankincense, unleavened, and 
seasoned with salt. 

(7) The Peace-offering (Lev. 3. ; 7. 11-21) of 
the herd or the flock ; either a thank-offer- 
ing, or a vow, or free-will offering. 

(6) The Sin-offering, or Trespass -offering 
(Lev. 4. ; 5. ; 6.). 

(a) For sins committed in ignorance (Lev. 4.). 

(6) For vows, unwittingly made and broken, 
or uncleanness unwittingly contracted (Lev. 
5.). . 

(c) For sins wittingly committed (Lev. 6. 1-7). 



(2) EXTRAORDINARY SACRIFICES. 
(a) At the Consecration of Priests {hex. 8. ; 9.). 
(;^) At the Purification of Women (Lev. 12.). 
(y) At the Cleansing of Lepers (Lev. 13. ; 14.). 

(d) On the Great Day of Atonement (Lev. 16.). 

(e) On the great Festivals (Lev. 23.). 

(B) Law of Holiness (arising from the union 
with God through sacrifice). 

(1) HOLINESS OF PERSONS, 
(a) Holiness of the whole people as "children 

of God" (Ex. 19. 5, 6; Lev. 11.-15. ; 17. ; 

18. ; Deut. 14. 1.-21), shown in 
(a) The dedication of the first-born (Ex. 13. 

2, 12, 13 ; 22. 29, 30, etc. ; and the offering 

of all firstlings and first-fruits (Deut. 26., 

etc.). 
(6) Distinction of clean and unclean food 

(Lev. 11. ; Deut. 14.). 

(c) Provision for purification (Lev. 12. ; 13. ; 

14. ; 15. ; Deut. 23. 1-14). 

(d) Laws against disfigurement (Lev. 19. 27 ; 
Deut. 14. 1 ; comp. Deut. 25, 3, against ex- 
cessive scourging). 

(e) Laws against unnatural marriages and 
lusts (Lev. 18. ; 20.). 

(/3^ Holiness of the Priests {and Levites). 
(a) Their consecration (Lev. 8. ; 9. ; Ex. 29.). 

(6) Their special qualifications and restrictions 
(Lev. 21. ; 22. 1-9). 

(c) Their rights (Deut. 18. 1-6; Num. 18.) 
and authority (Deut. 17. 8-13). 

(2) HOLINESS OP PLACES AND THINGS. 

(a) The Tabernacle, with the ark, the vail, the 
altars, the laver, the priestly robes, etc. (Ex. 
25.-28. ; 30.). 

(/5) The Holy Place chosen for the permanent 
erection of the Tabernacle (Deut. 12. ; 14. 
22-29), where only all saciifices were to be 
offered, and all tithes, first-fruits, vows, etc., 
to be given or eaten. 

(3) HOLINESS OF TBIES. 

(a) The Sabbath (Ex. 20. 9-11 ; 23. 12, etc.). 
(^3 The Sabbatical Year (Ex. 23. 10, 11 ; 
Lev. 25. 1-7, etc.). 

(7) The Year of Jubilee (Lev. 25. 8-16, etc.). 

(d) The Passover (Ex. 12. 3-27 ; Lev. 13. 4- 
14). . . 

(e) The Feast of Weeks (Pentecost) (Lev. 23. 

15. etc.). 

(0 The Feast of Tabernacles (Lev. 23. 33- 

43). 
(v) The Feast of Trumpets (Lev. 23. 23-25). 
(6) The Day of Atonement (Lev. 23. 26-32, 

etc.). 



AN ITINERARY OF THE CHILDREN OF ISRAEL 
FROM EGYPT TO CANAAN.* 



Stations. 



Modern or other Name. 



References. 



Y. M. D. 
1. 1.15. 



1. 2.15. 



1. 3.15. 



1490. 
I. 2.20. 



2. 5. 



1452. 
40. 1. 



41. 1. 10. 



1. Kameses... < 

2. Succoth 

3. Etham | 

4. Pi-Hahiroth | 

5. Marah 

6. Elira 

T. By the Red Sea . . . 
S. In the Wilderness) 

of Sin I 

9. Dophkah 

10. Alush 

11. Eephidim 

12. Mount Sinai 

13. Taberah 

14. Kibroth-Hatta- ) 

avah I 

15. Hazeroth |- 

16. Wilderness of Pa-\ 

ran j 



17. Kadesh-Bamea . 



18. Eimmon-Parez ... \ 

19. Libnah 

20. Eissah 

21. Kehelathah 

■22. Mount Shapher . . . 

23. Haradah 

24. Makheloth 

25. Tahath 

26. Tarah 

27. Mithcah 

28. Hashraonah 

29. Moseroth 

SO. Bene-Jaakan 

31. Hor-Hagidgad 

32. Jotbathah i 

33. Ebronab 

34. Ezion-Geber j 

35. Kadesh 

36. Mount Hor 

37. Zalmonah , 

3S. Punon 

39. Oboth 

40. Ije-Abarim, or lim 

41. Dibon, or Dibon- l 

Gad j 

42. Almon-Diblathaim 

43. Mount Nebo ■{ 

44. In the Plains of 

Moab, near Jor- 
dan 



proh. Heliopolis, now Matarieh 

■prob. ancient Scense 

prob. Pithom, Patumos, or Thonm, 
now Abassieh, in Wady Tumilat 

prob. Herpopolis, ruins in Wady Tu- 
milat 

prob. Ain Hawarah 

Wady Ghurundel 

Mouth of Wady Taiyibeh 

prob. the Wady Mukatteb 

exact site unknown 



prob. in Wady Sheikh. 



Jebel Mousa. 



site unknown . . . 

Ain Hudhera — 
desert of El-Tyh 



[Eithmah] Ain Kades. 



prob. in the region of El-Tyh, exact) 
site unknown j 



perhaps Elath or ./Elana, now Aka-\ 

bah ,.../ 

site unknown 

afterward Berenice, near Akabah . . < 

[in the desert of Sin] prob. near Ain-) 
el-Weibeh, on the borders of^ 
Wady Arabah ) 

Jebel Neby Haroun \ 

prob. near the head of the Gulf of) 
Akabah, exact site unknown. . . i 
site unknown 



Dhiban 

site unknown. 



[Pisgah] site unknown. 



part of El-Ghor, or the Valley of the) 
Jordan f 



Ge. 47. 11. Ex. 1. 11 ; 12. 37. 

Nu. 33. 3, 5. 
Ex. 12. 37; 13.20. Nu.33.5,6. 
Ex. 13. 20. Nu. 33.6, 7. 
Ex. 14. 2, 9. Nu. 33. 7, 8. 

Ex.15. 23. Nu.33.S,9. 

Ex. 15. 27 ; 16. 1. Nu. 33. 9, 10. 

Nu. 33. 10. 

Ex. 16. 1 ; 17. 1. Nu. 33. 11, 12. 

Nu. 33. 12, 13. 

Nu. 38. 13, 14. 

Ex. 17. 1,8; 19. 2. Nu. 83. 14, 15. 

Ex. 16. 1 ; 19. 1, 2, 11, 18, 20, 28 ; 

24.16; 31.18; 34.2, 4, 29, 32. 

Le. 7. 38 ; 25. 1 ; 26. 46 ; 27. 34. 

Nu. 1. 1, 19; 3.1,4,14; 9.1.5; 

10. 12 ; 26. 64 ; 28. 6 ; 38. 15, 16. 

De. 33. 2.^Jud. 5. 5. Ne. 9. 13. 

Ps.68.8,17. Ac. 7. 30, 38. Ga. 

4. 24, 25. 
Nu. 11. 3. De. 9. 22. 
Nu. 11. 34, 35 ; 33, 16, 17. De. 

9 22 
Nil. li. 35 ; 12. 16 ; 33. 17, 18. 

De. 1. 1. 
Ge. 21. 21. Nu. 10. 12 ; 12. 16 ; 

13. 3, 26 ; De. 1. 1 ; 33. 2. 1 

Sam. 25. 1. 1 Ki. 11. 18. Hab. 

3. 3. 
Nil. 1*3. 26 ; 20. 1, 14, 22 ; 27. 14 ; 

32. 8 ; 33. 36, 37 ; 34. 4. De. 1. 

2, 19, 46 ; 2. 14 ; 9. 23 ; 32. 51. 

Jos. 10. 41 ; 14. 6, 7 ; 15. 3. Ju. 

11.16,17. Ps. 29. 8. Eze.47. 

19 ; 48. 28. 

Nu. 33. 19. 

Nu. 83. 20. 
Nu. 38. 21. 
Nu. 33. 22. 
Nu. 83. 23. 
Nu. 33. 24. 
Nu. 33. 25. 
Nu. 88. 26. 
Nu. 33. 27. 
Nu. 33. 28. 
Nu. 33. 29. 
Nu. 33. 30. 
Nu. 33. 31. 
Nu. 33. 32. 

Nu. 83. 33. 34. De. 10. 7. 

Nu. 33. 34. 

Nu. 88. 35, 86. De. 2. 8. 1 Ki. 9. 
26 ; 22. 48. 2 Ch, 8. 17 ; 20. 86. 

Nu. 33. 86. 

Nu. 20. 22, 23, 25, 27 ; 21.4; 83. 
37, 38, 39, 41. De. 32. 50. 

Nu. 83. 41. 

Nu. 33. 42. 

Nu. 21. 10, 11 ; 38. 43, 44. 

Nu. 21. 11 ; 33. 44, 45. 

Nu. 21.30; 32.3,34: 83.45,46. 

Jos. 18. 9,17. Is. 15. 2. Je.4S. 

18 22 
Nu.'83.'46. Eze.6. 14. 
Nu. 82. 3, 38 ; 33. 47. De. 82. 49 ; 

84. 1. 1 Ch. 5. 8. Ezr. 2. 29 ; 

10.43. Ne.7. 38. Is. 15. 2. Je. 

48. 1, 22. 

Nu. 22.1; 33.48. 



From Baxter's Bible. 



CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER OF THE BOOKS OF THE OLD AND 

NEW TESTAMENTS, 

AATITH THE PLACES IN WHICH THE NEW TESTAMENT BOOKS WERE WRITTEN. 





B.C. 




B.C. 




1491 

1491 
1490 
1451 
1451 
1427 
1406 
1312 
1055 
1018 
1015 

1013 

1004 

1004 

1000 

975 

897 

862 

800 


Amos 

Micah 

Hosea 


787 
750 
740 
713 
698 
630 
626 
623 
590 
588 
588 
587 
574 
584 
520 
520 
509 
457 
434 
397 


Job 

Exodus 

Levitictis 

Deuteronomy 

Numbers 

Joshua 

Judges 

Ruth 

1 Samuel 


Nahum 

Isaiah 


Zephaniah 

Habakkuk 


2 Kings 


Jeremiah 


2 Samuel . . 


Lamentations 


1 Chronicles 

Psalms 


Obadiah 


Ezekiel 


Daniel -. . . 


1 Kfuo-s i. xi 




2 Chronicles i. ix 


Zechariah 


Proverbs 

Ecclesiastes 


Esther 


Ezra 


1 Kings xii., etc 

Jonah 

Joel 




Malachi 


















WHEKE W'RITTEN. 


A.D. 




WHKKE WKITTEN. 


A.D. 


Matthew 

Galatians 


Judea 

(Macedonia or\ 
t Corinth j 

Corinth 

Corinth 

Ephesus 

Macedonia 

Corinth 

Rome 

Jerusalem 

Rome 

Rome 

Rome 

Greece 

Rome 


88 

52 

52 
52 
56 
57 
58 
61 
61 
62 
62 
62 
63 
68 


Acts 

1 Timothy 

1 Peter 


Greece 

Mace'donia 

Rome 

(Macedonia or) 
\ Greece | 

Rome 

Rome 

Rome 

Judea 

Ephesus 

Ephesus 

Unknown 


64 
64 
64 

64 

65 
65 
65 
69 
69 
69 
70 
96 
97 


Titus 

Mark 

2 Timothy 

2 Peter 


2 Thessalouiaus = 




2 Corinthians 


Ephesians 

James 

Philippians 




2 John 


3 John 


Jnde 


Philemon 

Luke 

Hebrews 


John 


Asia Minor . . . 





CHRONOLOGICAL INDEX TO THE BIBLE TO THE DEATH OF 

SOLOMON. 



A.M. 


B.C. 


1 


4004 


1 


4004 


2 


4002 


3 


4001 


129 


3875 


130 


3874 


622 


33S2 


687 


3317 


930 


3074 


087 


3017 


1042 


2962 


1056 


2948 


1536 


2408 


1656 


2348 



PERIOD I. 

From, the Creation to the Deluge, containing 1656 years. 

The creation of the world 

(Fall of our first parents, Adam and Eve, from holiness and happi- 
\ ness, by disobeying God. Promise of a Saviour 

Cain born 

Abel born 

Abel murdered by his brother Cain 

Seth born, his father, Adam, being 130 years old 

Enoch born 

Methuselah born = 

Adam dies, aged 930 years 

Enoch translated, aged 365 years 

Seth dies, aged 912 years . . .". 

Noah born 

(The Deluge threatened, and Noah commissioned to preach repent- 
( ance during 120 years 

Methuselah dies, aged 9G9 years 

In the same year Noah enters into the ark, being 600 years old 



Ge. 1. 2. 
Ge.8. 

Ge. 4. 1. 

Ge. 4. 2. 

Ge. 4. 8. 

Ge. 5. 3. 

Ge. 5. IS, 19. 

Ge. 5. 21. 

Ge. 5. 5. 

Ge. 5. 24. 

Ge. 5. 8. 

Ge. 5. 28, 29. 
(Ge. 6. 3-22. 

1 Pe. 3. 20. 
(2 Pe. 2. 5. 

Ge. 5. 27. 

Ge. 7. 6, 7. 



CHEOXOLOGICAL BIBLE IXDEX TO THE DEATH OF SOLOMON. 



lOO'J 



1657 

1770 
1770 

1771 

1816 
2006 
2008 



2107 

2108 

2133 

2145 
2148 
2168 
2183 

2245 

2258 
2265 
2275 
223S 
2298 
2315 
2368 
2430 
2433 
2473 
2513 



2347 

2234 
2234 

2233 

2188 
1998 
1996 



1936 
1921 
1913 
1910 

1897 



1871 

1859 
1856 
183G 
1S21 

1759 

1746 
1739 
1729 
1716 
1706 
1689 
1636 
1574 
1571 
1531 
1491 



2513 


1491 


2514 


1490 


2552 


1452 


2552 


1452 


2553 


1451 


2553 


1451 


2561 


1443 


2579 


1425 


2849 


1155 


2888 


1116 


2909 


1095 


2919 


10S5 


2941 


1063 


2949 


1055 


2956 


irj43 


2990 


1014 


3000 


1004 


3029 


975 



PERIOD 11. 

Frrjrn the Dduge to tM call of Abraham,, containing 427 yearn. 

fXoah, with his family, leaves the ark after the Delude, and offering) 



sacrifice, he receives the covenant of safety, of which the rainbow 

[ was the token ) 

Babel bailt 

The confusion of lanj^nage, and dispersion of mankind 

[Xirarod lays the first foundation of the Babylonian or Assyrian mon-) 

{ archy / 

Mizraim lays the foundation of the Egyptian monarchy 

Noah dies, aged 950 years 

Abraham born '. 



S. 18, 20. 
9. 8, 17. 

11. 
11. 



Gq. 10. 8-11. 



PERIOD HI. 
From the call of Alrraham to the ExfAua of Israel frvra Egypt, 430 yean. 

I Abraham called from Chaldean idolatry at sixty years of age 

Abraham's second call to Canaan 

Abraham's victory over the kings, and rescue of Lot 

! Ishmael born, Abraham being eighty-six years old 

! (God's covenant wth Abram, changing his name to Abraham ; circum-) 

' ' cision instituted— Lot delivered, and Sodom, Gomorrah, Admah, ^ 

and Zeboim destroyed by fire, ou account of their abominations. . j 

Isaac born, Abraham' being 100 years old 



Ge. 

Ge. 
Ge. 



10. 13. 
9.29. 
11. 26. 



Abraham offers Isaac to God 



Sarah, Abraham's wife, dies, aged 127 years 

Isaac marries Rebekah 

Jacob and Esau born, Isaac being sixty years old 

Abraham dies, aged 175 years. .T. 

/Jacob goes to his' uncle Laban in Syria, and marries his daughters,) 
( Leah'and Rachel / 

Joseph born, Jacob being ninety years old 

Jacob returns to Canaan"^ 

Joseph sold as a slave ... 

Joseph explains Pharaoh's dream, and is made goveraor 

Joseph's brethren settle in Egypt 

Jacob foretells advent of Messiah. Dies, aged 147 

Joseph dies, aged 110. 

Aaron born 

Moses born 

Moses flees into Midian 

Moses commissioned by God to deliver Israel 

PERIOD IV. 

Frora the Exodus of Israel frora Egypt to the luilding of Solornxra's 

Temple. 

Miraculous passage of the Eed Sea 

Law delivered on Sinai 

Miriam, sister of Moses, dies, aged 130 

Aaron dies, aged 123 

Moses dies, aged 120 ; Joshua is ordained his successor 

The Israelites pass Jordan ; Jericho taken 

Joshua dies, aged 110 



The government of the Judges. The history of Ruth 

Samuel bom = 

Eli, the high-priest, dies 

Saul anointed King of Israel 

Da\id born , 

David slays Goliath ' 

Saul defeated and dies. David acknowledged King of Judah j 

/Ishbosheth, King of Israel, assassinated: David made Kini; of the) 
( united nation T / ' 

David dies, aged TO 

Solomon's Temple. finished 

Solomon dies 



Ge. 11. 31. 
Ge. 1-^. 1-4. 
Ge. 14. 1-24. 
Ge. 16. 

Ge. 17.-19. 

Ge. 2L 
(Ge. 22. 
-^ He. 11. 17-19 
(Ja. 2. 21. 

Ge. 23. 1. 

Ge. 24. 

Ge. 25. 26. 

Ge. 25. 7, 8. 

Ge.28. 

Ge. 30. 23, 24 
Ge. 31. 32. 
Ge. 37. 
Ge. 4L 
Ge. 43. 44. 
Ge. 49. 
Ge. 50. 26. 
Ex. 6. 20 ; 7. 7. 
Ex. 2. 1-10. 
Ex. 2. 11-13. 
Ex. 3. 2. 



Ex. 14. 15. 
Ex. 19.-40. 
Xu. 20. 1. 
Xu. 20. 23, 29. 
De. 34. 
Josh. 1.-6. 
Josh. 24. 
rJude. 
iRuth, 
1 Sa. 1. 19. 
1 Sa.4.1. 
1 Sa. 10. 11, 12. 
lSa.l6..13. 
1 Sa. 17. 4, 9. 

1 Sa. 31. 

2 Sa. L 

1KL2. 

1 Ki. 6. 7, 

1 KL 11. 41^3. 



64 



A COMPARATIVE CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE 



THE KINGS AND PROPHETS OF JUDAH AND ISRAEL. 



THE KINGS OF ISKAEL BEFORE THE REVOLT OF THE TEN TRIBES. 

Saul Rkigned 40 Yeaks 13,0. 1095. 

David — 40 — — 1055. 

Solomon — 40 — — 1015. 



Prophets of 

JuDAH. 


Regnal 

Years. 


Sheraaiah 


17 
3 


Oded 

Azariah . . 
Hauani... 
Jehn, son 
of Hanani 


41 




25 


Eliezer... 
Jahaziel . 


8 




1 


Zechariah, 
ison of Je- 
hoiada .. 


6 

40 

29 


Zechariah 

Ovho had 
understand- 
in<r in the 
visions of 
God, -2 Ch. 
XXVI. 5). 


52 


Isaiah ... 
Micah.... 


16 
16 


Nahura .. 


29 


J<!el 

Jeremiah. 
Habakkuk 
Zephaniah 
Ezekiel ., 
Daniel. .. 
Obadiah. . 


55 

2 

31 

3 mo. 

11 

3m.l0d. 
11 


Haggai .. 
Zechariah 
Malachi.. 





Kings of Judah. 



Rehoboam 

Abijah, or Abi- 

jam 

Asa 



Jehoshaphat 



Jehoram, or Jo- 
ram 

Ahaziah, or Az- 
ariah 

Athaliah 

Jehoash.orJoash 



Amaziah 



Interregnum,, 11 
years, accord' 
ing to Hales 

Uzziah, or Aza- 
riah . , . 



•} 



Jotham. 
Ahaz . . . 



Hezeliiah. 



or 



Manasseh .. 

Arnon 

Josiah 

Jehoahaz . . . 

Jehoiakira.. 

Jehoiachiu, 
Jecouiah 

Zedekiah 

Jerusalem de- 
stroyed, and 
Judah carried 
captive 

GOVERNORS OF 

JEEUSAT.E.vr AFTER 

TlIF, OAl'TIVlTY. 

Zerubbabel 

Ezra 

Nehemiah 



Years before Christ. 


Usher. 


Greswell. 


Home. 


Hales. 


• 


•o _: 


-a -J 


jg ^ 




















3 fc 


3 b. 




-s ,3 


1-5 A 






975 975 


974 974 


971 971 


990 990 


958 


957 


954 


973 


955 


955 


951 


970 


954 


953 


950 


968 


953 


952 


• 946 


966 


930 


929 


926 


943 


929 


928 


925 


942 


929 


928 


925 


942 


918 


917 


914 


931 


914 


914 


910 


929 


898 


896 


897 


909 


896 


895 


896 


907 


892 


890 


885 


904 


885 


883 


884 


896 


884 884 


882 882 


879 880 


895 895 


878 


876 


878 


889 


856 


854 


852 


867 


841 


838 


835 


850 


839 


836 


835 


849 


825 


822 


820 


834 
820 


810 


807 


810 


809 


784 


781 


779 


793 


773 


770 


768 


771 


772 


769 


767 


771 


772 


768 


767 


770 


761 


758 


757 


760 


759 


756 


755 


758 


758 


755 


754 


757 


742 


739 


736 


741 


739 


736 


736 


738 


730 


727 


730 


728 


726 


724 


722 


725 


721 


718 


721 


719 


698 


695 


694 


696 


643 


641 


639 


641 


641 


640 


637 


639 


610 


609 


606 




610 


609 


606 


608 


599 


598 


595 




599 


598 


595 


597 


588 


588 


588 


586 


536 








457 








445 









Kings of Israel. 



Jeroboam 



Nadab , 
Baasha , 
Elah . . . 
Zimri . , 
Omri . . , 
Ahab. . , 



Ahaziah 

Joram, or Jeho- 
ram 



Jehu 



Jehoahaz 

Joash,or Jehoash 



Jeroboam II. 



( Interregnum, 22 
< years, accord- 
j ing to Hales. . 

Zachariah 

Shallum 

Menahem 

Pekahiah 

Pekah 



Anarchy. 
Hoshea.. 



22 



24 

2 

7 days 

12 

22 



12 



41 



6 mo. 

1 mo, 

10 



Prophets of 
Israel, 



Man. of 
God from 
Judah. 
Ahijah. 



Elijah. 
Micaiah. 

Elisha . . 



Jonah. 



Hosea. 
Amos. 



Oded. 



The Kingdom of 
Israel over- 
thrown by the 
Assyrians 



Shalmaneser, king of Assyria, 
came up against Samaria in the 
sixth year of the reign of Ho- 
shea (u.o. 724), and after a siege 
of three years, took the city, 
carried Israel away into Assyr- 
ia, and having removed them to 
the cities of Halah and Habor, 
by the river Gozan, and into the 
cities of the Medes, he placed 
Assyrians in the cities of Sama- 
ria in their room. 



Usher's Chronology differs from the Bible Chronology, and from Bishop Mant and Dr. D'Oyley, only in 

makin<r the reign of Hezekiah commence u.o. 727, instead of 726; and from Dr. At>am Clarke's 

Table only in making the reign of Zedekiah commence in u.c. 599, instead of 598. 



A SUMMARY VIEW OF THE PRINCIPAL EVENTS OF 

THE PERIOD, 

FROM THE CLOSE OF THE SACRED CANON OF THE OLD TESTAMENT UNTIL THE TIMES OF THE 

NEW TESTAMENT. 



Artaxerxes Longimanus, king of Persia, 

who in his twentieth veai- had commissioned Ne- 

hemiah to rebuild the walls of Jerusalem, being 

dead, was succeeded, after the short reigns of 

„„ Xerxes the Second and Sogdianus, by 

■ his son Darius Nothus. In the elev- 
enth year of this prince's reign died EHashib the 
high-priest, after having filled the sacred office 
for thirty-four or forty years ; and was succeed- 
ed by his son Jehoiada, or Joiada, the father of 
that Manasseh whom Nehemiah forced to retire 
to Samaria, on account of his attachment to his 
idolatrous wife. It is uncertain how long Nehe- 
miah lived at Jerusalem after his important ref- 
ormations ; but after his death Judea seems to 
have been added to the prefecture of Syria, and 
became wholly subject to the governor of that 
,„„ province. Darius Nothus was succeed- 

* ed by Artaxerxes Mnemon ; in the thir- 
ty-fourth year of whose reign, Jeshua being ap- 
pointed by the Persian governor of Syria to su- 
persede his brother Johanan, or Jonathan, who 
had succeeded his father Joiada in the high- 
priesthood, was slain by him in the inner court 
of the Temple. For this atrocious act the gov- 
ernor imposed a fine of fifty drachmas on every 
lamb that should be offered in sacrifice, the to- 
tal amount of which has been calculated at some- 
what more than £1700 per annum. The pay- 
ment of this fine, however, continued only till 
„gQ the death of Artaxerxes Mnemon, which 
happened seven years after. But the 
Jews were not long allowed to enjoy a state of 
peace and prosperity, for Ochns, who succeeded 
Artaxerxes, having subdued the greater part of 
Phoenicia, with which Lesser Asia and Syria had 
revolted on his accession to the throne, march- 
ed into Judea, took Jericho, and carried away a 
great number of captives ;^part of whom he sent 
into Egypt, and settled the rest in Hyrcania, 
B 341 ^^°"S the shores of the Caspian Sea. 
After an interval of ten years died Jo- 
hanan, the high-priest, and was succeeded by his 
son Jaddua. About three years after this event 
the Persian monarch was poisoned, and the late 
king's youngest son, Arsaces, or Arses, was placed 
on the Persian throne ; but, being also poisoned 
about three years afterward, he was succeeded by 
the unfortunate Darius Codomannus. He had 
not long ascended the throne, before the infa- 
mous Bagoas, finding he was not one who would 
answer his purpose, resolved to remove him by 
the same means he had used to destroy his two 
predecessors. But Darius, being apprised of his 
design, made him drink the poisonous draught 
himself, and thereby became firmly settled in the 
kingdom, without further difficulty. 

At this eventful period, Alexander the Great, 
at the age of twenty, succeeded to the throne of I 



Macedon, and caused himself to be appointed 
general of the Grecian forces against the Per- 
sians. With a. coiriparatively small army he 
crossed the Hellespont, and passed into ^r,. 
Asia ; and having defeated the immense 
army of Darius at the river Granicus, he speedi- 
ly made himself master of all Asia Minor. The 
next year Darius advanced to meet him with an 
army of 600,000 men; but, near Issus, he was 
again utterly defeated by Alexander. The bat- 
tle of Issus was followed by the reduction of all 
Syria and Phoenicia; and Alexander marched 
into Judea, to punish the Jews for granting the 
Tyrians supplies of provisions, and refusing them 
to him, during the siege of Tyre. While he was 
rapidly advancing to the metropolis, the high- 
priest Jaddua, as well as the great body of the 
people, by sacrifices, oblations, and prayers, hum- 
bly besought God to avert the threatened dan- 
ger. It being communicated to Jaddua in a 
dream that he should go and meet the conquer- 
or in his pontifical robes, at the head of all the 
priests in their proper habits, attended by a nu- 
merous body of the people dressed in white, he 
ordered the gates of the city to be thrown open, 
and marched in solemn procession to an emi- 
nence called Sapha, which commanded a pros- 
pect of the Temple and of the whole city. As 
soon as the king approached the venerable pon- 
tiff he was struck with profound awe at the spec- 
tacle, and, hastening forwai'd, saluted him with a 
religious veneration. While all stood amazed at 
this behavior, Parmenio asked the reason of such 
unexpected homage ; to which Alexander replied 
that it was not offered to the priest, but to his 
God, in grateful acknowledgment for a vision 
Avith which he had been favored at Dio, in Mac- 
edonia, in which this very person, and in this 
very habit, appeared to him, promising him the 
Empire of Persia. Having kindly embraced 
Jaddua, he entered Jerusalem, and offered up 
sacrifices to God in the Temple, where the high- 
priest having shown him the prophecies of Dan- 
iel, which predicted the overthrow of the Persian 
empire by a Grecian king, he went thence with 
greater assurance of success, not doubting but he 
was the person meant in the prophecies. At 
his departure, lie granted the Jews the free ex- 
ercise of their religion and laws, and exemption 
from the payment of tiibute every seventh year. 
Egypt having quickly submitted to the conquer- 
or, the following year he marched against Dari- 
us ; and coming to a decisive battle at Arbela, 
he routed his immense army of about 1,100,000 
men ; and Darius being forced to fly for his life, 
was soon after assassinated by the treachery of 
Bessus, Having thus, according to the proph- 
ecies of Daniel, completely subverted the Persian 
empire, he rapidly extended his conquests from 



1012 



CONNECTION OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 



the Euphrates to the Indus, and from the Cas- 
pian Sea to the Southern Ocean. About six 
years afterward, in the thirty-second year of his 
15 323 ^^®' ^ ^'^® twelfth of his reign, he died 
'at Babylon, either in consequence of ex- 
cessive drinking, or from having been poisoned. 
After the death of Alexander, his empire was 
divided among his four remaining generals. Cas- 
sander had Macedonia and Greece ; Lysimachus 
had Thrace, Bithynia, etc. ; Seleucus Nicator had 
Syria, Armenia, and other Eastern countries ; 
and Ptolemy Lagus had Egypt, Libya, etc. In 
the first partition of the empire, Palestine, with 
Coele-Syria and Phoenicia, had been given to La- 
oraedon, one of Alexander's generals ; but hav- 
ing been deprived of the two latter by Ptolemy, 
the Jews, over whom Onias, son of Jaddua, was 
then high-priest, refused to submit to this new 
master, from their religious sense of the oath of 
allegiance which they had taken. In conse- 
quence of this, Ptolemy marched into Judea, took 
BO 320 Jerusalem, and carried 100,000 of them 
captive to Egypt ; bat there, consider- 
ing their loyalty to their former conquerors, he 
used them so kindly, even promoting them to 
places of trust and power, that many followed 
B 314 ^^'S^ of their own accord. About six 
years afterward, he was deprived of Ju- 
dea, Coele-Syria, and Phoenicia, by Antigonus; 
and having again made himself master of these 
B c 312 Pi"0'^i"ces, he immediately afterward 
lost them by the defeat of Cilles, one of 
his generals. They continued in the possession 
of Antigonus till his defeat and death at the bat- 
tle of Ipsus, by the confederated forces of Ptol- 
o„^ evaj, Cassander, Lysimachus, and Seleu- 
cus ; after which they were assigned to 
Ptolemy, along with Egypt, Libya, and Arabia. 
Some time after the recovery of Judea by Ptol- 
emy, died Simon the Just, son of Onias, and high- 
B o 292 P^'i®^^ ^^ ^^^ Jews, in the ninth year of 
'his pontificate ; and was succeeded by 
his brother Eleazar. He was distinguished for 
his wisdom and virtues, and is said to have 
completed the sacred canon of the Old Testa- 
B c 284 ^^^^' Ptolemy Philadelphus having 
succeeded his father on the throne of 
Egypt, the Jews found in him as generous a pro- 
tector as they had experienced in Ptolemy Soter. 
During his reign was made the important trans- 
lation of the Old Testament into Greek, after- 
ward called the Septuagint version ; which event 
has tended more to disseminate the knowledge 
and confirm the authenticity of the sacred Scrip- 
tures, than any other which happened from the 
time of their completion to the commencement 
of the Christian era. Antiochus Theos having 
succeeded his father, Antiochus Soter, son of Se- 
leucus, on the throne of Syria, maintain- 
ed a long and sanguinary war with Ptol- 
emy Philadelphus, which they at last agreed to 
terminate by a treaty of marriage, in which it 
was stipulated that Antioc^hus was to divorce 
o,„ his wife Laodice, and marry Berenice, 
Ptolemy's daughter. But on the death 
of Philadelphus, about two years afterward, An- 
tiochus put away Berenice, and recalled Laodice, 
who, fearing another change, caused him to be 
poisoned, cut off Berenice, her son, and all her 
Egyptian attendants, and placed her own son 
Callinicus on the throne. Ptolemy Euergetes, 
wlio had succeeded his father oil the throne of 



B.o. 2G1. 



Egypt, in revenge for his sister's death, slew La- 
odice, and subdued all Syria and Cilicia. Cal- 
linicus, two years afterward, in attempting to re- 
cover his dominions from Ptolemy, was over- 
thrown in battle ; but Ptolemy, hearing that his 
brother Antiochus was preparing to join Seleu- 
cus against him, came to an agreement with Cal- 
linicus : and peace was concluded be- 
tween them for ten years. The Jews at ^'^' 
this time were subject to Ptolemy, and Judea 
was taxed at the annual tribute of twenty talents. 
Not long after, Antiochus the Great, taking ad- 
vantage of the accession of the profligate prince, 
Ptolemy Philopater, seized upon Coele- ^is 
Syria. In the following year, Ptolemy 
forced Antiochus to retreat to Antioch. Ptol- 
emy then made a progress through Syria ; and 
coming to Jerusalem, he offered victims, and 
made many valuable presents to the Temple. 
But having been hindered from entering the 
Holy of Holies by Simon the high-priest, who 
had succeeded his father Onias II., Ptolemy de- 
parted to Egypt full of rage against the Jews ; 
where he deprived them of the privileges thej' 
enjoyed, and acted with great cruelty toward 
them. Ptolemy, having made peace with An- 
tiochus, died soon after, worn out by intemper- 
ance and debauchery, and was succeeded ^^. 
by his infant son, Ptolemy Epiphanes. 
Antiochus thinking this a favorable opportunity, 
entered into a league with Philip, king of Mac- 
edon, to divide the dominions of the king of 
Egypt between them ; and Antiochus having 
marched with an immense army into Coele-Syria 
and Palestine, he speedily subdued those prov- 
inces. Soon afterward, however, the Egyptians 
took advantage of Antiochus being engaged 
in war with Attains, king of Pergamos, and sent 
Scopas with an army into Palestine and Coele- 
Syria, where he was so successfid that he took 
several cities, reduced all Judea, and put jg„ 
a garrison in Jerusalem. But the fol- 
lowing year Antiochus marched against Scopas, 
and soon rendered himself again master of all 
Coele-Syria and Palestine. Among others, the 
Jews willingly submitted to him, and rendered 
him such essential services, that he gave orders 
that their city should be repaired, and that those 
who had been dispersed should return and in- 
habit it ; and, among other important favors, 
confirmed them in all the privileges which had 
been granted by Ale^^ander the Great. After 
this, being intent on his war with the Eomans, 
he married his daughter Cleopatra to Ptolemy 
Epiphanes, and gave in dowry with her the 
provinces of Coele-Syria and Palestine. But 
not long afterward, Antiochus having attempted 
to seize upon Egypt, Avas totally defeated by the 
Eomans, and condemned to pay 12,000 ^ ^gg 
talents for defraying the expenses of the 
war. Covered with shame, he retired to An- 
tioch ; and being unable to raise the money which 
he had stipulated to pay the Romans, he marched 
into his Eastern provinces to collect tribute, and 
amass what treasure he could ; and attempting 
to rob the rich temple at Elymais, he ^ ^ ^g^ 
was assaulted and slain by the inhabit- 
ants of the country. 

Antiochus was succeeded on the Syrian throne 
by his son Seleucus Philopater, who was remark- 
able for little else tlian raising of taxes, to defray 
the tribute which the Romans had exacted from 



CONNECTION OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 



1013 



his father. Being informed that great treasures 
were deposited in the Temple, he sent to seize 
them ; but, when on the point of entering the 
sacred Temple, the Syrians were struck with awe, 
and desisted. Soon afterward, Seleu- 
cus was destroyed, and Antioclnis, his 
brother, having heard of his death, and the at- 
tempt of Heliodorns, his murderer, to usurp the 
throne ; and finding that there was another party 
forming for Ptolemy Philometor, king of Egypt, 
and that both of them were agreed "not to give 
unto him the honor of the kingdom," as the 
prophet Daniel had foretold, he applied to Eu- 
menes, king of Pergamos, and Attains, his broth- 
er, and "by flattering speeches," and great prom- 
ises of friendship, prevailed with them to help 
him against Heliodorus. Having, by their means, 
suppressed the usurper, he was quietly placed on 
the throne, and peaceably obtained the kingdom, 
as had been predicted in the same prophecy. 
Upon his accession to the throne, he took the 
name of -Epiphanes, or the Illustrious ; but being 
in every respect " a vile person," as Daniel fore- 
told of him, he was styled Epimanes, or the Mad- 
man. He was scarcely seated on the throne, 
when, being pressed by the Romans to raise their 
heavy tribute, among other means he deposed the 
good and pious high-priest Onias, and sold the 
pontificate to his brother Jason for the yearly 
o 172 ^""^ °^ ^^^ talents ; and afterward he 
deposed Jason, and sold it to his broth- 
er Menelaus for 660 talents. Incensed that the 
curators of young Ptolemy should have demand- 
ed for their master the provinces of Phoenicia, 
Coele-Syria, and Palestine, which had been as- 
signed for the dowry of Cleopatra, Antiochus 
marched toward the frontiers of Egypt, and 
meeting the forces of Ptolemy near Pelusium, 
B o 171 *'^^®^ came to a battle, in which Antio- 
chus obtained the victory. He after- 
ward routed the Egyptians, took Pelusium, as- 
cended as far as Memphis, and made himself 
master of all Egypt, except Alexandria. The 
governor of Cyprus revolted from Ptolemy, and 
delivered up that important island to Antiochus ; 
and the effeminate monarch of Egypt, having 
done little for the defense of himself and subjects, 
fell into the hands of the conqueror. Wliile An- 
tiochus was in Egypt, a false report having been 
spread of his death, Jason marched with a thou- 
sand men to recover the high -priesthood, sur- 
prised the city of Jerusalem, drove Menelaus into 
the castle, and cruelly put to death all those 
whom he considered his adversaries. Antiochus 
being informed of these events, and supposing 
that the whole Jewish nation had revolted, has- 
tened out of Egypt to quell the rebellion ; and 
being told that the inhabitants of Jerusalem had 
made great rejoicings at tlie news of his death, 
_ he was so provoked that, having taken it 
■ by storm, he slew 40,000 persons, sold as 
many more for slaves, plundered the Temple of 
gold and furniture to the amount of 800 talents 
of gold, entered the Holy of Holies, and sacri- 
ficed a sow upon the altar of burnt-offerings, and 
caused the broth of it to be sprinkled all over the 
Temple. He then returned to Antioch, laden 
with the spoils both of Egypt and Judea, ap- 
pointing one Philip, a barbarous and cruel man, 
governor of Judea, and continuing Menelaus in 
the high-priesthood. Antiochus hearing that the 
Alexandrians had made Physcon king in the 



stead of Philometor, under pretext of ^„^ 
restoring the deposed king, made a third 
expedition into Egypt, and marched directly to- 
ward Alexandria to lay siege to the place. But 
finding that the civil war raging between the 
brothers would quickly render tlie country an 
easy prey to him, he seemingly again restored 
the kingdom to Philometor, excepting only Pe- 
lusium, and returned to Antioch. Suspecting 
his designs, however, Philometor and Physcon 
agreed to reign jointly in peace ; which so en- 
raged Antiochus that he again invaded Egypt, 
ravaged and subdued it as far as Memphis, and 
advanced to besiege Alexandria. But Roman 
ambassadors charged him to withdraw his forces 
from Egyptif he regarded the friendship . 
of their state. Mad with rage at this 
disappointment, while marching back through 
Palestine, he detached from his army 20,000 
men under the command of Apollonius, with 
orders to destroy Jerusalem, to put all the men 
to the sword, and to make slaves of the women 
and children. These orders were most rigorous- 
ly put in execution on a Sabbath-day, when all 
the people were assembled at public worship, so 
that none escaped but such as could hide them- 
selves in caves, or reach the mountains by flight. 
After having spoiled the city of all its riches, 
they set it on fire in several places, demolished 
the houses, and pulled down the walls round 
about it ; and then, with the ruins, they built a 
strong fortress on Acra, an eminence which over- 
looked and commanded the Temple. After the 
infuriated monarch had returned to Antioch, he 
issued a decree to oblige all people in his do- 
minions to conform to the religion of the Greeks, 
and sent one Athenasus, a Grecian idolater, to 
initiate the Jews in the idolatrous rites, and to 
punish with the most cruel deaths those who re- 
fused. On his arrival at Jerusalem, assisted by 
the apostate Jews, he caused all sacrifices to the 
God of Israel to cease, suppressed all the observ- 
ances of tl:he Jewish religion, polluted the Tem- 
ple itself, and made it unfit for the worship of 
God ; profaned their Sabbaths and festivals, for- 
bade their children to be circumcised, burned 
every copy of the Law which could be found, ded- 
icated the Temple to Jupiter Olympius, erected 
his statue on the altar of burnt-offerings, and put 
every one to death who was found to have acted 
contrary to what the king had decreed. 

Mattathias, great-grandson of Asmonasus, from 
whom the family were caW^di Asmonceans, retired, 
with his five sons, from the persecution at Jeru- 
salem to his native place in the tribe of Dan. 
Apelles, however, one of the king's officers, came 
to the place of their retreat, in order to enforce 
the execution of the king's commands ; and hav- 
ing called the people together, he addressed him- 
self to Mattathias, to persuade him to embrace 
idolatry, promising him great favor and riches. 
This the good priest not only scornfully rejected, 
but slew the first Jew who dared to approach the 
idolatrous altar ; and then, turning upon the 
king's commissioner, he dispatched him and all 
his attendants, Avith the assistance of his sons 
and those that were with him, and putting him- 
self at the head of his family, and as many Jews 
as he could collect, he broke down the idols and 
altars of the heathen, and retired into the mount- 
ains. Here being joined by numbers who were 
strict adherents to the law of their God, and es- 



1014 



CONNECTION OF THE OLD AND NEW TESTAMENTS. 



pecially by those termed Asideans, and having 
thus gathered together such a company as made 
the appearance of a small army, he came out of 
his fastnesses and took the field ; and marching 
round the cities of Judah, pulled down the hea- 
then altars, restored circumcision, cut off all 
apostates, destroyed all poj'secutors wherever he 
^„_ came, and again re-established the true 
worship of God in all places where he 
prevailed. But Mattathias, worn out with old 
age and fatigue, died the next year ; and his son 
Judas, surnamed Maccabseus, according to the 
appointment of his father, succeeded to the com- 
mand of the army. Judas, however, sufficiently 
compensated for the loss they had sustained by 
the death of the .-enerable priest ; for having 
successively vanquished the various governors 
and commanders who appeared against him, he 
recovered the Temple, repaired and purified it, 
restored the worship of God, appointed the feast 
of the dedication to be kept annually, and re- 
paired Jerusalem, which had almost been re- 

^„^ duced to a heap of ruins. Antiochus at 
B.0. 165. , . , . ^ 1 . T . 

this time vvas engaged in an expedition 

against the Persians, who, with the Armenians, 
had revolted from him ; and when returning, 
having heard of the success of the Jews under 
Judas, and the defeat of his generals, he threat- 
ened utterly to destroy the whole nation, and 
make Jerusalem their common burial-place. 
But while these proud words were in his mouth 
the judgments of God overtook him ; for he was 
smitten with an incurable disease, being seized 
with grievous torments in his bowels, and a most 

^g, intolerable ulcer, which terminated in 
his death. He was succeeded in the 
kingdom by his son Antiochus Eupator, a minor 
of nine years old, under the tuition of Lysias, 
the Syrian governor, who combined with the 
Idumeans and other neighboring nations to de- 
stroy the whole race of Israel. Judas, informed 
of this, carried the war into the enemies' coun- 
try ; and for some years proved a terrible scourge 
to the Idumeans, Syrians, and Arabs, and other 

^g^ heathen nations, till he was slain by the 
general of Demetrius Soter. He was 
succeeded in the command by his brother Jona- 
than, who, with his brother Simon, continued to 
rectify, with astonishing bravery and prudence, 
the disorders both in Church and State ; and 
Onias, the high-priest, having settled in Egypt, 
where he afterward built a temple for the use of 
his countrymen, according to the form of that in 
Jerusalem, they officiated in Judea both as high- 
priests and civil governors, during the reigns of 
Alexander Balas and Demetrius Nicator. Jon- 

... athan having been treacherously slain by 
the usurper Tryphon, and Simon and his 
sons Judas and Mattathias murdered by Ptol- 
emy, his son-in-law, his son John Hyrcanus suc- 

^„^ ceeded to the pontificate and govern- 
ment of Judea, He was at first con- 
strained to make a disadvantageous peace with 
the Syrians ; but on the accession of Demetrius 

^„^ Nicator, Hyrcanus shook off the Syrian 

yoke, and maintained his independence 

during the revolutions which followed in Syiia. 

He enlarged his borders by seizing upon various 

places in Syria, Phoenicia, and Arabia, and took 

^„„ Shechem and destroyed the temple on 

Mount Gerizim ; extended his conquests 

over the Idumeans, whom he compelled to em- 



brace the Jewish religion ; renewed the league 
with the Komans, whicli had been made 
by his father Simon, by which he ob- ^'°' 
tained greater privileges and advantages than the 
nation ever enjoyed before ; and, under the con- 
duct of his sons Aristobulus and Anti- 
gonus, he utterly destroyed Samaria. Af- ^■"" \^f 
ter this he governed Judea, Samaria, and 
Galilee for two years. He died in the thirteenth 
year of his administration, and left the high- 
priesthood and sovereignty to Aristobulus, his 
eldest son. This prince, who was the -,,^ 
first since the Captivity who put on the 
diadem and assumed the title of king, after the 
short reign of one year was succeeded by his 
brother, Alexander Jannseus, who subdued the 
PhiUstines, and obliged them to embrace the 
Jewish religion, burned Gaza, their capi- „_ 
tal, and also reduced the Moabites, Am- 
monites, and part of the Arabians ; and, after a 
reign of twenty- seven years, died of a quartan 
ague, brought on by intemperance, while ^.q 
besieging Ragaba, in the country of the 
Gerasens. After his death, his widow, Alexan- 
dra, governed the nation with much prudence 
for nine years ; and she was scarcely _„ 
dead before Aristobulus, joined by multi- 
tudes who hated the Pharisees, who had tyran- 
nized during the preceding reign, contended for 
the crown and high-priesthood against Hyrca- 
nus, his elder but indolent brother, and succeed- 
ed in dispossessing him after a reign of only three 
months. Aretas, king of Arabia, having assisted 
Hyrcanus, besieged Aristobulus in the Temple ; 
but Aristobulus calling in the assistance of the 
Romans, he was obliged to withdraw his »^ 
troops. Having, however, applied to ' ' 
Pompey, the Roman general, he decided for Hyr- 
canus, took Jerusalem, and seated him in the 
government, though he would not permit him to 
wear the diadem, and made Judea tribu- ^o 
tary to the Romans. Pompey, with sev- 
eral of his officers, also entered the Holy of 
Holies, after which he never prospered; and 
soon after Crassus pillaged the Temple of . 

about 10,000 talents of silver. At length 
Antipater, a noble but crafty Idumean, by favor 
of Julius C£esar (who had prevailed against Pom- 
pey), was made procurator of Judea, and ^-. 
Hyrcanus continued in the high-priest- 
hood. After Antipater's death, his son Herod 
the Great, by the assistance of Antony, the Ro- 
man triumvir, and through much barbari- 
ty and bloodshed, obtained the regal dig- ^•^' gQ* 
nity, which authority was at length con- ' " 
firmed by Augustus Cajsar. He maintained his 
dignity with great ability, but with the utmost 
cruelty in his own family as well as among oth- 
ers, till the birth of CHRIST. In the interval, 
he built many cities, and to ingratiate himself 
with the Jews, almost rebuilt the Temple, His 
cruel attempt to murder the infant Saviour is 
recorded by the evangelist ; and soon afterward 
he died most miserably. After some years, dur- 
ing which the dominions of Herod were gov- 
erned by his sons, Judea became a Roman prov- 
ince, and the sceptre departed from Judah, for 
S/iiloh was come ; and after being under the gov- 
ernment of Roman procurators for some ^ j, -^g 
years, the whole Jewish state was at ' ' ' 
length subverted by Titus, the son of Vespa- 
1 sian. 



TABLE OF THE HARMONY OF THE FOUR GOSPELS. 

In the following Table, where all the references under a given section are printed iu Italic figures, as un- 
der "Two Genealogies," it is to be understood that some special difficulty besets the harmony. Where one 
or more references under a given section are in Roman, and one or more in^Italic figures, it is to be under- 
stood that the former are given as in their proper place, and that it is more or less doubtful whether the 
latter are to be considered as parallel narratives or not. 

[This harmony is taken from Smith's "New Testament History." In some minor points I dissent from 
the arrangement here given ; but as the chronology is confessedly uncertain, I publish the harmony as given 
by Dr. Smith, and indicate the most important points of difterence in foot-notes. Compare with it the ar- 
ticle Jebds Christ in the body of the Dictionary. The table of Locations I have added.] 





Location. 


St. Matthew. 


St. Mark. 


St. Luke. 


St. John. 


"The Word" 


Jerusalem. 

Nazareth. 

Juttah. 

Bethlehem. 

Bethlehem. 
Jerusalem. 

Bethlehem. 

Jerusalem. 
Jordan. 

T .^-^ 

Jordan. 

" (?) 
Caua. 

Jerusalem. 

(C 

Jordan. 

Samaria. 

Machjerus. 

Galilee. 

Sea of Gal'ee 
Galilee. 

Jerusalem. 
Galilee. 

:: 

1; 

Machaerus. 
Galilee. 


1. 18-25. 

1. 1-17. 

2. ili2. 

2. 13-23. 

3. \-n. 

3. 13-17. 

4. 1-11. 

4. i2';'l4.3. 
4.12. 

4. 13-122. 

8. 14^17. 
4. 23-25. 
8.1-4. 
8. 18-27. 

8. 28-34. 
9. 18-26. 

9. 27-34. 
9.1-8. 

9. 9-13. 
9. 14-17. 

12. ils! 

12. 9-21. 

10. 2-h. 
5.1; 7.29. 

8. 5-13. 

11. 2li9. 
11. 20-24. 

11. 25-30. 

13. i-23. 

13. 24^30. 
13. 31, 32. 
13. 33. 
13. 34, 35. 
13.36-43. 

13. 44-52. 

12. U6-50. 

13. 53-58. 

9. 35-38 ; 
10. [11. 1. 
14. 1, 2. 

14. 3-12. 

14. 13-21. 

14. 22-33. 

14. 34-36. 

15. il20. 


1.1-8." 
1. 9-11. 
1. 12, 13. 

1. liVe. 17. 

1. 14, 15. 

1. 16-20. 
1. 21-28. 
1. 29-34. 
1. 35-39. 

1. 40-45. 

4. 35-41. 
5. 1-20. 

5. 21-43. 

2. U12. 

2. 13-17. 
2. 18-22. 

2. 23I28. 
3. 1-12. 
3. 13-19. 

4. ll-2()." 
4. 21-25. 
4. 26-29. 

4. 30^32. 

4. 33,' 3'4. 

3. 31-35. 

6. 1-6. 
6.6. 

6. 7-13. 
6. 14-16. 
6. 17-29. 

6. 3bl44. 
6. 45-52. 
6. 53-56. 

7. 1I23.' 


1. i^.' 

1. 5-25. 
1. 26-38. 
1. 39-56. 

1. 57-80. 
2. 1-7. 
3. 23-38. 

2. 8-20. 
2.21. 

2. 22-38. 

2. 39.' ' 

2. 40-52. 
3. 1-18. 

3. 21, 22. 
4. 1-13. 

3. 19,' '20. 
4. 14, 15. 
4.16-30. 

5. 'i-l'l. 

4. 31-37. 
4. 38-41. 

4. 42-44. 
5. 12-16. 
8. 22-25. 
8. 26-39. 
8. 40-56. 

5. 17-26. 
5. 27-32. 

5. 33-39. 

6. i-^.' 

6. 6-11. 
6. 12-16. 
6. 17-49. 
7. 1-10. 
7. 11-17. 
7. 18-35. 

7. 36-50. 
8. 1-3. 

8. 4-15. 

8. 16-18. 

13. 'is', '19. 
13. 20, 21. 

8. 19121. 

9. '1-6. 
9. 7-9. 

9. 10-17. 


1. 1-14. 

1. 15-31. 
1. 32-34. 

1. 35^0. 
1. 41, 42. 

1. 43-51. 

2. 1-11. 

2. 12-22. 

2. 23 ; 3. 21. 

3. 22-36. 
4. 1-^2. 
3.2U. 

4. 43^5. 

4. 46-54. 

5.1."" 

5.2-47. 

4. 46^4. 

6. 4." " 
6. 1-15. 
6. 16-21. 

6. 22^65. 




Annunciation of the Baptist's birth . . . 

Ayuunciation of the birth of Jesus 

Mary visits Elizabeth 

Birth of John the Baptist .... 


Birth of Jesus Christ 

Two Genealogies 

The watching Shepherds 


Presentation in the Temple . . 


The wise men from the East 

Flight to Egypt 


Ministry of John the Baptist 


The Temptation 

Andrew and another see Jesus 

Simon, now Cephas (Peter) 

Philip and Nathauael 


The water made wine 

Passover (1st) and cleansing the) 
Temple / 


Christ's disciples and John baptizing. 

The woman of Samaria 

John the Baptist in prison 

Return to Galilee 

The synagoo'ue at Nazareth 


The nobleman's son . . 


Capernaum. Four Apostles called . . . 
Demoniac healed there . 


Simon's wife's mother healed 

First Circuit round Galilee 


Healing a leper .... 


Christ stills the storm 


Demoniacs in land of Gadarene< 

Jairns's daughter. Woman healed . . . 
Blind men, and demoniac 




Matthew the Publican 


"Thy disciples fast not" 

Journey to Jerusalem to 2d Passover. 
Pool of Bethesda. Power of Christ . . 

Plucking ears of corn on Sabbath 

The withered hand. Miracles 

The Twelve Apostles 


The Centurion's servant 


The widow's son at Nain 




Woe to the cities of Galilee 


Call to the meek and suflfering 

Anointing the feet of Jesus 




Parable of the Sower 


" " Candle under a Bushel, 

" Growth of Seed 

" " Wheat and Tares 

" " Grain of Mustard Seed. 
" " Leaven 


On teaching bv parables 


Wheat and tares explained 

The treasure, the pearl, the net 


Reception at Nazareth 


Third Circuit round Galilee 


Sending forth the Twelve 

Herod's opinion of Jesus 


Death of John the Baptist 

Approach of Passover (3d) 

Feeding of the five thousand 

Walking on the sea 


Miracles in Gennesaret 


The bread of life. 


The unwashen hands 





1016 



HARMONY OF THE FOUR GOSPELS. 





Location, 


St. Matthe-w. 


St. Mark. 


St. Luke. 


St. John. 


The Syro-Phoenician woman 


Phoenicia. 
Galilee, 

Samaria. 

(?) 
Perea, (?) 
Jerusalem, 

(C 

Perea, (?) 

II 
J 1 

.^ .a 
a ■" 

is 1 

c '". 

% I^j 
c a 

if 
II 

II 
11 

1 !-> 

III 

ill 
ill 
I'll 

Judea, 
Jericho. 

Jerusalem. 

Perea. 

Bethanv. 

Jerusalem, 

Judea. 

Bethany. 


15. 21-28. 
15. 29-31. 

15. 32-39. 
16. 1-4. 

16. 5-12. 

16. i3li9. 

16. 20-28. 

17. 1-9. 
17. 10-13. 
17. 14-21. 
17. 22, 23, 

17, 24-27. 
18, 1-5, 

18, 6I9! 
18, 10-14, 
18. 15-17, 
18. 18-20, 
18, 21-35, 

8, 19122, 

6. 9-13. 

7. 7-11. 
12. 22-37. 

12. hS-h5. 
n. 38-1,2. 
(5.15; 6.) 

10. 26-33. 
6. 25-33. 

13. 31, 32. 
13. 33. 

23. 37-39. 

22. l-'ll. 
10. 37, 38. 

18. 6-15. 
17. 20. 

19, ili2, 

19, 13-15. 
19, 16-26, 

19. 27-30. 
20. 1-16. 
20. 17-19. 

20. 20-28. 
20. 29-34. 

25. lU'-io. 

26. 6-13. 


7. 24-30. 

7. 31-37. 
8. 1-9. 
8. 10-13. 
8. 14-21. 

8. 22-26. 
8. 27-29. 

8. 30 ; 9. 1. 

9. 2-10. 
9. 11-13. 
9, 14-29, 
9, 30-32. 

9. 33I37. 
9. 38^1, 
9, 42-48. 

9. 49,' 50. 

3. 20-30. 
U. 30-32. 

10. ili2. 

10,13-16. 
10. 17-27, 
10. 28-31, 

10. 32I34. 

10. 35-45. 
10. 46-52, 

14, 3-9, 


9.' 18120. 
9. 21-27. 
9. 28-36. 

9."37l42. 
9, 43-45. 

9.'46l48. 

9. 49, 50. 
17.2. 
15. h-7. 

9." 51! 

9. 52-56. 
9. 57-62. 
10. 1-16. 

10*17124. 
10. 25-37. 

10. 38-42. 

11. 1-4. 
11. 5-13. 
11. 14-23. 
11. 24-28. 
11. 29-32. 

11.33-36. 

11. 37-54. 
12. 1-12. 

12. 13-15. 
12. 16-31. 

12. 32-50. 
13. 1-9. 
13. 10-17. 
13. 18, 19. 

13. 20, 21. 
13. 22. 
13. 23-30. 
13. 31-33, 

13. 34, 35. 
14. 1-6. 

14. 7-14. 
14. 15-24. 
14. 25-35. 

15; 16. 

17. 1-4. 
17. 5-10. 
17.11-19. 

17. 20-37. 
18. 1-S. 

18. 9-14. 

18.' 15117, 
18, 18-27, 
18. 28-30. 

18.'3il34, 

18.'35l43. 
19. 1-10. 
19. 11-28. 

7. 36-50. 


e'. 66-71. 

7.'ilio. 

7.'iil53. 
8. 1-11. 
8. 12-69. 
9. 1-41. 
10. 1-21. 

10.' 22I39. 

10. 40-42. 
11. 1-44. 

11. 45-53. 

11. 54-57. 

12. 1, 9. 

12. 2-8. 


Miracles of Healing 


Breeding of the four thousand 


The sign from heaven 


The leaven of the Pharisees 




Peter's profession of faith •, 

The Passion foretold 


The Transfiguration 


Elijah 


The lunatic healed .... 


The Passion again foretold 

Fish caught for the tribute 

The little child 

One casting out devils . 


Offenses 




Forgiveness of injuries .... 




Forgiveness Parable . , . . 


" Satted with fire " 


Journey to Jerusalem . , . . , 


Fire from heaven 

Answers to disciples . 


The Seventy disciples* 

Discussions at Feast of Tabernaclest.. 
Woman taken in adultery 


The man born blind .... 


The good Shepherd 


The return of the Seventy 


The Good Samaritan 


Mary and Martha . . . 




Prayer eff"ectual ... . . , , . 


" Through Beelzebub " 

The unclean spirit returning . 


The light of the body 

The Pharisees 


What to fear 


"Master, speak to my brother" 

Covetousness . , , . 


Watchfulness 


Galileans that perished 


Woman healed on Sabbath 

The grain of mustard seed ... 




Toward Jerusalem , 


"Are there few that be saved ?" 

W^arnlng ao'ain'5t Herod 


" Jerusalem, Jerusalem " 


Dropsv healed on Sabbath-day 

Choosing the chief rooms 

Parahlp nf thp Grpat Snnner . . 


Following Christ with the Cross 

Parables of Lost Sheep, Piece of) 
Money, Prodigal Son, Unjust Stew-> 
ard. Rich Man and Lazarus j 

Ofi"enses 

Faith and merit 

The ten lepers , . , 




Parable of the TJniust Judge 


" " Pharisee and Publican, 
Divorce 


The rich man inquiring 


Laborers in the vineyard 

Death of Christ foretold 


Request of James and John 

Blind man at Jericho 


Parable of the Ten Talentst 


Feast of Dedicationt 

Beyond Jordan 

Raising of Lazarus§ 

Meeting of the Sanhedrim 

Christ in Ephraim 

Arrival at Bethany six days before) 

the Passover j 

The anointing by Maryll 



* I incline to think the appointment of the Seventy took place sub- 
sequent to both the Feast of Tabernacles and the Feast of Dedication, 
i.e., after the close of the Judean ministry, and during the ministry 
in Perea. (See art. Jesus Christ, p. 508.) 

t This is clearly a mistake. The parable of the ten talents (Matt. 
25. 14-30) is not the same as the parable of the ten pounds (Luke 19. 
11-28). 

t In my judgment, the account of the Feast of Dedication follows 



close after that of the Feast of Tabernacles, and immediately before 
Christ's departure into Perea. (See art. Jesus Christ, p. 505.) 

§ The resurrection of Lazarus and the attendant events, embracing 
tlie whole of chap. 11 of John's gospel, I should place directly after 
the Perean ministry, and preceding the entry into Jericho and the in- 
terview with Zaccheus. (See art. Jesus Christ, p. 508.) 

II Great uncertainty exists as to date of this event. Internal evidence 
seems to me to place it later, (See art. Jesus Christ, p. 509, note 1.) 



HARMONY OF THE FOUR GOSPELS. 



1017 



Plot against him aud Lazarus 

Christ enters Jerusalem 

Cleansing of the Temple (2d) 

The barren fig-tree 

Pray, aud forgive 

" By what authority," etc 

Parable of the Two Sons 

" " Wicked Husbandman.. 

" " Weddiug Garment 

The tribute-money 

The state of the risen 

The great Commandment 

David's Son and David's Lord 

Against the Pharisees 

The widow's mite 

Christ's second coming 

Parable of the Ten Virgins •. . 

" " Talents 

The Last Judgment 

Greeks visit Jesus. Voice from heaven 

Reflections of John 

Last Passover (4th). Jews conspire. . 

Judas Iscariot 

Paschal Supper 

Contention of the Apostles 

Peter's fall foretold 

Last Discourse. The departure ; the) 

Comforter ) 

The Vine and the Branches abiding\ 

in Love j 

"Work of the Comforter in disciples . . . 

The prayer of Christ 

Gethsemane 

The betrayal 

Before Annas (Caiaphas). Peter's) 

denial / 

Before the Sanhedrim 

Before Pilate 

The Traitor's death 

Before Herod 

Accusation and condemnation 

Treatment by the soldiers 

The Crucifixion 

The mother of Jesus 

Mockings and railings 

The malefactor 

The death 

Darkness and other portents 

The by-standers 

The side pierced 

The burial 

The guard of the sepulchre 

The Resurrection 

Disciples going to Enimaus 

Appearances in Jerusalem 

At the Sea of Tiberias 

On the Mount in Galilee 

Unrecorded Works 

Ascension 



Location. 


St. Matthew. 


St. Mark. 


St. Luke. 


St. Johk. 


Jerusalem. 








12. 10, 11. 


" 


21. i-ii. 


11. i-io. 


19. 29-44. 


12. 12-19. 


(( 


21. 1^16. 


11. 15-18. 


19. 45-48. 


2. 13-22. 


" 


21. 17-22. 


/ll. 11-14, 
\ 19-23. 






(( 


6. Ik, 15. 


11. 24-26. 








21.23-27. • 


11. 27-33. 


20. 1-8. 




" 


21. 28-32. 








cc 


21. 33-46. 


12, 1-12. 


20. 9-19. 




" 


22. 1-14. 




Ik. 16-2k. 




(( 


22. 15-22. 


12. 13-17. 


20. 20-26. 




" 


22. 23-33. 


12. 18-27. 


20. 27-40. 




" 


22. 34-40. 


12. 28-34. 






" 


22. 41-46. 


12. 35-37. 


20. 41-44. 




11 


23. 1-39. 


12. 38-40. 
12. 41-44. 


20. 45-47, 
21. 1-4. 




" 


24. 1-51. 


13. 1-37. 


21. 5-38. 




" 


25. 1-13. 








" 


25. 14-30. 





19. 11-28. 




<< 


25. 31-46. 


:::: 




12." 20-36. 
12. 36-50. 


(C 


26. 1-5. 


14. 1, 2. 


22. 1, 2. 




" 


26. 14-16. 


14. 10, 11. 


22. 3-6. 




(( 


26. 17-29. 


14. 12-25. 


22. 7-23. 
22. 24-30. 


13. 1-35. 




26. 30-35. 


14. 26-31. 


22. 31-39. 


13. 36-38. 
14. 1-31. 

15. 1-27. 

16. 1-33. 
17. 1-26. 


(( 


26. 36-46. 


14. 32-42. 


22. 40-46. 


IS. 1. 


«' 


26. 47-56. 


14. 43-52. 


22. 47-53. 


IS. 2-11. 


" 


/26. 57, 58, 
t 69-75. 


14.53,54,) 
66-72. / 


22. 54-62. 


18. 12-27. 


t( 


26. 59-68. 


14. 55-65. 


22.63-71. 




«' 


(27. 1, 2, ) 
I 11-14./ 


15. 1-5. 


23. 1-3. 


18. 28. 


(( 


27. 3-10. 




23.'i-il. 


.... 


" 


27. 15-26. 


15. 6-15. 


28, 13-25. 


(18. 29-40 ; 
(19. 1-16. 


<( 


27. 27-31. 


15. 16-20. 


^S. 36, 37. 


19. 2, 3. 


(C 


27. 32-38. 


15. 21-28. 


23. 26-84. 


19. 17-24. 
19. 25-27. 


cc 


27. 39-44. 


15, 29-32, 


28. 35-39, 
23. 40-43. 




" 


27. 50. 


15. 37. 


23. 46. 


19. 28-30. 


" 


27. 45-53. 


15. 33-38. 


23. 44, 45. 




cc 


27. 54-56. 


15. 39-41. 


23. 47-49. 


19.'3il37. 


" 


27. 57-61. 


15. 42-47. 


23. 50-56. 


19. 38-42. 


,J 


(27.02-66;) 










1 28. 11-15./ 








" 


28.1-10. 


16. 1-11. 


24. 1-12. 


20. 1-18. 


Jer.Em'aus. 




16. 12, 13. 


24. 13-35. 




Jerusalem. 




16. 14-18. 


24. 36-49. 


20. 19-29. 


Galilee. 


28.' 16120, 






21. 1-23. 


(?) 








/20. 30, 31 ; 
t21. 24, 25. 


Bethany. 




16. 19, 20. 


24. 50-53. 


.... 



A TABLE 

CONTAINING THE GOLDEN NUMBER, THE EPACT, THE DOMINICAL LETTER, 
THE CALENDAR LETTER OF THE FIRST POSSIBLE DAY OF EASTER, THE 
DATE OF THE FIRST POSSIBLE DAY OF EASTER, AND EASTER-DAY, FOR 
EACH OF ONE HUNDRED YEARS, FROM 1800 TO 1899 INCLUSIVE. TO WHICH 
ARE APPENDED RULES AND EXPLANATIONS. 





2 
1 




1 
►3 
.2 


Is.- 


i^ 






1 

s 

3 

12; 




1 


2I| 


_« a 


1" 




g 


_^ 


s 


-He's 


§-=3 


fe 




c 


_j 


a 


'5 So 


i? 


. 


a 


2 


§ 


1 


ifa >> 


££> 


s 


C3 


1 


o 


'S 


is >> 


s ^ 


-2 


« 


"o 


Qa 


o 


s . « 


.b =« 


W 




cu 


S 


CS. " 


.b e3 




>* 


O 


H 


p 


o=SQ 


fSO 


H 


kH 


O 


W 


Q 


0=50 


feO 


K 


1800 


15 


4 


E 


B 


April 10 
March 30 


April 13 


1S50 


8 


17 


F 


C 


March 28 


March 31 


1801 


16 


15 


D 


E 


April 5 


1851 


9 


28 


E 


A 


April 16 


April 20 


1802 


17 


26 


C 


C 


April 18 


April 18 


1852 


10 


9 


DC 


D 


April 5 
March 25 


April 11 


1803 


18 


7 


B 


F 


April 7 


April 10 


1853 


11 


20 


B 


G 


March 27 


1804 


19 


18 


AG 


B 


March 27 


April 1 


1854 


12 


1 


A 


E 


April 13 


April 16 


1805 


1 





F 


P 


April 14 


April 14 


1S55 


13 


12 


G 


A 


April 2 


April 8 


1806 


2 


11 


E 


B 


April 3 


April 6 


1856 


14 


23 


FE 


D 


March 22 


March 23 


180T 


3 


22 


D 


E 


March 23 


March 29 


1857 


15 


4 


D 


B 


April 10 


April 12 


1808 


4 


3 


CB 


c 


April 11 


April 17 


1858 


16 


15 


C 


E 


March 30 


April 4 


1809 


5 


14 


A 


F 


March 31 


April 2 


1S59 


17 


26 


B 


C 


April 18 


April 24 


1810 


6 


25 


G 


D 


April 19 


April 22 


1860 


18 


7 


AG 


F 


April 7 


April 8 


1811 


7 


6 


F 


G 


April 8 
March 28 


April- 14 


1861 


19 


18 


F 


B 


March 27 


March 31 


1812 


8 


17 


ED 


c 


March 29 


1862 


1 





E 


F 


April 14 


April 20 


1813 


9 


28 


C 


A 


April 16 


April IS 


1863 


2 


11 


D 


B 


April 3 
March 23 


April 5 


1814 


10 


9 


B 


D 


April 5 


April 10 


1864 


3 


22 


CB 


E 


March 27 


1815 


11 


20 


A 


G 


March 25 


March 26 


1S65 


4 


3 


A 


C 


April 11 


April 16 


1816 


12 


1 


GF 


E 


April 13 


April 14 


1866 


5 


14 


G 


F 


March 31 


April 1 


181T 


13 


12 


E 


A 


April 2 


April 6 


1867 


6 


25 


F 


D 


April 19 


April 21 


1818 


14 


23 


D 


D 


March 22 


March 22 


1S6S 


7 


6 


ED 


G 


April 8 


April 12 


1819 


15 


4 


C 


B 


April 10 


April 11 


1S69 


8 


17 


C 


C 


March 2S 


March 28 


1O20 


16 


15 


BA 


E 


March 30 


April 2 


ISTO 


9 


28 


B 


A 


April 16 


April 17 


1821 


17 


26 


G 


C 


April 18 


April 22 


1871 


10 


9 


A 


D 


April 5 
March 25 


April 9 


1822 


18 


7 


F 


F 


April 7 


April 7 


1872 


11 


20 


GF 


G 


March 31 


1823 


19 


18 


E 


B 


March 27 


March 30 


1873 


12 


1 


E 


E 


April 13 


April 13 


1824 


1 





DC 


F 


April 14 


April 18 


1874 


13 


12 


D 


A 


April 2 


April 5 


1825 


2 


11 


B 


B 


April 3 


April 3 


1875 


14 


23 


C 


D 


March 22 


March 28 


1826 


3 


22 


A 


E 


March 23 


March 26 


1876 


15 


4 


BA 


B 


April 10 


April 16 


1827 


4 


3 


G 


C 


April 11 


April 15 


1877 


16 


15 


G 


E 


March SO 


April 1 


1828 


5 


14 


FE 


F 


March 31 


April 6 


1878 


17 


26 


F 


C 


April IS 


April 21 


1829 


6 


25 


D 


D 


April 19 


April 19 


1ST9 


18 


7 


E 


F 


April 7 


April 13 


1830 


7 


6 


C 


G 


April 8 


April 11 


1880 


19 


18 


DC 


B 


March 27 


March 28 


1831 


8 


17 


B 


c 


March 28 


April 3 


18S1 


1 





B 


F 


April 14 


April 18 


1832 


9 


28 


AG 


A 


April 16 


April 22 


1882 


2 


11 


A 


B 


April 3 


April 9 
March 25 


1833 


10 


9 


F 


D 


April 5 


April 7 


1883 


8 


22 


G 


E 


March 23 


1834 


11 


20 


E 


G 


March 25 


March 30 


1884 


4 


3 


FE 


C 


April 11 


April 13 


1835 


12 


1 


D 


E 


April 13 


April 19 


1885 


5 


14 


D 


F 


March 31 


April 5 


1836 


13 


12 


CB 


A 


April 2 


April 3 


1SS6 


6 


25 


C 


D 


April 19 


April 25 


183T 


14 


23 


A 


D 


March 22 


March 26 


18S7 


7 


6 


B 


G 


April 8 


April 10 


1838 


15 


4 


G 


B 


April 10 


April 15 


ISSS 


8 


IT 


AG 


C 


]March 28 


April 1 


1839 


16 


15 


F 


E 


March 30 


March 31 


1S89 


9 


28 


F 


A 


April 16 


April 21 


1840 


17 


26 


ED 


C 


April IS 


April 19 


1890 


10 


9 


E 


D 


April 5 


April 6 


1841 


18 


7 


c 


F 


April 7 


April 11 


1891 


11 


20 


D 


G 


March 25 


Mai-ch 29 


1842 


19 


IS 


B 


B 


March 27 


March 27 


1892 


12 


1 


CB 


E 


April 13 


April 17 


1843 


1 





A 


F 


April 14 


April 16 


1893 


13 


12 


A 


A 


April 2 


April 2 


1844 


2 


11 


GF 


B 


April 3 


April 7 


1894 


14 


23 


G 


D 


March 22 


March 25 


1S45 


3 


22 


E 


E 


March 23 


March 23 


1895 


15 


4 


F 


B 


April 10 


April 14 


1846 


4 


3 


D 


C 


April 11 


April 12 


1S96 


16 


15 


ED 


E 


March 30 


April 5 


184T 


5 


14 


c 


F 


March 31 


April 4 


1897 


17 


26 


C 


c 


April IS 


April IS 


1848 


6 


25 


BA 


D 


April 19 


April 23 


1898 


18 


7 


B 


F 


April 7 


April 10 


1849 


' 


6 


^ 


G 


April 8 


April 8 


1899 


19 


18 


A 


B 


March 27 


April 2 



Rules foe finding, foe any Yeae within the limits 
OF the Table, 

I. The Golden iN'«m&cr.— Add 1 to the number of the 
year, and divide the sum by 19 ; the remainder, if any, 
is the golden number, and if there is uo remainder, 
19 is the golden number. 

II. The ?}pact.— Diminish the golden number of the 
year by 1, multiply the remainder by 11, and divide 
the product by 30 ; the remainder left after division is 
the epact. 

III. The Dominical Le«(?r.— Arrange and number the 



first seven letters of the alphabet as in the annexed 

table: add to the number of the year its 

fourth part, disregarding fractions ; divide 

the sum by 7, and the remainder will be, 

in the table, the number of the dominical 

letter of the yeai\ 

IV. The Calendar Letter of the first possi- 
ble day of Easter.— IHhe epact is 23 or less, 
increase it by 2, and divide the sum by 7 ; 
if more than 23, divide it by 7 ; the remain- 
der in either case will be, in the table just given, the 
number of the calendar letter required. 






A 




G 


2 


V 


3 


E 


4 


D 


5 


C 


6 


B 



TABLE OF EASTER-DAY, ETC. 



1019 



V. The First possible day of Easter.— Extend March 
into April by calliug April 1st March 32cl, etc. If the 
epact is 23 or less, subtract it from 45; if more than 
23, subtract it from 75; the remaiuder, in either case, 
is the date of the day sought. If the remainder is 31 
or less, the day indicated is in March ; if more than 
31, diminish it by 31, and the result will be a day in 
April. 

VI. Easter-day.— F'mA, in the tabulated list of let- 
ters given, the number of the calendar letter of the 
first possible day of Easter, and increase it by 7 ; from 
the sum subtract the number of the dominical letter 
of the year, and divide the result by 7 ; the remainder, 
added to the date of the first possible day of Easter, 
will be the date of Easter-day. 

Explanations.— The moon on which Easter depends 
is somewhat fictitious, though it varies but little in 
the main from the real moon. Easter- day is the 
Sunday following that fourteenth day of the moon 
which, happens upon or next after March 21st in any 
year. 

The cycle of the moon, or the Metonic Cycle, as it 
is frequently called, from its inventor, Meton, is a pe- 
riod of 19 years, upon the completion of which the 
new moons return upon the same days of the year as 
before. The golden number of a year is the number 
showing what year of the moon's cycle it is. The cy- 
cle always begins with a year in which a new moon 
occurs upon January 1st. Tnis happened in the year 
which immediately preceded the first year of the Chris- 
tian era : a.d. 1 was, therefore, the second year of the 
cycle, and its golden number was 2; a.b. 19 was the 
beginning of a new cycle, and its golden number was 
1, etc. Hence Rule I. 

The Epact of any year is the number which denotes 
the age of the moon on January 1st of that year. The 
calendar lunations are alternately 30 and 29 days: 
twelve such lunations make 854 days ; therefore, if a 
new moon happen upon January let, one will also 
happen upon December 21st, and the following January 
1st will be the 11th day of the moon. Hence, in pass- 
ing from one year to the next succeeding, the epact 
increases by 11. The first year of a lunar cycle has, 
of course, the epact (since there is a new moon on 
January 1st) ; the second will then have the epact 11 ; 
the fourth, the epact 33, or rather 3, since a lunation 
can not exceed 30 days, and 30 must be rejected. 
Hence Rule II. 

Each one of the seven days of a week is in the cal- 
endar designated throughout the year by one of the 
first seven letters of the alphabet; and for this reason 
these letters are called calendar letters. A is always 
taken to designate January 1st, whatever day of the 
week it may be. For example, in 1800, January 1st 
came upon Wednesday, and A was for that year the 
calendar letter of Wednesday. The letter which desig- 
nates Sunday {dies Domini) in any year is the dominical 
letter of the year. As, in 1800, A designated Wednes- 
day, B must have designated Thursday; C, Friday; 
D, Saturday ; E, Sunday : E was, therefore, the domin- 
ical (or Sunday) letter of the year. As a common year 
contains one day more than 52 weeks, it begins and 
ends on the same day of the week. For 1801 (e. g.), 
then, which began on Thursday, A was the Thursday 
letter, and D was the Sunday (or dominical) letter. 
The order of dominical letters is, therefore, as in the 
tabulated list, given in Rule III. Leap-year disturbs 
the order of succession, as February 29 has no letter 
assigned it, though it takes, of course, a day of the 
week: hence such a year has two Sunday letters, one 
for January and February, and another for the rest 
of the year. The latter is the only one essential to 
know, as Easter occurs after February. To keep the 
proper order of succession intact, one must be added 



for every leap-year elapsed, which is done by adding 
to the number of the year its fourth part, omitting 
fractions ; and as there are but seven calendar letters, 
the result must be divided by 7, and the remainder 
taken. Hence Rule III. 

When the .epact is 24, the first possible day of Easter 
is April 20, of which the calendar letter is E, as any 
one may find by counting forward, taking A for Jan- 
uary 1st, etc. The number of E, given in the table of 
Rule III., is 3 — the same as the remainder left after 
dividing the epact (24) by 7 (the number of calendar 
letters) ; and a similar result will be found true when- 
ever the epact exceeds 24. If, however, the epact is 
23, the first possible day of Easter is April 14, of which 
the calendar letter, D, has the same tabular number, 
4, as the remainder left after dividing by 7, the epact 
increased by 2 ; and a like remark will apply when- 
ever the epact is less than 23. Hence Rule IV. 

Since the lunations of the calendar moon are alter- 
nately 30 and 29 days, the first two lunations of the 
year consume the same number of days as January 
and February (February 29th in leap-year not being 
counted). The epact gives, therefore, the age of the 
moon on March 1st as well as on January 1st. If the 
epact is 23, March 1st is the 23d of the moon, the next 
new moon will begin on March 8th, its fourteenth day 
will be on March 21st (the day of the new moon being 
counted as the first day), and the next day, March 22d, 
may be Easter, and will be, if it should be Sunday. 
If, then, the epact is 23, the date of the first possible 
day of Easter may be found by taking that epact from 
45. In like manner, if the epact is less than 23, the 
paschal moon begins its lunation in March, and the 
same rule applies. If, however, the epact is 24, the 
next new moon will begin March 7th, its fourteenth 
day will be March 20th, and Easter must wait for an- 
other lunation, which takes 30 days. Hence Rule V. 

If the calendar letter of the first possible day of 
Easter is not the same as the dominical letter of the 
year, the first possible day is not Sunday, and enough 
must be added to its date to carry it forward to Sun- 
day. For example, in 1870 the calendar letter of the 
first possible day was A, and the dominical letter was 
B; that is, the first possible day fell on Saturday, and 
one must be added to its date to carry it forward to 
Sunday: in 1871, the calendar letter of the first possi- 
ble day was D, and the dominical letter was A ; that 
is, the first possible day was Wednesday, and 4 must 
be added to its date to carry it forward to Sunday. 
And so in all cases it will be found that the addition to 
be made to the date of the first possible day of Easter 
to obtain the date of Easter-day is the same as would 
be found by the application of Rule VI, 

Remark. — If the tabulated list of calendar letters 

given in Rule III., be altered so as to 

stand as in the annexed marginal table, 
and all the rules be made to refer to this 
renumbered list; and if Rule IV. be made 
to read that, if the epact is 23 or less, in- 
crease it by 3, and if more than 23, increase 
it byl, and divide by 7, etc., the rules giv- 
en will serve to determine Easter, etc., for 
any year from 1900 to 2099 inclusive. 

Rule foe finding tee Date of Ash-Wednesday 

FEOM THAT OF EaSTEE-DAY. 

Having extended (if necessary) March into April by 
calling April 1st March 32d, etc., and thus found the 
date of Easter as a day of March, subtract from such 
date, for common years, 18, and for leap years, 17 ; the 
remainder, if 28 (29 in leap-year) or less, will be the 
date in February; if more than 28 (29 in leap-year), 
diminish it by 28 (29 in leap-year), and the result will 
be the date in March of Ash- Wednesday. 





1 

2 
3 
4 
5 
6 


B 


A 


G 


F 


E 


D 


C 



TABLES OF MEASURES, WEIGHTS, AND COINS MENTIONED IN 

SCRIPTURE. 

[For full explanations, see respectively the articles MEAstniES ; Money ; Weights.] 



A dio-it 


MEASUEES OF SIZE. 

\ 


4 1 A palm 


12 1 3 1 A span 


24 1 6 1 2 1 








96 1 24 1 8 1 


4| A fathom 


144 1 36 1 12 1 


6 1 1-5 1 Ezekiel'sreed 


192 1 48 1 16 1 


8| 2| 1 -3 1 An Arabian pole 


1920 1 480 1 160 1 


80 1 20 1 lo'3 1 10 1 A schoeuus, or measuring-line 





Feet. 


Inches. 





0-912 





3-648 





10-944 


1 


9^888 


T 


3-552 


10 


11^328 


14 


7-104 


145 


11-04 



MEASUEES OF DISTANCE. 

These measures are only approximate. Scientific 
accuracy of measurement was not known among the 
ancient Hebrews. 



Iblical Titles. 



Approximate English 
Equivalents. 



' Pace 2ifeet. 

I Kurlong 6U6 feet. 

{ Mile about our mile. 

I Day's journey 30 miles. 

j Sabbath-day's journey, six-tenths of a mile. 



MEASUEES OF CAPACITY. 

Liquid Measures. 
These measures are only mentioned in the O. T. 



Loc 



12 I Hin. 



72 I 



I Bath. 



Dry Measures. 
The cab and seah are not mentioned in the Bible. 



Cab. 


Homer. 


l| 1 Omer. 

6 1 Bi\ Seah. 


18 1 10 1 B 1 Ephah. 


180 1 100 1 30 1 ^ 10 1 



OLD HEBEEW WEIGHTS. 
The bekah, shekel, maneh, and talent are also the 
names of Hebrew money. See Table on next column. 



Gerah = 11 grains. 
Bekah =110 " 
Shekel = 220 " 



Maneh = 13.200 grains. 
Talent = 660,000 " 



PEOBABLE ENGLISH EQUIVALENTS OF HE- 
BEEW MEASUEES. 

The estimates of Josephus and the Eabbinical writ- 
ers differ widely. Both are given in the subjoined 
table : 





Josephus. 


Rabbinists. 


Gallons. 


Bush. 


Gallons. 


Bush. 


Homer 
Ephah, 
Seah . . 
Hin.... 
Omer.. 
Cab.... 


or cor — 
or bath . . 


86-696 

8-6696 

2-8898 

1-4449 

-8669 

•4816 

•1204 


lOf 


44-286 

4-42S6 

1-4762 

1 -7381 

1 -4428 

1 -246 

-0615 


H 









GEEEK, EOMAN, AND HEBEEW MONEY. 

Old Hebrew Money. 

I. Silver. 



1 bekah — 1 half-shekel 




£. s. d. $ cts. 


2bekah3= 1 shekel 

120 " = 60 " — 1 maneh... 
6000 " =3D00 « = 50 maneh, or 


l' talent. 


9 0= 45 (UP 
450 = 2250 00 



n. Gold, at $20 per oz. troy. 

£s.A. $ rts. 

1 shekel 12 0= 5 rv 

100 shekels = 1 maueh 110 0= 5fili (m 

10,000 " =1 talent 11,000 = 55,000 Ud 



Currency in the Time of Christ. 



Copper. (1. (ts. 

Imite iG = i 

2 mites = 1 farthing, t. e., quadrans i = i 

8 " =4 farthings, as | = 1 

Silver. 

s. d. cts. 

1 penny 9 = 18 

2 pennies = i shekel 1 6 = 37 

4 " =1 shekel, stater, or piece of ) q n 

money / "* "' 



75 



INDEX 



This index contains— 1. All titles treated of in this Dictionary; 2. All subject-matters treated of under 
other titles ; 3. All proper names and all important subjects referred to in the Bible, whether elsewhere 
treated in this work or not. Thus the reader, looking in this index, will find AARON printed in capitals ; 
indicating that an article under that title is to be found in the body of the work. He will find Aaroti's Bless- 
ing with a reference to BLESSING, the former printed in ordinary type, the latter word iu capitals ; indicating 
that no such title as Aaron's Blessing is to be fouud iu the body of the work, but that information respect- 
ing it will be found iu the article BLESSING ; and he will find Abagtha printed iu ordinary type ; indicating 
that there is no such article in the body of the work ; but he will also find the person so designated briefly 
described, and a Scripture reference to the only passage where he is mentioned. Thus, it is believed that 
he will find in this index every proper uame in Scripture, and every important ecclesiastical, theological, or 
Biblical subject, with a reference to either the place in the Dictionary, or the passage or passages in the 
Scripture which aflTord the necessary information respecting them. 

Where, as in the title ABDON, the same word is repeated— once in capitals, and once iu ordinary type— it 
is indicated that the first person meutioned is the subject of an article, while the others are not. 



AARON. 

Aaron's Blessing. See BLESSING. 

Aarouites, 1 Chr. 12. 27 ; 27. 17. See 
AARON. 

Ab, prefix meaning father. 

Ab, a Jewish mouth. See MONTH. 

Abaddon, Re. 9. 11. See APOL- 
LYON; DEVIL. 

Abagtha, chamberlaiu to Ahasue- 
rus, Est. 1. 10. 

ABANA. 

ABARIM. 

ABBA. 

Abbe. See ABBOT. 

Abbess. See ABBOT. 

ABBEY. 

ABBOT. 

Abda, I. Father of Adoniram, 1 Ki. 
4. 6. II. Father of Shamraua, Neh. 
12. 17. Also called Obadiah, IChr. 
9.16. 

Abdeel, a man, Jer. 36. 26. 

Abdi, three men, 1 Chr. 6. 44; 2 Chr. 
29. 12 ; Ezra 10. 26. 

Abdiel, a man, 1 Chr. 5. 15. 

ABDON, I. A judge. Abdon, II. 
Two other persons, 1 Chr. S. 23; 
9. 36. III. A third, same as Ach- 
bar. IV. A city of Asher, Josh. 
21. 30 ; 1 Chr. 6. 74. Called also 
Hebron, Josh. 19. 28. 

Abecedarians. See ANABAP- 
TISTS. 

Abed-nego (or Azariah), a friend of 
DANIEL. 

ABEL, son of Adam. 

ABEL, STONE OF. 

ABEL-BETH-MAACHAH. 

ABEL-MEHOLAH. 

ABEL-MIZRAIM. 

ABEL-SHITTIM. 

Abelites. See GNOSTICS. 

AbesTa. Same as AVESTA. 

ABEYANCE. 

Abez, a town, site unknown. Josh. 
19. 20. 

Abi, mother of HEZEKIAH, 2 Ki. 
18. 2. See ABIJAH. 

Abia, Abiah, Abijah, I. Second son 
of Samuel, 1 Sa. S. 2. II. Grand- 
son of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 7. 8. III. 
A descendant of Aaron. See 
ABIJAH. IV. Wife of Hezron, 
1 Chr. 2. 24. V. Sou of Jerobo- 
am. See ABIJAH. 

Abi-albou, 2 Sa. 23. 31. Same as 
Abiel II. 

Abiasaph, a descendant of KORAH, 
Ex. 6. 24. Perhaps same as Ebi- 
nsaph. 

ABIATHAR. 

Abib. See MONTH. 

Abida, or Abidah, Gen, 25. 4; 1 



Chr. 1. 33. Grandson of ABRA- 
HAM. 

Abidan, a prince, Nu. 1. 11 ; 2. 22 ; 7. 
60-65 ; 10. 24. 

Abidharma. See BUDDHISM. 

Abiding in Christ. See PERFEC- 
TIONISTS. 

Abiel, I. Ancestor of Kish, 1 Sa. 9. 
1; 14. 51. See NER. II. One of 
David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11. 32. 

ABIEZER, L Family of Mauasseh, 

1 Chr. 7. 18. IL One of David's 
warriors, 2 Sa. 23. 27. 

ABIEZRITES, descendants of Abi- 

ezer, Ju. 6. 11, 24; 8.32. 
Abigail, I. A wife of David, 1 Sa. 25 ; 

2 Sa. 3. 3. II. A sister of David, 
1 Chr. 2. 17. 

Abihail, L Father of Zuriel, Nn. 3. 
35. IL Wife of Abishur, 1 Chr. 
2. 29. in. S(m of Hnri, 1 Chr. 5. 
14. IV. Wife of Rehoboam, 2 
Chr. 11. 18. See ELIAB. V. Fa- 
ther of Esther. Est. 2. 15 ; 9. 29. 

ABIHU. 

Abihiid, a descendant of Benjamin, 
1 Chr. S. 3. 

ABIJAH. 

Abijam, 1 Ki. 14. 31; 15. 1, 7, 8. 
Same as ABIJAH. 

Abila. See ABILENE. 

ABILENE. 

Ability, Human. See WILL, FREE- 
DOM OF. 

Abimael, a descendant of Joktan, 
prob. founder of a tribe, Geu. 10. 
28 ; 1 Chr. 1. 22. 

ABIMELECH. 

Abiuadab, I. A Levite of Kirjath- 
jearim, 1 Sa. 7. 1, 2 ; 2 Sa. 6. 3, 4 ; 

1 Chr. 13. 7. II. The second son 
of Jesse, 1 Sa. 16. 8 : 17. 13 ; 1 Chr. 
2. 13. III. A sou of Saul, 1 Sa. 31. 

2 : 1 Chr. S. 33 ; 9. 39 ; 10. 2. Same 
as Ishui, 1 Sa. 14. 49. IV. Father 
of one of Solomon's officers, 1 Ki. 
4.11. 

Abinoam, Jiidg. 4. 6, 12 ; 5. 1, 12, fa- 
ther of BARAK. 

Abiram, I. A Reubeuite, fellow-con- 
spirator with KORAH, Nu. 16. 
II. Eldest son of Hiel, the Beth- 
elite, 1 Ki. 16. 34; comp. Josh. 6. 
26. See JERICHO. 

Abishag, concubine of David, and 
wife of Adonijah. 

ABISHAI. SeeABNER. 

Abishalom, 1 Ki. 15. 2. Another 
name for ABSALOM. 

Abishua, I. A descendant of Benja- 
niin, 1 Chr. 8. 4. IL Son of Phin- 
ehas, 1 Chr. Q. 4, 5, 50; Ezra 7. 
4,5. 



Abishur, a descendant of Jadah, 1 
Chr. 2. 28. 

Abital, one of David's wives, 2 Sa. 
3. 4; 1 Chr. 3. 3. 

Abitub, a descendant of Benjamin, 
IChr. 8. 11. 

Abiud, an ancestor of our Lord, Mat. 
1.13. 

ABJURATION. 

Ablution. See WASHING; PURI- 
FICATION; UNCLE ANN ESS. 

ABNER. 

Abode. See HOUSE. 

ABOMINATION OP DESOLA- 
TION. 

ABRAHAM. 

ABRAHAMITES. 

ABRAHAM'S BOSOM. 

Abram, the original uame of ABRA- 
HAM. 

ABRAXAS. 

ABSALOM. 

ABSOLUTE. 

ABSOLUTION. 

Absorption. See FUTURE STATE. 

Abstinence. See ASCETICISM; 
FAST; TEMPERANCE. 

Abuua, the Patriarch of the ABYS- 
SINIAN CHURCH. 

Abyss. See PIT. 

ABYSSINIAN CHURCH. 

Acacians. See ARIANS. 

ACADEMICS. 

ACCAD. 

ACCHO. 

Accidents. See TRANSUBSTAN- 
TIATION. 

Accursed. See ANATHEMA ; EX- 
COMMUNICATION. 

ACELDAMA 

Acephali. See MONOPHYSITES. 

ACHAIA. 

Achaicus, a delegate sent by the 
church of Corinth to Paul, 1 Cor. 
16. 17. 

ACHAN. 

Achar, 1 Chr. 11. 10. Same as 
ACHAN. 

Achaz, forAHAZ, in Mat. 1. 9. 

Achbor, I. AuEdomitish king, Gen, 
36. 38 ; 1 Chr. 1. 49. II. The son 
of Micaiah, and courtier of Josi- 
ah, 2 Ki. 22. 12, 14. Same as Ab- 
dou, in 2 Chr. 34. 20. 

Achim, son of Sadoc, Mat. 1. 14. 

ACHISH. 

ACHMETHA. 

Achor, a valley. See ACHAN. 

Ach^ah, daughter of Caleb. See 
CALEB; DEBIR. 

ACHSHAPH. 

ACHZIB. 

ACOLYTE. 



1022 



INDEX. 



ACRE, I. A measure. Acre, II. A i 
town. Same as ACCHO. 

Acta Martyrum. See ACTA SANC- 
TORUM. 

ACTA SANCTORIBI. 

Act of Faith. See AUTO-DA-FE. 

ACTS OF PILATE. 

ACTS OF THE APOSTLES. 

Acts of the Saints. See ACTA 
SANCTORUM. 

Adadah, an unidentified city in the 
south of Judah, Josh. 15. 22. 

ADAH. 

Adaiah, I. Grandfathei* of King Jo- 
siah, 2 Ki. 22. 1. II. Son of Ethan, 
1 Chr. 6. 41. Called also Iddo, 1 
Chr. G. 21. III. Son of Shimhi, j 
1 Chr. 8. 21. IV. Son of Jeroham, 
1 Chr. 9. 12 ; Neh. 11. 12. V. Fa- | 
ther of Maaseiah, 2 Chr. 23. 1. 

VI. Son of Bari, Ezra 10. 29, 39. 

VII. Son of Joiarib, Neh. 11. 5. 
Adalbertiues. See SECT. 
Adalia, one of the sons of Haman. 

Est. 9. 8. 

ADAM. 

Adam, a town on the Jordan, 
Josh. 3. 16. 

Adamah, a fenced city of the tribe 
of Naphtali, Josh. 19. 36. 

ADAMANT. 

Adamites. See SECT. 

Adar. See MONTH. 

Adar, a place on the south boimd- 
ary of Judah, Josh. 15. 3. 

Adbeel, the third son of Ishmael, 
Gen. 25. 13 ; 1 Chr. 1. 29. 

Addan, a town, Ezra 2. 59. Same 
as Addon, in Neh. 7. 61. 

Addar (or Ard, Gen. 46. 21), a grand- 
son of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 8. 3. 

Adder. See SERPENT. 

Addi, one of Christ's ancestors, Lu. 
3. 28. 

Addon, a town, Neh. 7. 61. Same 
as Addan. 

Ader, a Benjamite, son of Beriah, 
1 Chr. 8. 15, 16. 

Adiel, I. One of the tribe of Sim- 
eon, 1 Chr. 4. 36. II. A priest, 
1 Chr. 9. 12. IIL The father of 
David's treasurer, 1 Chr. 27. 25. 

Adami, a town of the tribe of Naph- 
tali, Josh. 19. 33. 

Adin, a person, Ezra 2.15; 8.6; 
Neh. T. 20; 10.16. 

Adina, a Reubeuite, one of David's 
warriors, 1 Chr. 11. 42. 

Adino, 2 Sa. 23. 8. See JASHO- 
BEAM. 

Adithaim, a town of Judah, Josh. 
15. 36. 

Adlai, the father of one of David's 
chief herdsmen, 1 Chr. 27. 29. 

Admah, a city destroyed with Sod- 
om, Gen. 10. 19 ; 14. 2, 8 ; Dent. 29. 
23 ; Ho. 11. 8. 

Admatha, one of the seven princes 
of Persia, Est. 1. 14. 

Adna, L A man, Ezra 10. 30. IL A 
priest, Neh. 12. 15. 

Adnah, I. In some copies for Adna, 
IL II. A chief of Manasseh, 1 
Chr. 12. 20. IIL One of Jehosha- 
phat's captains, 2 Chr. 17. 14. 

Adoni-bezek, king of BEZEK, Ju. 
1. 4-7. 

ADONIJAH, L Son of David. Ad- 
onijah, II. Two Levites, 2 Chr. 17. 
8 ; Neh. 10. 10. 

Adonikam, a man, Ezra 2. 13 ; 8. 13 ; 
Neh. 7. 18. 

Adouiram, a tax-gatherer of Israel, 
1 Ki. 4. 6 ; 5. 14. Same as Ado- 
ram. 

ADONI-ZEDEC. 

ADOPTION. 

Adoptionists. See SECT. 

ADORAIM. 

Adoram, 2 Sa. 20. 24. See REHO- 
BOAM. 

Adoration of the Host. See MASS. 

ADRAMMELECH, I. A god. II. 
Son of SENNACHERIB. 



ADRAMYTTIUM. 

ADRIA. 

ADRIEL. 

ADULLAM, L A city of Judah. IL 
A cave. 

Adullamite, an inhabitant of 
ADULLAM. 

ADULTERY. 

ADUMMIM. 

ADVENT. 

Adventists. See MILLERITES; 
MILLENARIANS. 

ADVOCATE. 

ADVOWSON. 

ADYTUM. 

iEueas, a paralytic whom Peter 
healed, Ac. 9. 32-34. 

^IsON. 

^on. See GNOSTICS. 

Aerians. See SECT. 

Aetians. A branch of ARIANS. 

Afflictions: common to man, Job 
5. 7 ; 14. 1. Appointed by God, 
Job 5. 6 ; Ps. 75. 6, 7 ; 1 Th. 3. 3 ; 
Juo. 16. 33 ; 2 Ti. 3. 12. No proof 
of guilt. Job 2. 3 ; Ec. 2. 14 ; Lu. 
13. 1-5; Jno. 9. 2, 3. The conse- 
quence of sin, and the punish- 
ment of guilt. Gen. 3. 14-19 ; 4. 
9-12; 2 Sa. 24. 13; 2 Ki. 5. 27; 
11. 35-37 ; Pr. 10. 4 ; 20. 4 ; 22. 8 ; 
23. 29 ; La. 3. 39 ; Hos. 10. 13 ; Mi. 
7. 9. Suft'ered in the discharge 
of duty. Gen. 39. 20 ; Mat. 10. 17, 18, 
22 ; 24. 9. Not a mark of God's 
anger, but of his love. Pi". 3. 12; 
He. 12. 6-11 ; Re. 3. 19. A trial of 
faith, De. 8. 5 ; Job 5. 17 ; Ps. 66. 
10 ; 94. 12 ; 119. 67, 71, 75 ; Pr. 3. 
11 ; Ec. 7. 3 ; Is. 48. 10 ; Ro. 5. 3 ; 

1 Pe. 1. 7. The means of bringing 
transgressors to a sense of duty, 

2 Chr. 33. 12 ; Ps. 78. 34 ; Is. 26. 9- 
16 ; I Co. IL 32. To be borne 
with patience, Pr. 24. 10 ; 2 Ti. 2. 

3 ; 4. 5 ; 1 Pe. 2. 19. Support un- 
der them, Ps. 34. 19 ; 37. 24 ; 41. 
3 ; 55. 22 ; Pr. 24. 16 ; La. 3. 31-33 ; 

1 Co. 10. 13 ; 2 Co. 12. 9 ; 2 Ti. 3. 11 ; 

2 Pe. 2. 9. An abundant recom- 
pense made for them hereafter. 
Mat. 5. 10 ; Lu. 6. 22 ; Ro. 8. 18 ; 2 
Co. 4. 17; Ja. 1. 12 ; 1 Pe. 1. 7 ; 3. 
14; 4. 13; Re. 2. 10; 7. 13-17. 
Prayer for deliverance out of 
them, 2 Ki. 20. 2; 2 Chr. 33. 12; 
Ps. 6. 1 ; 7. 1 ; 18. 3-6 ; Mat. 26. 39 ; 
2 Co. 12. 8 ; Ja. 5. 13. 

AFRICAN M. E. CHURCH. 

AGABUS. 

A6AG. 

Agagite, Est. 3. 1, 10 ; 8. 3, 5 ; 9. 24. 

Possibly a synonym of Amalek- 

ite. See HAMAN. 
Agapse. See LOVE-FEASTS. 
AGAPET^. 
Agar, Gal. 4. 24, 25. Greek form of 

HAGAR. 
AGATE. 
AGE. 
Agee, the father of one of David's 

mightv men. 2 Sa. 23. 11. 
Agnoetfe. See SECT. 
AGNUS DEL 
Agonistici, a sect of the DONA- 

TISTS. 
Agony. See GETHSEMANE. 
AGRICULTURE. 
AGRICULTURE, FESTIVAL OF. 
Agrippa. See HEROD. 
Asur, a sage, Pr. 30. 1. 
AHAB, I. A king of Israel. Ahab, 

II. A lying prophet, Jer. 29. 22. 
Aharah, a son of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 

8. 1. Prob. same as Ahiram. 
Aharhel, a descendant of Judah, 1 

Chr. 4. 8. 
Ahasai, prob. contraction of Aha- 

ziah, a priest, Neh. 11.13. Perhaps 

same as Jahzerah, 1 Chr. 9. 12. 
Ahasbai, father of one of David's 

warriors, 2 Sa. 23. 34. 
AIIASUERUS. 
AHAVA, a river or town (?) be- 



tween Babylon and Jerusalem. 
Ezra 8. 15 ; 21. 31. 

AHAZ, I. Son of Jotham, king of 
Judah. Ahaz, II. One of Saul's 
descendants, 1 Chr. 8. 35; 9. 42. 

AHAZIAH. 

Ahban, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 2. 29. 

Aher, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 7. 12. 
Prob. same as Ahiram. 

Ahi (contraction of Ahiah or Ahi- 
jah), I. A Gadite, 1 Chr. 5. 15. IL 
A chieftain of Asher, 1 Chr. 7. 
34. 

Ahiah. Same as AHIJAH. 

Ahiam, one of David's warriors, 2 
Sa. 23. 33 ; 1 Chr. 11. 35. 

Ahiam, a sou of Shemidah, 1 Chr. 
7.19. 

Ahiezer, I. A prince of the tribe 
of Dan, Nu. 1. 12 ; 2. 25 ; 7. 66 ; 10. 
25. II. A Benjamite chief who 
joined David, 1 Chr. 12. 3. 

Ahihud, I. A chief of the tribe of 
Asher, Nu. 34. 27. II. A descend- 
ant of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 8. 7. 

AHIJAH, I. A prophet. Ahijah, II. 
A high-priest. See AHIMELECH. 
IIL A scribe in Solomon's time, 
1 Ki. 4. 3. IV. One of the tribe 
of Issachar, 1 Ki. 15. 27, 33 ; 21. 
22 ; 2 Ki. 9. 9. V. A descendant 
of Judah, 1 Chr. 2. 25. VI. A 
Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 7. Prob. 
same as Ahoah (v. 4). VII. One 
of David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11. 
36. VIII. A Levite, 1 Chr. 26. 20. 
IX. One who sealed the covenant, 
Neh. 10. 26. 

AHIKAM. 

AHIMAAZ, I. Son of Zadok. Ahim- 
aaz II. Officer under Solomon, 
1 Ki. 4. 15. IIL Father of Ahin- 
oam, 1 Sa. 14. 50. 

Ahiman, I. One of the Anakim, 
Nu. 13. 22 ; Josh. 15. 14, Ju. 6. 10. 
II. A Levite porter, 1 Chr. 9. 17. 

AHIMELECH, L A high -priest. 
Ahimelech, II. One of David's 
band, 1 Sa. 26. 6. 

Ahimoth, a Korhite, 1 Chr. 6. 25. 

Ahinadab, one of Solomon's com- 
missaries, 1 Ki. 4. 14. 

Ahinoam, L Wife of Saul, 1 Sa. 14. 
50. IL Wife of David, 1 Sa. 25. 
43 ; 27. 3 ; 30. 5, 18 ; 2 Sa. 2. 2 ; 3. 2. 

Ahio, I. A son of Abinadab, 2 Sa. 
6. 3 ; 1 Chr. 13. 7. IL Two Ben- 
jamites, 1 Chr. 8. 14, 31. 

Ahira, prince of Naphtali, Nu. 1. 
15; 2.29; 7.78,83; 10.27. 

Ahiram, son of Benjamin. Same 
as Ehi. Perhaps same as Aher 
or Aharah, Nu. 26. 38 ; Gen. 6. 21 ; 

1 Chr. 7. 12 ; 8. 1 ; Nu. 26. 38. 
Ahiramites, descendants of Ahi- 
ram, Nu. 26. 38. 

Ahisamach, a Danite, Ex. 31. 6 ; 35. 

34 ; 38. 23. 
Ahishahar, a Benjamite, IChr. 7. 10. 
Ahishar, steward of Solomon's 

household, 1 Ki. 4. 6. 
AHITHOPHEL. 
Ahitub. See AHIMELECH. 
Ahlab, a town in Asher, Ju. 1. 3L 
Ahlai, I. Daughter of Sheshan, 1 

Chr. 2. 31, 34, 35. II. Father of 

Zabad, 1 Chr. 11. 41. 
Ahoah, son of Bela, 1 Chr. S. 4. 

Same as Ahiah, 1 Chr. 5. 7. 
Ahohite, a descendant of Ahoah, 

2 Sa. 23. 9, 28. 

Aholah, a name for SAMARIA, 

Eze. 23. 4, 5, 36, 44. 
Aholiab, an artificer upon the tab- 
ernacle, Ex. 31. 6 ; 35. 34 ; 36. 1, 2 ; 

38. 23. 
Aholibah, a name for Judah, Eze. 

23. 4, 11, 22, 36, 44. 
Aholibamah, L A wife of Esau, Gen. 

36. 2, 14, 18. II. A duke in Edom, 

Gen. 36. 41; 1 Chr. 1. .52. 
Ahriman. See PERSIA; ZORO- 

ASTRIAN RELIGION. 



INDEX. 



1023 



Ahamai, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 4. 2. 

Ahuzam, a son of Ashur, 1 Chr. 4. 6. 

Ahuzzath, a friend of Abimelech, 
Gen. 26. 26. 

AI, I. A city of Palestine. Ai, II. 
A town of the Ammonites, Jer. 
49.3. 

Aiah, I. The father of RIZPAH, 2 
Sa. 3. 7 ; 21. 8, 11. II. Same as Ajah. 

Aiath, Is. 10. 28. See AI. 

AICHMALOTARCH. 

-Vija. See AI. 

AI-JALON, I. A city of the Kohath- 
ites. Aijalon, II. A place in Zeb- 
nlun, Judg. 12. 12. 

Aijeleth-shahar. See MUSICAL 
INSTRUMENTS. 

AIN. 

AIR. 

Aisle. See CHURCH EDIFICES. 

Ajah, a sou of Zibeon, Gen. 36. 24. 
Called Aiah, 1 Chr. 1. 40, 

Ajalou, Josh. 19. 42. Same as AIJA- 
LON. 

Akau, a Horite, Gen. 36. 27. Same 
as Jakan,l Chr. 1.42. 

Akkub, I. A descendant of David, 
1 Chr. 3. 24. II. A gate-keeper, 
1 Chr. 9. 17 ; Ezra 2. 42 ; Neh. 7. 
45 ; 11. 19 ; 12. 25. III. One of the 
Nethinim, Ezra 2. 45. IV. An as- 
sistant of Ezra, Neh. 8. 7. 

AKRABBBI. 

Aktistetse. See MONOPHYSITE. 

ALABASTER. 

Alameth, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 7. 8. 

Alaramelech, a town in Asher, 
Josh. 19. 26. 

Alamoth. See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 

ALB. 

Albati. See SECT. 

ALBIGENSES. 

Albright. See EVANGELICAL 
ASSOCIATIONS. 

Alemeth, I. A Levitical town in 
Benjamin, 1 Chr. 6. 60. Called 
also Almon, Josh. 21. 18. II. A 
descendant of Saul, 1 Chr. 8. 36 ; 
9. 42. 

ALEXANDER, I. A heretic. Alex- 
ander, II. A son of Simon the Cy- 
renian, Mnr. 15. 21. III. A Jewish 
councilor, Ac. 4. 6. IV. A Jew at 
Ephesus, Ac. 19.33,34. 

ALEXANDRIA. 

Alexandrian Manuscript. See 
MANUSCRIPT. 

Alexandrian School. See ALEX- 
ANDRIA. 

Alexandrians, Jews from Alexan- 
dria, Ac. 6. 9. 

ALGUM-TREES. 

Aliah, duke of Edora, 1 Chr. 1. 51. 
Same as Alvah, Gen. 36. 40. 

Allan, a Horite, 1 Chr. 1. 40. Spell- 
ed Alvan, Gen. 36. 23. 

Alien. See STRANGER. 

Allegory. See PARABLES. 

Alleluia, Re. 19. 1, 3, 4, 6. Greek 
for HALLELUJAH. 

Allenites. See SECT. 

ALLIANCE. 

ALLOCUTION. 

Allon, I. A town in Naphtali, Josh. 
19. 33. II. The son of Jedaiah, 1 
Chr. 4. 37. 

Allon-bachnth, the oak where Re- 
bekah's nurse was buried, Gen. 
35. 8. 

ALL-SAINTS' DAY. 

Almaricians, Almericians. See 
SECT. 

Almodad, a son of Joktan, Geu. 10. 
26 ; 1 Chr. 1. 20. 

Almon, a Levitical town in Benja- 
min, Josh. 21. IS. Called also 
Alemeth, 1 Chr. 6. 60. 

ALMOND. 

Alnidn-diblathaim, a station in the 
wilderness, Nu. 33. 46, 47. Same 
a" Beth-diblathaim, Jer. 48. 22. 

ALMS. 



ALMS-BOWL, ALMS-BOX, ALMS- 
CHEST. 

Almug-trees. See ALGUM-TREES. 

ALOES. 

Alombrados. See SECT. 

Aloth, a district near Asher, 1 Ki. 
4.16. 

ALPHA. 

ALPH^US. 

AL SIRAT. 

ALTAR, five mentioned in Scrip- 
ture : Noah's, Gen. 8. 20 ;— Abra- 
ham's, Geu. 12. 7, 8 {Moreh) ; Gen. 
13. 4, 18 {Bethel) ; Gen. 22. 9 ; Ja. 
2. 21 (Zsaac) ;— Isaac's, Gen. 26. 25 
{Beersheba) ;— Jacob's, Gen. 33. 20 
(Skalem) ■ Geu. 35. 1, 3 (Bethel) ; 
—Moses's, Ex. 17. 15 {Rephidim) ; 
Ex. 24. 4, 6 {to ratify the Covenant); 
De. 27. 5 {over Jordan) ; Josh. 8. 
30;— Aarcm's, Ex. 32. 5 {calf) ;— 
Balaam's, Nu. 23. 1, etc. ; — Josh- 
ua's, Josh. 8. 30 {Ehal) ; Josh. 22. 
10,n, etc.;— Gideon's, Judg. 6. 24, 
26 (Op/ira/i);— Manoah's, Judg. 13. 
20 ;— Israel's {at Mizpeh), Judg. 21. 
4; — Samuel's, 1 Sa. 7. 17 ; — Saul's, 
1 Sa. 14. 35 :— David's, 2 Sa. 24. 18 ; 
1 Chr. 21. 18, etc. ; 22. 1, etc. {Arau- 
nah's floor) ;— Solomon's, 1 Ki. 3. 
4 {Gibeon) ; 1 Ki. 6. 20, 22 ; 7. 48 
{Temple) ;— Jeroboam's, 1 Ki. 12. 
33 ; 13. 1, etc. ;— Ahab's, 1 Ki. 16. 
32 ; IS. 21, etc. ;— Ahaz's, 2 Ki. 16. 
10, etc.; 2 Chr. 28. 24;— Heze- 
kiah's cleansing, 2 Chr. 29. 1, etc. ; 
— Manasseh's, 2 Ki. 21. 3, etc. ; 23. 

9. etc. ; 2 Chr. 33. 3, etc. ;— Josiah's 
cleansiug, 2 Chr. 34. 4, etc. :— Uz- 
ziah's sacrilege, 2 Chr. 26. 16, etc. ; 
— Zerubbabel's, Ezra 3. 2, etc. 

Altar-cloth. See ALTAR ; ORNA- 
MENTS. 

Altar-piece. See ALTAR. 

Altar -rails. See ALTAR ; ORNA- 
MENTS. 

Al-taschith. See MUSICAL IN- 
STRUMENTS. 

Alush, a station in the Wilderness, 
Nu. 33. 13. See WILDERNESS 
OF THE WANDERING. 

Alvah, duke of Edom, Geu. 36. 40. 
Same as Aliah, 1 Chr. 1. 51. 

Alvau, a Horite, Gen. 36. 23. Spell- 
ed Allan, 1 Chr. 1. 40. 

Amad. a place in Asher, Josh. 19. 
26. 

Amal, an Asherite, 1 Chr. T. 35. 

Amalek. See AMALEKITES. 

AMALEKITES. 

Amalricians. See SECT. 

Amam, a city of Judah, Josh. 15. 26. 

AMANA. 

Amariah'l. Father of Ahitub, 1 Chr. 
6. 7, 52. II. High-])riest in reign 
of Jehoshaphat,'2 Chr. 19. 11. IIL 
A Kohathite Levite, 1 Chr. 23. 19 ; 
24. 23. IV. A priest, 2 Chr. 31. 15 ; 
Neh. 10. 3; 12. 2, 13. Same as Im- 
mer, 1 Chr. 24. 14. V. A man, Ezra 

10. 4-2. VI. A descendant of Ju- 
dah, Neh. 11. 4. Probably same 
as Imri, 1 Chr. 9. 4. VII. Ances- 
tor of Zephaniah, Zeph. 1. 1. 

AMASA 

Amasai, L A Levite, 1 Chr. 6. 25, 35. 

11. A chief, 1 Chr. 12. 18. IIL A 
priest in David's time, 1 Chr. 15. 
24. IV. A Levite, 2 Chr. 29. 12. 

Amashai, a priest, Neh. 11. 13. 

Amasiah. son ofZichri, 2 Chr. 17. 16. 

Amanricians. See SECT. 

AMAZIAH, I. King of Judah. Am- 
aziah, II. A Simeonite, 1 Chr. 4. 
34. in.ALevite,l Chr. 6.45. IV. 
An idolatrous priest. Am. 7. 10-17. 

AMBASSADOR. 

AMBER. 

Ambo. Same as LECTERN. 

AMEN. 

American Bible Society. See BI- 
BLE SOCIETIES. 

American Bible Union. See BI- 
BLE SOCIETIES. 



American Board of Commissioners 
for Forei'.'n Missions. See CON- 
GREGATION ALISTS. 

American Congregational Associa- 
tion. See CONGREGATION AL- 
ISTS. 

American Congregational Union. 
See CONGREGATIONALISTS. 

American and Foreign Bible Socie- 
ty. See BIBLE SOCIETIES. 

American Missionary Association. 
See CONGREGATIONALISTS. 

AMETHYST. See COLORS. 

Ami, children of, Ezra 2. 57. Same 
as Amou, Neh. 7. 59. 

Amice. See VESTMENTS. 

Amiuadab. See AMMINADAB. 

Amittai, father of the prophet Jo- 
nah. See JONAH. 

Ammah, a hill near where Asahel 
was slain, 2 Sa. 2. 24, See AB- 
NER. 

AMMI. 

Ammiel, I. The Danite spv, Nu. 13, 
12. 11. Father of Machir of Lo- 
debar, 2 Sa. 9, 4, 5 ; 17, 27. Ill, 
Father of Bathsheba, 1 Chr. 3. 5. 
Same as Eliam, 2 Sa, 11. 3, IV. Son 
of Obed-edom, 1 Chr. 26. 5. 

Ainmihud, I. Father of Elishama, 
Nu. 1. 10 ; 2, 18. II. Father of 
Shemuel, Nu. 34. 20. III. Father 
of Pedahel, Nu. 34. 28. IV. Father 
of Talmai, king of Geshur, 2 Sa. 
13. 37. V. A man of Judah, 1 Chr. 
9.4. 

AMMINADAB, I. Son of Aram. 
Amminadab, II. A Levite, 1 Chr. 
15. 10. III. A son of Kohath, 1 
Chr. 6. 22. 

Ammi-uadib, probably a person, 
Sol. Song 6. 12. 

Ammishaddai, father of Ahiezer, 
Nu. 1.12; 7.66. 

Ammizabad, son ofBenaiah, 1 Chr, 
27. 6. 

AMMON, AMMONITES. 

AMNON, I. Son of David. Amnon, 

II. One of Judah's descendants, 
1 Chr, 4, 20. 

Amok, a priest, Neh, 12. 7, 20. 

AMON, I. An Egyptian divinity. 
Amou, II. Sou of Manasseh. III. 
A governor of Samaria. 1 Ki. 22, 
26 ■, 2 Chr, 18, 25. IV, Neh, 7. 59. 
Same as Ami. 

Amorijim, See DOCTOR. 

AJVIORITE. 

AMOS, L A prophet. Amos, 11, Son 
of Naum, Lu. 3. 25. 

Amoz, 2 Chr. 26. 22, father of ISA- 
IAH. 

AMPHIPOLIS, a city of Greece. 

Amplias, a Christian at Rome, Ro. 
16.8. 

Amram, I. Son of Bani, Ezra 10. 34, 
IL Sou of Dishon, 1 Chr. 1. 41. 

III. Father of Moses, Aaron, and 
Miriam, Ex. 6. IS, 20 ; Nu. 3. 19 ; 
26. 58, 59 ; 1 Chr. 6. 2, 3, 18 ; 23. 12, 
13 ; 24. 20. 

Amramites, family of Amram, the 
Levite, Nu. 3. 27 ; 1 Chr. 26. 23. 

Amraphel, a king of Shiuar, Gen, 
14. 1, 9. 

AMULET. See ORNAMENTS. 

Amzi, I. A Levite, 1 Chr. 6. 46. II, 
A priest, Neh. 11. 12. 

ANAB, a town in Judah. 

ANABAPTISTS. 

ANAH. 

Auaharath, a place in Issachar, 
, Josh. 19. 19. 

Anaiah, an assistant of Ezra, Neh. 
8. 4 ; 10. 22. 

ANAK. 

Anakim. Same as ANAK. 

Anamim, a people of Egypt or vi- 
cinity, locality uuknown, Geu. 10, 
13. 

Anammelech, See ADRAMME- 
LECH. 

Anan, an associate of Nehemiah, 
Neh. 10. 26, 



1024 



INDEX. 



Auani, a descendant of David, 1 
Chr. 3. 24. 

Anauiah, I. Father of Maaseiah, 
Neh. B. 23. II. A town in Benja- 
min, Neh. 11. 32. 

ANANIAS, I. A false disciple. II. 
A Christian at Damascus. III. 
A high-priest. 

Auath, father of Shamgar, Judg. 3, 
31 ; 5. 6. 

ANATHEMA. 

ANATHOTH. 

Anchor. See SHIP ; SYMBOLISM. 

Anchorites. See MONACHISM. 

Ancient of Days, title of Jehovah, 
Da. 7. 9, 13, 22. 

ANDREW. 

Andronicns, a Christian at Rome, 
Ro. 16. 7. 

Anem, a Levitical city in Issachar, 
1 Chr. 6. 73. Same as Engannin. 

Aner, I. An Amorite chief, Gen. 14. 
13, 24. II. A town, 1 Chr. 6. 70. 
Probably same as TAANACH. 

Anethothite, 2 Sa. 23, 27, a native of 
ANATHOTH. 

Anetothite, 1 Chr. 2T. 12, a native of 
ANATHOTH. 

ANGEL. 

Angel of Death. See ANGEL. 

Angel of Peace. See ANGEL. 

Angelns Domini. See AVE MA- 
RIA. 

Angle, Isa. 19. 8 ; Ha. 1. 15. See 
FISH. 

Anglican Church. See EPISCOPA- 
LIANS. 

Angling. See FISH. 

Aniam, a Manassite, 1 Chr. 7. 19. 

Auim, a town in the hill country of 
Judah, Josh. 15. 50. 

ANIMAL. 

animal- worship. 
Anise. 

Anklets. See ORNAMENTS. 

ANNA. 

ANNAS. 

Annates". See FIRST-FRUITS. 

ANNIHILATIONISTS. 

Aiiiiuuciation, feast of. See FES- 
TIVALS. 

ANOINTING. 

Anomoeaus. See ARIANS. 

ANT. 

ANTEDILUVIANS. 

Antelope. See ROE. 

Anthem. See MUSIC. 

ANTHROPOLOGY. 

ANTHROPOMORPHISM. 

ANTICHRIST. 

ANTIDORON. 

Anti-Libanus. See LEBANON. 

ANTINOMIANS. 

ANTIOCH, I. In Syria. 11. In Pi- 
sidia. 

Autipas, I. See HEROD. IL A mar- 
tyr in Pergamos, Re. 2. 13. 

ANTIPATRIS. 

Antiphon. See MUSIC. 

ANTIPOPE. 

Antiquity of man. See MAN. 

Antothijah, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 
24. 

Antothite, a native of Anathoth, 1 
Chr. 11. 28; 12.3. 

ANTONIA. 

Anub, son of Coz, 1 Chr. 4. 8. 

APE. 

Apelleaus, a branch of GNOSTICS. 

Apelles, a Christian at Rome, Ro. 
16. 10. 

Apha r sarcites, Apharsathcites, 
Aphar sites, Assyrian tribes whose 
origin is unknown, Ezra 4. 9 ; 5. 6. 

Aphek, I. A royal city of the Ca- 
naanites. Josh. 12. 18. Same as 
Aphekah, Josh. 15. 53. IL A city 
of Asher, Josh. 13.4; 19. 30. Same 
as Aphik, Judg. 1. 31. III. Place 
of encampment near Jerusalem, 1 
Sa. 4. 1 ; 29. 1. IV. A city in Syria, 
six miles east of Sea of Galilee, 
1 Ki.20. 26; 2Ki.l3. 17. 

Aphekah. Same as Aphek. 



Aphiah, an ancestor of King Saul, 
1 Sa. 9. 1. 

Aphik. Same as Aphek. 

Aphrah, a place, Mi. 1. 10. Same as 
Ophrah. 

Aphrodite. See VENUS. 

Aphses, a priest, 1 Chr. 24. 15. 

Apis. See BULL. 

Apocalypse. See REVELATION, 
BOOK OF. 

APOCRYPHA 

Apolliuarians.* See MONARCHI- 
ANS. 

APOLLO. 

APOLLONIA. 

APOLLOS. 

APOLLYON. 

Apologetics. See APOLOGY. 

Apologists. See APOLOGY. 

APOLOGY. 

APOSTASY. 

Apostate. See APOSTASY. 

APOSTLE. 

Apostles: called, Mat. 10. 2 ; Lu. 
6. 13 ; Ac. 1. 26 ; 9. 1, etc. Commis- 
sioned, Mat. 10. 16 ; Mar. 16. 15 ; 
Lu. 10. 3 ; Ac. 1. 2 ; Eph. 3. 5 : 4. 11 ; 
1 Tim. 2. 7 ; 2 Tim. 1. 11. Miracles 
by, Lu. 10. 17 ; Ac. 2. 43 ; 5. 12. Per- 
secuted, Ac. 5. 18, etc. ; 14. 4, etc. 
Appoint deacons, Ac. 6. 6. Send 
delegates, Ac. 8.14. Lay on hands, 
Ac. S. IS. Disputes with, Ac. 15. 2, 
etc. Their decrees, Ac. 16. 4. Proof 
of office, 1 Co. 9. 1, etc. ; 2 Co. 12. 
12; GaL 1. 1, 17, 19; Re. 2. 2. 
Christ so called, He. 3. 1. 

Apostles' Creed. See CREED. 

APOSTOLICAL. 

Apostolical Age. See APOSTOL- 
ICAL. 

Apostolical Brethren. See APOS- 
TOLICAL. 

Apostolical Canons. See APOS- 
TOLICAL. 

Apostolical Catholic Church. See 
APOSTOLICAL. 

Apostolical Chamber. See APOS- 
TOLICAL. 

Apostolical Church, See APOS- 
TOLICAL. 

Apostolical Chtirch Directory. See 
APOSTOLICAL. 

Apostolical Clerks. See APOS- 
TOLICAL. 

Apostolical Constitutions. See 
APOSTOLICAL. 

Apostolical Fathers. See APOS- 
TOLICAL. 

Apostolical See. See APOSTOL- 
ICAL. 

APOSTOLICAL SUCCESSION. 

Apostolici. Same as Apostolical 
Brethren. 

Apotactici. Same as Apostolical 
Brethren, 

Apothecaries. See HANDICRAFT. 

Apotheosis. See CANONIZATION. 

Appaim, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 2. 30, 31. 

Apparel. See DRESS. 

Appeal, See Courts, 

Apphia, a woman sahited by Paul, 
Philem, 2, 

APPII FORUM. 

APPLE 

APPLE OF SODOM, 

Apron. See DRESS. 

APSE 

Aquarii, See COMMUNION (IV.). 

AQUILA. 

Ar, capital of Moab, site uncertain, 
Nn. 21. 15, 28 ; Is. 15. 1. 

Ara, a chief of Asher, 1 Chr. 7. 3S. 

Arab, a city of Judah, Josh. 15. 52. 

ARABAH. 

ARABIA. 

Arabian pole. See MEASURES. 

Arad, I. A royal city of the Canaan- 
ites, modern "Tel" Arad, Josh. 
12. 14 ; Judg. 1. 16. In Nu. 21. 1 ; 
33. 40, read king of Arad. II. A 
Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 15. 

Arab, I. A chief of Asher, 1 Chr. 7. 



39. II. One whose descendants 
returned from Babylon, Ezra 2, 5 ; 
Neh, 7. 10, III, One whose grand- 
daughter Tobiah married, Neh, 
6, IS. 

ARAM, I. A country. Aram, II. A 
son of Shem, Gen, 10, 22, 23 ; 1 Chr. 
1, 17. m. A grandson of Nahor, 
Gen. 22. 21. IV. A chieftain of 
Asher, 1 Chr. 7. 34. V. A descend- 
ant of Judah, Mat. 1. 3, 4; Lu. 3. 
33 ; called Ram in Job 32. 2. 

ARAMAIC, or ARAMEAN. 

Aramitess, a female Syrian, 1 Chr. 
7.14, 

Aram-naharaim. See ARAM, MES- 
OPOTAMIA, 

Aram Zobah. See ARAM, ZOBA, 
ZOBAH. 

Aran, a descendant of Levi, Gen. 36. 
28; 1 Chr. 1.42. 

ARARAT. See ARMENIA. 

ARAUNAH. 

Arba, or Arbah, an ancestor of the 
Anakim, Gen. 35. 27 ; Josh. 14. 15; 
15. 13 ; 21. 11. 

Arbah. Same as Kirjath-arba, i. e., 
HEBRON, Gen. 35. 27. 

Arbathite, a native of the ARABAH, 
2 Sa. 23. 31 ; 1 Chr. 11. 32, 

Arbite, a native of Arab, 2Sa. 23. 35. 

Arch. See ARCHITECTURE. 

Archangel. See ANGEL. 

ARCHBISHOP. 

ARCHDEACON. 

ARCHELAUS. See HEROD. 

Archery. See ARMS. 

Archevites, the inhabitants of 
Erech, Ezra 4. 9. 

Archi, name of a place. Josh. 16. 2. 

Archimandrite. See GREEK 
CHURCH. 

Archippus, a Christian teacher, Col. 
4. 17 ; Philem. 2. 

Archite, a name given HUSHAI. 

ARCHITECTURE. 

Archon. See GNOSTICS. 

ARCTURUS. 

Ard, a grandson of Benjamin, Nu. 
26. 40 ; called his son. Gen. 46. 21 ; 
called Addar, 1 Chr. 8. 3. 

Ardites, descendants of Ard, Nu. 
26. 40. 

Ardon, son of Caleb, 1 Chr. 2. 18. 

Areli, son of Gad, Gen. 46. 16 ; Nu. 
26. 17. 

Arelites, descendants of Areli, Nu. 
26. 17. 

Areopasite. See AREOPAGUS. 

AREOPAGUS. 

ARETAS. 

ARGOB. 

ARIANS. 

Aridai, son of Haman, Est. 9. 9. 

Aridatha, son of Haman, Est. 9. 8. 

Arieh, name of a man, 2 Ki. 15. 25. 

Ariel, I. Applied to Jerusalem, Is. 
29. 1, 2, 7. IL A man, Ezra 8. 16. 
III. Prob. symbolical for Jerusa- 
lem, Is. 29. 1, 2. 

Arimathea, a town. See JOSEPH. 

Arioch, I. King of Ellasar, Gen. 14. 
1, 9. II. Captain of Nebuchad- 
nezzar's, Dan. 2. 14, 15, 24, 25, 

Arisai, a son of Haman, Est. 9. 9. 

ARISTARCHUS. 

Aristobnlus, a Roman, Ro. 16. 10. 

ARISTOTELIANS. 

Arius. See ARIANS, 

ARK. 

ARK OF THE COVENANT, 

ARKITE, a Canaauitish tribe. 

ARMAGEDDON. 

ARMENIA. 

ARMENIAN CHURCH. 

ARMINIANS. 

Armlets, See ORNAMENTS. 

Armoni, son of Saul, by Rizpah, 2 
Sa. 21. 8. 

ARMOR. See ARMS. The shield 
or buckler, 1 Ki. 10. 17; Eze. 26. 
8 ; Na. 2. 3. The target, 1 Sa. 17. 
6. The coat of mail, or haber- 
geon, or breastplate, 1 Sa. 17. 5 ; 



INDEX. 



1025 



Neh. 4. 16 ; Job 41. 26 : Ee. 9. 9. 
Greaves, or boots, 1 Sa. IT. 6. 
Helmet, Eze. 27. 10. The Chris- 
tian's described, Epb. 6. 13. 

ARMS. 

ARMY. 

Arnan, a descendant of David, 1 
Chr. 3. -21. 

ARNOLDISTS. 

ARNO]S, a river of Moab. 

Ar<Hl, a sou of Gad, Nu. 26. 17. 
Same a? Arodi, Gen. 46. 16. 

Arodi, Gen. 46. 16. Same as Arod, 
Nn. 26. 17. 

Arodites, descendants of Arod, or 
Arodi, Nu. 26. 17. 

AROER, I. A city of Reuben. II. 
town of Gad, Nu. 32. 34 ; Josh. 13. 
25 ; 2 Sa. 24. 5 ; Judg. 11. 33. III. 
Another city farther north. Per- 
haps same as II., Is. 17. 2. IV. A 
town in Judah, 1 Sa. 30. 28. 

Aroerite, a native of Aroer, 1 Chr. 
11. 44. 

Arpad, a city or district in Syria, 
site unknown. Same as Arphad, 
Is. 36. 19 ; 37. 13 ; Jer. 49. 23. 

Arphad. Same as Arpad. 

Arphaxad, son of Shem, and ances- 
tor of Eber, Gen. 10. 22, 24 ; 11. 10 
-13 ; 1 Chr. 1. 17, IS, 24. 

Arrows. See ARMS. 

ARTAXERXES. 

Arteraas, a companion of St. Paul, 
Ti. 3. 12. 

Artemis. See DIANA. 

Artemonites. See HUMANITA- 
RIANS. 

Articles of Faith. See CREED. 

Articles, The Thirty -Nine. See 
CREED. 

Artificer. See HANDICRAFT. 

Artillery. See ARMS. 

Arts. See HANDICRAFT. 

Aruboth, name of a district, 1 Ki. 4. 
10. 

Arumah, a town near Shechem, 
Jiidg. 9. 41. Perhaps same as 
Rumah. 

ARVAD. 

Arvadite, an inhabitant of Arvad, 
Gen. 10. 18 ; 1 Chr. 1. 16. 

Arza, a steward of King Elah. 

ASA, I. King of Judah. Asa, II. A 
Levite, 1 Chr. 9. 16. 

ASAHEL. 

Asahiah, a servant of King Josiah, 
2 Ki. 22. 12, 14. Same as Asaiah, 
2 Chr. 34. 20. 

Asaiah, I. A Simeonite, 1 Chr. 4. 36. 
II. A Levite, 1 Chr. 6. 30. III. A 
Shilonite, 1 Chr. 9. 5. IV. A Le- 
vite of the family of Merar, 1 Chr. 
1.5. 6, 11. V. A servant of King 
Josiah, 2 Chr. 34. 20. Same as 
Asahiah, 2 Ki. 22. 12, 14. 

ASAPH, LA Levite musician. 
Asaph, II. Father of Joah, 2 Ki. 
IS. IS, 37 ; Is. 36. 3, 22. III. Keep- 
er of Artaxerxes's forest, Neh. 2. 
8. IV. A Levite, Neh. 11. 17. 

Asareel, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 4. 16. 

Asarelah, a musician, 1 Chr. 25. 2. 
Same as Jesharelah, 1 Chr. 25. 14. 

Ascension of Christ, Mar. 16. 19 ; 
Lu. 24. 50, 51 ; Ac. 1. 1-12 ; 2. 33 
-35 ; Eph. 4. S-10. Foretold, Ps. 
24 ; 68. 18 ; Jno. 3. 13 ; 6. 62 ; 20. 17. 

ASCENSION-DAY. 

ASCETICISM. 

Asenath, wife of Joseph, Gen. 41. 
45, 50 ; 46. 20. 

Aser, Lu. 2. 36, the Greek form of 
ASHER. 

ASH. 

Ashau, a city in Judah. Probably 
same as Chor-ashan (1 Sa. 30. 30), 
and Ain (Josh. 21. 16), Josh. 15. 
42; 19.7; 1 Chr. 4. 32 ; 6.59. 

Ashantees, religion of. See FET- 
ICHISM. 

Ashbea, a house of Judah, 1 Chr. 4. 
21. 

65 



Asbbel, a son of Benjamin, Gen. 46. 
21; Nu. 26. 3S: 1 Chr. 8. 1. 

Ashbelites, descendants of Ashbel, 
Nu. 26. 38. 

Ashchenaz. See ASHKENAZ. 

ASHDOD. 

Ashdodires, the inhabitants of ASH- 
DOD, Neh. 4. 7. 

Ashdothites. Same as Ashdodites. 

Ashdoth-pisgah, a city of Reuben, 
De. 3. 17 ; Josh. 12. 3 ; 13. 20. Same 
as springs of Pisgah, De. 4. 49. 

ASHER, I. One of the sons of Jacob, 
Gen. 30. 13. II. A town on the 
border of Mauasseh. Prob. the 
modern Tayasir, Josh. 17. 7. 

Asherah. See ASHTORETH. 

Asherites, descendants of Asher, 
Judg. 1. 32. 

Ashes. Used in token of abase- 
ment, Gen. 18. 27 ; 2 Sa. 13. 19 ; 1 
Ki. 20. 38, 41 ; Est. 4. 1, etc. ; Job 
2. 8, etc. ; Mat. 11. 21 ; Lu. 10. 13. 
Sacrificially, Ex. 9. 8, 10 ; Le. 1. 16 ; 
4. 12 ; 6. 10 ; Nu. 19. 9, 10, etc. : He. 
9. 13. Figuratively, Ps. 102. 9; 
147. 16 ; Is. 44. 20. See MOURN- 
ING. 

ASHIMA. 

ASHKELON. 

ASHKENAZ. 

Ashnah, name of two cities in Ju- 
dah, Josh. 15. 33, 43. 

Ashpenaz, the master of Nebuchad- 
nezzar's eunuchs, Dan. 1. 3. 

Ashriel, a son of Manasseh, 1 Chr. 
7. 14. Same as Asriel, Nu. 26. 31 ; 
Josh. 17. 2. 

ASHTAROTH, L A city. II. The 
plural of Ashtoreth. 

Ashterathite, a term applied to one 
of David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11. 44. 

Ashteroth-karnaim. See ASHTA- 
ROTH. 

ASHTORETH. 

Ashnr, founder of Tekoah, 1 Chr. 
2. 24 ; 4. 5. 

Ashurites. Same as Asherites, 2 Sa. 
2.9. 

Ashvatb, a chieftain of Asher, 1 Chr. 
7 33 

ASH-WEDNESDAY. 

ASIA. 

Asiel, a descendant of Simeon, 1 
Chr. 4. 35. 

Askelon. See ASHKELON. 

Asuah, a person, Ezra 2. 50. 

Asnapper, an officer under Esar- 
haddon, Ezra 4. 10. 

Asp. See SERPENT. 

Aspatha, a son of Haman, Est. 9. 7. 

ASPERSION. 

Asphaltic Lake. See SALT SEA. 

Asphaltum. See CITIES OF THE 
PLAIN; PITCH. 

Asriel, a son of Manasseh, Nu. 26. 
31 ; Josh. 17. 2, Same as Ashriel, 
1 Chr. 7. 14. 

Asrielites, descendants of Asriel, 
Nu. 26. 31. 

ASS. 

ASS, FEAST OF. 

ASSAMESE, RELIGION OF. 

ASSASSINS. 

Assemblies of believers enjoined, 
Ps. 122. 1, etc. ; He. 10. 25. The 
blessing connected with them, 
Mai. 3. 16, 17; Mat. IS. 20. In- 
stances of, Lu, 24. 33-36; Jno. 20. 
19, 29 ; Ac. 1. 6, 14 ; 2. 1-42 ; 3. 1, 31 ; 
5. 20, 21, 25, 42 ; 10. 83^8 ; 12. 5 ; 13. 
2, 14-48 ; 16. 13 ; 17. 2 ; 20. 7-11, 17- 
36; 28.23-31. Directions for, 1 
Co. 5. 4 ; 11. 20 ; 14. 23 ; Eph. 4. 15, 
16 ; 5. 18-21 ; Ja. 2. 2. 

Assembly. See CONGREGATION; 
PRESBYTERIANS. 

Assessment. See TAXES. 

Asshur, I. A son of Shem, Gen. 10. 
22 ; 1 Chr. 1. 17. II. Same as AS- 
SYRIA. 

ASSHURIM, prob. same as Ashur- 
ites, Gen. 25. 3. 

Assideans. See CHASIDIM. 



Assir, I. Son of Korah, Ex, 6. 24 : 1 
Chr. 6. 22. 11. Son of Ebiasaph, 
1 Chr. 6. 23, 37. III. Son of Jec- 
oniah, 1 Chr. 3. 17. 

Associate Presbvterian Church. See 
PRESBYTERIAN. 

Association. See CONGEEGA- 
TIONALISTS. 

Assos, Ac. 10. 13, 14, a sea - port in 
Mysia, twenty-four Roman miles 
from TROAS. 

ASSUMPTION, FESTIVAL OF 
THE. 

Assur, Ezra 4. 2 ; Ps. S3. 8. See AS- 
SYRIA. 

ASSURANCE OF FAITH. 

ASSYRIA, ASSHUR. 

Assyrians, inhabitants of ASSYR- 
IA. 

Astaroth, De. 1, 4. Same as Ashta- 
roth. 

Astarte. See ASHTORETH. 

ASTROLOGY. 

ASTRONOMY. 

Asuppim, house of, a store-house, 
1 Chr. 26. 15, 17. 

Asylum. See CITIES OF REF- 
UGE. 

Asyucritus, a Christian at Eome, 
Ro. 16. 14. 

Atad, a threshing-floor. Gen. 50. 10, 
IL See ABEL. 

Atarah, wife of Jerahmeel, 1 Chr, 
2.26. 

Ataroth, I. A town in Gilead, Nu. 
32. 3, 34. II. A town on the bor- 
der of Ephraim, Josh. 16. 2, 7. IIL 
House of Joab, 1 Chr. 2. 54. 

Ataroth-adar (called also Ataroth- 
addar. Josh. 16. 5), Josh. 18. 13. 

Ater, I. A descendant of HEZE- 
KIAH, Ezra 2. 16 ; Neh. 7. 21 . IL 
A person, Ezra 2. 42; Neh. 7. 45. 
III. One who sealed the covenant, 
Neh. 10. 17. 

Athach, a town in Judah, 1 Sa. 30. 
30. 

Athaiah, sou of Uzziah, Neh. 11. 4. 

ATHALIAH, I. A sovereign of Ju- 
dah. Athaliah, II. A Benjamite, 

1 Chr. 8. 26. IIL Father of Jesha- 
iah, Ezra 8. 7. 

Athanasian Creed. See CREED, 

ATHEISM. 

Athenians, inhabitants of ATH- 
ENS. 

Al'HENS. 

Athlai, son of Bebai, Ezra 10. 28. 

ATONEMENT. 

ATONEMENT, DAY OF. 

Atroth, a city of Gad, Nu. 32. 35. 

Attai, I. A son of Jarha, 1 Chr. 2. 
35, 36. n. A Gadite chief, 1 Chr. 
12. 11. III. A sou of Rehoboam, 

2 Chr. 11. 20, 
ATTALIA. 
Attire. See DRESS, 
ATTRITION. 

Audiaui. See ANTHROPOMOR- 
PHISM. 

Augsburg Confession. See CREED. 

Augustines. See AUGUSTINIAN 
MONKS. 

AUGUSTINIAN MONKS, 

Augustinians. See CALVINISTS. 

AUGUSTUS. 

Augustus's band, Ac. 27, 1. See 

Army. 

AUREOLA, or AUREOLE, 

Auricular confession. See CON- 
FESSION, 

AUTHORIZED VERSIONS. 

Autocephali. See BISHOP. 

AUTO-DA-FE. 

Ava, a place in Assyria, 2 Ki, 18, 24, 
Same as Ivah. 

Avatar. See VISHNU. 

AVE MARIA. 

Aven, I. A name of the city On, 
Ezra 30. 17. H. A contraction of 
Beth -aven, Hos. 10, 8, IIL A 
plain. Am. 1. 5. 

Avenger of blood. See CITIES OF 
REFUGE. 



1026 



INDEX. 



Avesta, or Abesta. See ZOROAS- 

TRIAN RELIGION. 
Avim, I. Au aboriginal tribe in Pal- 
estine, De. 2. 23. Perhaps same 

as Avites, Josh. 13. 3. See HI- 

VITES. II. A town in Benjamin, 

Josh. 18. 23. 
Avites, I. A people, Josh. 13. 3. 

Same as Avim, De. 2. 23. See HI- 

VITES. 11. Inhabitants of Ava, 

2 Ki. 17. 31. 
Avith, chief city of Hadad, king of 

Edom, Gen. 36. 35. 
AWL. 
AXE. 
Azal, a place on the east of Mount 

of Olives, Zee. 14. 5. 
Azaliah, father of Shaphan, 2 Ki. 

22. 3 ; 2 Chr. 34. 8. 
Azaniah, a Levite, Neh. 10. 9. 
Azarael, a musician, Neh. 12. 36. 

Perhaps same as Azareel, Neh. 

11. 13. 
Azareel, I. A Benjamlte, 1 Chr. 12. 

6. II. A chief singer, 1 Chr. 25. 

IS. Perhaps same as Uzziel (v. 

4^. in. A chief of Dan, 1 Chr. 

27. 22. IV. A man, Ezra 10. 41. 

V. A priest, Neh. 11. 13. Perhaps 
same as Azarael, Neh. 12. 36. 

A-zariah, I. Son of Ahimaaz, 1 Chr. 

6. 9;lKi. 4. 2. 11. Sou of Nathan, 
1 Ki. 4. 5. in. A king of Judah. 
Same as UZZIAH. IV. Son of 
Ethan, 1 Chr. 2. 8. V. Son of 
Jehu, 1 Chr. 2. 38, 39. Perhaps 
same as son of Obed, 2 Chr. 23. 1. 

VI. Son of Johanan, 1 Chr. 6. 10. 

VII. Son of Hilkiah, 1 Chr. 6. 13 ; 
9. 11. Vin. Son of Zephaniah, 1 
Chr. 6. 36. Perhaps same as Uz- 
ziah, verse 24. IX. Two sons of 
Jehoshaphat, 2 Chr. 21. 2. X. 
King of Judah, known as Aha- 
ziah, 2 Chr. 22. 6. XI. Son of 
Jeroham, 2 Chr. 23. 1. XII. An 
Ephraimite, 2 Chr. 28. 12. XIH. 
Two Levites, 2 Chr. 29. 12. XIV. 
A high-priest, 2 Chr. 31. 10, 13. 
XV. Son of Maaseiah, Neh. 3. 23, 
24. XVI. A companion of Daniel, 
Dan. 1. 6, 7, 11, 19 ; 2. 11. XVH. 
A priest, Neh. 10. 2. Perhaps 
same as Neh. 12. 33, and No. XV. 

XVIII. Son of Oded, 2 Chr. 15. 1-7. 

XIX. Son of Hoshaiah, Jer. 43. 2. 

XX. A companion of Zerubbabel, 
Neh. 7. 7. XXL A Levite, Neh . 8. 

7. XXIL A high-priest of Uzzi- 
ah's reign, 2 Ki. 14. 21 ; 15. 1, G, 7, 

8. etc. 

Azaz, a Reuben ite, 1 Chr. 5. 8. 

Azaziah, I. A musician, 1 Chr. 15. 
21. II. An Ephraimite, 1 Chr. 27. 
20. IIL Au officer of Hezekiah, 2 
Chr. 31. 13. 

Azbuk, father of Nehemiah, Neh. 
3. 16. 

AZEKAH. 

Azel, a descendant of Sanl, 1 Chr. 8. 
37, 38 ; 9. 43, 44. 

Azem, a place allotted first to Jndah 
and afterward to Simeon, Josh. 
15. 29 ; 19. 3. 

Azgad, I. A person, Ezra 2. 12 ; 8. 
12: Neh. 7. 17. II. A man who 
sealed the covenant, Neh. 10. 15. 

Aziel, contraction for Jaaziel, a 
Levite, 1 Chr. 1.5. 20. , 

Aziza, son of Zattu, Ezra 10. 27. 

Azmaveth, I. Name of a place, Neh. 
12. 29. Same as Beth-azmaveth, 
Neh. 7. 28. II. One of David's he- 
roes, 2 Sa. 23. 31 ; 1 Chr. 11. 33. III. 
A descendant of Saul, 1 Chr. 8. .86 ; 

9. 42. IV. One of David's over- ! 
seers, 1 Chr. 27. 25. V. A Benja- 
mlte, 1 Chr. 12. 3. Perhaps saine 
asIL 

Azmon, a place in Judah, Nn. 34. 4 ; 

Josh. 15. 4. 
Aznoth- tabor, a city of Naphtali, 

Josh. 19. 34. 
Azor, son of Eliakim, Mat. 1. 13, 14. 



Azotus, Ac. 8. 40. Same as ASH- 
DOD. 

Azriel, I. A Manassite, 1 Chr. 5. 24. 
n. A Naphtalite, 1 Chr. 27. 19. III. 
Father of Seraiah, Jer. 36. 26. 

Azrikam. I. A descendant of David, 
1 Chr. 3. 23, II. A descendant of 
Saul, 1 Chr. 8. 38 ; 9. 44. III. A 
Levite, 1 Chr. 9. 14 ; Neh. 11. 15. 
IV. An officer of KingAhaz, 2Chr. 
28. 7. 

Azubah, L Wife of Caleb, 1 Chr. 2. 
IS, 19. II. Mother of King Je- 
hoshaphat, 1 Ki. 22. 42 ; 2 Chr. 20. 
31. 

Azur, I. Father of the prophet Han- 
aniah, Jer. 2S. 1. IL Father of 
Jaazaniah, Eze. 11. 1. 

Azzah, De. 2. 2P> ; 1 Ki. 4. 24 ; Jer. 25. 
20. Same as GAZA. 

Azzan, achiefoflssachar, Nu.84. 26. 

Azzur, an associate of Nehemiah, 
Neh. 10. 17. 



BAAL, I. A heathen god. II. A 
prefix in composition with other 
words. Baal, III. A Benjamite, 1 
Chr. 8. 30 ; 9. 36. IV. A Reuben- 
ite, 1 Chr. 5. 5. V. A place, 1 Chr. 
4.33. 

Baalah. Same as Kirjath-jearim, 
Josh. 15. 9, 10 ; 1 Chr. 13. 6. 

Baalath, a town in Dan, Josh. 19. 44. 

Baalath-beer, a town in Simeon, 
Josh. 19. 8. Prob. same as Baal, 
1 Chr. 4. 33. 

BAALBEK. 

Baal-berith, a heathen god. Same 
as BAAL, Judg. 8. 33 ; 9. 4. 

Baale of Judah. Same as KIRJATH- 
JEARIM, 2 Sa. 6. 2. 

Baal -gad, a town. See BAAL; 
C^SAREA PHILIPPL 

Baal-hamon, a town. See BAAL. 

Baal-hanan, I. A king in Edom, 
Gen. 36. 39 ; 1 Chr. 1. 49, 50, II. 
An overseer, 1 Chr. 27. 28. 

Baal-hazor, a town. See BAAL. 

Baal-hermon, a town. See BAAL. 

BAALI. 

Baalim, Judg. 2. 11 ; 3. 7 ; 8. 33 ; 10. 
6, 10; the plural of BAAL. 

Baalis, a king of the Ammonites, 
Jer. 40. 14. See ASHTORETH. 

Baal-meon, a town. See BAAL. 

BAAL-PEOR. 

Baal-perazim, a town. See BAAL. 

Baal-shalisha, a town. See BAAL. 

Baal-tamar, a town. See BAAL. 

Baalzebnb. See BEELZEBUB. 

Baal-zephon, a town. See BAAL. 

Baana, I. The son of Ahilucl, 1 Ki. 
4. 12, 16. II. Father of Zadok, 
Neh. 3. 4. 

Baanah, I. One of the murderers of 
Ishbosheth, 2 Sa. 4. 1-9. IL One of 
David's mighty men, 2 Sa. 23. 29 ; 
1 Chr. 11. 30. IIL A companion 
of Zerubbabel, Ezra 2. 2 ; Neh. 7. 
10. IV. Or Baana. 

Baara, a wife of Shaharaim, a Ben- 
jamite, 1 Chr. S. 8. 

Baaseiah, a Levite, one of the an- 
cestors of Asaph, 1 Chr. 6. 40. 

BAASHA. 

BABEL, TOWER OF. 

BABISM. 

BABYLON. 

Babvlonians, inhabitants of BABY- 
LON. 

BACA. 

Bachrites, a family of Ephraim, Nu. 
26. 35. 

Backbiting, Ps. 15. 3 ; Pr. 25. 23 ; Ro. 

1. .30; 2 Co. 12. 20. 
Backsliding, Pr. 14. 14 ; Jer. 2. 19 ; 

3. 12, 14; Hos. 14. 4; Lu. 9. 62; 
Jno. 5. 14 ; He. 10. 38. Reproved, 
Ps. 78 ; Pr. 14. 14; Is. 1. 2, etc. ; Jer. 

2. 3 ; IIos. 1.2; Gal. 3. 1. Its con- 
sequence, Pr, 14, 14; He. 10. 38, 



Pardon for, promised, 2 Chr. 7, 
14 ; Jer, 3. 12 : 31. 20 ; 36. 3 ; Hos. 
14. 4. Of Israel, Ex. 32 ; De. 1 ; 
Neh. 9. Of Saul, 1 Sa. 15. Of Sol- 
omon, 1 Ki. 11. Of Peter, Mat. 
26. 70. 

BADGER. 

BAG. 

Baharumite (or Barhiimite), a na- 
tive of Bahurim, 1 Chr. 11. 33. 

Bahurim, a village of Benjamin, 2 
Sa. 16. 5; 17. 17-21. 

Bajith, a temple, Is. 15. 2. 

Bakbakkar, a Levite, 1 Chr. 9. 15. 

Bakbuk, the children of Bakbuk- 
nethinim, returned from captivi- 
ty, Ezra 2. 51 ; Neh. 7. 53. 

Bakbukiah, a Levite, Neh. 11. 17 ; 12. 
9,25. 

Baker. See BREAD. 

Balac, for Balak, Re. 2. 14. 

Baladan, the father of Mcrodach- 
baladan, king of Babvlou, 2 Ki. 
20. 12 ; Is. 39, 1. 

Balah, a town in the territory of 
Simeon, Josh. 19. 3. Same as Baa- 
lah and Bilhah. 

Balak, son of Zippor. Nu. 22-24; 
Josh. 24. 9 ; Judg. 11. 25 ; Mi. 6. 5, 

BALAAM. 

Baldness. See HAIR. 

BALM, BALSAM-TREE. 

Bam ah, a proper name, Eze. 20. 29. 

BAMBINO. 

Bamoth, Bamoth-baal, a town in 
Reuben, Nu. 21, 19 ; Josh. 13. 17. 

BAMPTON LECTURES. 

Baud. See ARMY ; VESTMENTS. 

Band-room Methodists. See 
METHODISTS. 

Baui, I. One of David's heroes, 2 
Sa. 23. 36. IL A Levite of the 
line of Merari, 1 Chr, 6. 46. III. 
A man of Judah, 1 Chr. 9, 4. IV, 
A person, Ezra 2. 10, Same as 
Binuui, Neh. 7. 15, V. Name of a 
man, Ezra 10. 38. VI, Name of 
two Levites, possibly same per- 
son, Neh, 3, IT; 11. 22. VIL An 
associate of Ezra, Neh. 8. 7 ; 9, 45 ; 
10. 13. VIIL One who sealed the 
covenant, Neh. 10. 14. 

Bank, Lu. 19. 23. See MONEY- 
CHANGERS. 

BANNERS. 

BANNS OP MARRIAGE. 

BANQUET. 

BAPTISM : its mode. Mar. 7. 5 ; Ac. 
8. 38 ; 1 Co. 10. 2 ; He. 9. 10 ; 1 Pe. 

3. 21; Re. 19. 13. Its subjects, 
Mar. 16. 16 ; Ac. 2, 38, 41 ; S, 37 ; 10, 
47; 1 Co. 16, 15. Its object, Ro. 
6. 4 ; 1 Co. 12. 13 ; Gal. 3. 27 ; Eph. 

4. 5 ; Col. 2. 12. Of Jesus, Mat. 3. 
10-17 ; Mar. 1. 9-11 ; Lu. 3. 21, 22 ; 
Jno. 1. 32, 33. By John, Mat. 3. 1- 
12 ; Mar. 1. 1-8 ; Lu. 3. 21 ; Jno. 
1. 25, 31 ; 3. 23 ; Ac. 13. 24 ; 19. 3, 4. 
With the Holv Ghost, Mat. 3. 11 ; 
Jno. 1.33; Ac. 1.5; 10.45. An em- 
blem of suffering. Mar. 10. 39 ; Lu. 
12. 50. 

Baptism for the dead. See BAP- 

TISM. 
Baptism of the dead. See BAP- 
TISM, 
BAPTISTERY, 
BAPTISTS, 

Baptizing Bells. See BELLS. 
Bar. See ARMS. 
Bar, a prefix signifying son. Same 

as Ben. 
BARABBAS, a robber, Mat. 27. 16- 

26 ; Mar. 15. 6-15 ; Lu. 23. lS-25 ; 

Jno. 18. 40. 
Barachel, the father of Elihu, Job 

32. 2, 6. 
Barachiah, a form of Berechiah, 

Zee. 1. 1, 7. 
Barachias, Mat. 23. .35. The Greek 

form of Barachiah, or Berechiah. 
BARAK. 
Barbarian, Ac. 28. 2, 4 ; Ro, 1. 14 ; 1 

Co. 14. 11. 



INDEX. 



1027 



Barbe. See WALDENSES. 

Barber. See HAIR. 

Barchochab. See FALSE CHRISTS. 

B a r c h o c h e b a . See FALSE 
CHRISTS. 

Bardesainists. See GNOSTICS. 

Bardesauists. See SECT. 

Barefoot. See SHOES. 

Barhumite, 2 Sa. 23. 31. See Baha- 
rmiiite. 

Bariah, one of David's posterity, 
1 Clir. 3. 22. 

Bar-jesus, Ac. 13. 6. See ELYMAS. 

Bar-joua, Mat. 1(5. IT. See PETER. 

Barkos, one whose descendaiitt?, 
Nethinim, returned from captiv- 
ity with Zerubbabel, Ezra 2. 53 ; 
Neh. 7. 55. 

Barlaainites. See SECT. 

BARLEY. 

BARN. 

BARNABAS. 

Barnabus, Gospel of. See BARNA- 
BAS. 

Barreiiuess. See CHILDREN, 

Barsabas, I. A disciple, Ac. 1. 23. 
See JOSEPH. U. Another dis- 
ciple, Ac. 15. 23. 

Bartholomew. Same as NATHAN- 
AEL. 

BARTHOLOMEW, ST., MASSA- 
CRE OF. 

Bartimeus, son of Timeus, Mat. 20. 
30 ; Mar. 10. 46 ; Lu. IS. 35. 

BARUCH, I. The Scribe. Baruch, 
U. Son of Zabbai, Neh. 3. 20. III. 
Associate of Nehemiah, Neh. 10. 
6. IV. Son of Col-hozeh, Neh. 
11.5. 

BARUCH, THE BOOK OF. 

Barzillai, L 2 Sa. 17. 27; 1 Ki. 2. T. 
IL A Meholathite, 1 Sa. 18. 19 ; 2 
Sa. 21. 8. in. A Gileadite, Ezra 
2. 61 ; Neh. 7. 63. 

BASHAN. 

Bashan-havoth-jair, De. 3. 14. See 
Havoth-jair and JAIR. 

Basheinath, one of the wives of 
Esan, Gen. 26. 34 ; 36. 3, 10, 13, 17. 

Basidilian ^ems. See ABRAXAS. 

BASILIANS. 

BASILICA. 

Basilideans. See GNOSTICS. 

Basilisk. Same as cockatrice. See 
SERPENT (III.). 

Basin. See UTENSILS. 

BASKET. 

Basic, Conncil of. See ECUMEN- 
ICAL COUNCIL. 

Basmath, a danghter of Solomon, 1 
Ki. 4. 15. Same as Bashemath. 

BAT. 

Bath. See MEASURES. 

Bathinc See WASHING. 

BATH-KOL. 

Bath-rabbim, a gate in Heshbon, 
Sol. Sons, 7. 4. 

BATH-SHEBA. 

Bath-shna, 1 Chr. 3. 5, a variation of 
BATHSHEBA. 

Battering-ram. See ENGINES. 

Battle. See ARMY ; WAR. 

Battle-axe. See AXE; ARMS ; 
ARMOR. 

Battlement, De. 22, 8 ; Jer. 5. 10, a 
railing or wall around the roof 
of a house. 

Bavai, one who helped to repair 
the wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3. 18. 

BAY-TREE, 

Bazlith, Bazluth, a man whose chil- 
dren were among the Nethinim 
that returned from Babylon, Ezra 
2. .52 ; Neh. 7. 54. 

BDELLIUM. 

Beadle. See VESTRY. 

Beads. See ROSARY, 

Bealiah, a Benjamite chief, who 
joined David at Ziklag, 1 Chr, 12. 
5. 

Bealoth, a town in Judah, Josh. 
15. 24. 

BEANS. 

BEAR. 



BEARD. 

BEAST— Beasts, laws concerning, 
Ex. 20. 10 ; 23. 12 ; De. 5. 14 ; Pr. 
12. 10. Their creation. Gen. 1. 24, 
25. Their destiny, Ec. 3. 18. Pro- 
phetic allnsioup, Dan. 7. 4, 12; 8. 
4 ; Re. 4. 6, 8, 9 ; 5. 6, 14 ; 6, 1 ; 7. 
11 ; 13. 1 ; 14. 3 ; 19. 4. 
BEATIFICATION. 
Beating parish bounds. See PER- 
AIVIBULATION. 

Beatitude, Mount of. See SERMON 
ON THE MOUNT. 

Beatitudes, the blessings pro- 
nounced at the beirinninir' of the 
SERMON ON THE MOUNT. 

Beautiful Gate. See TEMPLE. 

Beauty. See HEAD-DRESS. 

Bebai, name of a person, Ezra 2. 11 ; 
10.28; Neh. 7. 16; 10.15. 

Becher, I. One of the sons of Ben- 
jamin, Gen. 46. 21; 1 Chr. 7. 6, 8. 
n. A son or grandson of Ephraim, 
Nu. 26. 35. Also called Bered, 1 
Chr. 7. 20. 

Bechorath, an ancestor of Saul, 1 
Sa. 9. 1. 

BED. 

Bedad, the father of Hadad, a king 
of Edom, Gen. 36. .35: 1 Chr. 1. 46^ 

Bedan, I. A judge of Israel, 1 Sa, 12, 
11, II. A descendant of Manas- 
seh, 1 Chr. 7. 17. See ABDON. 

Bed-chamber. See BED. 

Bedeiah, a man who had married a 
foreiau wife, Ezra 10. 35. 

Bedstead, See BED. 

BEE. 

Beeliada, one of David's sons, 1 
Chr. 14. 7. Also called Eliada, 2 
Sa. 5. 16 ; 1 Chr. 3. 18. 

BEELZEBUB. 

Beelzebul. See BEELZEBUB. 

Beer, I, A well, prob. on border of 
Midian, Nu. 21. 16-18. 11. A town, 
Judg. 9. 21. 

Beera, last son of Zophah, 1 Chr, 7. 
37. 

Beerah, a prince of the tribe of 
Reuben, 1 Chr. 5, 6, 

Beer-el im, a place on the Moabit- 
ish border, Isa. 15, 8. 

Beeri, I. A. person, Gen. 26. 34. Same 
as ANAH, IL Father of the 
prophet Hosea, Hos, 1. 1. 

BEER-LAHAI-ROI. 

Beeroth, a town of Benjamin, Josh. 
9. 17 ; 18. 25 ; 2 Sa. 4. 2 ; Ezra 2. 25 ; 
Neh. 7. 29. 

Beeroth-bene-jaakan, an Israelit- 
ish station, De. 10. 6. Called also 
Bene-jaakan, Nu. 33. 31, 32. 

Beerothite, an inhabitant of Bee- 
roth, 2 Sa. 4. 2, 3, 5, 9 ; 23. 37. 

BEERSHEBA. 

Beeshterah. See ASHTAROTH. 

BEETLE. See LOCUST. 

Beggars. See ALMS; MENDI- 
CANT ORDERS ; FRIAR. 

BEGHARDS. 

BEGUINES, 

BEHEMOTH. 

Behmenist, See SECT, 

Bekah, a half- shekel. See MON- 
EY; WEIGHTS. 

Bel and the Dragon. See BAAL; 
DANIEL, BOOK OF, APOCRY- 
PHAL ADDITIONS TO, 

Bel. See BAAL. 

Bela, I. A king of Edom, Gen. 36. 
32, 33 ; 1 Chr. 1. 43, 44. IL The 
eldest son of Benjamin, Nu, 26. 
38,46; IChr. 7.67; 8. 1, 3. HL 
A Reubenite, 1 Chr. 5. 8. IV. 
Same as Zoar, Gen. 14. 2, 8. 

Belah, same as Bela, Gen. 46, 21. 

Belaites, descendants of Bela, Nu. 
26. 38. 

Belial, L Sons of, equivalent to 
worthless fellows, De. 13. 13; 
Judg. 19. 22; 20. 13; 1 Sa. 1. 16; 
2. 12; 10. 27; 25. 17, 25; 30. 22; 
2 Sa. 16. 7; 20. 1; 23. 6; 1 Ki. 21. 
10, etc. ; 2 Chr. 13. 7 ; Ps, 18, 4 ; 



41. 8; 101, 3; Pr. 16. 27; 19. 28; 

Na, 1. 11, 15. II. Equivalent to 

Satan, 2 Co. 6. 15. 
Belief, Believe. See FAITH. 
BELLOWS. 
BELLS. 

BELSHAZZAR. 
Belteshazzar. See DANIEL. 
Belus. See BAAL. 
Bema. See CHANCEL, 
Ben, I. A Levite porter, 1 Chr. 15, 

18. IL A prefix, signifying son. 
See names below. 

BENAIAH. 

Ben-am mi, the son of Lot's young- 
er daughter, from whom the Am- 
monites were descended, Gen. 19. 
38. 

Bene-berak, a town in Dan, Josh. 

19. 45. 
BENEDICTINES. 
Benediction. See BLESSING. 
BENEFICE. 

BENEFIT OF CLERGY. 

Bene-jaakan, same as Beeroth-bene- 
jaakan, Nu. 33. 31. 

Bene-kedem, Gen. 2i>. 1. See KAD- 
MONITES. 

BENHADAD. 

Ben-hail, one of the princes of Je- 
hoshaphat, 2 Chr. 17. 7. 

Ben-hanan, a descendant of Judah, 
1 Chr. 4. 20. 

BENLISRAEL. 

Beninu, a Levite who sealed the 
covenant, Neh. 10. 13. 

BENJAMIN, I. Son of Jacob. Ben- 
jamin, IL A tribe. III. A Benja- 
mite chief, 1 Chr. 12. 16. IV, A 
person, Ezra 10, 32. 

Benjamites, the posterity of Benja- 
min, Judsr. 3.15; 19.16. 

Beno, a Levite. 1 Chr. 24. 26, 27. 

Benoni, Gen. 35. 18. See BENJA- 
MIN. 

Ben-zoheth, a descendant of Judah, 
1 Chr. 4. 20. 

Beon, prob. the same as Baal-meon, 
Nu. 32. 3. 

Beor, I. The father of Bela, an an- 
cient king of Edom, Gen. 36. 32 ; 
1 Chr. 1. 43. II. The father of Ba- 
laam, Nu. 22. 5 ; 24, 3, 15 ; 31. 8 ; De. 
23. 4 ; Josh. 13. 22 ; 24. 9 ; Mi. 6, 5. 
He is called Bosor in 2 Pe. 2. 15. 

Bera, a king of Sodom, on whom 
Chedorlaomer made war, Gen. 
14.2. 

Berachah, I, A Benjamite chief, 1 
Chr, 12. 3. II. A valley between 
Bethlehem and Hebron, 2 Chr. 

20. 26. 

Berachiah, the father of Asaph, 1 
Chr. 6. 39. Same as Berechiah. 

Beraiah, a Benjamite chief, 1 Chr. 
8,21. 

BEREA. 

Bereans. See SECT. 

Berechiah, I. A descendant of Da- 
vid, 1 Chr. 3. 20. II. A Levite, 1 
Chr. 9. 16, III, The father of 
Asaph, 1 Chr. 15. 17. IV. A door- 
keeper for the ark, 1 Chr. 15. 23. 
V. A chief of Ephraim in the reign 
of Ahaz, 2 Chr, 28, 12. VI. The fa- 
ther of one who assisted in re- 
pairing the wall of Jerusalem, 
Neh. 3, 4, 30 ; 6. 18. VII. The fa- 
ther of Zechariah the prophet, 
Zee. 1. 1, 7. Sometimes called Bar- 
achiah, 

Bered, I. A son or descendant of 
Ephraim, 1 Chr. 7. 20. Perhaps 
same as Berber. II. A place in 
the south of Palestine, Gen. 14. 14. 

Berengarians. See SECT. 

Beri, a chieftain of Asher, 1 Chr. 7. 
36. 

Beriah, I, A son of Asher, Gen. 46. 
17 ; Nu. 26. 44, 45 ; 1 Chr. 7. 30, 31. 
II. A son of Ephraim, 1 Chr. 7. 20- 
23. in. A Benjamite chief, 1 Chr. 
8. 13. IV, A Levite of the family 
of Gershon, 1 Chr, 23, 10, 11. 



1028 



INDEX. 



Beiiites, descendants of Beriah, Nu. 

•26. 44. 
Berite?, a tribe, 2 Sa. 20. 14. 
Berith, Jiidg. 9. 40. Same as BAAL. 
BERNICE. 
Berodach-baladan, 2 Ki. 20. 12. 

Same as Merodach-baladaii. 
Beroea. See BEREA. 
Berothab, a place mentioned as tbe 

uoithein border of the Holy Land, 

Eze. 47. 16. 
Berothai, city in Syi'ia, conquered 

by David, 2 Sa. 8. S. Same as 

Chun. 
Berotbite. an inhabitant of Bee- 
roth. 1 Chr. 11. 39. 
BERYL. 
Besai, a man whose descendants 

were among the jSTethiulni that 

returned from Babylon, Ezra 2. 

49; Neh. 7. 52. 
Besodeiah, the father of Meshul- 

1am, who repaired part of the 

wall of Jerusalem, jSleh. 3. 6. 
Besor, a brook, 1 Sa. 30. 9, 10. 
Betah, a city in Sja'ia, 2 Sa. S. S. 

Same as Tibhath. 
Beten, a city in Asher, Josh. 19. 25. 
Beth, a prefix signifying house or 

place. 
BETH-ABARA. 
Beth-anath, a town in Naphtali, 

Josh. 19. 38. 
Beth-anoth, a town in Judah, Josh. 

15. 59. 
BETHANY. 
Beth-arabah, a town on the borders 

of Judah and Benjamin, Josh. 15. 

6, 61 ; IS. IS, 22. See ARABAH. 
Beth - aram, Josh. 13. 2T. Same as 

Beth-haran. 

Beth-arbel, a place mentioned only 
in Hos. 10. 14. 

Beth-aven, I. A town of Benjamin, 
Josh. 7. 2 : IS. 12. 11. An oppro- 
brious name of BETH-EL. 

Beth-azmaveth, a place, Neh. 7. 28. 
Same as Azmaveth, >Teh. 12. 29. 

Beth-baal-meon. See BAAL. 

Beth-barah, name of a place, Judg. 

7. 24. 

Beth-birei, in the tribe of Simeon, 

1 Chr. 4. 31. 
Beth -car, a town in the south of 

Palestine, near Mizpeh, 1 Sa. 7. 11. 
Beth-dagou, I. A town in the plain 

country of Judah, Josh. 15. 41. 11. 

A bord'er town of Asher, Josh. 19. 

27. See DAGON. 
Beth-diblathaim, Jer. 48. 22. Same 

as Almon-diblathaira, Nu. 33. 46, 

47. 
BETH-EL, I. A town. Beth-el, II. 

A town in Judah or Simeon, Josh. 

12. 16 ; 1 Sa. 30. 27. Perhaps same 

as Bethuel, 1 Chr. 4. 30. 
Betbelite, an inhabitant of Bethel, 

1 Ki. 16. 34. j 

Beth-emek, a town in Asher, Josh. I 

19. 27. j 

Bether, mountains, Sol. Song, 2. 17. ! 
BETHESDA. See POOL. i 

Beth-ezel, a town, prob. in Jadea, 

Mic. 1. 11. ! 

Beth-gader, same as Gederah, a : 

towii in Judah, Josh. 15. 36; 1 

Chr. 2. 51. 
Beth-gamul, a Moabite town, Jer. 

4S. 23. 
Beth-gilgal, Neh. 12. 29. See GIL- 
GAL. 
Beth-haccerem, a town on a hill 

between Jerusalem and Tekoa, 

where was a beacon-station, Jer. 

6. 1. The word "part" prefixed 

to it in Neh. 3. 14, probably means 

district. 
Beth-haran, or Beth-aram, a town 

in Gad, Nu. 32. 36 ; Josh. 13. 27. 
Beth-hogla, or Hoglah, a city of Ben- 
jamin on the border of Judah, 

Josh. 15. 6; 18. 19, 21. 
BETH-HORON. 
Beth-jeshimoth, a town in the plain 



country east of the Jordan, allot- 
ted to Reuben, Josh. 12. 3 ; 13. 20, 
It afterward belonged to Moab, 
Eze. 25. 9 ; Nu. 33. 49. Also called 
Beth-jesimoth. 

Beth-lebaoth, a town allotted first 
to Judah, and afterward to Sim- 
eon, Josh. 15. 32; 19. 6. 

BETHLEHEM, I. A town in Judah. 
Bethlehem, II. A town in Zebu- 
Ion. Josh. 19. 15 ; Judg. 12. 8-10. 

Bethlehemite, an inhabitant of Beth- 
lehem, 1 Sa. 16. 1, IS ; 17. 58 ; 2 Sa. 
21. 19. 

Beth-maachah, a place or district 
near or in which was tlie citr of 
Abel, 2 Sa. 20. 14, 15. See ABEL- 
BETH-MAACHAH. 

Beth-marcaboth, a town in Simeon, 
Josh. 19. 5. 

Beth-meon, Jer. 48. 23. Same as 
Baal-meon. See BAAL. 

Beth-uimrah, a fenced city, Nu. 32. 
36. 

Beth-palet, in Judah, Josh. 15. 27. 

Beth-pazzez, a town in Issachar, 
Josh. 19. 21. 

Beth-peor, a city of Moab assigned 
to Reuben, He. 34. 6; Josh. 13. 20. 

BETHPHAGE. 

Bethphelet. The same as Bethpa- 
let, Neh. 11. 26. 

Beth-rapha, a descendant of Judah, 

1 Chr. 4. 12. 

Beth-rehob, Nu. 13. 21 ; Judff. IS. 2S ; 

2 Sa. 10. 6, 8. 
BETHtiAIDA. 
BETHSHAN. 

Bethshean. Same as BETHSHAN. 

BETH-SHEMESH, I. A city of Ju- 
dah. Beth-shemesh, II. A town 
of Issachar, Josh. 19. 22. III. A 
town of Naphtali, Josh. 19. 38; 
Judg. 1. 33. IV. A place in Esvpt, 
Jer. 43. 13. Prob. same as ON. 

Beth -shemite, an inhabitant of 
Beth-shemesh, 1 Sa. 6. 14, IS. 

Beth-shittah, a town in Issachar, be- 
tween Bethshan and Abel-meho- 
lah, Judg. 7. 22. 

Beth-tappuah, a town in the hill 
country of Judah, Josh. 15. 53. 

Bethuel,!. A town of Simeon, 1 Chr. 
4. 30. Called Bethul, Josh. 19. 4. 
Same as Beth-el IL, Josh. 12. 16; 
1 Sa. 30. 27. II. Father of LA- 
BAN and REBEKAH. 

Bethul, Josh. 19. 4. Perhaps con- 
traction of Bethuel, 1 Chr. 4. 30. 

Beth-zur, a town in the mountains 
of Judah, Josh. 15. 58 ; 1 Chr. 2. 
45. 

Betonim, a border town in Gad, 
Josh. 13. 26. 

Betrothal. See MARRIAGE. 

BEULAH. 

Bezai, one whose children return- 
ed from the captivity, Ezra 2. 17; 
Neh. 7. 23. See also Neh. 10. 18. 

Bezaleel, son of Uri, Ex. 31. 2; 35. 
30-35 ; 1 Chr. 2. 20. 

BEZEK, I. A city in Judah. Bezek, 
IL A place near Jabesh, 1 Sa. 11. 
8,9. 

Bezer, I. A descendant of Asher, 1 
Chr. 7. 37. II. A city of refu<ie, 
Be. 4. 43 ; Josh. 20. 8 ; 21. 36 ; 1 
Chr. 6. 78. 

Bhils. See BRAHMANISM. 

BIBLE. 

BIBLE CHRISTIANS. See METH- 
ODISTS. 

BIBLE SOCIETIES. 

BIBLICISTS. 

Bichri, a Beujamite, 2 Sa. 20. 1. 

Biddelians. See SECT. 

Bidkar, a chariot-oflicer of Jehu, 2 
Ki. 9. 25. 

Bier. See BURIAL. 

Bigtha, a cliamberlain of Ahasuerus, 
Est. 1. 10. 

Bisrthan, Bigthana, a chamberlain 
of Ahasuerus, Est. 2. 21 ; 6. 2. 

Bigvai, [. A person who returned 



with Zerubbabel from Babvlon, 

Ezra 2. 2 ; Neh. 7. 7. IL One whose 

descendants returned, Ezra 2. 14 ; 

Neh. 7. 19. 
BILDAD. 
Bileam, a town of Manasseh, 1 Chr. 

6. 70. 
Bilgah, I. The head of the fifteenth 

course of the priests, 1 Chr. 24. 14. 

II. A priest who returned from 

captivity, Neh. 12. 5, 18. 
Bilgai, a priest, Neh. 10. S. Prob. 

identical with Bilgah. 
Bilhah, I. Rachel's handmaid. Gen. 

29. 29. IL A town of Simeon, 1 

Chr. 4. 29. Identical with Baalah, 

Josh. 15. 29, audBalah, Josh. 19. 3. 
Bilhan, I. A descendant of Seir, the 

Horite, Gen. 36. 27 ; 1 Chr. 1. 42. 

II. A Beujamite chief, 1 Chr. 7. 10. 
Bilshan, one who returned with Ze- 
rubbabel from captivity, Ezra 2. 
2 ; Neh. 7. 7. 

Bimhal. a descendant of Asher, 1 

Chr. 7. 33. 
Biuea, a descendant of Saul, 1 Chr. 

8. 37 ; 9. 43. 
Binnui, I. A Lcvite, Ezra 8. 33. II. 

Son of Pahath-moab, Ezra 10. 30. 

III. Son of Bani, Ezra 10. 38. IV. 
A Levite, Neh. 3. 24; 10.9; 12. 8. 
V. A person, Neh. 7. 15. Same as 
Bani, Ezra 2. 10. 

Birds: used in sacrifice. Gen. 15. 

9 ; Le. 14. 4, 5, 6, 22, 30, 49, etc. ; 

Lu. 2. 24. Employed as prophetic 

figures, Is. 16. 2 ; 46. 11 ; Je. 12. 9. 

Law concerning, De. 22. 6. See 

ANIMALS. 
Biretta. See VESTMENTS. 
Birsha. king of Gomorrah, Gen. 14. 2. 
BIRTH. 

Birthday. See BIRTH. 
BIRTHRIGHT. 
Birzavith, a descendant of Asher, 

I Chr. 7. 31. 
BISHOP. 

Bishopric. See DIOCESE. 

Bithiah, a daughter of a Pharaoh, 1 
Chr. 4. IS. 

Bithron, a place in the Arabah, 2 
Sa. 2. 29. 

BITHYNIA. 

Bitter herbs, Ex. 12. 8; Nu. 9. 11. 
See PASSOVER. 

BITTERN. 

Bitumen. See PITCH. 

Bizjothjah, a town in the south of 
Judah, Josh. 15. 28. 

Biztha. a chamberlain of Ahasue- 
rus, Est. 1. 10. 

Black. See COLORS; MOURN- 
ING. 

Blains, Ex. 9. 8-11. Prob. a form of 
LEPROSY. 

BLASPHEMY: forbidden, Ex. 20. 
7 ; Col. 3. 8. Its punishment, Le. 
24. 11-16 ; 1 Ki. 21. 10. Its source, 
Mat. 15. 19. Instances of, Le. 14. 

II ; 2 Ki. 18. 34 ; Mat. 9. 34 ; 12. 2 ; 
Mar. 3. 22 ; Lu. 11. 15 ; 22. 65, etc. ; 
Jno. 10. 20 ; Re. 2. 9. Christ ac- 
cused of. Mat. 9. 3 ; 26. 65 ; Mar. 
2. 7 ; Lu. 5. 21 ; Jno. 10. 33. Na- 
botli's, 1 Ki. 2L Stephen unjust- 
ly stoned for, Ac. 6. 13; 7. 54. 
Against the Holy Ghost, Mat. 12. 
31 ; Mar. 3. 2S, 29 ; Lu. 12. 10. A 
sign of the last days, 2 Tim. 3. 2 ; 
Re. 13. 5. 

Blastus, the chamberlain of Herod 
Agrippa I., Ac. 12. 20. 

BLESSING: of Abraham, Gen. 12. 
2 ; 22. 17 : He. 6. 14. Jacob's, Gen. 
27. Jacob's sons', Gen. 48. 49. Of 
the twelve tribes, De. 33. Form 
of, in the wilderness, Nu. 6. 22-27 ; 
10. .^5, 36. Of forgiveness, Ps. 32. 
1 ; Ac. 3. 26 ; Ro. 4. 7. Of faith, Ps. 
2. 12 ; 40. 4 ; Jno. 20. 29. Of god- 
liness, Ps. 119. 1 ; Mat. 5. 3-11. 

Blessing of Bells. See BKLL. 

Blind: laws concerning the, Le. 19. 
14: De. 27. 18. The Pharisees 



INDEX. 



1029 



declared l.o be, Mat. 15. 14; 23. 16 
-19, 24-'26 ; Lu. G. 39. The igno- 
rant .said to be, Ro, 2. 19 ; 2 Pe. 1. 
9 ; Re, 3. 17. 

Blindness: as an infliction from 
God, Gen. 19. 11 ; 2 Ki. 6. 18 ; Ac. 
9. S-18 ; 13. 11. Cured, Mat. 9. 2T ; 
12. 22 ; 20. 30-34 ; Mar. 8. 22 ; 10. 
46, 51 ; Lu. 4. 18 ; 7. 21 ; Jno. 9. 1. 
Compare Ps. 146. 8. See MEDI- 
CINE. 

Blood: law concerning the shed- 
der of human. Gen. 9. 6 ; Le. 17. 4. 
Value of, in sacrifice, Le. 17. 11. 
Not to be eaten, Gen. 9. 4 ; Le. 3. 
IT; 7. 20; 17.10, 14; 19. 26; Ac. 
15. 29. Of sacrifices, how used, 
Ex. 23.18; Le.4. 7, 18; 5.9; 17. G. 
Water changed into, Ex. 4. 9; 7. 
17; Re. 8. P; 11.6. 

Blood of Christ, Jno. G. 53-56. Re- 
demption through it, Eph. 1. 7 ; 
Col. 1. 14 : 1 Pe. 1. IS, 19 ; Re. 5. 9. 
Cleanses from sin, 1 Jno. 1. 7 ; Re. 
1. 5. The wine of the Loid's Sup- 
per, so called, Mat. 26. 28; Mar. 
14. 24 ; Lu. 22. 20 ; 1 Co. 11. 25. 

Bloody sweat. See GETHSEMA- 
NE. 

Blue. See COLORS. 

Boanerges, a surname given to 
JAIVIES and JOHN, Mar. 3. 17. 

Boar. See SWINE. 

Boat, Jno. 6. 22, 23 ; Ac. 27. IG, 30, 32. 
See SHIP. 

Boaz, I. A man. See RUTH. II. 
One of the two brazen ])illars be- 
fore SOLOMON'S TEMPLE. 

Bocheru, a sou of Azel, 1 Chr. 8. 38 ; 
9.44. 

Bochim, a place not far from Gilgal, 
Judg. 2. 1, 5. 

Bogomiles. See SECT. 

Botian, a Reubenite, Josh. 15. G ; 18. 
17. 

Bohemian Brethren. See MORA- 
VIANS. 

Bohe mists. See SECT. 

Boils. See Blains ; MEDICINE. 

Bollandists, a society of Jesuits. 
See ACTA SANCTORUM. 

Bolster. See BED. 

Bondage, Egyptian, Ex. 1. 14 ; 2. 23. 
Deliverance from, Ex. 13. 14. Bab- 
ylonian, Ezra 9. 9. Spiritual, 2 
Co. 11. 20 ; Gal. 4. 3, 9 ; 2 Pe. 2. 19. 
See SLAVERY. 

Bondman. See SLAVERY. 

Bonnet. See HEAD-DRESS; MI- 
TRE. 

BOOK. 

Books mentioned, but not now ex- 
tant, of The Wars of God, Nu. 21. 
14 :— of Jasher, Josh. 10. 13 ; 2 Sa. 
1. 18 ; — of Scmuiel concerniufj the 
Kingdom, 1 Sa. 10. 25 ;— of ' Solo- 
mon, 1 Ki. 4. 32, 33. The Chron- 
icles of David, 1 Chr. 27. 24. The 
Acts of Solomon, 1 Ki. 11. 41 ;— of 
Nathan, Samuel, and Gad, 1 Chr. 
29. 29 ; 2 Chr. 9. 29 -—of A hijah the 
Shilonite, 2 Chr. 9. 29. Ttie Vis- 
ions oflddo, 2 Chr. 9. 29 ;—oiShem- 
aiah the Projihet, 2 Chi". 12. 15 ; — 
of Jehu, 2. Chr. 20. 34. The Saij- 
inas of the Seers, 2 Chr. 33. 19. 

Booths. See TABERNACLES, 
FEAST OF. 

Booz, Mat. 1. 5 ; "Luke 3. 32. Same 
as Boaz. 

Borellists. See SECT. 

Born again. See REGENERA- 
TION. 

Borrowing, law concerning, Ex. 22. 
14 ; De. 15. 1 ; Mat. 5. 42. Its con- 
sequences, Pr. 22. 7; 2 Ki. G. 5. 
From the Egyptians, Ex. 3. 22 ; 12. 
35. 

Boscath, a town in Jndah, 2 Ki. 22. 
1. Same as Bozkath, Josh, 15. 39. 

Bosor, 2 Pe. 2. 15, the Greek form 
of BEOR. 

Boss, the exterior convex part of a 
shield. Job 15. 26. 



Botch. See MEDICINE ; LEPRO- 
SY. 

BOTTLE. 

Bottomless Pit. See PIT. 

Bow. See ARMS. 

Bowels among the Hebrews analo- 
gous to the heart with us, Gen. 
43. 30 ; Is. 63. 15 ; Col. 3. 12. 

BOWING AT THE NAME OF 
JESUS. 

Bowl. See UTENSILS. 

Box. See ALABASTER. 

BOX-TREE. 

BOY-BISHOP. 

BOYLE LECTURES. 

Bozez, a rock near lillCHMASH, 1 
Sa. 14. 4. 

Bozkath, a town in Judah, Josh. 15. 
39. Same as Buscath. 

BOZRAH. 

Bracelets. See ORNAMENTS. 

BRAHM. 

BRAHMA. 

BRAHMA NISM, or BRAHMIN- 
ISM. 

BRAHM A NS, or BRAHMINS. See 
BRAHMANISM; CASTE. 

Bramble. See THORN. 

Branch, symbolical use of, Is. 11. 1 ; 
Jer. 23. 5 ; 33. 15 ; Zee. 3. 8 ; 6. 12 ; 
Jno. 15. 5; Ro. 11. 17-24. 

BRASS, or COPPER, first worker 
in, Ge. 4. 22. Its use in the tab- 
ernacle, Ex. 26. 11, 37 ; 27. 2, 4, 19 ; 
30. 18 ; 38. 5 ; 39. 39. In the Tem- 
ple, 1 Ki. 7. 15, 16, 27, 45; 2 Chr. 
6. 13. Serpent of, Nu. 21. 9 : 2 Ki. 
18. 4. Cymbals of, 1 Chr. 15. 19. 
Shields of, 2 Chr. 12. 10. Used 
figuratively, Le. IG. 19 ; Da. 2. 32, 
39 ; 10. G ; Re. 1. 15. 

BRAZEN SEA. 

BRAZEN SERPENT. 

BREAD: to be labored for. Gen. 
3. 19 ; 2 Th. 3. S, 12. Given from 
heaven (as manna), Ex. 16 ; Ps. 
105. 40. Miraculously supplied, 
2 Ki. 4. 42 ; Mat. 14. 16, 20 ; 15. 3.3- 
38 ; Jno. 6. Used in sacrifice, Le. 
8. 26, 32 ; 21. 6 ; 23, 18 ; Nu. 28. 2. 
Unleavened, Ex. 12. 18 ; Le. 23. G ; 
Nu. 6. 15 ; Mar. 14. 12 ; Lu. 22! 7 ; 
1 Co. 5. 8. Leavened, Ex. 23. 18 ; 
Le. 7. 13 ; 23. 17. In the Lord's 
Supper, Lu. 22. 19; Ac, 2. 42, 46; 
1 Co. 10. 16; 11. 23; 2 Co. 9, 10. 
A type of Christ, De. 8. 3 ; Jno. 6. 
33, 35, 41. Of the church, 1 Co. 10. 
17. Consecrated. See MASS. 

BREASTPLATE, L Of the high- 
priest. Breastplate, II. Military. 
See ARMS. 

BRETHREN. 

Brethren of the Common Life ; of 
the Community; of the Free Spir- 
it; of the Holy Trinity; of the 
Redemption of Captives. See 
BRETHREN; FRIENDS OF 
GOD. 

BRETHREN OF THE LORD. 

BREVIARY. 

Bribery: censured, Ex. 23. 8; De. 
16. 19 ; Job 15. 34 ; Pr. 17. 23 ; 29. 
4 ; Ec. 7. 7 ; Is. 5. 23 ; Eze. 13. 
19; Am. 2. 6. Of Delilah, Judg. 
16. .5. Of Samuel's sons, 1 Sa. 8. 3. 
Of Judas, Mat. 26. 14. Of the sol- 
diers, Mat. 28. 12. 

BRICK. 

Bride, Bridegroom. See MAR- 
RIAGE. 

BRIDLE. 

BRIEF. 

Brier. See THORN. 

Brigandine, Jer. 46. 4; .51.3. Same 
as coat of mail. See ARMS. 

BRIMSTONE and fire: employed 
to execute God's wrath. Gen. 19. 
24 ; De. 29. 23 ; Lu. 17. 29. As a 
future punishment, Ps, 11. 6; Is. 
30. 33 ; .34. 9 : Eze. .38. 22 ; Re, 9. 17, 
18; 14.10; 19.20; 20.10; 21.8. 

British and Foreign Bible Society. 
See BIBLE SOCIETIES. 



Broad Church. See EPISCOPA- 
LIANS. 

Broidered, 1 Tim. 2. 9. See EM- 
BROIDERY. 

BROTHER. 

Brown ists. See CONGREGATION- 
ALISTS. 

Bryan ites. See BIBLE CHRIS- 
TIANS ; METHODISTS. 

Buckler, a shield. See ARMS. 

BUDDHISM. 

Bukki, I. A chieftain of Dan, Nu. 
34. 22. II. A descendant of Aa- 
ron, 1 Chr. 6. 5, 51 ; Ezra 7. 4. 

Bukkiah, a chief of the sixth divis- 
ion of singers, 1 Chr. 25. 4, 13. 

Bui. See MONTHS. 

BULL (Papal). 

BULL, BULLOCK. See CA.TTLE. 

Bulrush. See REED. 

Bun ah, one of Judah's desceudants, 
1 Chr. 2. 25. 

Bunni, I. A Levite, Neh. 9, 4. 11. 
One who sealed the covenant, 
Neh. 10. 1.5. III. A Levite, prob. 
of earlier date than No. I., Neh. 
11. 15. 

Burgher Seceders. See SECT. 

BURIAL. 

Burning. See PUNISHMENTS. 

Burning bush. See SHEKINAH. 

Burning for the dead. See FU- 
NERAL RITES. 

Burning of dead. See FUNERAL 
RITES. 

BURNT-OFFERING. 

Bushel. See MEASURES. 

Business, diligence-in, commanded, 
Pr. 22. 29 ; Ro. 12. 11 ; Eph. 4. 28 ; 
1 Th. 4. 11 ; 2 Th. 3. 10, 12. 

Bustum. See FUNERAL RITES. 

Butler, Gen. 40. 1. Same as CUP- 
BEARER. 

BUTTER. 

Buz, I. A son of Abraham's broth- 
er Nahor, Gen. 22. 21. II. A Gad- 
ite, t Chr. 5. 14. III. A territory, 
prob. so called from Nahor's son, 
Jer. 25. 23. 

Buzi, the father of Ezekiel the 
prophet, Eze. 1. 3. 

Buzzite, prob, a descendant of Buz, 
Gen. 22. 21 ; Job 32. 2, 6. 

Byzantine Church. See GREEK 
CHURCH. 



C. 



Cab. See MEASURES. 

CABALA. 

Cabalists. See CABALA. 

Cabbon, a town in Judah, Josh. 15. 
40. Perhaps same as Machbenah, 
1 Chr. 2. 49. 

CABUL. 

C^SAR. 

C^SAREA. 

C^SAREA PHILIPPL 

CAIAPHAS. 

CAIN, I. A man. Cain, II. A city 
of Judah, Josh. 15, 57, 

Cainan, I. Son of Enos, Gen. 5. 9- 
14; Luke 3. 37. Same as Kenan, 
1 Chr. 1. 2. IL Son of Arphaxad, 
Luke 3. 3G. 

Cainites, a sect of GNOSTICS. 

Cairn. See BURIAL. 

Cake. See BREAD. 

CALAH. 

Calamities. See Afflictions, 

CALAMUS. See REED. 

Calcol, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr, 2, G. Prob, same with Chal- 
col, 1 Ki. 4. 31. 

Caldron, See UTENSILS. 

CALEB, I. A chief of Judah, Ca- 
leb, II. Sou of Hezron. Same as 
Chelubai, 1 Chr, 2, 9, 18, 42, 50. 

Caleb-ephratah, a name of a place, 
1 Chr. 2. 24. 

CALENDAR. See NECROLOGY. 

CALF : used in sacrifice, Le. 9. 2, S ; 
Jer. 34. 18 ; He. 9. 12, 19. Golden, 



1030 



INDEX. 



Aaron's, Ex. 32. 1, etc. ; De. 9. 16, 
21 ; Neh. 9. 18 ; Ps. 103. 19 ; Ac. 7. 
41. Idolatrous, set up by Jero- 
boam, 1 Ki. 12. 28-33 ; 2 Ki. 10. 29 ; 
17. 16 ; 2 Chr. 11. 13 ; 13. 8 ; Hos. 8. 
5, 6 ; 10. 5. A symbol (the cheru- 
bim), Eze. 1. 7 ; Re. 4. 7. See CAT- 
TLE. 

CALIPH 

Caliphate. See CALIPH. 

Calixtines. See MOEAVIANS. 

CALL, CALLING. 

CALNEH. 

Calno, Is. 10. 9. Same as CALNEH. 

CALOYERS. 

Calnmet. See DANCING. 

CALVARY. 

Calviu. See CALVINIST3. 

CALVINISTS. 

CAMEL. 

Camel's hair. See CAMEL ; SACK- 
CLOTH. 

Cameroniaus. See COVENANT. 

CAMISARDS. 

Camou, the place of Jair's burial, 
Judo-. 10. 5. 

Camp : of the Israelites : its order, 
Nu. 1. 52 ; 2. 10. Its privileges, Ex. 
14. 19, 20 ; Nu. 24. 5, 6 ; De. 23. 14; 
1 Sa. 4. 5, 7. To be kept holy, Ex. 
29. 14 ; Le. 6. 11 ; 13. 4, 6 ; Nu. 5. 2 ; 
De. 23. 10, 14 Without the, a place 
of uncleaunesij and separation, 
Ex. 29. 14 ; 33. 7 ; Le. 4. 12, 21 ; 6. 
11 ; 8. 17 ; 13. 46 ; Nu. 5. 3 ; 12. 14, 
15; 15. 35, 36; 19.3,9; He. 13. 11, 
13. Of the saints. Re. 20. 9. See 
ENCAMPMEIJT. 

Campanile. See BELLS. 
•Campl)ell, Alexander. 'See CHRIS- 
TIANS. 

Campbellites. See CHRISTIANS. 

CAMPHIRE. 

Camp-meeting-, a religious gather- 
ing in the open air, first intro- 
duced by the METHODISTS. 

CANA. 

CANAAN. 

CANAAN, land of. Gen. 11. 31 ; 12. 
5. Promised to Abraham, Gen. 
12. 7; 13. 15; 17. 8; 26. 3 ; 23.13; 
Ex. 6. 4 ; Le. 14. 34 ; 18. 3 ; 25. 38 ; 

1 Chr. 16. 18 ; Ps. 105. 9, 11 ; Ro. 9. 
8; Gal. 3. 16; 4. 28. Its bounda- 
ry, Ex. 23. 31 ; Nu. 34.1-12; Josh. 
1. 3, 4 ; 14. 1. Conquered by Josh- 

■ ua, Nu. 13. 1, etc. ; 32. 30, etc. ; 33. 
51 ; Josh. 5. 12 ; 11. 16 ; Ps. 135. 11. 
Its kings enumerated. Josh. 12. 9. 
The names of those who were to 
divide it, Nu. 34. 16, etc. How to 
be divided, Nu. 26. 52, etc. Di- 
vided by lot. Josh. 14. 1, etc. Its 
borders not conquered. Josh. 13. 
1. The reason given, Judg. 2. 3. 
Nations left, to prove Israel, Judg. 

8. 1 ; 4. 2, etc. ; 5. 19. Prophetic 
allusions, Ex. 15. 15; Is. 19. 18; 
Eze. 16. 29 ; Hos. 12. 7 ; Zeph. 2. 5 ; 
Ac. 7. 11 ; 13. 19. 

Canaanites: origin, Gen. 10. 6, 15, 
18. Locality, Gen. 10. 19 ; 12. 6 ; 
1.3. 7; 24. 3, 37; .50. 11; Nu. 13. 
29 ; 14. 25, 43, 45 ; 21. 1 ; 33. 40 ; De. 
1. 7 ; 11. 30 ; Josh. 5. 12 ; 9. 1 ; 11. 
.30 ; 12. 8 ; 13. 3, 4 ; Judir. 1. 1, etc. ; 

2 Sa. 24. 7 ; 1 Ki. 9. 10. Their land 
promised to Abraham, Gen. 15. 
18, etc. ; Ex. 3. 8, 17 ; 13. 5, 11 ; 
Neh. 9. 8. To be utterly destroy- 
ed, Ex. 23. 2.3, 28 ; 33. 2 ; 34. 11 ; 
Nu. 21. 3 ; De. 7. 1 ; 20. 17 ; Josh. 
3. 10 ; 24. 11 ; Judg. 1. 1, etc. ; Neh. 

9. 24. A part left. Josh. 16. 10 ; 17. 
12, 13, etc. ; Judg. 3. 1, etc. : Neh. 
9. 24. Prophetic allusions, Eze. 
16. 3 ; Oba. 20 ; Zee. 14. 21. See CA- 
NAAN. 

CANDACE. 

CANDLE. 

CANDLEMAS. 

CANDLESTICK: in the tabernn- 

Cle, Ex, 25. 31-37 ; 26. 35 ; 30. 27 ; 

31. 8 ; 35. 14 ; 37. 17-23 ; 39. 37 ; 40. 



4, 24 ; Le. 24. 4 ; Nu. 3. 31 ; 4. 9 ; 8. 
2, 4 ; He. 9, 2. In the Temple, 1 
Ki. 7. 49 ; 1 Chr. 28. 15 ; 2 Chr. 4. 7, 
20 ; 13. 11 ; Jer. 52. 19. In heaven, 
Zee. 4. 2, 11 ; Re. 11. 4. As a sym- 
bol, Mat. 5. 15; Mar. 4. 21 ; Lu. 8. 
16 ; 11. 33 ; Re. 1. 12, 13, 20 ; 2. 1, 5. 

Cane. See CALAMUS ; REED. 

Canker-worm. See LOCUST. 

Canneh, Eze. 27. 23. Same as CAL- 
NEH. 

CANON. 

CANONICAL HOURS. 

CANONIZATION. 

Canon law. See CANON, 

CANON OP SCRIPTURE. 

Canon of the Mass. See CANON. 

Canons and decrees of the Council 
of Trent. See CREED. 

Canticles, a name for SOLOMON'S 
SONG. 

CAPERNAUM. 

CAPHTOR. 

Caphthorim, descendants of Miz- 
raim, 1 Chr. 1. 12. Same as Caph- 
torim. See CAPHTOR. 

Caphtorim, Gen. 10. 14 ; De. 2. 23. 
Same as Caphthorim. See CAPH- 
TOR. 

CAPPADOCIA. 

CAPTAIN. 

CAPTIVE. 

CAPTIVITY. 

Capuchines. See CAPUCHINS. 

CAPUCHINS. 

CARAITES. 

Caravanserai. See INN. 

CARBONARI. 

CARBUNCLE. 

Carcas, a chamberlain of Ahasue- 
rus. Est. 1. 10. 

CARCHEMISH. 

CARDINAL. 

Care: about earthly things forbid- 
den. Mat. 6. 25 ; Lu. 12. 22_, 29 ; Jno. 
6. 27. God's providential good- 
ness should keep us fromj^Mat. 
6. 26, 28, 30 ; Lu. 22. 35 ; He. 13. 5 ; 
Jer. 17. 7, 8; Da. 3. 16. Should 
be cast on God, Ps. 37. 5 ; 55. 22 ; 
Pr. 16. 3 ; 1 Pe. 5. 7. An obstruc- 
tion to the Gospel, Mat. 13. 22 ; 
Lu. 8. 14 ; 14. 18-20. Be without, 
1 Co. 7. 32 ; Phi. 4. 6. Unbecom- 
ing in saints, 2 Tim. 2. 4. Inutil- 
ity of. Mat. 6. 27 ; Lu. 12. 2.5, 26. 
Vanity of, Ps. 39. 6 ; Ec. 4. 8. Warn- 
ing against, Lu. 21. 34. Sent as 
a punishment to the wicked, Eze. 
4. 16 ; 12. 19. Exemplified, Lu. 9. 
57; 10. 41, etc. 

Careah, the father of Johanan, 2 Ki. 

25. 23. Same as Knreah, Jer. 40. 8. 
CARMEL. 

CARMELITES, L Order of Monks. 
Carmelites, II. Inhabitants of Car- 
mel, 1 Sa. 27. 3 ; 30. 5. 

Carmi, I. A son of Reuben, Gen. 46. 
9; Ex. 6. 14; Nn. 26. 6. II. A de- 
scendant of Judah, Josh. 7. 1, 18; 
1 Chr. 4. 1. 

Carmites, a family of Reuben, Nu. 

26. 6. Descended from Carmi. 
Carnal, fleshlv, Ro. 7. 14 ; 8. 0, 7 ; 1 

Co, 3. 1-4; 2 Co. 10. 4. Pertain- 
ing to this life, Ro. 15. 27 ; 1 Co. 
9. 11 : He. 7. 16, 

CARNIVAL. 

Carob-tree. See HUSKS. 

Carolostadians. See SECT. 

Carpenter. See HANDICRAFT. 

Carpocratians, a sect of GNOSTICS. 

Carpus, a person, 2 Tim. 4. 13. 

CARRIAGE. 

Carshena, a prince in the court of 
Ahasnerus, Est. 1. 14. 

CART. 

CARTHUSIANS. 

C a r V i n <;, Ex. 31. 5 ; .^5. 33. See 
HANDICRAFT. 

Casii)hia, a place on the way from 
Babvlon to Jerusalem, Ezra 8. 17. 

CASLUHIM. 

CASSIA, 



Cassock. See VESTMENTS, 

CASTE. 

Casting metal. See HANDICRAFT. 

Castle, Ac. 21. 34, 37 ; 22. 24; 23. 10, 
16, 32. See ANTONIA ; CITIES. 

CASTOR AND POLLUX. 

CASUISTRY. 

CATACOMBS. 

Catafalque. See BURIAL. 

Cataphrygians. See MONTA- 
NISTS. 

CATECHISM. 

Catechists. See CATECHUMENS. 

CATECHUMENS. 

CATENA. 

Caterpillar. See LOCUST. 

CATHARI. See ALBIGENSES. 

CATHEDRAL. 

CATHOLIC. 

CATHOLIC APOSTOLIC 
CHURCH. 

Catholic Epistles. See EPISTLES. 

Catholics. See ROMAN CATHO- 
LIC CHURCH. 

CATTLE: their creation. Gen. 1. 24- 
26. Named by Adam, Gen. 2. 20. 
Saved in the Ark, Gen. 7, etc. 
Used in sacrifice, Le. 1. 2, etc. 
Laws conceruine, Ex. 20. 10; 21. 
28 ; 22. 1 ; 23. 4 ; Le. 11. 18, 23 ; 19. 
19 ; 20. 15, 16 ; 24. 18-21 ; De. 5. 14 ; 
22. 1 ; 25. 4 ; 1 Co. 9. 9 ; 1 Tim. 5. 
18. 

Caul. See ORNAMENTS. 

CAVE. 

Cazobi. See FALSE CHRISTS. 

CEDAR, used in building the Tem- 
ple, 1 Ki. 5. 6-10 ; 0. 9-36. 

Cedron. See JEHOSHAPHAT, 
VALLEY OF. 

CEILING. 

CELIBACY. 

Cemetery. See BURIAL. 

CENCHREA. 

CenchrefB. Same as CENCHREA. 

CENOBITES. 

Cenotaph. See BURIAL. 

CENSER, Le. 16. 12 ; 1 Ki. 7. 50 ; 2 
Chr. 4. 22; He. 9. 4. Nadab and 
Abihu, Le.10.1. Korah, Dathan, 
Nu. 16. 6-46. Uzziah, 2 Chr. 26. 
19. Prophetic allusions to, Eze. 
8 ; Re. 8. 3, 5. See ORNAMENTS. 

Censures, ecclesiastical. See DIS- 
CIPLINE. 

Census. See TAXING. 

CENTURIES OF MAGDEBURG. 

Centurion. See ARMY. 

Cephas. See PETER. 

Ceremonial Law. See LAW; also 
Laws of Moses, in Appendix. 

Ceremony. See RITE. 

Cerinthians, a sect of GNOSTICS. 

Certificate, church. See DISMIS- 
SION. 

Cesarea. See C^SAREA. 

Chaff-. See HARVEST. 

CHAIN: used as ornament, Nu. 
31. 50; Sol. Song 1. 10; Is, 3. 19. 
A mark of honor. Gen. 41. 42; 
Eze. 16. 11 ; Da. 5. 7, 16, 29. In the 
high-priest's dress. Ex. 28. 14, 22; 
39. 15. As fetters, Jer. 39. 7 ; 40. 1, 
4 ; 52. 11 : La. 3. 7 ; Na. 3. 10 ; Mar. 
5. 3, 4 ; Ac. 12. 6, 7 : 2 Tim. 1. 16 ; 
2 Pe. 2. 4. In the dect)rations of 
the Temple, 1 Ki. 7. 17 ; 2 Chr. 3. 5, 
16. Prophetic allusions to, Ju. 6 ; 
Re. 20. 1. 

Chair. See CATHEDRAL. 

Chalcedon, Council of. See ECU- 
MENICAL COUNCIL. 

CHALCEDONY. 

Chalcol, 1 Ki. 4. 31. Same as Calcol. 

CHALDEA. 

CHALDEANS. 

Chaldees. See CHALDEANS. 

CHALICE. See ORNAMENTS. 

Chalice veil. See ORNAMENTS. 

Chamber. See HOUSE. 

CHAMBERLAIN. 

CHAMBERS OF IMAGERY, 

CHAMELEON. 

CHAMOIS. 



INDEX. 



1031 



Chanaan, Ac. 7. 11 ; 13. 19. Same as 
CANAAN. 

CHANCEL. 

CHANCELLOK. 

CHANT. 

CHAPEL. 

CHAPLAIN. 

Chaplet. See EOSAEY. 

CHAPTER. 

Chapter-house. See CHAPTER. 

Charashim, a valley, 1 Chr. 4. 14; 
Neh. 11. 35. 

Charchemish, 2 Chr. 35. 20. Same 
as Carchemish. 

CHARGE. 

Charger. See UTENSILS. 

CHARIOT: Joseph's, Gen. 4. 43; 
4G. 29. Pharaoh's, Ex. 14. 6-28; 
15. 4, 19 ; Sol. Soug 1. 9. Of iron, 
Josh. IT. 18 ; Judg. 1. 19 ; 4. 3, 13. 
Of Elijah, 2 Ki. 2. 11, 12; 13. 14. 
Solomon's, 2 Chr. 1. 14. Jeho- 
ram's, 2 Chr. 21. 9. The eunuch's, 
Ac. 8. 28-38. Figurative, 1 Chr. 28. 
18 ; Ps. GS. IT ; 104. 3 ; Sol. Song 
6. 12 ; Is. 22. 18 ; 60. 15 ; Ha. 3. 8 ; 
Zee. 6. 1-3 ; Re. 9. 9 ; 13. 13. 

CHARITY. 

Charity, Feasts of. See LOVE- 
FEASTS. 

Charm, De. 18. 11. See AMULET; 
DIVINATION; MAGIC; SER- 
PENT-CHARMING. 

Charmer. See DIVINATION. 

Charran, Ac. T. 2, 4. Same as HA- 
RAN. 

Charter -houses. See CARTHU- 
SIANS. 

CHASIDIM. 

Chastity, Gen. 2. 24; 49. 4; Job 31. 1 
-11; Pr. 5. 15-21; Mat. 5. 28-30; 

2 Co. 11. 2 ; Col. 3. 5 ; 1 Tim. 5. 22 ; 
Ti. 2. 5 ; 1 Pe. 3. 2. Joseph's, Gen. 
39. 7. 

Chasuble. See VESTMENTS. 

CHE3AR. 

CHEDORLAOMER. 

CHEESE. 

Chelal, a man who had taken a 
strange wife, Ezra 10. 30. 

Chelluh, one of the sous of Bani, 
Ezra 10. 35. 

Chelub, I. A descendant of Judah, 
1 Chr. 4. 11. IL Father of Ezri, 
1 Chr. 2T. 26. 

Chelubai, son of Hezron. Same as 
Caleb IL, 1 Chr. 2. 9. 

CHEMARIM. 

Chemosh. See BAAL-PEOR. 

Chenaanah, I. The father of Zede- 
kiah, 1 Ki. 22. 11, 24 ; 2 Chr. 18. 10, 
23. II. A descendant of Benja- 
min, 1 Chr. T. in. 

Chenani, a Levite, Neh. 9. 4. 

Chenauiah, a chief among the Le- 
vites, 1 Chr. 15. 22, 2T ; 26. 29. 

Chephar- haammonai, a town in 
Benjamin, Josh. 18. 24. 

Chephirah, a town of the Hivites, 
afterward in Benjamin, Josh. 9. 
IT ; 18. 26. 

Cheran, a son of a Horite chief. Gen. 
36. 26 ; 1 Chr. 1. 41. 

Cherethims. Same as CHERETH- 
ITES. 

CHERETHITES AND PELETH- 
ITES. . 

CHERITH. 

CHERUB, CHERUBIM, at Edeu's 
gate, Gen. 3. 24. Over the mercy- 
seat. Ex. 2.5. 18-22 ; 3T. T-9 ; Nu. T. 
89 ; 1 Sa. 4. 4 ; 2 Sa. 6. 2 ; 1 Ki. 6. 
23-28 ; 8. 6, 7 ; 2 Ki. 19. 15 ; 1 Chr. 
13. 6 ; 28. 18 : 2 Chr. 3. 10 -13 ; 5. T, 
S; Ps.SO. 1; Is.3T. 16; He. 9.5. On 
the hangings of the tabernacle, 
Ex. 20. 1, 31 ; 36. 8, 35. In the carv- 
ed work of the Temple, 1 Ki. 6. 29- 
32 ; 2 Chr. 3. T. On the brazen sea, 
1 Ki. T. 29, 36. On the vail of the 
Temple, 2 Chr. 3. 14. In associa- 
tion with God (seen in vision), 2 
"Sa. 22. 1 1 ; Ps. IS. 10 • 99. 1 ; Eze. 9. 

3 ; 10. 1-20 ; 11. 22 ; 41. 18-25. In 



heaven, Re. 4. 6-9 ; 5. 8-10, 14 ; 15. 
T ; 19. 4. The king of Tyre so call- 
ed, Eze. 28. 14, 10. Cherub, II. 
Name of a place, Ezra 2. 59 ; Neh. 
T. 01. 
Chesalon, a town in Judah, Josh. 

15. 10. 
Chesed, a son of Nahor, Gen. 22. 22. 
Chesil, a town in the south of Ju- 
dah, Josh. 15. 30. 
CHEST. 

CHESTNUT-TREE. 
Chesulloth, a town in Issachar, 
Josh. 19. 18. 

Chezib, Gen. 38. 5. See ACHZIB. 

Chidon, a threshing-floor, 1 Chr. 13. 
9. See UZZA. 

CHILDREN : a blessing, Ps. 113. 9 ; 
12T. 3-5 ; 128. 3, 4, 0. Their duty, 
Ex. 20. 12 ; Le. 19. .8, 32 ; De. 4. 9 ; 
11. 19 ; Pr. 0. 20 ; 13. 1 ; 23. 22 ; Ec. 
12. 1 ; Eph. 6. 1-3 ; Col. 3. 20 ; 1 Ti. 
5. 4 ; He. 12. 9. Promises to, Ex. 
20. 12 ; Pr. 3. 1-10, 21-26 ; 4. 12 ; 8. 
IT ; Mat. 19. 13, 14 ; Mar. 10. 13-15 ; 
Lu. 18. 16, IT; Eph. 6. 1. 

Chileab, a son of David, 2 Sa. 3. 3. 
Also called Daniel. 1 Chr. 3. 1. 

Chiliasts. Same asMILLENAEI- 
ANS. 

Chilion, husband to Orpah, Euth 1. 
2-5 ; 4. 9, 10. 

Chilmad, a town or region men- 
tioned with Assyria, Eze. 2T. 23. 

Chimes. See BELLS. 

CHIMHAM. 

Chimney. See HOUSE. 

China, religion of. See BUD- 
DHISM; CONFUCIANISM; 
TAOISM. 

Chinnereth, I. A city of Naphtali, 
Josh. 19. 35. II. Sea of, Nu. 34. 11 ; 
De. 3. IT : Josh. 13. 2T. See GEN- 
NESARET, SEA OF. 

Chinneroth, Josh. 11. 2 ; 12. 3. Same 
as Chinnereth. 

CHIOS. 

Chisleu. See MONTH. 

Chislon, the father of Elidad, Nu. 
34. 21. 

Chisloth-tabor, a city at the foot of 
Mount Tabor, Josh. 19. 12, 22. 

CHITTIM. 

Chiun, Am. 5. 26. See EEMPHAN. 

Chloe, a Christian woman, 1 Co. 1. 
11. 

Choir. See CHURCH EDIFICES. 

Choral Tippet. See VESTMENTS. 

Chor-ashan, 1 Sa. 30. 30. Prob. 
same as Ashan. 

CHORAZIN. 

Chozeba, 1 Chr. 4. 22. Same as 
ACHZIB. 

CHRISM. 

CHRISOM; CHRISOME. 

CHRIST. See MESSIAH. 

Christadelphians. See SECT. 

CHRISTIAN. 

Christian Union Churches. See 
UNION CHURCHES. 

CHRISTIANITY. 

CHRISTIANS, orCAMPBELL- 
ITES. 

CHRISTMAS. 

CHRISTOLOGY. 

CHRONICLES, BOOKS OF. 

CHRONOLOGY. 

CHRYSOLITE. 

CHRYSOPRASUS. 

Chub, the name of a people, Eze. 
30.5. 

Chnn, a Syrian city, 1 Chr. 18. 8. 
Same as Berothai. 

CHURCH : of God, Ac. 20. 28 ; 1 Co. 
1. 2 ; 10. 32 ; 11. 16, 22 ; 15. 9 ; 2 Co. 
1. 1 ; Gal. 1. 13 ; 1 Th. 2. 14 ; 2 Th. 
1. 4; 1 Ti. .8. 5, 15. Of Christ, Ro. 
10. 16. Of a certain place or peo- 
ple, Ac. 8. 1 ; 11. 22 ; Ro. 16. 4 ; 1 
Co. 10. 1, 19 ; 2 Co. 8. 1 ; Gal. 1. 2, 
22 ; Col. 4. 10 ; 1 Th. 1. 1 ; 2 Th. 1. 
1 ; Philem. 2 ; Re. 2. 1, S, 12, IS ; 
3. 1, T, 14. Churches in the plural, 
Ac. 9. 31 ; 15. 41 ; 16. 5 ; Ro. 16. 4, 



16; ICo. 7. 17; 11. 16; 14.33, 84; 
16. 1, 19; 2 Co. 8. 1, IS, 19, 23, 24; 
11. 8, 28; 12. 13; Gal. 1. 2, 22 ; 1 
Th. 2. 14; 2Th. 1.4; Ee. 1. 4, 11, 
20 ; 2. 7, etc. ; 22. 16. 
CHURCH AND STATE. 
CHURCH EDIFICES. 
Church of England. See EPISCO- 
PALIANS. 
Church of England Catechism. See 

CATECHISM. 
CHURCH OF GOD. 
CHURCHING OF WOMEN. 
CHURCH-RATES. 
CHUECH-WAEDENS. 
Church-vard. See BUEIAL. 
Churn, Pr. 30. 33. See BUTTEE. 
Chushan-rishathaim, king of Meso- 
potamia, Judg. 3. S-11. 
CHUZA. 

Ciborium. See OENAMENTS. 
CILICIA. 

Cincture. See VESTMENTS. 
CINNAMON. 

Cinneroth, 1 Ki. 15. 20. Same as 
Chinnereth. See GENNESAEET, 
SEA OF. 
Circoncelliones. See SECT. 
CIRCUIT. 

•CIRCUMCISION: commanded, 
Gen. 17. 10, etc. ; Le. 12. 3 ; Josh. 
5. 2, 3, 4, etc. ; Jno. 7. 22. Quali- 
fied to eat the passover, Ex. 12. 
44, 48. Of Abraham, Gen. 17. 23, 
etc. ; Ro. 4. 11. Of Isaac, Gen. 21. 
4 ; Ac. 7. 8. Of Moses's S(m, Ex. 
4. 25. Of the men of Shechem, 
Gen. 34. 14, etc. Of Jesus, Lu. 1. 
59; 2. 2L Of Timothy, Ac. 16. 3. 
Of Titus, Gal. 2. 3. Abolished, 
Ac. 11. 2 ; 15. 1, etc. ; 21. 21 ; Ro. 4. 
9 ; 1 Co. 7. 19 ; Gal. 5. 2 ; 6. 6, 12, 
13, 15. Spiritual, De. 10. 16 ; 30. 
6 ; Jer. 4. 4; Ro. 2. 29 ; Gal. 5. 11 ; 
Phi. 3. 3 ; Col. 2. 11 ; 3. 11. New 
Testament directions concerning, 
Eo. 2. 25 ; 3. 1 ; 1 Co. 7. 18 ; Gal. 5. 
2, 3. Prophetic allusions, Jer. 9. 
25. 
Cis, Ac. 13. 21. Greek form of Kish. 
CISTERCIANS. 
CISTEEN. 
I CITIES. 

CITIES OF EEFUGE. 
CITIES OF THE PLAIN. 
; CITIZENSHIP. 
I Citron. See APPLE-TEEE. 
iCity. See CITIES. 
I CLAEENDON, CONSTITUTIONS 

OF. 
I Class. See METHODISTS. 
Classis, an ecclesiastical judicatory 
in the EEFOEMED CHURCH. " 
Class -leader. See CLASS MEET- 
INGS; METHODISTS. 
CLASS-MEETINGS. 
CLAUDA. 

Claudia, 2 Tim. 4. 21. SeePUDENS. 
CLAUDIUS. 
Claudius Lysias, Ac. 21. 31-40; 22; 

23. See LYSIAS, CLAUDIUS. 
Clay. See BRICK; POTTER; 

SEAL. 
Clean. See UNCLEANNESS ; PU- 
RIFICATION; WASHING. 
CLEMENT. 
Clementines. See BULL, PAPAL. 

Cleopas. See ALPH^US. 
Cleophas. See ALPH^US. 
CLERGY. 

CLERK. See TOWN-CLERK. 
Cloak, Is. 59. 17 ; Mat. 5. 40 ; Lu. 6. 

29 ; 2 Tim. 4. 13. See DRESS. 
CLOISTER. 

Clothes, Clothing. See DRESS. 
CLOUD. SeeSHEKINAH. 
Club. See AEMS. 
CLUNIAC MONKS. 
Ciuniacensians. See CLUNIAC 

MONKS. 
CNIDUS. 
COAL. 

Coat. See DEESS. 
Coat of mail. See AEMS. 



1032 



INDEX. 



Cocceians. See SECT. 

COCK. 

Cockatrice. See SERPENT. 

Cockle, Job 31. 40, a weed. Prob. 
same as TARES. 

Codex Alexandriuus. See MANU- 
SCRIPTS. 

Codex BeziB. See MANUSCRIPTS. 

Codex Ephrgemi. See MANU- 
SCRIPTS. 

Codex Sinaiticus. See MANU- 
SCRIPTS. 

Codex Vaticauus. See MANU- 
SCRIPTS. 

Coele-Syria. See LEBANON ; SYR- 
IA. 

Coffin, Gen. 1. 26; Lu. T. 14. See 
BURIAL. 

Coins. See MONEY. 

Col-hozeh, a man of Judah, Neh. 3. 
15; 11.5. 

COLLECTS. 

COLLEGE. 

Collegiants. See SECT. 

COLONY. 

COLORS. 

COLOSSE, COLOSSI. 

Colossians, inhabitants of COLOS- 
SE. 

COLOSSIANS, THE EPISTLE TO 
THE. 

Comforter. See HOLY GHOST. 

Commandments: the ten, Ex. 20; 
De. 5. 6. Written on stone, Ex. 
31. 18. Broken, Ex. 32. 19. Re- 
newed, Ex. 34. 1-4: De. 10. 1-5. 
Taught by Christ, Mat. 5. 17; 19. 
17 ; 22. 35-40 ; Mar. 10. 17-19 ; Lu. 
10. 25-28; 18. 18-20. See LAW; 
TEN COMMANDMENTS. 

Commemoration-day. See OBIT. 

COMMERCE. 

COMMINATION. 

Common Prayer. See PRAYER- 
BOOK. 

Commonwealth of the Hebrews. 
See JEWS. 

COMMUNION: with the Father, 
Jno. 14. 23; 1 Jno. 1. 3, 7. With 
the Son, 1 Co. 1. 9 ; Phi. 3. 10 ; Re. 
3. 20. With the Spirit, 1 Co. 12. 
13 ; 2 Co. 13. 14 ; Phi. 2. 1, 2. Nec- 
essary to a godly walk, Am. 3. 3. 
Warnings, 2 Co. G. 14; 1 Jno. 1. 
6; He. 13. 14. See BAPTISM; 
LORD'S SUPPER; TRANSUB- 
STANTIATION. 

COMMUNION OP SAINTS. 

Communion-table. See ALTAR. 

Communism. See SOCIALISM. 

Compassion : of God, Ps. 78. 38 ; 86. 
15; 111. 4; 112. 4; 145. 8; Je. 12. 
15 ; La. 3. 22 ; Ro. 9. 15. Of the 
Lord Jesus, Mat.9. 36 ; 20. 34 ; Mar. 
1. 41 ; Lu. 7. 13 ; He. 2. 17 ; 4. 15. 
Toward one another, Ex. 2. 6; 1 
Ki. 8. 50 ; Zee. 7. 9 ; Mat. 18. 33 ; 
He. 5. 2 ; 10. 34 ; Ju. 22. 

Compline. See CANONICAL 
HOURS. 

Conaniah, a chief among the Le- 
vites, 2 Chr. 35. 9. 

Concision, used in Phil. 3. 2, for CIR- 
CUMCISION. 

CONCORD, FORM OF. 

CONCORDANCE. 

CONCORDAT. 

CONCUBINE : Abraham's, Gen. 22. 
24; 25. 6; 1 Chr. 1. 32. Jacob's, 
35. 22. Gideon's, Jndg. 8. 31. Of 
Betlilehem-Judah, Judg. 19. 1-29 ; 
20. 4-6. Saul's, 2 Sa. 3. 7; 21. 11. 
David's, 2 Sa. 5. 13 ; 15. 16 ; 16. 21, 
22; 19. 5; 20. 3 ; 1 Chr. 3. 9. Sol- 
omon's, 1 Ki. 11. 3 ; 2 Chr. 11. 21. 
Belshazzar's, Da. 5. 2. 

CONDUITS. 

CONEY. 

Confection aries, 1 Sa. 8. IB, perfum- 
ers. See HANDICRAFT, § 5. 

CONFERENCE. See CONGRE- 
GATIONALISTS ; METHOD- 
ISTS. 

CONFESSION : under law, Josh. 7. 



19, 20, 25 ;— under grace, Ja. 5. 16 ; 

1 Jno. 1. 9 ; — personal, Le. 5. 1, 5 ; 
Nu. 5. 6, 7 ; Ps. 32. 5 ; Pr. 2S. 13. 
Israel's sin, Le. 16, 21 ; 26. 40, 42; 
Ezra 10. 11 ; Da. 9. 20, 21. Exam- 
ples, Nu. 21. 7 ; 1 Sa. 7. 6 ; 12. 19 ; 

2 Sa. 24. 10 ; Job 7. 20 ; Da. 9. 4, 5 ; 
Lu. 23. 41. 

Confession of Faith. See CREED. 

Confessional. See CONFESSION. 

Confessor. See CONFESSION. 

CONFIRMATION. 

CONFUCIANISM. 

Confucius. See CONFUCIAN- 
ISM. 

Confusion of Tongues. See 
TONGUES, CONFUSION OF. 

CONGREGATION. 

Congregational Publishing Society. 
See CONGREGATIONALISTS. 

CONGREGATIONALISTS. 

Coniah, Jer. 22. 24. See JEHOIA- 
CHIN. 

Cononiah, a chief among the Le- 
vites, 2 Chr. 31. 12, 13. 

CONSCIENCE: common to all 
men, Pr. 20. 27 ; Ro. 2. 14, 15. To 
be respected, Ro. 14. 3 ; 1 Co. 8. 
Good, Job 27. 6 ; Pr. 14. 14 ; 28. 1 ; 
29. 6 ; Ac. 23. 1 ; 24. 16 ; Ro. 14. 22 ; 
1 Co. 4. 4 ; 2 Co. 1. 12 ; Ga. 6. 4 ; 1 
Tim. 1. 19 ; 2 Tim. 1. 3 ; He. 13. 18 ; 

1 Pe. 3. 16, 21; 1 Jno. 3. 19-21. 
Evil, Gen. .8. 10 ; 4. 13 ; 42. 21 ; 2 
Sa. 24. 10 ; Pr. 18. 14 ; 28. 1 ; Mat. 27. 
3-5 ; Jno. 8. 9 ; Ac. 24. 25 ; Ti. 1. 15. 
Misguided, Ac. 23. 1 ; 1 Co. 8. 7. 
Seared, 1 Tim. 4. 2. How purged, 
He. 9. 9-14 ; 10. 2, 19-22. 

CONSECRATION. 

Consistorium. See CARDINAL. 

CONSISTORY. 

CONSOCIATION. See CONGRE- 
GATIONALISTS. 

Conspiracy: of Absalom, 2 Sa. 15. 1 
-12, 31. Of Baasha, 1 Ki. 15. 27. 
Of Zimri, 1 Ki. 16. 9, 16. Of Jehu, 

2 Ki. 9. 14, etc. Against the proph- 
et Zechariah, 2 Chr. 24. 21, 25. Of 
the servants of Joash, 2 Ki. 12. 20 ; 
2 Chr. 24. 25, 26, Against Amazi- 
ah, 2 Ki. 14. 19 ; 2 Chr. 25. 27. Of 
Shallum, 2 Ki. 15. 10, 15. Of Pe- 
kah, 2 Ki. 15. 25. Of Hoshea, 2Ki. 
15. 30. Of the servants of Amon, 
2 Ki. 21. 23 ; 2 Chr. 33. 24, 25. Of 
Sanballat, Tobiah, etc., Neh. 4. 8. 
Against Christ, Mat. 26. 3 ; Mar. 
14. 1 ; Lu. 22. 2 ; Jno. 11. 53 ; 13. 18. 
Against Paul, Ac. 23. 12-14. 

Constance, Council of. See ECU- 
MENICAL COUNCIL, 17. 

Constantinople, Councils of. See 
ECUMENICAL COUNCIL, 2, 5, 
6,8. 

Constitutions, Apostolical. See 
APOSTOLICAL (Constitutions). 

CONSUBSTANTIATION. 

Contentment, 2 Ki. 4. 13 ; Phi. 4. 11 ; 
1 Tim. 6. 6 ; He. 13. 5, 

Contract. See ALLIANCE ; COV- 
ENANT. 

CONTRITION. 

CONVENT. 

CONVENTICLE. 

CONVENTION, GENERAL. 

Conversation: directions for, Eph. 
4. 29 ; Phi. 1. 27 ; Col. 3. 16 ; 4. 6 ; 
1 Th. 4. 18 ; 1 Tim. 4. 12 ; He. 13. 5, 
7 ; Ja. 3. 13 ; 1 Pe. 1. 15 ; 2. 12 ; 3. 
1, 2, 16 ; 2 Pe. 3. 11. Good, De. 6. 
7; 11. 19; Ps. 37. 30; 77. 12; Pr. 
10. 31 ; Mai. 3. 16 , Mat. 12. 35. Bad, 
Mat. 12. 36 ; Eph. 5. 3, 7 ; Col. 3. 8, 
9 ; Ja. 3. 6-10 ; 1 Pe. 1. 18 ; 2 Pe. 2. 
7,8. 

Conversion : how wrought, 1 Ki. 13. 
37 ; Is. 55. 6, 7 ; Eze. 33. 11 ; 36. 25- 
28. Indispensable, Mat. 18. 3. By 
the Father, Jno. 6. 37, 44. By the 
Son, Jno. 14. 6. By the Holy Ghost, 
1 Co. 12. 3. A promise, Ja. 5. 19, 

20. An exhortation, Lu. 22. 32. 
See REGENERATION. 



CONVOCATION. 

COOKING. 

COOS. 

Cope. See VESTMENTS. 

COPPER. 

Coppersmith. See HANDICRAFT ; 
COPPER. 

COPTS. 

Cor, Eze. 45. 14. Same as homer. 
See MEASURES. 

CORAL. 

CORBAN. 

CORD. 

Core, Ju. 11. The Greek form of 
KORAH. 

CORIANDER. 

CORINTH. 

CORINTHIANS, EPISTLES TO, 

Corinthians, inhabitants of COR- 
INTH. 

CORMORANT, See PELICAN. 

CORN. 

CORNELIUS. 

CORNER-STONE. 

Cornet. See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 

CORONATION. 

CORPORAL. See ORNAMENTS. 

CORPUS CHRISTI. 

Corruption, Mount of, 2 Ki. 23. 13. 
See OLIVES, MOUNT OF. 

Cosam, one of Christ's ancestry, Lu. 

3. 28. 

Cosmogony. See CREATION. 

Cotta. See VESTMENTS. 

Cotton. See LINEN. 

Council. See CONGREGATION- 
ALISTS : ECUMENICAL COUN- 
CIL. 

Countess of Huntingdon's Connec- 
ti(m. See METHODISTS. 

Court. See HOUSE. 

Court of the Gentiles. See TEM- 
PLE. 

COVENANT: of God with Noah, 
Gen. 6. 18 ; 9. 8-16. With Abraham, 
Gen. 15. 18-21 ; 17. 2-21. Remem- 
bered, Ex. 2. 24 ; 6, 5 ; Le. 26. 42, 
45. Established, Ex. 6. 4 ; Le. 26. 
24; De. 4. 31; Ac. 3. 25. With 
Isaac, Ge. 17. 19, 21 ; 26. 3, 4. With 
Jacob, Gen. 28. 13, 14; 1 Chr. 16. 
17. Between Abraham and Abim- 
elech. Gen. 21. 22-32. Between 
Isaac and Abimelech, Gen. 26, '28- 
30. With Israel, Ex. 34. 10 ; Le. 
24. 8 ; De. 5. 2 ; 29. 1, etc. ; Ps. 89. 
34 ; 105. 10 ; Ro. 9. 4. Of Joshua, 
Jos. 24. 25. With David, 2 Sa. 23. 
5 ; Ps. 89. 3, 4. Between Jonathan 
and David, 1 Sa. 18. 3 ; 23. 18. With 
Phineas, Nu. 25. 12, 13. Joshua's, 
Josh. 24. 25. Israel's under Moses, 
Ex, 2. 24 ; 3. 6, etc. Ratified, Ex. 
24. 7. Book of, Ex. 24. 8. Blood 
of, Ex. 24. S. Tables, Ex. 24. 12. 
Renewed, Ex. 34. 10, etc. Reca- 
pitulated, De. 5. 2, etc. ; 7. 2, etc. 
The new tables, De, 9. 10. If kept, 
promises, Ex. 19. 5 ; Le. 26. 2, etc. ; 
De. 7. 12 ; 8. 1, etc. ; if broken, 
threaten in ss, Le. 26. 14, etc. ; De. 

4. 23. Of the Sabbath, Ex. 31. 16. 
Of shew-bread. Ex. 24. 8. Of salt, 
Le. 2. 13 ; Nu. IS. 19. The new, 
Jer. 31, 31-33 ; Ro. 11. 27 ; He. 8. 
6-10; 12. 24. Form of making, 
Gen. 15. 9-18 ; 23. ; 24. 2, 3 ; 26. 28- 
31 ; 31. 44-46 ; Jer. 34. 18. 

COVENANT, COVENANTERS. 

Covetousuess, Ex. 20. 17 ; De. 5. 21 ; 
Pr. 23. 7 ; Is. 57. 17 ; Jer. 6. 12, 13 ; 
Mi. 2. 1, 2 ; Ha. 2. 9, 11 ; Lu. 12. 
15 ; Ro. 1. IS, 29 ; 13. 9 ; 1 Co. 6. 10 ; 
Eph. 5. 5; Col. 3. 5; 1 Tim. 6. 9, 
10. He. 13, 5. Of Achan, Josh, 7. 
21. OfGideon, Jndg. 8. 24-27. Of 
Gehazi, 2 Ki. 5. 20. Of Balaam, 
Nu. 22. 17, 21 ; 31. 8 ; 2 Pe. 2. 15 ; 
Ju. 11. OfAhab,! Ki. 21. Of Ju- 
das, Mat. 26. 15. Of Ananias and 
Sapphira, Ac. 5. 1-9. 

Cow. See CAM'TLE. 

Cowl. See VESTMENTS. 



INDEX. 



1033 



COW-WORSHIP. See A N I M A L- 

WOESHIP. 
Coz, a descendant of Jiidah, 1 Chr. 

4.8. 

Cozbi, the daughter of a chief of 
Midian, Nil. 25, 15, IS. 

Cracknel, 1 Ki. 14. 3. See BREAD. 

Cracovian Catechism. See CATE- 
CHISM. 

CRANE. 

Craumer. See EPISCOPALIANS. 

CREATION. 

CREATIONISM. 

CREDENCE. 

Creditor. See LOAN. 

CREED. 

Creed of Pius IV. See CREED ; RO- 
MAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. 

Cremation. See FUNERAL RITES. 

Crescens, a Christian, 2 Tim. 4. 10. 

CRESCENT. 

CRETE. 

Crete s, Cretians, inhabitants of 
CRETE. 

Crime. See LAW'S OF MOSES, in 
Appendix. 

Crimson. See COLORS. 

Crispiug-pins. See BAG. 

Crispites, followers of Dr. Crisp. 
See ANTINOMIANISM. 

Crispus, a ruler of the synagogue, 
referred to only in Ac. 18. 8 ; 1 Co. 
1.14. 

Crocodile. See LEVIATHAN. 

Cromlech. See ALTAR ; BURIAL. 

CROSIER. 

CROSS : the instrument of Christ's [ 
death. Mat. 27. 32^2 ; Mar. 15. 21- 
32 ; Lu. 23. 26 ; Jno. 19. lT-31. Ex- 
pressive of his finished work, 1 
Co. 1. 17, 18 ; Gal. 6. 12-14 ; Eph. 2. 
16 ; Phi. 2. 8 ; 3. 18 : Col. 1. 20 ; 2. 
14 ; He. 12. 2. Self-denial so call- 
ed, Mat. 10. 38 ; 16. 24; Mar. 8. 34 ; 

10. 21 ; Lu. 9. 23 ; 14. 27 ; Ga. 5. 24. 
CROWN : regal, 2 Sa. 1. 10 ; 2 Ki. 

11. 12 ; 1 Chr. 20. 2 ; 2 Chr. 23. 11 ; 
Est. 1. 11 ; 2. 17 ; 6. 8. Ps. 132. IS ; 
Pr. 27. 24. Sacerdotal, Ex. 25. 11- 
25 ; 29. 6 ; 30. 3, 4 ; 37. 2-27 ; 39. 30 ; 
Le. 8. 9. Of riii'hteousness, 2 Tim. 
4.8. Oflife, Ja. 1.12; Re. 2.10; 3. 
11. Of glory, 1 Pe. 5. 4. Of thorns. 
Mat. 27. 29 ; Mar. 15. 17 ; Jno. 19. 2, 
5. Seen in vision, Eze. 16. 12 ; 23. 
42 ; Re. 4. 4, 10 ; 6. 2 ; 9. T ; 12. 1 ; 
14. 14. 

CRUCIFIX. 

CRUCIFIXION. 

Cruets. See ORNAMENTS, EC- 
CLESIASTICAL. 

CRUSADE. 

Cruse. See UTENSILS. 

Crypt. See BURIAL. 

CRYSTAL. 

Cubit. See MEASURES. 

CUCKOO. 

CUCUMBER. 

CULDEES. 

Cumberland Presbyterians. See 
PRESBYTERIANS. 

CUMMIN. • 

CUNEIFORM. 

Cup. See CHALICE; COMMUN- 
ION, § 3; LORD'S SUPPER; 
UTENSILS. 

CUP-BEARER. 

CURATE. 

CURE. 

Curfew-bell. See BELLS. 

Curse: after the fall. Gen. 3. 14-19. 
Of Cain, Gen. 4. 11. Subjoined to 
the law, De. 27. 13-26. Of the Is- 
raelites, if disobedient, Le. 26. 14- 
39; De. 2S. 15, etc. On Mount 
Ebal, De. 11. 26-29 ; 27. 13 ; Jno. 
7. 49. Remarkable instances of. 
Gen. 9. 25 ; 2 Ki. 2. 23 ; Ps. 109. 6, 
etc. ; Jer. 17. 18 ; Mat. 26. 74. Borne 
by Christ, Gal. 3. 13. When to end. 
Re. 22. 3. See ANATHEIMA ; EX- 
CO^EVIUNICATION. 

Curtains of the Tabernacle. See 
TABERNACLE. 



CUSH, I. A territory. See ETHI- 
OPIA. Cnsh, II. A descendant 
of Ham, Geu. 10. 6, 7, S; 1 Chr. 
1. 10. III. A Benjamite, Ps. 7, 
Title. 

Cushan, prob. the Cnsh of Eastern 
Arabia, Ha. 3. 7. See CUSH. 

Cushi, I. A footman, or runner, in 
Joab's service, 2 Sa. 18. 19-32. See 
AHIMAAZ. II. Father of Zeph- 
aniah, Zeph. 1. 1. HI. Father of 
Shelemiah, Jer. 36. 14. 

Custom, a kind of taxes, Mat. 9. 9 ; 
Mar. 2. 14 ; Lu. 5. 27. See PUB- 
LICANS; TAXES. 

CUTH, CUTHAH. 

Cutting oft' from the people, Ex. 30. 
33. See DISCIPLINE ; EXCOM- 
MUNICATION. 

CUTTINGS IN THE FLESH. 

Cymbals. See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 

CYNICS. 

CYPRESS. 

CYPRUS. 

CYRENE. 

CYRENIUS. 

CYRUS. 

D. 

Dabareh, or Daberath, a town, 1 
Chr. 6. 72 ; Josh. 19. 12 ; 21. 28. 

Dabbasheth, a border-town of Zeb- 
ulun. Josh. 19. 11. 

Dagger. See ARMS. 

DAGON. 

Dalaiah, a descendant of David. 1 
Chr. 3. 24. 

Daleites. See SECT. 

DALMANUTHA. 

DALMATIA. 

Dalmatic. See VESTMENTS. 

Dalphon, a son of Haman, Est. 9. 7. 

Damaris, a woman at Athens, Ac. 
17. 34. 

Damascenes, inhabitants of Damas- 
cus, 2 Co. 11. 32. 

DAMASCUS. 

Damianists. See SECT. 

Damnation. See FUTURE PUN- 
ISHMENT. 

DAN. 

Dancers. See SECT. 

DANCING. 

DANIEL. 

DANIEL, BOOK OP. 

DANIEL. BOOK OF, APOCRY- 
PHAL ADDITIONS TO. 

Dauites, the descendants of Dan, 
Judg. 13. 2 ; IS. 1, 11 ; 1 Chr. 12. 
35. 

Dau-jaan, 2 Sa. 24. 6. Prob. same 
as DAN, III. 

Dannah, a city among the mount- 
ains of Judah, Josh. 15. 49, 

Dara, a person, 1 Chr. 2. 6. Prob. 
contracted from Darda. 

Darda, a person, 1 Ki. 4. 31. 

DARIUS. 

Darkness : at the creation. Gen. 1. 2- 

' 5. Of Egypt, Ex. 10, 21, 22. At 
the crucifixion, Mat. 27. 45 ; Mar. 
15. 33 ; Lu. 23. 44. The state of 
the wicked here, Is. 60. 2 ; Jno. 

1. 5 ; Ac. 26. IS ; Ro. 13. 12 ; 1 Co. 
4. 5; Eph. 4. 18; 5. 8, 11; Col. 1. 
13 ; 1 Th. 5. 4, 5 ; 1 Pe. 2. 9 ; 1 Jno. 

2. 9, 11. The final portion of the 
lost,l Sa. 2. 9; Pr. 20. 20; Na. 1. 
8 : Mat. 8. 12 ; 22. 13 ; 25. 30 ; 2 Pe. 
2. 4, 17 ; Ju. 6, 13 ; Re. 16. 10. A 
characteristic of the day of the 
Lord, Joel 2. 2; Am. 5. 18, 20; 
Zeph. 1. 15; Ac. 2. 20. The veil 
of God's presence, De. 5. 23; 2 
Sa. 22. 10, 12 ; 1 Ki. 8. 12 ; 2 Chr. 
6. 1 : Ps. 18. 9, 11 ; 97. 2. See CRU- 
CIFIXION; PLAGUESOF 
EGYPT. 

Darkon, a person whose descend- 
ants returned from Babylon, Ezra 
2. .56 ; Neh. 7. .58. 

Dart. See ARMS. 



Darwinism. See MAN. 

Dasyus. See BRAHMANISM. 

DATARY. 

Date, the fruit of the PALM, 2 Chr. 
31. 5. 

Dathan, a chief of Reuben, who 
joined in Korah's treason, Nu. 16 ; 
26.9; De. 11. 6; Ps. 106. 17. 

DAUGHTER. See CHILDREN; 
INHERITANCE. 

Daughter of the Voice. See BATH- 
KOL. 

DAVID. 

David, city of, 2 Sa. 5. 7, 9. Name 
for JERUSALEM. 

DAY. 

Day of Atonement. See ATONE- 
MENT, DAY OF. 

Day of First-fruits. See PENTE- 
COST. 

Day's Journey. See MEASURES. 

Daysman, an umpire or arbitrator, 
Job 9. 33, 

DEACON. 

DEACONESS. 

Dead. See BURIAL; DEATH; 
FUNERAL RITES, 

Dead, burning of. See FUNERAL 
RITES. 

Dead, mournings for the. See FU- 
NERAL RITES. 

Dead Sea. See SALT SEA. 

DEAN. 

Dearth. See FAMINE. 

DEATH: natural. Gen. 3. 19; 5. 5- 
27 ; Ec. 12. 7 ; Ps. 104. 29 ; 2 Co. 5. 

I, 4 ; Phi. 1. 22 ; 2 Tim. 4. 6 ; 2 Pe. 
1. 13, 14 ; Re. 14. 13. Called sleep, 
Ps. 76. 5 ; Je. 51. 39 ; Da. 12. 2 ; Jno. 

II. 13, etc. ; 1 Th. 4. 13, 14. Spirit- 
ual, Geu. 2. 17 ; Ro. 6. 13 ; Euh. 2. 

1, 5; 5. 14; Col. 2. 13; Re."3.-1. 
Eternal, Eze. IS. 31, 32 ; 33. 11 ; Ro. 
6.23; 8.13; Ja. 1. 15 ; 5.20. 

Death of Christ: voluntary, Lu. 12. 
50; Jno. 10. 11, IS; He. 10. 7, 9. 
Substitutionary, Is. 53 ; Da. 9. 26 ; 
Mat. 20. 28 ; 1 Co. 5. 7 ; 1 Tim. 2. 6 ; 
Ti. 2. 14 ; He. 9. 26-28 ; 1 Pe. 1. 18, 
19 ; Re. 1. 5. Painful, Mat. 27. 29- 
50 ; He. 2. 9, 10 ; 1 Pe. 1. 11. Igno- 
minious, He. 12. 2, 3. Accursed, 
De. 21. 23 ; Gal. 3. 13. Second, Re. 

2. 11 ; 20. 6, 14 ; 21. 8. See CRU- 
CIFIXION. 

DEBIR, I. A town of Judah. De- 
bir, II. A frontier place of Gad 
near Mahanaim, Josh. 13. 26. 
Prob. same as Lo-debar. III. A 
place on the north boundary of 
Judah, near the valley of Achor, 
Josh. 15. 7. IV. A king of Eglon, 
Josh. 10. 3, 23. 

DEBORAH. 

Debt: to be ftuthfullv paid, 2 Ki. 4. 
7 ; Ps. 37. 21 ; Pr. 3. 27, 2S ; Philem. 
18. To be avoided, Ro. 13. 8. 
See LOAN. 

Decalogue. See TEN COMMAND- 
MENTS. 

DECAPOLIS. 

Decision, valley of, Joel 3. 14. Iden- 
tical with the valley of Jehosha- 
phat, Joel 3. 2, 12. 

Decrees. See PREDESTINATION. 

Decrees of the Synod of Dort. See 
CREED. 

Decretals, letters from the popes de- 
ciding questions of ecclesiastical 
law. See CANON, § 2. 

DEDAN. 

Dedanim, inhabitants of Dedau, Is. 
21. 13. 

Dedication : of the tabernacle, Ex. 
40. Of the Temple, 1 Ki. 8 ; 2 Chr. 
5. ; 6. ; 7. Of the wall of Jerusa- 
lem, Neh. 12. 27. Of property, 
Judg. 17. 3 ; 2 Sa. 8. 11 ; 2 Ki. 12. 
18 ; 1 Chr. 18. 11 ; 26. 26-28 ; 2 Chr. 
24. 7 ; 31. 12. Of a private house, 
De. 20. 5. See CONSECRATION. 

DEDICATION, FEAST OF. 

Deep. See PIT. 

Deer, See FALLOW-DEER. 



1034 



INDEX. 



DEFENDER OF THE FAITH. 

Deyradation. See DEPOSITION. 
Dei4Tees, songs of, Ps. 120-134. 
DEHAVITES. 
DEISM. 

Deity. See GOD. 

Dekar, father of Ben-dekar, one of 
Solomon's commissariat officers, 

1 Ki. 4. 9. 

Delaiah, I. The head of one of the 
courses of the priests, 1 Chr. 24. 

18. II. One whose descendants 
returned from Babylon with Ze- 
rubbabel, Ezra 2. 60 ; Neh. 7. 62. 
III. Father of a person who tried 
to intimidate Nehemiah, Neh. 6. 

10. IV. One of the princes in 
the time of Jehoiakim, Jer. 36. 12, 
25. 

Delilah. See SAMSON. 

Deliverances, remarkable. Gen. 14; 
19 ; 32 ; 38 ; Ex. 2. 1-10 : 14; Judg. 
7 ; 15 ; 1 Sa. 17 ; 2 Ki. 19 ; Da. 2. 3 ; 
Ac. 5. 19 ; 12. 7 ; 16. 26 ; 28. 1-0 ; 2 
Tim. 4. 17. 

Delphi. See OEACLE. 

Deluge. See FLOOD. 

DEMAS. 

DEMETRIUS, I. A heathen. De- 
metrius, II. A Christian, 3 Jno. 12. 

Demiurge. See GNOSTICS. 

DEMON, DEMONIAC. 

Denarius. Same as Penny. See 
MONEY. 

D e n m a r k, Church of. See LU- 
THERANS. 

Deposit, laws concerning, Ex. 22. 7- 
13 : Le. G. 1-7. 

DEPOSITION. 

DEPRAVITY. 

Deprivation. See DEPOSITION. 

DEPUTY. 

DERBE. 

DERVISH. 

Dervishes, dancing. See DAN- 
CING. 

DESERT. SeeARABAH. 

Deuel, the father of the prince of 
Gad in the wilderness, Nu. 1. 14 ; 
7. 42 ; 10. 20. Also called Reuel. 

DEUTERONOMY. 

Development hypothesis. See MAN. 

Devi. See SIVA. 

DEVIL, Le. 17. 7; De. 32. 17; Ps. 
106. 37 ; Mat. 4. 24 ; 8. 10, 28 ; 9. 
32; Mar. 1. .32; Lu. 4. 41; 8. 36; 

11. 14-22; Jno. 8. 49, 62; Ac. 10. 
38 ; 13. 10 ; 19. 13-16 ; 1 Co. 10. 20, 
21 ; Eph. 4. 27 ; 6. 11 ; 1 Tim. 4. 1 ; ■ 

2 Tim. 2. 26; He. 2. 14; Ja. 2. 19 ; 
4. 7 ; 1 Pe. 5. 8 ; 1 Jno. 3. 8. Call- 
ed also Abaddon, or ApoUyon, 
Re. 9. 11. Accuser of the breth- 
ren, Re. 12. 10. Adversary, Ps. 74, 
10 ; 1 Pe. 5. 8. Angel, 2 Pe. 2. 4 ; 
Ju. 6. Angel of the bottomless 
pit, Re. 9. 11. Beast, Re. 13. 11-18 ; 

19. 19, 20. Beelzebub, prince of 
the devils, Mat. 10. 25; 12. 24, 27; 
Mar. 3. 22 ; Lu. 11. 15, 18, 19. Be- 
lial, 2 Co. 6. 15. Deceiver, Job 12. 
16 ; Re. 12. 9 ; 13. 14 ; 20. 3. Drag- 
on (great), Is. 27. 1 ; Re. 12. 7, 9 ; 

20. 2. Enemy, Mat. 13. 39. Evil 
spirit, Judg. 9. 23 ; 1 Sa. 16. 14, 23 ; 
18. 10. Father of lies, Jno. 8. 44. 
God of this world, 2 Co. 4. 4. Le- 
viathan, Ps. 74. 14 ; 104. 26 ; Is. 27. 
1. Liar and murderer, Jno, 8. 
44. Lying spirit, 1 Ki. 22. 22, 23. 
Prince of this world, Eph. 6. 12. 
Prince of the power of the air, 
Eph. 2. 2. Satan, Job 1. 6-12 ; 2. 1 
-7 ; 1 Chr. 21. 1 ; Mat. 4. 10 ; 12. 20 ; 
16. 23 ; Lu. 13. 16; 22. 3, 31 ; Jno. 
13. 27 ; Ac. 5. 3 ; 26. 18 ; Ro. 16. 20 ; 
1 Co. 5. 5 ; 7. 5 ; 2 Co. 2. 11 ; 11. 14 ; 

12. 7, 9; 1 Th. 2. IS; 2Th. 2. 9; 1 
Tim. 1. 20 ; 5. 15 ; Re. 2. 9, 13, 24 ; 
3. 9 ; 12. 9 ; 20. 2, 7. Serpent, Gen. 
3. 1, 4, 13, 14 ; Is. 27. 1 ; 65. 25 ; Mi. 
7. 17 ; 2 Co. 11. 3 ; Re. 12. 9. Tempt- 
er, 1 Th. 3. 5. Unclean spirit, Mat. 
10. 1 ; 12. 43. Wicked one, Mat. 13. 



19, 38; 1 Jno. 2. 13. Jesus tempt- 
ed by the. Mat. 4. 1-11 ; Mar. 1. 13 ; 
Lu. 4. 2-13. Destiny of the. Mat. 

25. 41 ; Lu. 10. 18 ; 1 Tim. 3. 6 ; 2 
Pe. 2. 4 ; Ju. 6 ; Re. 20. 10. Judas 
so called, Jno. 6. 70. Peter, Mat. 
16. 23 ; Mar. 8. 33. 

Dew, natural. Gen. 2. 6, Eden;— Ex. 
16. 13, 14 ; Nu. 11. 9, Manna;— Be. 
33. 1.3, 28, Joseph; — Jndg. 6. 37- 
40, Gideon;— Bii. 4. 15, 25, ^3, Neb- 
uchadnezzar. Figurative, De. 32. 
2 ; 2 Sa. 17. 12 ; Ps. 110. 3 ; 133. 
3; Pr. 19. 12; Sol. Song 5. 2; Is. 

26. 19 ; Hos. 6. 4 ; 13. 3 ; U. 5 ; Mi. 
5.7. 

Diadem. See CROWN; HEAD- 
DRESS. 

DIAL. 

DIAMOND. 

DIANA. 

Diblaiu, father (or mother?) of Go- 
mer, Hos. 1. 3. 

Dil)lath, name of a place, Eze. 6. 14. 

DIBON. 

Dibon-Gad, Nu. 33. 45; 46. See DI- 
BON. 

Dibri, a Danite, Le. 24. 11. 

Didymus, the surname of the apos- 
tle THOMAS. 

DIES IRyE. 

DIET. See FOOD. 

Digit. See MEASURES. 

Diklah, a son of Joktau, Gen. 10. 
27; IChr. 1. 21. 

Dileau, a town iu Judah, Josh. 15. 
38. 

Diligence: recommended in world- 
ly affairs, Pr. 6. 6-11 ; 10. 4, 15 ; 12. 
24 ; 13. 4 ; 22. 29 ; 27. 23 ; Ro. 12. 
11 ; 2 Th. 3. 11, 12. In spiritual 
concerns, Jno. 6. 27; Ac. 24. 16; 1 
Co. 15. 58 ; Gal. 6. 9 ; Phi. 3. 14 ; 2 
Thes. 3. 13 ; He. 6. 12 ; 2 Pe. 3. 14. 

DIMISSORY LETTERS. 

Dimnah, a Levitical city in Zebu- 
lun. Josh. 21. 35. 

Dimon, streams to the eastward of 
the Dead Sea, iu the territory of 
Moab, Is. 15. 9. 

Dimonah, a city in the south of Ju- 
dah, Josh. 15. 22. Prob. same as 
DIBON. 

DINAH. 

Dinaites, an Assyrian people, from 
whom colonists were placed iu 
the cities of Samaria, Ezra 4. 9. 

Dinhabah, an Idumean town. Gen. 
36. 32. 

Dinner." See MEALS. 

Diocesan Council. See ECUMEN- 
ICAL COUNCIL. 

DIOCESE. 

DIONYSIUS. 

Diotrephes, a professed Christian, 3 
Jno. 9. 

Dippers. Same as Dunkards. See 
BRETHREN. 

DIPTYCHS. 

DIRECTORY. 

Disciples of Christ: twelve, called 
apostles, their call and commis- 
sion. Mat. 10 ; IS ; 28. 18-20 ; Mar. 
16. 15-20 ; Lu. 6. 13-16 ; 9. 1-6 ; 24. 
49-53 ; Jno. 20. 21-23. The Seven- 
ty, Lu. 10. 1-24. Their privileges, 
Mat. 9. 14, 15 ; 14. 19 ; 17. 1-5 ; 20. 
17 ; 26. 26, etc. ; 28. 7-10, 16 ; Mar. 
2. 19 ; 4. 34 ; 8. 1-9 ; 9. 1-8 ; 10. 29, 
30; 14. 12-42; 16. 7-20; Lu. 5. 33- 
39; 7.11; 8. 51; 9. 14-16, 29-36; 
10. 23; 11. 1-13; 22. 14-20; 24; 
Jno. 2. 1-11 ; 6. 3-11 ; 13. 3-15, 2.3- 
25; IS. 1; 20; 21. Their igno- 
rance. Mat. 8. 25; 14. 24-31'; 17. 
10-21, 24; 28. 17; Mar. 4. 38; 7. 
17-23 : 8. 14-21 ; 9. 10-24, 32 ; Lu. 
8. 9, 25; 9. 40-45; 17. 37; 18. 34; 
24. 5, 11, 21-24; Jno. 3. 1-12; 4. 

27. .33: 11. 12, 1.3. Their errors. 
Mat. 18. 1 ; 19. 18; 20. 20-28; 26. 
8, 9, 33, 40, 43, 56, 58, 70-75 ; Mar. 
4. 40 ; 8. 31-33 ; 9. 35-40 ; 10. 13-16, 
24-27, 84-45; 14. 4, 5, 47, 50, 54, 



68-72; 16. 14; Lu. 9. 46-62; 10. 40, 
41 ; 22. 24, 45, 54, 57, 60 ; Jno. 6. 
60-66 ; 9. 1-3 ; 13. 37, 88 ; IS. 17, 25, 
27. Their conduct justified, Mar. 
7. 1-16; Lu. 6. 1-5; 19. 39, 40. 
CalledChrisiiaus,Ac. 11. 20. Won- 
derful increase of, Ac. 2. 41, 47 ; 4. 
4 ; 21. 20. S e e A P O S T L E S ; 
CHRISTIANS. 

DISCIPLINE. 

DISCIPLINE, BOOK OP. 

DISCIPLINE, FIRST AND SEC- 
OND BOOKS OF. 

Disease. See MEDICINE. 

Dish. See UTENSILS. 

Dishau, a son of Seir the Horite, 
Gen. 36. 21, 28, 30 ; 1 Chr. 1. 38, 42. 

Dishon, I. Another sou of Seir, 
Gen. 36. 21, 26, 80; 1 Chr. 1. 38. 
II. A son of Anah, and grandsou 
of Seir, Gen. 30. 25 ; 1 Chr. 1. 41. 

DISMISSION. 

DISPENSATIONS. 

DISPERSION. 

DISSENTERS. 

Dissidents. See DISSENTERS. 

DIVINATION. 

Divinity of Christ. See CHRIS- 
TOLOGY. 

Division in the church, Ro. 16. 17; 

1 Co. 1.10; 3.3; 11.18; 12.2,5. 
DIVORCE, laws concerning, Le. 21. 

7, 14 ; Nu. 30. 9 ; De. 24. 1-3 ; Eze. 
44. 22 ; Mat. 5. 31, 32 ; 19. 3-9 ; Mar. 

10. 2-12; Lu. 16. 18. Prophetic 
allusions to. Is. 50. 1 ; Jer. 3. 8. 

Dizahab, a place lu the Arabian 
desert, De. 1. 1. 

Docetse, a sect of GNOSTICS. 

DOCTOR. 

Doctrines. See CHRISTIANITY; 
DOGMA; THEOLOGY; and un- 
der special titles, as ATONE- 
MENT ; TRINITARIANS, etc. 

Dodai, one of David's captains, 1 
Chr. 27. 4. 

Dodauim, a name among the sous 
of Javan, Gen. 10. 4 ; 1 Chr. 1. 7. 

Dodavah, a man of Mareshah, whose 
son Eliezer rebuked Jehoshaphat, 

2 Chr. 20. 37. 

Dodo, I. The father of one of Da- 
vid's warriors, 2 Sa. 23. 9 ; 1 Chr. 

11. 12. Prob. same with Dodai. 

11. A Bethlehemite, 2 Sa. 23. 24 ; 
1 Chr. 11. 26. 

DOEG. 
DOG. 
DOGMA. 

DOMINICAL LETTER. 
DOMINICANS. 
DONATISTS. 
Door. See GATE. 
DOORKEEPER. 

Dophkah, a station of the Israelites 
iu the wilderness of Sin, Nu. 83. 

12. See WILDERNESS OF THE 
WANDERING. 

DOR. 

Dorcas, Ac. 9. 36, 39. See TABI- 

THA. 
Doritheans. See SECT. 
Dorrelites. See SECT. 
Dort, Svnod of. See CREED. 
DOTHAN. 
Dcniay Bible. See AUTHORIZED 

VERSION; VULGATE. 
Doubters. See DOCTOR {Jewish). 
DOVE. 

Dove's dung. See DOVE. 
Dowry, Gen. 30. 20 ; Ex. 21. 17. See 

MARRIAGE. 
DOXOLOGY. 
Drabricians. See SECT. 
DRAGON. See SERPENT. 
Dragon-well, prob. Pool of Gihon, 

Neh. 2. 13. 
Dram, 1 Chr. 29. 7. See MONEY. 
Drawing water, 1 Sa. 7. 6. See IR- 
RIGATION ; WELL. 
Dreamer of dreams. See DREAM ; 

DIVINATION. 
DREAMS : from God, Nu. 12. 6 ; Jer. 

23. 28 ; Da. 1. 17 ; Joel 2. 28 ; Ac. 



INDEX. 



1035 



2. 17. A false pretense, De. 13. 1, 
3 ; Jer. 23. 32 ; Zec. 10. 2 ; Jll. 8. 
Abiinelech's, Geu. 20. 3-7. Ja- 
cob's, Gen. 28. 12, etc. ; 31. 10-13. 
Labau's, Geu. 31. 24. Joseph's, 
Gen. 37. 5-10; 42. 9. Pharaoh's 
servants, Gen. 40. 5-19. Phara- 
oh's, Geii. 41. 1-7. Midiauite, 
Jndg. 7. 13-15. Solomon's, 1 Ki. 

3. 5-15. . Nebuchadnezzar's, Da. 
2 ; 4. Daniel's, Da. 7. Joseph's, 
Mat. 1. 20, 21 ; 2. 13, 19, 20. Wise 
men, Mat. 2. 11, 12. Pilate's wife's, 
Mat. 27. 19. 

DRESS: origin of. Gen. 3. 7, 21. 
Materials for, Le. 6. 10 ; 2 Sa. 3. 31 ; 
2 Ki. 19. 1 ; Est. 8. 15 ; Pr. 27. 2G ; 
31. 22; E/.e. 34. 3; Mat. 3. 4; He. 
11. 37. Laws concerning, De. 22. 
5, 11. Jesus's, Ps. 22. IS ; Mat. 27. 
35 ; Mar. 9. 3 ; Juo. 19. 23, 24 ; Ee. 
1. 13 ; 19. 13. Aaron's, Ex. 28. Aa- 
ron's sous', Ex. 28. 40. John the 
Baptist, Mat. 3. 4. 

Drink: strong, forbidden, Le. 10. 9 ; 
Nu. G. 3 ; Judg. 19. 4-14 ; Pr. 31. 4 ; 
Is. 5. 11, 22. Permitted, De. 14. 26 ; 
Pr. 31. 0. Used in sacrifice, Nu. 
28. 7. See WINE. 

Drink-ofiering: of wine, Le. 23. 13, 
18 ; Nu. G. 17 ; 15. 24 ; 28. 5-15, 24- 
31; 29. 6-11, 18-40; Ezra 7. 17. 
With a burnt-offering, Ex. 29. 40, 
41; Nu. 15. 4-12; 28. 7, 14, 15. 
With tirst-fruits, Le. 23. 13, Where 
offered, Ex. .30. 9 ; Nu. 28. 7. See 
OFFERINGS. 

Dromedary, 1 Ki. 4. 28 ; Est. 8. 10 ; 
Is. 60. G; Jer. 2. 23. See CAMEL. 

Drought. See SEASON. 

Drowning. See PUNISHMENT. 

DRUIDS. 

Drunkenness, De. 29. 19 ; Ps. 69. 12 ; 
Pr. 23. 20, 21 ; Joel 1. 5 ; Lu. 12. 45 ; 
21. 34 ; Ro. 13. 13 ; 1 Co. 11. 21 ; Gal. 
5. 21 ; Eph. 5. 18. Its curse, De. 2. 
20, 21 ; Is. 28. 1, 7 ; Na. 1. 10 ; 1 Co. 
5. 11 ; 6. 10. Instances of. Gen. 9. 
21-24, yoah;—l Sa. 1. 13-16, Han- 
nah (supposed) ;— 1 Sa. 25. 36, Na- 
bal; — 2 Sa. 11. 13, Uriah; — ! Ki. 
20. 16, Benhadad. 

DRUSES. 

DRUSILLA. 

Dulcimer. See MUSICAL IN- 
STRUMENTS. 

DUMAH. 

DUNG. 

Dungeon.- See PRISON. 

Dung-gate, one of the gates of Je- 
rusalem, Neh, 2. 13 ; 3. 14. 

Dunkards, Duukers. See BRETH- 
REN. 

DURA. 

Durga. See SIVA. 

DIST. 

Dutch Reformed Chnrch. See RE- 
FORMED CHURCH, § 2. 

Dwelling. See HOUSE ; TENT. 

Dyeing. See HAIR; HANDI- 
CRAFT. 

E. 

EAGLE. 

Ear, Earing, Geu. 45. 6 ; Ex. 34. 21 ; 
1 Sa. 8. 12. Same as plowing. 

Ear-rings. See ORNAMENTS. 

Earth. See CREATION; ETH- 
NOLOGY. 

Earthen vessels, Earthenware. See 
POTTER. 

Earthquake: Elijah, 1 Ki. 19. 11, 12. 
Uzziah, Am. 1. 1 ; Zec. 14. 5. At 
the crucifixion of Jesus, Mat. 27. 
54. At his resurrection, Mat. 28. 
2. In Paul's prison, Ac. 16. 26. 
In the last days. Mat. 24. 7 ; Mar. 
13. S ; Lu. 21. 11. Prophesied of, 
Ee. 6. 12; 8. 5: 11. 13-19; IG. 18. 
See CRUCIFIXION. 

EAST. 

EAST, WORSHIPING TOWARD 
THE. 



EASTER. 
EASTERN CHURCH. 

East Sea. See SALT SEA. 

Eat, Eating. See MEALS. 

Ebal, I. a" descendant of Seir the 
Horite, Gen. 36. 23. II. One of the 
posterity of Eber, 1 Chr. 1. 22. In 
Gen. 10. 28, he is called Obal. 

EBAL and GERIZIM. 

Ebed, I. The father of Gaal, Jndg. 
9. 26, 28, 30, 31, 35. II. A descend- 
ant of Adin, Ezra 8. G. 

Ebed-melech, an Ethiopian eunuch, 
Jer. 38. 7-13; 39. 1.5-lS. 

Ebenezer, a memorial stone, 1 Sa. 
4. 1 ; 5. 1 ; 7. 12. See SAMUEL. 

Eber, I. Great-grandson of Sheni, 
Geu. 10. 21 ; 11. 14, 17 ; Nu. 24. 24 ; 
1 Chr. 1.18. See HEBREWS. II. 
A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 12. III. A 
priest, Neh. 12. 20. 

Ebiasaph, 1 Chr. 6. 2.3, 37; 9. 19. 
Prob. same as Abiasaph. See KO- 
RAH. 

Ebiouites. See HUMANITARI- 
ANS. 

EBONY. 

Ebronah, a station in the wilder- 
ness near Ezion-gaber, Nn. 33. 34. 

Ecbatana. Same as ACHMETHA. 

ECCE HOMO. 

ECCLESIASTES. 

Ecclesiastical Courts. See DISCI- 
PLINE. 

ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY. 

Ecclesiastical Polity. See CHURCH. 

ECCLESIASTICUS. 

ECCLESIOLOGY. 

ECLIPSE OP THE SUN. 

ECUMENICAL COUNCIL. 

Ed, an altar erected by the traus- 
Jordanic tribes, Josh. 22. 34. 

Edar, a tower. Gen. 35. 21. 

EDEN, I. A region of country. II. 
An ancient mart. EDEN, IIL A 
place near Damascus, Am. 1. 5. 
IV. A Levite, 2 Chr. 29. 12 ; 31. 1.5. 

Eder, I. A Levite descended from 
Merari, 1 Chr. 23. 23; 24. 30. IL 
A city in the south of Judah, 
Josh. 1.5. 21. 

Edict of Nantes. See NANTES. 

EDIFICATION. 

EDOM. 

EDOMITES. 

EDREI, I. A city of Bashan. Edrei, 
II. A town of Naphtali, Josh. 19. 
37. 

Education. See SCHOOLS. 

Eglah, one of David's wives, 2 Sa. 3. 
5 ; 1 Chr. 3. 3. 

Eglaim, a place in Moab, Is. 15. 8. 
Prob. same as En-eglaim. 

EGLON. 

EGYPT. 

Egypt, river of. See NILE. 

Egyptians, inhabitants of EGYPT. 

Ehi, a S(m of Beujamin, Gen. 46. 21. 
Same as AHIRAM. 

Ehud, I. A deliverer of Israel, Judg. 
3. 11-30. II. A great-grandson of 
Benjamin, 1 Chr. 7. 10; 8.6. 

Eker, a descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 
2.27. 

EKRON. 

Ekronites, inhabitants of Ekrou, 
Josh. 13. 3; 1 Sa.5. 10. 

Eladah, a descendant of Ephraim, 
IChr. 7. 20. 

ELAH, L King of Israel. Elah, II. 
Father of Hoshea, 2 Ki. 15. 30 ; 17. 

I. III. A duke of Edom, Gen. 36. 
41 ; 1 Chr. 1. 52. IV. Father of 
Shimei, 1 Ki. 4. IS. V. A son of 
Caleb, 1 Chr. 4. 15. VL A sou of 
Uzzi, 1 Chr. 9. 8. 

ELAH, VALLEY OF. 

EL AM, I. A region of Asia. Elam, 

II. A Korhite Levite, 1 Chr. 26. 3. 

III. A son of Sliashak, 1 Chr. S. 24. 

IV. Au exile, Ezra 2. 7 ; 8. 7 ; Neh. 
7.12; 10. 14. V. Another person, 
Ezra 2. 31; Neh. 7. 34. VI. A priest, 
Neh. 12. 42. VII. A son of Shem. 



Elamites, inhabitants of Elam, Ezra 
4. 9 ; Ac. 2. 9. 

Elana. See ELATH ; EZION-GA- 
BER. 

Elasah, L The son of Shaphan, Jer. 
29. 3. II. One of the priests who 
married a strange wife. 

ELATH. See EZION-GABER. 

El-beth-el, Gen. 35. 7. Same as 
BETH-EL. 

Elcesaites, a sect of GNOSTICS. 

Eldaah, a son of Midian, Gen. 25. 4 ; 
1 Chr. 1. 33. 

ELDAD. 

ELDERS. 

Elead, a descendant of Ephraim, 1 
Chr. 7. 21. 

ELEALEH. 

Eleasah, I. One of Juclah's descend- 
ants, 1 Chr. 2. 39, 40. II. A man 
of Saul's posterity, 1 Chr. 8. 37 ; 9. 
43. Same as Elasah. 

ELEAZAR, L Son of Aaron. Ele- 
azar, II. Son of Abiuadab, 1 Sa. 
7. 1. III. Son of Dodo, 2 Sa. 23. 9 ; 
1 Chr. 11. 12. IV. A Levite, 1 Chr. 
23. 21, 22 ; 24. 28. V. A Levite, 
Ezra 8.33. VI. One who marrie,d 
a foreign wife, Ezi-a 10. 25. VII. 
A priest, Neh. 12. 42. VIII. One of 
our Lord's ancestors. Mat. 1. 15. 

Elect ladv, an individual, 2 Juo. 1. 
1. See JOHN, EPISTLES OF. 

Election, Ro. 9. 18-21; 1 Co. 1. 26- 
29 ; 1 Th. 1. 4 ; 2 Tim. 1. 9. Of in- 
dividuals, Josh. 24. 2, 3 ; 1 Sa. 16. 
12 ; Neh. 9. 7 ; Ps. 89. 34^36 ; Mai. 

I. 2, 3 ; Mat. 4. 18-22 ; Lu. 5. 27, 28 ; 
Ac. 7. 2, 3, 5 ; Ro. 4 ; 9. 7, 8 ; Gal. 1. 
15, 16. Of Israel, De. 7. 6-8; Ps. 
33. 12 ; Is. 45. 4 ; Ro. 11. 5-7, 23, 25, 
32, 33. Exhortation, Ro. 8. 31-33 ; 
9. 22-24; Eph. 1. 4, 5; Col. 3. 12; 

1 Th. 5. 8-10 ; 2 Tim. 1. S, 9. See 
PREDESTINATION. 

El-Elohe-Israel, an altar which Ja- 
cob built, Gen. 33.18-20. 

Elements, the biead and wine used 
in COMMUNION. 

Eleph, a city. Josh. IS. 28. 

Elephant. See IVORY. 

Elevation of the Host. See MASS. 

El-hanan, a warrior, 2 Sa. 21. 19; 1 
Chr. 20. 5. See GOLIATH. 

El-hhagg. See HADJI. 

ELI. 

Eli, Eli, lama sabacthani, a Syro- 
Chaldaic phrase, Mat. 27. 46 ; Mar. 
15. 34. 

ELIAB, I. David's elder brother. 
Eliab, II. A prince of Zebulun, 
Nu. 1. 9 ; 2. 7 ; 7. 24, 29 ; 10. 16. IIL 
Father of Dathan and Abiram, 
Nu. 16. 1, 12 ; 26. 8, 9, etc. IV. An- 
cestor of Samuel, 1 Chr. 6. 27. Same 
as Elihu, 1 Sa. 1. 1. V. A Gadite 
warrior, 1 Chr. 12. 9. VI. A Le- 
vite porter, 1 Chr. 15. 18, 20 ; 16. 5. 

Eliada, I. One of David's sons, 2 Sa. 
5. 16 : 1 Chr. 3. 8. Same as Belia- 
da, 1 Chr. 14. 7. II. A Benjamite, 

2 Clir. 17. 17. 

Eliadah, the father of Rezon, 1 Ki. 

II. 23-25. 

Eliah, I. A chief among the Benja- 
mites, 1 Chr. 8. 27. II. A person 
who had a foreign wife, Ezra 10. 
2G. 

Eliahba, one of David's chief war- 
riors, 2 Sa. 23. 32 ; 1 Chr. 11. 33. 

Eliakim, I. 2 Ki. 23. 34. Same as JE- 
HOIAKIM. II. An oflicer of Hez- 
ekiah, 2 Ki. 18. 18 ; 19. 2 ; Is. 22. 20 
-25. III. A priest, Neh. 12. 41. 
IV. Two persons in the genealo- 
gy of Christ, Mat. 1. 13 ; Lu. 3. 30. 

Eliam, L The father of Bath-sheba, 
2 Sa. 11. 3. Same as 7\nnniel, 1 
Chr. 3. 5. II. Sou of Ahithophel, 
2 Si 23 34. 

Elias^ theGreek form of ELIJAH. 

Eliasnph, L A chief of Gad, Nu. 1. 
14 ; 2. 14 ; 7. 42, 47 ; 10. 20. II. A 
Levite, Nu. 3. 24. 



1036 



INDEX. 



Eliashib, I. A descendant of David, 
1 Chr. 3. 24. II. A head of a 
course of priests, 1 Chr. 24. 12. 
ni. A high -priest, Ezra 10. C; 
Neh. 3. 20 ; 12. 10. IV. A Levite 
sino-er, Ezra 10. 24. V., VI. Two 
other persons, Ezra 10. 27, 36. 

Eliathah, a Levite of the sons of 
Hemau, 1 Chr. 25. 4, 27. 

Elidad, a Beujamite, Nu. 84. 21. 

Eliel, I. A chieftain of Manasseh, 1 
Chr. 5. 24. II. A Levite, ancestor 
of Samnel, 1 Chr. 6. 34. IIL Two 
Benjaraite chiefs, 1 Chr. 8. 20-22. 

IV. Two of David's warriors, 1 
Chr. 11. 46, 47. V. A Gadite cap- 
tain, 1 Chr. 12. 11. Prob. same 
as IV. VI. A Kohathite Levite 
of David's time, 1 Chr. 15. 9, 11. 
VII. An overseer of offerings in 
Hezekiah's reign, 2 Chr. 31. 13. 

Elienai, a Benjamite chief, 1 Chr. 8. 
20. 

ELIEZER, I. Chiefservant of Abra- 
ham. Eliezer, II. One of the sons 
of Moses, Es. IS. 4. III. A Benja- 
mite chief, 1 Chr. 7. S. IV. A priest, 
1 Chr. 15. 24. V. A ruler of the 
Eeubeuites, 1 Chr. 27. 16. VI. A 
prophet, 2 Chr. 20. 35-37. VH. A 
messenger sent by Ezra, Ezra 8. 
16. VIIL, IX., X. Three persons 
M'ho married foreign wives. Ezra 
10. IS, 23, 31. XL A person in the 
ancestry of our Lord, Lu. 3. 29. 

Elihoenai, one who returned from 
Babylon with Ezra, Ezra S. 4. 

Elihoreph, one of King Solomon's 
scribes, 1 Ki. 4. 3. 

Elihu, I. An ancestor of Samuel, 1 
Sa. 1. 1. II. A chief of Manasseh, 

1 Chr. 12. 20. III. A Levite por- 
ter, 1 Chr. 26. 7. IV. Da\'id's eld- 
est brother. Same as ELIAB. 

V. Son of Barachel, Job 32. 2, 4, 5, 
6 ; 34. 1, etc. 

ELIJAH. 

Elika, one of David's mighty men, 

2 Sa. 23. 25. 
ELIM. 

Elimelech. See EUTH. 

Elioeuai, I. One of David's descend- 
ants, 1 Chr. 3. 23, 24. 11. A chief- 
tain of Simeon, 1 Chr. 4. 36. III. 
A Benjamire head of a honse, 1 
Chr. 7. 8. IV. A Levite of Korah, 
1 Chr. 26. 3. V. A priest who mar- 
ried a strange wife, Ezra 10. 22. 

VI. Another person who married 
a foreign wife, Ezra 10. 27. 

Eliphal, one of David's warriors, 1 
Chr. 11. 35. Also called Eliphelet. 

Eliphalet, a son of David, 2 Sa. 5. 
16; 1 Chr. 14. 7. 

ELIPHAZ, I. One of the three 
friends of Job. Eliphaz, II. A 
son of Esau, Gen. 36. 4, 10, 11 ; 1 
Chr. 1. 35, 36. 

Elipheleh, a Levite appointed by 
David to play the harp, 1 Chr. 15. 
18, 21. 

Eliphelet, I. One of David's war- 
riors, 2 Sa. 23. 34. Called Eliphal 
in 1 Chr. 11. 35. U. A son of Da- 
vid, born in Jerusalem, 1 Chr. 3. 
6. Same as Elpalet. III. Anoth- 
er son of David, 1 Chr. 3. S. He is 
called Eliphalet in 2 Sa. 5. 16. IV. 
A descendant of Saul, 1 Chr. 8. 39. 
V. One who returned to Jerusa- 
lem with Ezra, Ezra S. 13. VI. A 
man who married a foreign wife, 
Ezra 10. 33. 

ELISABETH. 

Eliseus, the Greek form of ELISHA, 
Lu. 4. 27. 

ELISHA. 

Elishah, I. A son of Javan, Gen. 10. 
4 ; 1 Chr. 1. 7. IL Possibly Hel- 
las, ?. c, Greece, Eze. 27. 7. 

Elishama, I. A prince of the tribe 
of Ephraim, Nu. 1. 10; 7. 48. IL 
One of the sons of David, 2 Sa. 5. 
16 ; 1 Chr. 3. 8. III. The grand- 



father of that Ishmael who killed 
Gedaliah, 2 Ki. 25. 25; Jer. 41. 1. 
IV. A descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 
2. 41. V. Anotlier son of David, 
born in Jerusalem, 1 Chr. 3. 6. VI. 
A priest whom Jehoshaphat sent 
to teach the people, 2 Chr. 17. 8. 
VII. A scribe in Jehoiakim's reign, 
Jer. 36. 12, 20, 21. 

Elishaphat, one of Jehoiada's cap- 
tains, 2 Chr. 28. 1. 

Elisheba, wife of A.^ EON, Ex. 6. 23. 

Elishua, one of David's sous, born 
at Jerusalem, 2 Sa. 5. 15 ; 1 Chr. 
14. 5. Also called Elishama, 1 
Chr. 3. 6. 

Eliud, one in the genealogy of 
Christ,Mat. 1.14. 15. 

Elizabeth. See ELISABETH. 

Elizaphan, I. A Levite chief of the 
Kohathites, N u. 8. 30 ; 1 Chr. 15. 
8. Also called Elzaphan. IL A 
chief of Zebulun, Nn. 34. 25. 

Elizur, a prince of Eeuben, Nu. 1. 5 ; 
2. 10 ; 7. 30, 35 ; 10. 18. 

BLKANAH, L A grandson of Ko- 
rah. IL Father of Samuel. El- 
kanah, IIL Three Levites, 1 Chr. 
6. 25, 26, 35, 36 ; 9. 16. IV. A Kor- 
hite, 1 Chr. 12. 6. V. A door-keep- 
er for the ark, 1 Chr. 15. 23. VL 
A high officer in the reign of 
Ahaz, 2 Chr. 28. 7. 

ELKOSH. 

Elkoshite, Na. 1. 1, an inhabitant 
of ELKOSH. 

ELLASAE. 

Elm, Hos. 4. 13. Prob. OAK. 

Elmodam, one in the line of our 
Lord's ancestry, Lu. 3. 28. 

Elnaam, the father of two of Da- 
vid's warriors, 1 Chr. 11. 46. 

Elnathan, I. The father-in-law of 
Jehoiachin, 2 Kings 24. 8. Prob. 
son of Achbor, Jer. 26. 22; 36. 12, 

25. II. , IIL, IV. Three messen- 
gers, Ezra 8. 16. 

Elohim. See GENESIS. 

Eloi, a Syro-Chaldaic form of Eli, 
Mar. 15. 34. 

Elon, I. The father of one of Esau's 
wives, Gen. 26. 34; 36. 2. II. A 
son of Zebulun, Gen. 46. 14; Nu. 

26. 26. IIL A judge of Israel, 
Judg. 12. 11, 12. IV. A city of Dan, 
Josh. 19. 43. 

Elon-beth-hanan, name of a place, 
1 Ki. 4. 9. 

Elonites, a family of Zebulun, Nu. 
26. 26. 

Eloth, a grove, 1 Ki. 9. 26 ; 2 Chr. 8. 
17. Safne as ELATH. 

Elpaai, a descendant of Benjamin, 
1 Chr. S. 11, 12. 

Elpalet, one of the sons of David 
born in Jerusalem, 1 Chr. 14. 5. 
Same as Eliphelet. 

El-parau. See PAEAN. 

Eltekeh, a Levitical city in Dan, 
Josh. 19. 44; 21. 28. 

Eltekon, a town of Judah, Josh. 15. 
59. 

Eltolad, or Tolad, a town first al- 
lotted to Judah, but afrerward to 
Simeon. Josh. 15. 30 ; 19. 4; 1 Chr. 
4. 29. 

Elul. See MONTH. 

Eluzai, a Benjamite warrior, 1 Chr. 
12. 5. 

ELYMAS. 

ELYSIUM. 

Elzabad, I. A Gadite captain, 1 Chr. 
12. 12. II. A Levite, 1 Chr. 26. 7. 

Elzaphan, a Levite. Same as Eliz- 
aphan, Ex. 6. 22; Le. 10. 4. 

Emanations. See GNOSTICS. 

Emancipalion. See SLAVERY. 

embalming. 
e:\ibek-days. 

Emblems. See SYMBOLISM. 

E ?>r B U O I D E E Y. See HANDI- 

CEAFT. 
EMEEALD. 
EMEEODS. 



EMBI. 

Emmanuel. See EMMANUEL. 

EMMAUS. 

Emmor, Ac. 7. 16. Greek form of 

HAMOE. 
En. See AIN. 

Euam, a town in Judah, Josh. 15. 34. 
Enan, the father of a prince of Naph- 

tali, Nu. 1. 15 ; 2. 29 ; 7. 78, S3 ; 10. 

27. 
ENCAMPMENT. 
Enchanters. See DIVINATION; 

MAGIC; WITCHCRAFT. 
Enchantment. See DONATION; 

MAGIC; ^^TTCHCEAFT. 
ENCYCLICAL. 

ENDO R. See "^TTCH OF ENDOR. 
En-eglaim, a tOAvn in Moab, Eze. 47. 

10. Prob. same as Eglaim. 
Enemies: laws conceriTina-, Ex. 23. 

4; De. 23. 6-8 ; Pr. 24. 17; 25. 21 ; 

Mat. 5. 44; Lu. 6. 27-36; Eo. 12. 

14-21. Examples, 1 Sa. 24. 26 ; Ps. 

35. 4-15 {David); Lu. 23. 84 {Je- 
sus) ; Ac. 7. 60 {Stephen). 
ENGANNIM, L A city of Issachar. 

Engannim, II. A town of Judah, 

Josh. 15. 34. 
EN-GEDI. 
ENGINE. 

England, Church of. See EPISCO- 
PALIANS. 
Engraving. See HANDICEAFT. 
En-haddah, a town of Issachar, 

Josh. 19. 21. 
En-hak-kore, a spring, Judg. 15. 19. 

See LEHI. 
En-hazor, a town of Naphtali, Josh. 

19. 37. 
Enoch, I. A son of Cain, Gen. 4. 17, 

18. n. Father of Methuselah, 

Gen. 4. 18-24; Lu. 3. 37 ; He. 11. 5. 

III. A city built by Cain, Gen. 4. 

17. 
ENOCH, BOOK OF. 
Enon, Jno. 3. 23. See ^NON. 
Euos, the first-born of Seth, Gen. 4. 

26 ; Lu. 3. 38. 
Enosh, 1 Chr. 1. 1. A form of Enos. 
En-rimmon, a town in Judah, Neb. 

11. 29. See AIN. 
EN-EOGEL. 

Enrollment. See TAXES. 
En-shemesh, a spring on the north 

boundary of Judah, Josh. 15. 7. 
Ensign. See BANNEES. 
En-tappuah, a town on the borders 

of Manasseh and Ephraim, Josh. 

17. 7. 
Entertainment. See BANQUET. 
Envv, Ps. 37. 1 ; Pr. 3. 31 : 14. 30 ; 23. 

17-; 24. 19 ; 27. 4 ; Eo. 13. 13 ; 1 Co. 

3. 3 ; Gal. 5. 21 ; Ja. 3. 14 ; 5. 9 : 1 
Pe. 2. 1. Examples: Gen. 4. 5-13 
{Cain) ;— Gen. 26. 14 {Philistines) ; 
— Gei., 30. 1 {Rachel) ;— Gen. 37. 4, 
11 {Joseph's Brethren);— ^xi. 16 
{Korah). 

Eons. • See GNOSTICS. 

EPAPHEAS. 

EPAPHRODITUS. 

Epeuetus, a Christian, Ro. 16. 5. 

Ephah, I. One of the sons of Mid- 
ian, Gen. 25. 4; 1 Chr. i. 33. II. 
One of the concubines of Caleb, 
1 Chr. 2. 46. III. One of Judah's 
posteritv, 1 Chr. 2. 47. IV. A 
measure'. See MEASURES. 

Ephai, a Netophathite whose sons 
joined Gedadiah, Jer. 40. 8. 

Epher, I. A son of Midian, Gen. 25. 

4. II. A descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 4. 17. HI. A chief of Manas- 
seh, 1 Chr. 5. 24. 

Ephes-dammim, a place, 1 Sa. 17. 1. 
Also called Pasdammim, 1 Chr. 
11. 13. 

EPHESIANS, THE EPISTLE TO 
THE. 

EPHESUS. 

Ephesus, council of. See ECUMEN- 
ICAL COUNCIL, 3. 

Ephlal, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 2. 37. 



INDEX. 



1037 



EPHOD, Ex. 25. 27, 28 ; 39. ; Le. 8. 7. 
Gideou's, Judg. S. 27. Micah's, 
Judg. 17. 6 ; 18. 14-20. Samuel's, 
1 Sa. 2. 18. David's, 2 Sa. 6. 14 ; 1 
Chr. 15. 27; Hos. 3. 4. The robe 
of, Ex. 28. 31 ; 39. 2. The girdle 
of, Ex. 28. 8 ; 39. 5 ; Le. 8. 7. 

Epliod, II. A chief of Manasseh, Nu. 
34. 23. 

Ephphatha, a Syro-Chaldaic word 
meaning be opened. Mar. 7. 34. 

EPHRAIM. See GATE, 

EPHRAIM, WOOD OF. 

Ephraimite, a descendant of Ephra- 
ira. Josh. 1(5. 10. 

Ephrain, a city, 2 Chr. 13. 19. Per- 
haps same as Ophrah. 

Ephratah, I. The wife of Caleb, 1 
Chr. 2. 50. Also called Ephrath. 
II. A name of Bethlehem, also 
called Ephrath, Ruth 4. 11 ; Mi. 5. 
2. See BETHLEHEM. 

Ephrath, I. An ancient name of 
Bethlehem, Gen. 35. 16, 19. IL 
WifeofCaleb, IChr. 2. 19. 

Ephrathite, I. An inhabitant of 
Bethlehem, Ruth 1. 2, II. An 
Ephraimite, Judg. 12. 5. 

Ephron, I. The son of Zohar, Gen. 
23. 8-18. n. A mount in the 
uorth-west border of Judah, Josh. 
15.9. 

EPICUREANS. 

EPIPHANY. 

EPISCOPACY. 

EPISCOPALIANS. 

Epistle of Barnabas. See BARNA- 
BAS. 

EPISTLES. 

Epistles, spurious. See APOCRY- 
PHA. 

Epistoler. See GOSPELER. 

Epitaph. See BURIAL. 

Er, I. The eldest sou of Judah, Gen. 
38. 3-7. II. A descendant of Ju- 
dah by Shelah, 1 Chr. 4. 21. lU. 
One of our Lord's ancestry, Lu. 
3.28. 

Erau, one of the descendants of 
Ephraim. Nu. 26. 36. 

Eranites, descendants of Eran, Nu. 
26. 36. 

Erastians. See SECT. 

Erastus, a Christian treasurer of 
Corinth, Ac. 19. 22 ; Ro. 16. 23 ; 2 
Tim. 4. 20. 

ERECH. 

Eremite, a hermit. See MONA- 
CHISM. 

Eri, one of the sous of Gad, Geu. 46. 
16 ; Nu. 26. 16. 

Erites, descendants of Eri, Nu. 26. 
16. 

Esaias, Greek form of ISAIAH. 

ESAR-HADDON. 

ESAU. 

ESCHATOLOGY. 

ESDRAELON. 

ESDRAS, BOOKS OF. 

Esek, a well in the valley of Gerar, 
Gen. 26. 19, 20. 

Esh-baal, 1 Chr. 8. 33 ; 9. 39. Same 
as ISH-BOSHETH. 

Eshban, one of the descendants of 
Seir the Horite, Gen. 36. 26. 

Eshcol, an Amorite chieftain. Gen. 
14. 13-24. 

ESHCOL, VALLEY OF. 

Esheau, a towu in Judah, Josh. 15. 
52. 

Eshkalonites, inhabitants of Ash- 
kelou, Josh. 1.3. 3. 

Eshtaol, a city first assigned to Ju- 
dah, Josh. 15. 33 ; afterward to 
Dan, Josh. 19. 41. 

Eshtaulites, the inhabitants of Esh- 
taol, 1 Chr. 2. 53. 

ESHTEMOA, L A city in Judah. 
Eshtemoa, II. A person, called 
the Maachathite, 1 Chr. 4. 19. 

Eshtemoh, Josh. 15. 50. Same as 
ESHTEMOA. 

Eshton, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 4. 11, 12. 



Esli, a person in the genealogy of 
Christ, Lu. 3. 25. 

Espousal. See MARRIAGE. 

Esrom, Mat. 1. 3 ; Lu. 3. 33. Greek 
form of Hezron. 

Essence. See HYPOSTASIS. 

ESSENES. 

Established Church. See CHURCH 
AND STATE. 

ESTHER. 

ESTHER, BOOK OF. 

Etam, I. A name found in the gen- 
ealogies of Judah, prob. a place, 
1 Chr. 4. 3. IL A place in- Sim- 
eon, 1 Chr. 4. 32. HI. Prob. a cliff 
near the town, Judg. 15. 8-11. 

Eternal. See EVERLASTING. 

Eternal Punishment. See FUTURE 
PUNISHMENT. 

Etham, L Wilderness of, Nu. 83. 8. 
See SHUR. II. Second station 
of the Israelites, Ex. 13. 20 ; Nu. 
33. 6, 7, 8. 

Ethan, I. The Ezrahite, 1 Ki. 4. 31; 
Ys.S'd {title). II. 1 Chr. 6. 44. Prob. 
same as JEDUTHUN. III. One 
of Asaph's ancestors, 1 Chr. 6. 42. 

Ethanim. See MONTH. 

ETHBAAL. 

Ether, a town of Judah, afferward 
Simeon, Josh. 15. 42; 19. 7. 

Ethics. See MORAL SCIENCE. 

ETHIOPIA. SeeCUSH. 

Ethiopiaus, inhabitauts of ETHI- 
OPIA. 

Ethnan, one of Judah's descendants, 
1 Chr. 4. 7. 

Ethni, a Levite of the family of Ger- 
shon, 1 Chr. 6. 41. 

ETHNOLOGY. 

E u b u 1 u s, a Christian at Rome, 2 
Tim. 4. 21. 

Eucharist. See COMMUNION; 
LORD'S SUPPER. 

Euchelaion. See EXTREME UNC- 
TION. 

Euchites. See SECT. 

Eucratites, a sect of GNOSTICS. 

Eulogia, the consecrated bread of 
the COMMUNION. 

Eunice, the mother of Timothy, Ac. 
16. 1 ; 2 Tim. 1. 5. 

Eunomians. See SECT. 

EUNUCH. 

Euodias, a Christian woman at Phi- 
lippi, Phi. 4. 2. 

EUPHRATES. 

EUROCLYDON. 

Ensebians. See SECT. 

Eutychians. See MONOPHYSITE. 

EUTYCHUS. 

EVANGELICAL ; EVANGELIST. 

Evangelical Alliance, Associa- 
tion, ■ Church, Church 

Conference, Union. See 

EVANGELICAL. 

Evangelicals. See EPISCOPALI- 
ANS. 

Evangelists. See PREACHING. 

EVE. 

Evening. See DAY; NIGHT; 
WATCHES OF NIGHT. 

Even-song. See CANONICAL 
HOURS. 

EVERLASTING. 

EVES or VIGILS. 

Evi, a king or chief of Midian, Nu. 
31. 8 ; Josh. 13. 21. 

Evidences of Christianity. See 
CHRISTIANITY. 

Evil. See DEPRAVITY; SIN. 

EVIL-MERODACH. 

Ewe, Gen. 32. 14; 2 Sa. 12. 3. See 
SHEEP. 

Exaltation of the Cross, Festival of 
the. See CROSS. 

Excellents. See DOCTOR (Jewish). 

EXCOMMUNICATION : Jewish 
laws concerning, Geu. 17. 14; Ex. 
12. 1.5, 19 ; 30. 33, 38 ; Le. 7. 10, 25 ; 

17. 9. 10, 14; 19. 8; 2.3. 29; Nu. 9. 
13: 19. IB. Christian rules, Mat. 

18. 17; ICo. .5.13; 16.22. 
Execution. See PUNISHMENT. 



EXECUTIONER. 

EXEGESIS. 

EXHORTERS. 

Exile. See CAPTIVITY; PUN- 
ISHMENT. 

EXODUS, BOOK OF. 

EXODUS OF THE ISRAELITES. 

EXORCISM, EXORCIST. 

Ex-parte Council. See CONGRE- 
GATIONALISTS. 

EXPERIMENTAL RELIGION. 

Expiation. See ATONEMENT; 
SACRIFICE. 

Exposition. See PREACHING. 

Extravagants. See BULL, PAPAL. 

EXTREME UNCTION. 

EYE. 

Ezar, 1 Chr. 1. 38. Same as Ezer. 

Ezbai, father of one of David's war- 
riors, 1 Chr. 11. 37. 

Ezbon, I. One of the sous of Gad, 
Gen. 46. 16. He is also called 
Ozni, Nu. 26. 16. II. A Benja- 
mite, 1 Chr. 7. 7. 

Ezekias, Greek form of Hezekiah, 
Mat. 1. 9, 10. 

EZEKIEL, and Book of. 

Ezekiel's reed. See MEASURES. 

Ezel, I. A stone or stoue-heap by 
which David and Jonathan part- 
ed, 1 Sa. 20. 19. II. A city of Sim- 
eon, 1 Chr. 4. 29. 

Ezem, a city of Simeon, 1 Chr. 4. 29. 
In Josh. 19. 3, called Azem. 

Ezer, I. A descendant of Seir, Gen. 
36. 21, 27, 30 ; 1 Chr. 1. 42. In verse 
38, called Ezar. II. A descendant 
of Judah, 1 Chr. 4. 4. III. One of 
the sons of Ephraim, 1 Chr. 7. 21. 
IV. A Gadite chief, 1 Chr. 12. 9. V. 
A Levite who helped to repair the 
wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3. 19. VI. 
A priest who took part in the 
dedication of the wall, Neh. 12. 
42. 

EZION-GABER, or -GEBER. 

Eznite, an epithet of Adino, one of 
David's mighty men, 2 Sa. 23. 8. 
See JASHOBEAM. 

EZRA, I. A Scribe. Ezra, II. One 
of the descendants of Judah, 1 
Chr. 4. 17. IIL A priest, Neh. 12, 
1,13. 

Ezra, Book of. See EZRA. 

Ezrahite. Two persons are thus 
designated, 1 Ki. 4. 31 ; Ps. SS and 
89 {title) ; in 1 Chr. 2. 6, they are 
called sons of Zerah. 

Ezri, the superintendent of David's 
agriciiltural laborers, 1 Chr. 27. 26. 



Fable. See PARABLES. 

Face-seeing, or seeking, sometimes 
used to express obtaining or ask- 
ing especial favor or nearness. 
Job 33. 26 ; Ps. 17. 15 ; 27. 8 ; Pr. 
7. 15. 

FACULTIES. 

FAIR HAVENS, THE. 

FAIRS, 

FAITH, described, Ac, 15. 9 ; 26. 18 ; 
Ro. 4 ; 2 Co, 5. 7 ; Eph. 4. 5, 13 ; 6. 
16 ; 1 Th. 1. 3, etc. ; 5. S; He. 11 ; 

1 Jno. 5. 1 ; Ju. 20. Its objects, 
Mar. 1. 15; 11. 22; Jno. 3. 15; 6. 
29 ; 14. 1 ; 18. 36 ; 20. 31 ; Ac. 16. 
31 ; 20. 21 ; Ro. 8. 14. Its source, 
Ro. 12. 3 ; 1 Co. 2. 5 ; 12. 9 ; Eph. 

2. 8 ; 6. -'3 ; Phi. 1. 29 ; He. 12. 2 ; 

2 Pe. 1. 1 ; 1 Jno. 5. 4-6. Instru- 
mentality employed, Jno. 17. 20; 
Ac. 8. 12 ; Ro. 10. 14-17 ; 1 Co. 3. 
5 ; 2 Tim. 3. 15. Its consequences. 
Ha. 2. 4 ; Mar. 16. 16 ; Jno. 1. 12 ; 

3. 16, 36 ; 6. 40, 47 ; Ac. 10. 43 ; 13. 
.39 ; 16. 31 ; Ro. 1. 17 ; 3. 26 ; 5. 1 ; 
Gal. 2. 16 ; 3. 14, 26 ; He. 10. 22. 
Its effects, Ac. 15. 9; Ro. 15. 13; 
1 Co. 13; 2 Co. 4. 13; Gal. 5, 6; 
Ei)h, 1. 13; Col. 1. 4; 1 Th. L 3 ; 
1 Tim. 1. 5 ; Philem. 5 ; He. 4. 8 ; 



1038 



INDEX. 



Ja. 2. 14, etc. ; 1 Pe. 1. 8, 22 ; 2. 6 ; 
2 Pe. 1. 5 ; 1 Jno. 3. 23. 01" devils, 
Mar. 1. 24 ; 5. 7 ; Ac. 19. 15 ; Ja. 2. 
19. 

Faith, act of. See AUTO-DA-FE. 

Faith, articles of, coiifessious 

of, rule of. See CREED. 

FAKIRS. 

FallofMau. See ADAM ; MAN. 

FALLOW-DEER. 

Fallow-vear. Same as SABBATIC- 
AL YEAR. 

FALSE CHRISTS. 

False Prophet. See PROPHETS. 

Familiars of the Inquisition. Offi- 
cers of the INQUISITION. 

Familiar Spirit. See DIVINATION ; 
WITCHCRAFT; WITCH OF EN- 
DOR. 

Familists. See SECT. 

FAMILY. 

FAMINE, Gen. 12. 10 (Abraham) •— 
Gen. 26. 1 (Isaac) ;— Gen. 41.-47. ; 
Ps. 105. 16; Ac. 7. 11 (Egypt) ;^ 
Ruth 1. 1, etc. (Kaomi) ; — 2 Sa. 21. 

1 (David) ;— 1 Ki. 18. 2 ; 2 Ki. 6. ; 
7. S (Samaria) ; — 2 Ki. 4. 38 (Eli- 
sha) ;— 2 Ki. 25. 3 ; Neh. 5. 3 ; Jer. 
14. 1 ; 52. 6 ; La. 5. 10 (Jerusalem). 
Universal, Ac. 11. 28. Figurative, 
Am. 8. 11. Prophesied of, Mat. 24. 
7 ; Mar. 13. 8 ; Lu. 21. 11 ; Re. 6. 8 ; 
18.8. 

Fan. See HARVEST. 

FANATIC. 

Farm, Farming?. See AGRICUL- 
TURE, Mat. 22. 5. 

Farnobians. See SECT. 

Farthing. See MONEY. 

FAST, Fastiug, true, Ps. 35. 13 ; 69. 
10 ; Is. 58. 5-7 ; Jer. 36. 9 ; Joel 1. 
14 ; 2. 12, 13 ; Mat. 6. 16, 17 ; Lu. 5. 
35. Examples of, Mat. 4. 2 ; Lu. 4. 

2 (Jesus) ;— Ex. 34. 28 ; De. 9. 9, 18 
(Moses);— 2 Sa. 12. 16 (David)-— 
Ezra 8. 21 (Ezra) ;— Neh. 1. 14 (Ne- 
hemiah) ; —'Est. 4. 3 ; 9. 31 (Es- 
ther) ;— Da. 9. 3 ; 10. 3 (Da^iiel) ;— 
Jon. 3. 5-9 (Nineveh). Hypocrit- 
ical, Is. 58. 3, 5 ; Mat. 6. 16. Ex- 
amples of, 1 Ki. 21. 9, 12 (Xaboth) ; 
— Lu.l8. 12 (Pharisee). 

FAT, I. Of animals. Fat, IL Same 
as wine-vat. See VINE. 

FATHER. 

Father Mathew Societies. See TEM- 
PERANCE SOCIETIES. 

Fathers. See DOCTOR (Jewish). 

Fathom. See MEASURES. 

Fear, godlj': God is the object of. 
Is. 8'. 13. God is the author of, 
Jer. 32. 39, 40. Described as a 
hatred of evil, Pr. 8. 13. Wisdom, 
Job 28. 28 ; Ps. 111. 10. Sanctify- 
ing, Ps. 19. 9. Commanded, De. 
13. 4; Ps. 22. 23 ; Ec. 12. 13 ; 1 Pe. 
2. 17. Motives to, the holiness of 
God, Re. 15. 4. The goodness of 
God, 1 Sa. 12. 24. The forgiveness 
of God, Ps. 130. 4. Necessary to 
the worship of God, Ps. 5. 7 ; 89. 7. 
Avoiding of sin, Ex. 20. 20. Those 
who have, are pitied of God, Ps. 
103. 13. Accepted of God, Ac. 10. 
35. Depart from evil, Pr. 16. 6. 
Should not fear man, Is. 8. 12, 13 ; 
Mat. 10. 28. Should be prayed for, 
Ps. 86. 11. The wicked destitute 
of, Ps. 36. 1 ; Pr. 1. 29 ; Jer. 2. 19 ; 
Rom. 3. 18. Exemplified, Abra- 
ham, Gen. 22. 12: — Joseph, Gen. 
39. 9; 42. 18; — Obadiah, 1 Ki. 18. 
12 ;— Nehemiah, Neh. 5. 15 ;— Job, 
Job 1. 1, 8 ;— Primitive Christians, 
Ac. 9. 31 ;— Cornelias, Ac. 10. 2 ;— 
Noah, He. 11. 7. Fear, unholy : a 
characteristic of the wicked. Re. 
21. 8. A fear of man, 1 Sa. 15. 24 ; 
Juo. 9. 22. A fear of judgments, Is. 
2.19; Lu. 21. 26; Re. 6.16, 17. Of fu- 
ture punishment. He. 10. 27. Con- 
suming, Ps. 73. 19. A guilty con- 
science leads to, Gen. 3. 8, 10 ; Ps. 
53. 5 ; Pr. 28. 1. Exhortations 



against. Is. 8. 12 ; Jno. 14. 27. Ex- 
emplified, Adam, Gen. 3. 10. Cain, 
Gen. 4.14. Midianites, Judg. 7. 21, 
22. Philistines, ISa. 14.15. Saul, 

1 Sa. 28. 5, 20. Adonijah's euests, 
lKi.1.49. Haman,Est.7.6."Ahaz, 
Is. 7. 2. Belshazzar, Da. 5. 6. Pi- 
late, Jno. 19. 8. Felix, Ac. 24. 25. 

Feasts : of the Passover, Ex. 12. ; 
23. 14, 15 ; 34. 25 ; Le. 23. 5-8 ; Nu. 

9. 2-14 ; 28. 16-25 ; De. 16. 1-8, 16 ; 

2 Chr. 8. 13. Remarkable cele- 
brations of, Ex. 12. 28-50 (Egy^yt) ; 
— Nu. 9. 5 {Sinai) ;— Josh. 5. 10, 11 
(Canaan); — 2 Chr. 30. 1 {Hezeki- 
ah's reign) ; — 2 Ki. 23. 22, 23 ; 2 
Chr. 35. 1, 18 (Josiah) ;— Ezra 6. 19, 
20 iafttir the captivity) :— Mat. 26. 
17-29; Lu. 22. 15, etc. (Jesus and 
his disci2)les). A symbol, 1 Co. 5. 
7, 8. Of Pentecost,Ex. 23. 16, 17 ; 
34. 22; Le. 23. 15-21; De. 16. 9 
-12 ; 2 Chr. 8. 13 ; Ac. 2. 1, 3 ; 20. 
16. Of Tabernacles, Ex. 23. 16, 17 ; 
34. 22, 23; Le. 23. 34-44; Nu. 29. 
12-39 ; De. 16. 13-16 ; 31. 10-13 ; 2 
Chr. 8. 13 ; Neh. 8. 15, 16, 18 ; Jno. 
7. 2, 37, 39. Remarkable celebra- 
tions of, 1 Ki. S. 2, 65 {dedication 
of the Temple) ;— Ezra 3. 4; Neh. 
S. 17 (after the cap)tivity). Pro- 
phetic allusions to, Zee. 14. 16-19. 
Of New Moon, Nu. 10. 10; 28. 11 
-15; 1 Chr. 23. 31; 2 Chr. 2. 4; 
Ezra 3. 5; Ps. 81. 3-15. Observ- 
ance of, abolished, Col. 2. 16, with 
Gal. 4. 10. Prophetic allusions to. 
Is. 66. 23 : Eze. 46. 1 ; Hos. 2. U. 
Of Trumpets, Le. 23. 24, 25 ; Nu. 

10. 2 ; 29. 1-6 : Ps. 81. 3. Prophet- 
ic allusions to, Joel 2. 1, 15; Am. 
3. 6; Zee. 9. 14. Of Purim, Est. 
9. 17-32. Of Dedication, Juo. 10. 
22. Of the Sabbatic Year, Ex. 21. 
2 ; 23. 11 ; Le. 25. 2-7, 20-22 ; De. 
15. 1-3, 9-12; Neh. 10. 31. Pun- 
ishment for neglecting, Le. 26. 
34, 35, 43 ; 2 Chr. 36. 20, 21 ; Jer. 34. 
13, 18. Of Jubilee, Le. 25. 8, 17-25, 
54 ; 27. 14-24 ; "Nu. 36. 4 ; Is. 61. 1, 
2 ; Eze. 46. 17 ; La. 4. 17-19. Abra- 
ham's, Gen. 21. 8. Ahasuerus's, 
Est. 1. Belshazzar's, Da. 5. Her- 
od's, Mar. 6. 21, etc. Cana, Juo. 
2. 1. Of Charity, 1 Co. 11. 22; 2 
Pe. 2. 13 ; Ju. 12. Of Lamps. See 
LAMP. Of Lanterns. See LAMP. 
Of Harvest. See HARVEST; 
PENTECOST. Of Weeks. See 
PENTECOST. Of the New Year. 
See NEW YEAR, FEAST OP 
THE. Of trumpets. See NEW 
YEAR, FEAST OF THE. See 
also BANQUET; FESTIVALS; 
DEDICATION, FEAST OF THE ; 
MOON; PASSOVER; TABER- 
NACLES, FEAST OF THE ; SAB- 
BATICAL YEAR. 

Feet. See FOOT. 

Feet-washing. See WASHING; 
PURIFICATION. 

FELIX. 

FELLOWSHIP. See COMMUN- 
ION OF SAINTS. 

FENCE. 

Fenced Cities. See CITIES; 
GATE. 

Ferrara, Council of. See ECUMEN- 
ICAL COUNCIL, 19. 

FERRET. 

FESTIVALS. 

FESTUS. 

FETICHISM. 

Fetters. See CHAIN. 

Field of Blood. See ACELDAMA. 

Field -preaching. See PREACH- 
ING. 

Fierv Serpent. See SERPENT, 

FIFTH MONARCHY MEN. 

FIG, FIG-'l'REE. 

Figures, ])rophetical, Aholah and 
Aholibah, Eze. 23; — bands. Zee. 

11. 7 ;— beasts, Da. 7. ; 8. ; Re. 4. 6 
-9 ; 11. 7 ; 13. ; 15. 2 ; 16. 13 ; 17. ; 



19. 19, 20; 20. 10;— beauty. Zee. 
11. 7; — cedar, 2 Ki. 14. 9; Eze. 
17.; Am. 2. 9 ; — Maher-shalal- 
hash-baz, Is. 8. 1-8 ; — pot, Jer. 1. 
13; Eze. 24. 3-11; — roll (flying), 
Zee. 5.1. See TYPES. 

Figures, various, viz.: adamant, 
Eze. 3. 9 ; Zee. 7. 12 ;— adder, Gen. 
49. 17 ; Ps. 58. 4 ; 91, 13 ; 140. 3 ; Pr. 
23. 32:— anchor. He. 6. 19 :— balm, 
Jer. 8. 22 ; 46. 11 ; 51. 8 ;— bay-tree, 
Ps. 37. 35 ; — brass, De. 33. 25 ; Is. 
48. 4 ; Da. 2. 39 : — bridle, 2 Ki. 19. 
28 ; Is. 30. 28 ; Ja. 1. 26 ; 3. 2 ;— 
briers, Is. 10. 17; Eze. 28.24; Mi. 
7. 4 ; — buckler, Ps. 18. 2 ; Pr. 2. 7 ; 
—candlestick. Re. 1. 20; — cloak, 
Jno. 15. 22 ; 1 Th. 2. 5 ; 1 Pe. 2. 16 ; 
—crown, Job 31. 86; Pr. 4. 9 ; 12. 
4; 16.31; 17.6; Phi. 4. 1 ; 1 Th. 2. 
19 ;— flint. Is. 50. 7 ;— fruits. Is. 57. 
19 ; He. 13. 15 ;— furnace. Is. 48. 10 ; 
—garment, Ps. 102. 26 ; Is. 61. 3 ;— 
gate. Mat. 7. 13, 14 ; — goats. Mat. 
25. 33 ; — gold. La. 4. 1 ; Zee. 13. 9 ; 
—grapes, Hos. 9. 10 ; Re. 14. IS ;— 
grasshopper, Judg. 6. 5 ; Ec. 12. 5 ; 
Na. 3. 17; —hammer, Jer. 23. 29 : 
50. 23 ; hand-breadth, Ps. 39. 5 ;— 
harlot, Is. 1. 21 ; Jer. 2. 20-31 ; Eze. 
16. 15, etc. ;— harvest. Mat. 13. 39 ; 
Re. 14. 15; health, Pr. 12. IS ;— 
heifer, Jer. 50. 11 ; Hos. 10. 11 ;— 
helmet, Eph. 6. 17 ; 1 Th. 5. S ;— 
hireling, 1 Sa. 2. 36 ; Jno. 10. 12, 
13; horn,l Sa. 2. 1 ; Job 16.15 ;— 
hunger, Ps. 107. 9; Mat. 5. 6;— 
husbandly, Jno. 15. 1 ; 1 Co. 3. 9 ; 
—key, Is. 22. 22 ; Mat. 16. 19 ; Re. 

3. 7 ; 9. 1 ; 20. 1 ; — lamp, 1 Ki. 15. 
4; Ps. 119. 105; 132.17; Pr. 13. 9 ; 

20. 20 ; Is. 62. 1 ; Mat. 5. 14-16 ; 25. 
1-13 ;_leaf, Ps. 1. 3 ; Is. 1. 30 ; 64. 
6 ; Jer. 17. 7, 8 ; —leaven. Mat. 13. 
33 ; 16. 6, 11, 12; Lu. 13. 21 ; 1 Co. 
5. 6-8;— light, Ps. 97. 11; — linen 
(white and clean). Re. 19. 8, 14;— 
lion. Gen. 49. 9 ; — Lucifer, Is. 14. 

12 ;— locusts, Judg. 6. 5 ; Na. 3. 17 ; 
—marrow, Ps. 63. 5 ; Is. 25. 6 ; He. 

4. 12 ;— medicine, Is. 1. 6 : Jer. 30. 

13 ; 46. 11 ;— night. Is. 21. 12 ; Juo. 
9. 4 ; Ro. 13. 12 ; — oil. Is. 61. 3 ;— 
pearl. Mat. 7. 6 ; 13. 45, 46 ; —pil- 
grimage, Gen. 47. 9 ; Ex. 6. 4 ; Ps. 
119. 54; — pilgrims, 1 Pe. 2. 11;— 
pit, Pr. 23. 27-"— potsherds. Is. 45. 
9 ; — prison, Ps. 142. 7 ; Is. 42. 7 ;— 
Rags, Is. 64. 6 ;— reed, 2 Ki. 18. 21 ; 
Mat. 11. 7 ; — rock, Is. 51. 1 ; Jer. 
23. 29 ; Lu. 8. 6 (see Jesus) ; — scar- 
let, Is. 1. 18 ; Re. 17. 4; — scorpion, 
Eze. 2. 6 ;— seal, Sol. Song 8. 6 ;— 
shadow. Job 14. 2; 17. 7; — ship- 
wreck, 1 Tim. 1. 19; — sow and 
reap. Job 4. 8 ; Pr. 11. IS ; 22. 8 ; 
Gal. 6. 7, 8 ;— stone, Eph. 2. 20-22 ; 
1 Pe. 2. 5 (see Jesus) ; — stubble. 
Job 21. 18 ; Ps. 83. 13 ; Is. 47. 14 ;— 
sword, Eph. 6. 17; He. 4. 12;— 
water, Ps. 69. 1 ; Is. 8. 7; 55. 1 ;- 
waves, Ps. 42. 7 ; 88. 7 ;— white rai- 
ment, Re. 3. 4 ; 4. 4 ; 7. 9, 13 ; 15. 6 ; 
19. 8, 14 ;— wine", Ps. 75. 8 ; Jer. 25. 
15 ;— wine-press, Is. 63. 1-6 ; La. 1, 
15; Re. 14. 19, 20; 19. 15 ;— wings, 
Ps. 17. 8 ; 36. 7 ; 57. 1 ; 61. 4 ; 63. 7 ; 
—wolves, Eze. 22. 27; Zeph. 3. 3; 
Mat. 7. 15 ; Lu. 10. 3 ; Ac. 20. 29. 

FILIO-QUE. 

Finger. See MEASURES. 

Fining-pot. See REFINER. 

Finland, Church of, is Lutheran. 
See LUTHERANS. 

FIR. 

FIRE : a means of destruction. Gen. 
19. 24 ; Ex. 9. 23, 24 ; Le. 10. 2 : Nu. 
16. 35 ; 2 Ki. 1. 10-14; Job 1. 16 ; 
Is. 33. 14 ; Mat. 3. 10-12 ; 13. 4U-50 ; 
25. 41 ; Mar. 9. 22-49 ; Re. 19. 12, 
20; 20.; 21. 8. A purifying test, 
Nu. 31. 23 ; Gen. 23. 29 ; Mai. 3. 2 ; 1 
Co. 3. 13, 15 ; Re. 3. 18. A proof of 
acceptance, Le. 9. 24 ; Judg. 6. 21 ; 



INDEX. 



1039 



13. 19, 20 ; 1 Ki. 18. 38 ; 1 Chr. 21. 
26 ; 2 Chr. 7. 1. Symbol of the 
Lord's presence, Ex. 3. 2 ; 18. 21, 
22 ; U. 24 ; 19, IS ; 24. IT ; Nu. 9. 15, 
16 ; 14. 14 ; Is. Oo. 15 ; Eze. 1. 4-2T ; 
8. 2 ; 10. 2-7 ; Da. 3. 24, 30 ; 7. 9, 10 ; 
Ln. 3. 10 ; Ac. 2. 3 ; 2 Th. 1. 8 ; He. 
12. 29. Of afllicliou. Is. 43. 2 ; Zee. 
13. 9 ; 1 Pe. 1. 7. 

Fire, passing through. See MO- 
LECH. Strange. See FIRE; ABI- 
HU. 

FIKE-PAN. 

Fire-worship. See FIRE. 

Firkin. See MEASURES. 

Firmameur,the visible heaven, Gen. 
1. 6 ; 17. 20 ; Ps. 19. 1 ; Eze. 1. 22-26 ; 
10. 1 ; Da. 12. 3. 

First-born. See BIRTHRIGHT. 
Laws relating to, Ex. 13. 2, 12-15 ; 
22. 29 ; 34. 19, 20 ; Nu. 8. IG-IS ; De. 
15. 19-23 ; 21. 15-17 ; Lu. 2. 22-24. 
Of unclean beasts, Nu. IS. 15, 16. 

FIRST-FRUITS. 

First-fruits, day of. See PENTE- 
COST. 

FISH, FISHING. 

Fish-gate. See GATE. 

FITCHES. 

Five Points of Calvinism. See 
CALVINISTS ; ARMINIANS. 

FLAG. See BANNER ; REED. 

FLAGELLANTS. 

Flagellation. See SCOURGING. 

Flagon. See UTENSILS. 

Flail. See HARVEST. 

Flatterv, Job 17. 5; 32. 21, 22; Ps. 
12. 3 ;"Pr. 24. 24 ; 26. 28 ; 28. 23 ; 29. 
5; Is. 5. 20; Da. 11. 21. 1 Th. 2. 5. 

FLAX. 

FLEA. 

Flesh. See FOOD. 

Flock. See SHEEP; SHEEP- 
FOLD; SHEPHERD. 

FLOOD. 

Floor. See HARVEST. 

Florence, Council of. See ECU- 
MENIUAL COUNCIL, 19. 

Flour. See BREAD; MILL. 

Flowers of Palestine. See PLANTS. 

Flute. See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 

Flux, Bloody. Same as dysentery, 
Ac. 28. 8. 

FLY, FLIES. 

Flying serpent. See SERPENT. 

FtJal, Gen. 32. 15 ; 49. 11 ; Zee. 9. 9 ; 
Mat. 21. 5. The young of the ASS 
and HORSE. 

Fodder. See HERD. 

Fold. See SHEEP-FOLD. 

FONT. 

FOOD. 

FOOT. 

FOOTMAN. 

Footstool, used symbolically in 
Scripture, Ps. '.9. 5 ; 110. 1 ; 132. 7 ; 
Is. 06. 1 ; Mat. 5. 35. 

Forbearance: recommended, Mat. 

18. 33 ; 1 Co. 13. 4, 7 ; Eph. 4. 2 ; Col. 
3. 13; 1 Th. 5. 14. Manifested by 
God to man, Ps. 50. 21 ; Ec. 8. 11 ; 
Mat. 18. 27 ; Ro. 2. 4 ; 2 Pe. 3. 9, 15. 

Fords of Jordan. See JORDAN. 

Foreigner. See STRANGER. 

Foreknowledge of God. See OM- 
NISCIENCE. 

Fore-ordination. See PREDESTI- 
NATION. 

Forerunner, one sent before to pre- 
pare the way. Mar. 1. 2, 3 ; He. 6. 
20. 

Foreskin. See CIRCUMCISION. 

FOREST. 

FORGIVENESS: how obtained, Ps. 
25. 11 ; Is. 43. 25 ; 53. 4, 5 ; Ac. 5. 30, 
31 ; 10. 43 ; Ro. 4. 6-8 ; 2 Co. 5. 18, 

19, 21 ; He. 9. 22, 26-28 ; 1 Pe. 2. 24 ; 
1 Jno. 1. 9. Already bestowed, 
Eph. 1. 7 ; Col. 1. 14 ; 2. 13 ; He. 10. 
1, 2: 1 Jno. 2. 12. Exhortation, 
Mat. 6. 14, 15 ; 18. 21, 22 ; Mar. 11. 
25, 26; Lu. 17. 3, 4; Eph. 4. 32; 
Col. 3. 12, 13 ; Ja. 2. 12, 13. 



FORK, 1 Sa. 13. 21, an agricultural 
implement. 

Fornication. See ADULTERY. 
Le. 19. 29 ; De. 23. 17 ; Pr. 7. ; 22. 14, 
23, 27 ; 31. 3 ; Ec. 7. 26 ; Hos. 4. 11 ; 
Milt. 5. 32 ; 15. 19 ; Ac. 15. 20 ; Ro. 
13. 13 ; 1 Co. 5. 9 ; 6. 9, 18 ; 7. 2 ; 2 
Co. 12. 21 ; Gal. 5. 19 ; Eph, 5. 3 ; 1 
Th. 4. 3; 1 Tl.n. 1. 10; He. 13. 4. 
Motives to avoid it, Pr. 2. 16-20; 
5. 3-13 ; 6. 24-35 ; 9. 18 ; 20. 3 ; Eph. 
5. 5 ; Col. 3. 6 ; He. 13. 4 ; Ju. 7 ; Re. 
21. 8 ;• 22. 15. Examples, Gen. 38. 
15-26 {Judah) ; Nu. 25. 1-15 {Zim- 
ri and Cozhi) ; Judg. 16. 1-3 {Sam- 
scm). Spiritual, Ex. 34. 15, IG ; 2 
Chr. 21. 11 ; Jer. 3. 1 ; Eze. 16. 23 ; 
Hos. 1. 2 ; Re. 2. 21 ; 17. 2, 4 ; 18. 3. 

Forswear, Mat. 5. 33. See OATH. 

Fortress, Fortifications. See CIT- 
IES. 

Fortunatus, a Christian of Corinth, 
1 Co. 21. 17. 

Founder, Jadg. 17. 4 ; Jer. 6. 29 ; 10. 
9, 14. See HANDICRAFT. 

Fount of the Virgin. See SILO AM. 

FOUNTAIN. 

Fowling. See HUNTING. 

FOX. 

Fox, George. See FRIENDS, 

FRANCISCANS. 

FRANKINCENSE. 

Fratercnli. See FRANCISCANS. 

FRATRICELLI. See FRANCIS- 
CANS. 

FREE CONGREGATIONS. 

Freedom. See WILL, FREEDOM 
OP. 

FR-EE-LOVE. 

FREE RELIGIOUS ASSOCIA- 
TION. 

Free-thinkers, a name given to the 
Rationalists. See RATIONAL- 
ISM. 

Free-will Baptists. See BAP- 
TISTS. 

Free-will oifering. See OFFER- 
ING, Le. 22. 21. 

FRIAR. 

Friend: true, Pr. 17. 9, 17; 18. 24; 
27. 9-17; Ac. 27. 3. Examples, 
Mat. 11. 19 ; Lu. 7. 34 (Jems) ; — 1 
Sa. IS. 1-4; 19. 2-7; 20. 17, 42; 2 
Sa. 1. 4-27 {Jonathan) ; — 2 Sa. 15. 
37; 16. 16 (Hushai). Of God, be- 
lievers so called, Ex. 33. 11; 2 
Chr. 20. 7; Sol. Song 5. 1, 16; Is. 
41. 8 ; Lu. 12. 4 ; Jno. 11. 11 ; 15. 14, 
15 ; Ja. 2. 23. False, Job 6. 14 ; 32. 
3; Ps. 38. 11; 55. 12-14; 88. 18; 
Mi. 7. 5. Examples, Judg. 4. 18-22 
{Jael) ;— Judg. 16. 4-21 {Delilah) ; 
—2 Sa. 3. 27 ; 20. 9, 10 {Joab) ;— 
Mat. 26. 48-50 {Judas). 

FRIENDS OF GOD. 

FRIENDS, SOCIETY OF. 

Fringe. See HEM OF GARMENT. 

FROG. 

Frontlets. See PHYLACTERY. 

Fruits of Palestine. See PLANTS. 

Fuel. See COAL; DUNG. 

FULLER. 

Puller's Field. See FULLER. 

Fuller's Soap. See SOAP. 

FUNERAL RITES. 

Furlong. See MEASURES. 

FURNACE. 

FURNITURE. 

FUTURE PUNISHMENT. 

FUTURE STATE. 



G. 
GAAL. 

Gaash, a hill in the territory of 

Ephraim, Josh. 24. 30 ; Judg. 2. 9 ; 

2 Sam. 2.3. 30 ; 1 Chr. 11. 32. 
Gaba, a city of Benjamin, Josh. 18. 

24 ; Ez. 2. 26 ; Neh. 7. 30. Same as 

GEBA. 
Gabbai, one of the descendants of 

Benjamin, Neh. 11. S. 
GABBATHA. 
GABRIEL, 



GAD. 
GADARA. 

Gadarenes, landof. See GADARA. 

Gaddi, a spy, Nu. 13. 11. 

Gaddiel, a spy, Nu. 13. 10. 

Gadi, the father of Menahem, 2 Ki, 
15. 14, 17. 

Gadites, persons of the tribe of Gad, 
De. 3.12, 16; 4. 43; 29. 8; Josh. 1. 12. 

Gaham, a son of Nahor, Abraham's 
brother. Gen. 22. 24. 

Gahar, one of the Nethinim, whose 
descendants returned from Baby- 
hm, Ez. 2. 47 ; Neh. 7. 49. 

Gains, I. One of St. Patd's compan- 
ions in travel, Ac. 19. 29. II. An- 
other of St. Paul's companions, 
Ac. 20. 4. HI. A Corinthian Chris- 
tian, Ro. 16. 23; 1 Co. 1. 14. IV. 
One to whom St. John addressed 
his third epistle, 3 Jno. 1. 

Galal, I. A Levile, 1 Chr. 9. 15. II. 
Another Levite, sou of Jeduthuu, 
Neh. 11. 17. 

GALATIANS. 

GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE. 

GALBANUM. 

Galbres. See ZOROASTKIAN RE- 
LIGION. 

Galeed, a memorial heap of st<mes. 
Gen. 31. 46-49. 

Galenists. See SECT. 

Galileans, inhabitants of GALI- 
LEE. 

GALILEE. 

Galilee, Sea of. See GENNESA- 
RET. 

GALL. 

Galley, Is. 33. 21. See SHIP. 

Galileans. See ROMAN CATHO- 
LIC CHURCH. 

Gallim, a town in the territory of 
Benjamin, 1 Sa. 25. 44 ; Is. 10. 30. 

GALLIC. 

Gallows, Est. 5.14; 6.4; 7.9,10; 8. 
7 ; 9. 13, 25. See PUNISHMENT. 

GAMALIEL, L A pharisee. Gama- 
liel, II. A prince of Manasseh, Nu. 
1. 10 ; 2. 20 ; 7. 54, 59 ; 10. 23. 

GAMES. 

Gamma dims, Eze. 27. 11. Prob. 
"bold warriors.." 

Gamul, the chief of one of the 
courses of the priests, 1 Chr. 24. 
17. 

Ganges, a sacred river of India. 
See BRAHMANISM. 

GARDEN. 

Garden-house, 2 Ki. 9. 27. A town, 
prob. Beth-haggan. 

Gareb, I. One of David's warriors, 
2 Sa. 23. 38 ; 1 Chr. 11. 40. 11. A 
hill near Jerusalem, Jer. 31. 39. 

GARLIC. 

Garment. See DRESS. 

Garmite, prob. a descendant of Ge- 
rem, 1 Chr. 4. 19. 

Garner. See BARN. 

Gashmu, Neh. 6. 6. A form of the 
name of Geshem. 

Gatam, a son of Eliphaz, Gen. 36. 11, 
16; 1 Chr. 1.36. 

GATE, GATE-WAY : as courts of 
justice, Gen. 23. 10, 18 ; 34. 20 ; De. 
16. 18 ; 21. 19 ; 25. 6, 7 ; Josh. 20. 4 ; 
Ruth 4. 1 ; 1 Sa. 4. 18 ; 1 Ki. 22. 10 ; 
Job 29. 7; La. 5. 14; Zee. 8. 16. 
Sodom, Gen. 19. 1. Gaza, Judg. 
16. 2, 3. Samaria, 2 Ki. 7. 1 -20. 
Mordecai, Est. 2. 19, etc. Jeru- 
salem, 2 Ki. 14. 13; 15. 35; 23. 8. 
1 Chr. 9. 18 ; 26. 16 ; 2 Chr. 23. 15 ; 
25. 23 ; 26. 9 ; 33. 14 ; Neh. 2. 13 ; 3. 

I, 6, 13-1.5, 26-31 : 8. 1, 3 ; 12. 37, .39 ; 
Jer. 20. 2 ; 31. 38, 40 ; Zee. 14. 10 ; 
Ac. 3. 10. New Jerusalem, Re. 21. 
12-25; 22.14. 

GATH. 

GATH-HEPHER. 
Gath-rimmon, I. A town of Dan, 
Josii. 19. 45; 21. 24; 1 Chr. 6. 69. 

II. A town of the half tribe of 
Manasseh, -Tosh. 21. 25. Perhaps 
same as Bileam. 



1040 



INDEX. 



Ganlanitis. See GOLAN, 

GAZA. 

Gazathites, Inhabitants of Gaza, 
Josh. 13. 3. Called also Gazites. 

Gazei-, 2 Sa. 5. 25. See GEZER. 

Gazes, the name of two persons, 1 
Chr. 2. 46. 

Gazites, inhabitants of Gaza, Judg. 
IG. 2. Called also Gazathites. 

Gazzam, one of the Nethiuim, Ezra 
2. 48 ; Neh. T. 51. 

GEBA. 

GEBAL. 

Geber, the name of two men, 1 Ki. 
4. 13, 19. 

Gebim, a place north of Jerusalem, 
Is. 10. 31. 

GEDALIAH, I. Jeremiah's protect- 
or. II. A priest in the time of 
Ezra, Ezra 10. IS. III. Son of 
Pashnr, Jer. 38. 1. IV. Grand- 
father of Zephaniah, Zeph. 1. 1. 
V. A musician, 1 Chr. 25. 8. 

Geder, a city. Josh. 12. 13. 

Gederah, a town in Judah, Josh. 15. 
36. 

Gederathite, a native or resident of 
Gederah, 1 Chr. 12. 4. 

Gederite, a native of Geder, or Ge- 
derah, 1 Chr. 27. 28. 

Gederoth, a city in Judah, Josh. Ig. 
41 ; 2 Chr. 28. 18. 

Gederothim, a place in Judah, Josh. 
15. 36. 

Gedor, I. A town in the hill coun- 
try of Judah, Josh. 15. 58. II. A 
place, 1 Chr. 4. 39. III. The birth- 
place of Jeroham, 1 Chr. 12. 7. IV. 
A person or place, 1 Chr. 4. 4, 18. 
V, A Beujamite, 1 Chr. 8. 31 ; 9. 37. 

GEHAZI. 

Gehenna. See HELL. 

Geliloth, another name for GIL- 
GAL, a place on the border of 
Benjamin, Josh. 18. 17. 

Gemalli, a descendant of Dan, Nu. 
13. 12. 

Gemara. See TALMUD. 

Geraariah, I. Son of Hilkiah, Jer. 
29. 3. 11. Sou of Shaphau, Jer. 36. 
10-12. 

GEMS. 

GENEALOGY. 

G ENEALOGY OP JESUS CHRIST. 

GENERAL. See ARMY; CAP- 
TAIN. 

General Baptists. See BAPTISTS. 

General Council. See ECUMENI- 
CAL COUNCIL. 

GENERATION. 

GENERATION, ETERNAL. 

GENESIS. 

Geneva Bible. See AUTHORIZED 
VERSION. 

GENNESARET, SEA OP. 

GENTILE. 

Gentleness of Christ, Is. 40. 11 ; Mat. 
11. '29 ; 2 Co. 10. 1. Exhortations 
to, Gal. 5. 22 : 1 Th. 2. 7 ; 2 Tim. 
2. 24 ; Ti. 3. 2 ; Ja. 3. 17. 

Genubaih, son of Hadad, 1 Ki. 11. 20. 

Geonim. See DOCTOR (Jeioish). 

Gera, I. Prob. a crandsou of Beuja- 
miu. Gen. 46. 21 ; 1 Chr. 8. 3. IL 
Pather of Ehud, Judj?. 3. 15. III. 
Father of Shimei, 2 Sa. 16. 5 ; 19. 
16. 

Gerah. See MONEY; WEIGHTS. 

GERAR. 

Gergeseues, Land of. See GADA- 
RA. 

GERIZIM. See EBAL. 

German Baptists. See BAPTISTS ; 
BRETHREN. 

German Lutheran Church. See LU- 
THERANS. 

German Methodist Church. See 
EVANGELICAL, IIL 

German Reformed Church. See 
REFORMED CHURCH. 

German Seventh-day Baptists. See 
BAPTISTS. 

GE^tMAN UNITED EVANGELIC- 
AL CHURCH. 



I Gershom, I. The oldest son of Mo- 
I ses, Ex. 2. 22 ; 18. 3. II. Son of 
I Levi. Same as Gershon, 1 Chr. 
6. ; 15. 7. III. A priest, Ezra 8. 2. 
I Gershon, eldest son of Levi. Same 
i as Gershom, Gen. 46. 11 ; Ex. 6. 16 ; 

1 Chr. 6. 1. 
GERSHONITES. 

i Gesham, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 2. 47. 
Geshem, an Arabian, prob. a chief, 
Neh. 2. 19; 6. 1,2. Same as Gash- 
mu in Neh. 6. 6. 
GESHUR. 
j Gesharites, or Geshuri, I. Inhabit- 
ants of GESHUR. IL A tribe to 
j the south of Palestine, 1 Sa. 27. 8. 
Gether, one of the sons of Aram, 
{ Gen. 10. 23: 1 Chr. 1. 17. 
! GETHSEMANE. 
I Geuel, a spy, Nu. 13. 15. 
i GEZER. 
j Gezrites, a tribe,- 1 Sa. 27. 8. 

Ghibellines. See GUELPHS. 
! Giah, a place near Gibeon, 2 Sa. 2. 
I 24. 

GIANTS. 
i Gibbar, Ezra 2. 20. Same as GIB- 
1 EON. 
I GIBBETHON. 
Gibea, a name in the genealogy of 

Judah, 1 Chr. 2. 49. 
GIBE AH, I. A city of Benjamin. 
II. The residence of Abinadab. 
Gibeah, IIL Gibeah in the field, 
Judg. 20. 31. Same as GEBA. 
IV. A city in the mountains of 
Judah, Josh. 15. 57. 
Gibeath, a city. See GIBEAH II. 
Gibeathite, inhabitant of Gibeah, 1 

Chr. 12. 3. 
GIBEON. 

Gibeonites,inhabitants of GIBEON. 
Giblites, inhabitants of GEBAL. 

Josh. IB. 5. See LEBANON. 
Giddalti, a Levite of the sons of 

Heman, 1 Chr. 25. 4, 29. 
Giddel, two persons whose descend- 
ants returned with Zernbbabel 
from Babylon, Ezra 2. 47, 56 ; Neh. 
7. 49, 58. 
GIDEON. 
Gideoni, the father of Abidan, Nu. 

1. 11 ; 2. 22 ; 7. 60. 

Gidom, a place between Gibeah and 
the cliff Rimmon, Judg. 20. 45. 

Gier-eagle. See EAGLE. 

Gift, Gifts : from God, Ro. 2. 29 ; 1 
Tim. 6. 17 ; Ja. 1. 17 ;— of the Holy 
Ghost, Ac. 2. 2, etc. ; 5. 12, etc. ; 
Ro. 12. 6 ; 1 Cor. 1.7; 12. 1 ; 14. 1 ; 
He. 2. 4 ;— from Christians, Ro. 12, 
8: Eph. 4. 28. Gift of God, Jno. 
4. 10 ; Ac. 8. 20. Gift of the Holy 
Ghost, Ac. 2. 38; 10. 45; 11. 17. 
Gift of Christ, Ro. 4. 25; 8. 32; 2 
Co. 9. 15 ; Gal. 2, 20 ; Eph. 4. 7 ; 5. 

2, 25. Gift of righteousness, Ro. 
5. 17. Gift of faith, Eph. 2. 8. 
Gift of or by grace, Ko. 5. 15; 
Eph. 2. 8 ; 3. 7. 

GIFTS OF TONGUES. 

Gihon, I, One of the four rivers of 
EDEN, Gen. 2, 13, IL A fount- 
ain near Jerusalem, 1 Ki. 1, 33, 
35-38. 

Gilalai, a priest, Neh. 12. 36. 

GILBOA. 

Gild, Gilding, Ee, 17. 4, See HAND- 
ICRAFT. 

GILKAD, I, A district. Gilead, II. 
Perhaps for RAMOTH-GILEAD 
in Am. 6. 8. III. Son of Machir, 
and grandson of Manasseh, Nu. 
26. 29, 30 ; Josh. 17. 1, 3 ; 1 Chr. 2. 
21 ; 7. 14, 17. IV. The father of 
Jephthah, Judg. 11. 1, 2. V. A 
Gadite, 1 Chr. 5. 14. 

Gileadites, a family of Manasseh. 
Inhabitants of GILEAD. 

GILGAL, I. A place near Jericho. 
Gil sal, II. A place near Bethel, 

2 Ki. 2. 2. III. A place near 
Shechem, De. 11. 80; Josh. 12. 23. 



Giloh, a city in the hill country of 

Judah, Josh. 15. 51. 
Gilouite, an inhabitant of Giloh, 2 

Sa. 15. 12 ; 23. 34. 
Gimzo, a town in Judah. now called 

Jimzu, 2 Chr. 28. 18. 
Gin. See HUNTING. 
Ginath, the father of Tibui, 1 Ki. 

16. 21, 22. 

Ginnetho, a priest, Neh. 12, 4. Same 

as Ginnethon. 
Ginnethou, a priest, Neh. 10. 6 ; 12. 

16. 
GIRDLE. See VESTMENTS. 
GIRGASHITES. 
Girgasites, Gen. 10. 16. Same as 

GIRGASHITES. 
Gispa, one of the rulers of the Ne- 
thiuim, Neh, 11. 21, 
Gittah-hepher, Josh. 19. 18. See 

GATH-HEPHER, 
Gittaim, a town of the Beujamites, 

2Sa. 4. 3; Neh. 11. 33. 
Gittites,inhabitantsofGATH,Josh. 

13.3; 2Sa. 21, 19. 
Gittith, a song. See MUSICAL IN- 
STRUMENTS. 
Gizonite, an appellation given to 

Hashem, 1 Chr. 11. 84. 
GLASS. 
Glasites. See CONGREGATION- 

ALISTS; SANDEMANIANS. 
Gleaning. See ALMS. 
GLEBE. 

Glede. See KITE. 
Gloria in Excelsis. See DOXOLO- 

GY. 
Gloria Patri, See DOXOLOGY. 
Glory, an attribute of God, Ex, 38, 

18, 22; 1 Chr. 16. 27-29; Ps. 24.; 

29. 9 ; Hag. 2. 7, 9 ; Mat. 6. 13 ; Lu. 

2. 14 ; Jno. 1. 14 ; 17. 5 ; Ro. 1. 23 ; 

1 Co. 2. 8. Of the Lord, visible 

appearance of, Ex. 3. 2-5; 13. 21, 

22 ; 19. 18 ; 24. 16, 17 ; 40. 34, 38 ; 

Le. 9. 23, 24 ; Nu.l4. 10; 2 Chr. 7. 

1,2; Is. 6; Eze. 1. 28; 3.12,23; 8. 

4 ; 9. 8 ; 10. 4, etc. ; 43. 2, etc. ; Ac. 

7. 55. Saints to be sharers in, Jno. 

17. 22 ; 1 Co. 15. 43 ; 2 Co. 4. 17 ; 
Col. 1. 27 ; 8. 4 ; 1 Th. 2. 12 ; 1 Pe. 
1.7; 5.1,10; Re. 21.11, etc. 

GLOSS, GLOSSARY. 

Gluttony: Christ accused of. Mat. 
11. 19. The wicked addicted to, 
Phil. 8. 19 ; Ju. 12. Is inconsist- 
ent in saints, 1 Pe. 4. 3. Caution 
against, Pr. 28. 2, 8 ; Lu. 21. 34 ; 
Ro. 13. 13, 14. Punishment of, 
Nu. 11. 83, 34, with Ps. 78. 31 ; De. 
21. 21 ; Am. 6. 4, 7. Danger of, il- 
lustrated, Lu. 12. 45, 46. Exempli- 
fied, Esau, Gen. 25. 30-34, with He. 
12. 16, 17;— Israel,- Nu. 11. 4, with 
Ps. 78. IS ;— sons of Eli, 1 Sa. 2. 12- 
17 ;— Belshazzar, Da. 5. 1. 

GNAT, 

GNOSTICS. 

GOAD. 

GOAT. 

Goath, a place near Jerusalem, Jer. 
31. 39. 

Gob. Same as GEZER, 2 Sa. 21. 18, 
19 ; 1 Chr. 20. 4. 

Goblet, Sol. Song T. 2. A UTEN- 
SIL. 

GOD, His n atttre : Trinity in Unity, 
Gen. L 26; Ex.3. 14; 20.2,3; De. 
4. 85 ; 5. 6, 7 ; 6. 4 ; 82, 89 ; Ps. 86. 
10 ; Is. 37. 16 ; 48. 10-14 ; 44. 6 ; 45. 
5 ; Mat. 3. 16, 17 ; 28. 19 ; Mar. 1. 
10,11; Lu.3.22; Jno. 14.; 15.; 16.; 
17. 3 ; Ac. 1. 6-S ; 2. 36-38 ; 1 Co. 8. 
4-6; 2Co. 13. 14; Gal. 8.20; Eph. 
2. IS; 4.6; 1 Ti. 1.2; 2. 3; He. 9. 
14; 1 Jno. 5.7; Ju. 20, 21,— A Spir- 
it, Jno. 4, 24, Invisible. Ex. 33. 
20; Jno, 1, 18; 5. 87; Ro. 1. 20; 
Col. 1.15; 1 Ti. 1. 17; 6. 16; He. 
11. 27 ; 1 Jno. 4. 12. Living and 
true, Jer. 10. 10 ; Da. 6. 26 ; Jno. 1. 
4 ; 5. 26 ; 11. 25 ; Ac. 14. 15 ; 1 Th. 
1. 9 ; He. 9. 14 ; 10. 31 ; 1 Jno. 1. 2 ; 
Re. 19. 11. Eternal, De. 33. 27 ; Ps. 



INDEX. 



1041 



90. 2; 93. 2 ; 102. 12, 24, 2T; Is. 40. 
28 ; 57. 15 ; Jer. 10. 10 ; La. 5. 19 ; 
2 Co. 4. 18 ; He. 1. 10-12 ; Re. 1. 8, 
18 ; 4. 9 ; 5. 14. First and last, Is. 
41.4; 44. 6; 48.12; Re. 1.8; 22.13. 
Uusearchable, Job 5. 9 ; 11. 7 ; Ps. 
145.3; Is. 45. 15; Ro. 11.83; Eph. 

8. 8. Unchangeable, Nu. 23. 19 ; 1 
Sa. 15. 29; Mai. 3. 6; Ja. 1. 17. 
Blessed or happy, Ps. 119. 12 ; Ro. 
1. 25 ; 1 Ti. 1. 11 ; 6. 15. Love, 2 
Co. 13. 11 ; 1 Juo. 4. 8, 16. Light, 
Jno. 1. 4-9 ; 1 Jno. 1. 5-7.— His At- 
TRiuTJTES : immutability, Ex. 3. 14, 
15 ; Ro. 1. 23 ; He. 13. 8 ; Ja. 1. 17. 
Omnipotence, Gen. 17. 1 ; 18. 14; 
Ex. 15. 7 ; Job 9. 4-12 ; 37. 23 ; 42. 
2 ; Ps. 62. 11 ; 68. 35 ; 135. 6 ; 145. 
12; Is. 14. 24; 26. 4; 40. 29; Jer. 
32. 17 ; Da. 3. 17, 30 ; 4. 35 ; Mat. 9. 
G; Lu. 1. 37; Ro. 1. 20 ; 2 Co. 12. 

9. Omniscience, 1 Sa. 2. 3; Job 
26. 6 ; 28. 24 ; 34. 21 ; Ps. 33. 13, 14 ; 
44. 21 ; 94. 9 ; 139. 1-16 ; Pr. 15. 11 ; 
Jer. 32. 19 ; Mat. 6. 18 ; 9. 4 ; 10. 29 ; 
12. 25 ; Mar. 5. 30 ; 12. 15 ; Jno. 2. 
24 ; 6. 61 ; 16. 19 ; Ac. 15. IS ; He. 
4. 12, 13 ; 1 Jno. 3. 20. Omnipres- 
ence, 1 Ki. 8. 27 ; 2 Chr. 6. IS ; 16. 
9; Ps. 139. 7-11; Pr. 15. 3; Jer. 
23. 24 ; Eph.l. 23. Foreknowledge, 
Gen. 18. IS, 19 ; 1 Ki. 22. 22 ; 2 Ki. 

8. 12, 13 ; Jno. 6. 64 ; 13. 1, 3, II ; 
18.4; Ro. 8. 29; 2Ti.l. 9; 1 Pe. 
1. 2, 20. Truth and faithfulness. 
Josh. 21. 43-45 ; 2 Sa. 23. 5 ; Is. 65. 
10 ; 2 Co. 1. IS, 20 ; He. 10. 23 ; 11. 
11 ; 2 Pe. 3. 9, 13 ; 1 Jno. 1. 9 ; Re. 

15. 3. Justice, Gen. 18. 25 ; De. 24. 
16 ; 32. 4 ; Job 34. 7-19 ; 35. 14 ; 
Eze. 18. ; Ac. 17. 31 ; Re. 15. 3 ; 19. 
1, 2. Holiness, Ex. 3. 5 ; 19. ; Le. 
19. 2 ; Josh. 5. 15 ; 1 Sa. 2. 2 ; 6. 20 ; 
Is. 6.; Jno. 17. 11; Re. 4. 8 ; 15.4. 
Goodness and mercy, Ex. 20. 6 ; 
34. 6 ; Ps. 57. 10 ; S6. 5, 15 ; 100. 5 ; 

103. 8 ; 119. 64; 145. 9 ; Is. 30. IS ; 
Joel 2. 13 ; Mat. 19. 17 ; 2 Co. 1. 3. 
Wisdom, Job 9. 4 ; 36. 5 ; Ps. 92. 5 ; 

104. 24 ; 147. 4, 5 ; Is. 28. 29 ; Ro. 

16. 27; 1 Co. 1. 24, 25, 30 ; 1 Ti. 1. 

17. — His Prerogatives: sover- 
eignty, Ex. 33. 19 ; Is. 40. 14 ; Job 
1. 21; Ro. 8. 28; 9. ;— universal 
government, 1 Chr. 29. 12 ; Ps. 72. 
8 ; 75. 7 ; 103. 19 ; Da. 2. 44 ; 4. 17, 
35 ; He. 1. 8 ; Re. 19. 6. The sole 
object of worship, De. 6. 13 ; Neh. 

9. 6 ; Ps. 72. 19 ; 86. 9 ; 150. 6 ; Mat. 
4. 10; Re. 5. 12-14; 15. 4; 19, 6; 
22. 9 ; -of fear, Ps. 33. S ; 72. 5 ; 76, 
7 ; Pr. 1. 7 ; He. 12. 28 ;— of love, 
De. 6. 5 ; M^\L 22. 37-40 ; 1 Juo. 4. 
19 ; —of obedience, De. 11. 27 ; Ps. 
119. ; Mat.5. 4S; Jno. 14. 15. 

Godfather. See SPONSORS. 

GODLINESS. 

God-man. See INCARNATION. 

Godmother. See SPONSORS. 

Gog, I. Ruler of MAGOG, IL A 
Renbenite, 1 Chr. 5. 4. 

GOLAN. 

GOLD. 

Golden calf. See CALF. 

GOLDEN NUMBER. 

Goldsmith. See GOLD ; HANDI- 
CRAFT. 

Golgotha. See CALVARY. 

GOLIATH. 

Gomer, I. Eldest son of JAPHETH, 
Gen. 10. 23 : 1 Chr. 1. 5, 6. II. Wife 
of Hosea. Hos. 1. 3. 

GOMORRAH. 

Gomorrha, Mat. 10. 15 ; Mar. 6. 11 ; 
Ro. 9. 2!t : 2 Pe. 2. 6 ; Ju. 7. Greek 
form of GOMORRAH. 

GOOD-FRIDAY. See EASTER. 

Good Samaritan. See ADUMMIM ; 
SAMARITANS. 

Good Templars. See TEMPER- 
ANCE SOCIETIES. 

Gopher wood. See CYPRESS. 

Gorhnm Controversy. See EPIS- 
COPALIANS. 

66 



GOSHEN. 

GOSPEL. 

GOSPELER, 

Gospels, spurious. See APOCRY- 
PHA. 

Gossip. See SPONSORS. 

Gothic architecture. See ARCHI- 
TECTURE. 

Gourd, Jonah's, See JONAH. 

GOVERNOR. 

Governor of the feast. See BAN- 
QUET. 

GOZAN. 

GRACE : its source, Ps. 84. 11 ; Zee. 
12. 10 ; Jno. 1. 14, 16, 17 ; Ro. 1. 7 ; 
5. 15 ; 16. 20, 24 ; 1 Co. 1. 3, 4 ; Gal. 
1. 3 ; 2 Tim. 1. 9 ; 1 Pe. 5. lo ; Re. 
22. 21. Its character, free and un- 
deserved, Hos. 13. 9 ; Ac. 20. 24 ; 2 
Co. 8. 9; Eph. 2. 5; 1 Tim. 1. 14. 
Justifying, Ro. 3. 24; 11. 6; 1 Co. 
15. 10 ; Eph. 2. S ; Ti. 3. 7. Purify- 
ing, Is. 1. IS ; Ti. 2. 11 ; He. 12. 28. 
Strengthening, 2 Co. 12. 9 ; 2 Tim. 
2. 1 ; He. 4. 16 ; 13. 9. Its use, Ro. 
5. 17 ; 15. 15, 16 ; 2 Co. 4. 15 ; 6. 1- 
3 ; Eph. 3. 8.— Who are partakers 
of it, Eph. 6. 24 ; Ja. 4. 6 ; 1 Pe. 5. 
5. As a principle in the believer, 
Ro. 12. 3, 6 ; 2 Co. 8. 6, 7 ; Gal. 2. 9 ; 
Col. 3. 16; 4. 6.— In the sense of 
kindness or gifts, 2 Co. 8. 19. Its 
manifestation in Jesus on earth, 
Ps. 45. 2 ; Lu. 2. 40 ; 4. 22. The 
characteristic of future blessing, 
1 Pe. 1. 13. 

Grace at meals. See BLESSING. 

Gi'adual Psalms. See SONGS OF 
DEGREES. 

GRAIL. 

Gral, or Grael. See GRAIL. 

Granary. See BARN. 

Grape. See VINE. 

GRASS. 

Grasshopper. See LOCUST. 

Grate, Ex. 27. 4. A net - work -^ of 
brass. See ALTAR. 

Grave. See BURIAL. 

Graven image. See IMAGE ; WOR- 
SHIP. 

Grave-stone. See BURIAL. 

Gray. See COLORS. 

Great Sabbalh. See EASTER. 

GREAT SEA. 

Great Week. See EASTER. 

Greaves. See ARJNIS. 

Grecia, Grecians. See GREECE. 

Grecian architecture. See ARCHI- 
TECTURE. 

GREECE. 

Greek, Greeks. See GREECE. 

GREEK CHURCH. 

Green. See COLORS. 

GREGORIAN CHANT. 

Gray Friars. Same as FRANCIS- 
CANS. 

Grief. See MOURNING. 

Grind, Grinding. See MILL, 

GROVE. 

Guard. See ARMY. 

Guardian angels. See ANGEL. 

Gudgodah, an Israelitish station in 
the desert, De. 10. 7. 

GUELPHS. 

Guest-chamber. See HOUSE. 

GUILDS. 

Guni, L Son of Nnphtali, Gen. 46. 24; 
Nu.26.4S;lChr. 7. 13. IL One of 
Gad's posterity, 1 Chr. 5. 15. 

Gunites, the family of Naphtali de- 
scended from Giini, Nn. 26. 48. 

Gur, a place near Ibleam, Josh. 17. 
11 ; 2 Ki. 9. 27. See AHAZIAH IL 

Gnr-baal, a town or district in Ara- 
bia, 2 Chr. 26. 7. 



H. 



Haahashtari, one of the descend- 
ants of Judah, 1 Chr. 4. 6. 

Habaiah, a priest, Ezra 2. 61 ; Neh. 
7. 63. 

HABAKKUK. 



Habaziniah, one of the Rechabites, 
Jer. 35. 3. 

Habergeon. See ARMS. 

Habit. See DRESS ; VESTMENTS. 

Habits, not easily changed, Pr. 22. 
6 ; Jer. 13. 23. 

Habor, a river of Gozan, 2 Ki. 17. 
6 ; 18. 11. Possibly same as CHE- 
BAR. 

Ilachaliah, tbe father of Nehemiah, 
Neh. 1.1; 10.1. 

Hachilah, a hill, exact location un- 
known, 1 Sa.23. 19; 26.1. 

Hachmoni, the founder of a famih', 
1 Chr. 27. 32. 

Hachmonite, the descendants of 
Hachmoni, 1 Chr. 11. 11, Same as 
Tachmonite, 2 Sa. 23. 8. 

HAD AD, I. An enemy of Israel. Ha- 
dad, II. Son of Ishmael, Gen. 25. 
15 ; 1 Chr. 1. 30. III. Two kings of 
Edom, Gen. .36. 35 ; 1 Chr. 1. 46, 50. 

HADAD-EZER. 

Hadad-rimmoD, au unidentified 
place in the valley of Megiddo, 
Zee. 12. 11. 

Hadar. Same as HADAD, Gen. 25. 
15 : 36. 39. 

H a d a r e z e r. Same as HADAD- 
EZER, 2 Sa. 10. 16, 19. 

Hadashah, a town in Judah, Josh. 
15. 37. 

Hadassah. See ESTHER. 

Hadattah, a city of Ju(h;h, Josh. 15. 
25. 

HADES. See DEATH ; HELL. 

Hadid, a town, Ezra 2. 33; Neh. 7. 
37; 11.34. 

HADJL 

Hadlai, an Israelite, 2 Chr. 28. 12. 

Hadoram, I. A tax-gatherer of Isra- 
el. See REHOBOAM, 2 Chr. 10. 
18. Same as Adoram, 1 Ki. 12. 18 ; 
and Adoniram, 1 Ki. 4. 6, II. A 
son of Joktau, Gen. 10. 27 ; 1 Chr. 

I. 21. III. Son of Ton, 1 Chr. 18. 
10. Same as Joram, 1 Sa. 8. 10. 

Hadrach, an unidentified district of 
Syria, Zee. 9. 1. 

Hagab, one of the Nethinim, Ezra 2. 
46, 

Hiigaba, Hagabah, one of the Neth- 
inim, Ezra 2. 45; Neh. 7. 48. 

HAGAR. 

Hagarenes, or Hagarites, a tribe 
possibly descended from Hagar, 
1 Chr. 5. 10, 19, 20 ; Ps. 83. 6. 

Hagerite, a designation of Jaziz, 1 
Chr. 27. 31. 

HAGGAI. 

Hao-geri, father of Mibhah, 1 Chr. 

II. 38. 

Haggi, one of the sons of Gad, Gen. 
46. 16 ; Nn. 26. 15. 

Haggiah, a Levite, 1 Chr. 6. 30. 

Haggites, the family descended from 
Haggi, Nu. 20. 15. 

Hasgith, wife of David and mother 
of Adonijah, 2 Sa. 3. 14 ; 1 Ki. 1. 5, 
11; 2.13; 1 Chr. 3. 2. 

Hagiographa. See BIBLE, § 2. 

Hai. Same as AI, Gen. 12. S ; 13. 3. 

Hail, a symbol of divine judgments. 
Re. 8. 7 ; 11. 19 ; 16. 21. 

HAIR. 

Hakkatan, one of the children of 
Azgad, Ezra 8. 12. 

Hakkoz, the head of one of the 
courses of the. priests, 1 Chr. 24. 
10. Same as Koz, Ezra 2. 61. 

Hakupha, father of some Israelitish 
exiles, Ezra 2. 51 ; Neh. 7. 53. 

Halah, a place in Assyria to which 
the ten tribes were carried away 
captive, site uncertain, 2 Ki. 17. 6 ; 
18.11; IChr. 5. 26. 

Halak, a mountain mentioned in 
Josh. 11. 17; 12.7. 

Halcyons. See SECT. 

Haldanites. See SECT. 

Half Communion. See COMMUN- 
ION, (in.) ; LORD'S SUPPER. 

Half- w a y Covenant. See COM- 
MUNION (III.). 



10^ 

Halhal, a town in Jndah, now Hnl- 
ltin\ near Hebron, Joeh. 1& S& 

Hall, in Asher, Jo^h. 19. 25. 

HalL See HOUSE. 

HALLEL. 

HALXELUJAH. 

Hallohesh, or Halohi^h, one wbo 
^sealed the eofenant, Neh. 3. ti;, 

Hallow, to mate holy. See HOLY. 

HAM, JL. A sou of Noah. Ham, H. 
INTame of Egypt, Ps. IS. 51 : 105L 
23, 27. HL A town of the Zoxim, 
site unknown, Qen. 14. S. 

HAMASL 

HAMATH. 

Hamathise, one of ibR funilies de- 
scended firom €anaan, Qen. 19. 
IS; lChr.1.16. 

Hamath-soUsb, a dtty, t Chr. S. 3. 
xw.v ,v _ I ^;~.~-,j^ grom Hamath. 

E;.:v/v . ■ -^ ear Tiberias al- 

_:■::; V :.i:iJosh.l9.3Sw 

L : of Jferah- 

::-;: .,_.: :,. .: . . ';7. ^5.26; 

E "-;:;- ;:_^ ^^^ _-.:.: 1-. ll-.XM- 

i: - ? dster of Gilead, 

E : A : . T : : Asher, Josh. 

:- E A :.:; ::Xaphtali,l 

E. V ::.:.-:. : 7: '; 5::-:o .^sHam- 





:-: : ;. -.E", I:; A :i,15. 




V : : E :ee: coefer- 




r - E. 1 fS-meon,! 


:"■ 






: ;, -::e of tae wEes o: E ;::j 
- KL 23.31; 24. IS : 




-^•^n of JRRKAfT- 


] 


1 : ^ r :nEe. 1 Chn 8. ^. 

— nl,iehr;SL 

.. E of David's 

--_ - \ \-..^. IV. A 

;:; ";:■;, C. 46; 

: the 

- V:E^ - \ ,A. VL 




; :::e SAme 

7 - :. . EL Astxire- 

: El. Eea.l3. 

e: - El Jer. 



Hanaai. L A propiiei of JaotAli, 2 
Chr. 16. 7. See ASA, H. St*n of 
HeniaD. 1 Chr. '23. 4. '25. III. A 

vEes:,. Ezra :■'. ^E E-: :i. A. 
IV. A broEer o: Eeiie-: .i. E:i, 

Eiiii '. . I. A SOB of Zi- ■ 
1 E. 21. JL A J 

-E. : E::.S.24. HI. - : : A.- 
niaa. I Chr. 25. 4, 23. IV. A cap- 
tain in the reiom of Uzziah, 2 Chr. 
26. 11. V. One who married a for- 
eign wife, Ezra 10. '2S. VL, Vn. 
Two persons who helped to re- 
pair the wslls of Jern<a5em. Xeh. 
3. S. 3(». Vni. An officer. Neh. 7. 
2 ; 10. 23. IX. A priest. Xeh. 12. 
12. X. A priesu Xeh. 1-2. 41. XI. 
A false prophet, Jer. 2S. XII. 
The father of one of Jehoiakim's 
princes, Jer. 36. 12. XIII. Grand- 
father of a cjiptain who appre- 
hended Jeremiah, Jer. 37. 13. 



IXPEX. 

XIV. Tbe (urigtaal name o^ Dan- 
iel's eompanfon, Shadraeh, Dan. 
L6-l»; 2.1?. 

Hand-breadth. See MEASURES. 

HANDICRAFT. 

HANDKERCHIEF. 

Handmaid. See SXATERT, Gen. 
16.1; 2S9.a4 5!£». 

Hands. See LAYING ON OF 
HANDS. 

Handstav^ JaTelins. See ARMS, 
Eie.39.9. 

Han(^ a dtv of E^ypt, I& 3^ 4. 
See TAHPlNHES; 

HaM-ijinff, Est, 7. 9, VH, See FUN- 

ISff^iE^^^ 

HANGINGS. 

Hauiel, a chieftain of Asher, 1 Chr. 
7.39. 

Hannah. See SAMUEL. 

Hannathon, a town in Zebnlon, 
Josh. 19. 14. 

Hanniel, a chief of Manasseh, Hn. 
34.^ 

Hanoch, I. One of the sons of Mid- 
ian. Gen. m. 4. Also called He- 
noch, n. A s^m of Renben, Gen. 
46.9; Ex. 6. 14; Nu.aS.S. 

Hmochites, a Mmily of Renben de- 
scended from Hanioch, No. 26>. 5. 

Hanan, L Kin^ of Ammon, 2 Sa. 10. 

1. 2, 4. n. Two per^ns, Neh. 3. 
13,30. 

Haphraim in Iisiachar, J«>sh. 19. 19. 

Happine^ of saints: is iu God, Ps. 
73. 25. Onlv found iu the wavs 
of wisdom, Fr. 3. 17, ISw Trust lu 
God, Ft. 16. 20; Fhi. 4. 6, 7. Obe- 
dience to God, Fs. 40. S; Jno. 13. 
17. Salvation, De, 33. 29 ; Is. 12. 

2, 3. Hope in the Lord, Fs. 146. 
5L God being their Lord, Fs. 144. 
15. God being their help, Fs. 146. 
5. In praising God, Fs. 13.'*. 3. 
Snffiering for Christ, 2 Co. 12. 10 ; 
lFe.3.14; 4.13,14. 

Happiness of the wicked : is limit- 
ed to this liEe, Fs. 17. 14; Lu. 16. 
25 ; 12. 90. Is derived ftom their 
wealth. Job 2L 13 ; Fs. 52. 7. Prom 
5 A^essful oppression. Ha. 1. 15. 
- rea interrupted by judgments, 
E :.. 11. 33 ; Job 15. 21 ; Fs. 73. IS- 
2u ; Jer. 25. 10, 11. Sometimes a 
stambling-block to saints, Fs. 73, 
3, 16 ; Jer. 12. 1 ; Ha. 1. 13. Saints 
often permitted to see the end of, 
Fs. 73. 17-20. EnvT not. Fs. 37. 1. 
Illustrated, Fs. 37. 35. 36: Ln. 12. 
16-20; 16. 19, 25. Exemplified, 
(Fsrad), Nn. 11. 33 ; — (Haman), 
Est. 5. 9-11 x—iBdshasmr), Da. 5w 
1 ;-4£feTO^, Ac 12. 21-23. 

Hara, a district to which some of the 
Israelite captives were carried, 1 
Chr. 5. 26. 

Haradah, an Israelitish station, :Nu. 
33.24. 

HARAN. L Brother of Abraham. 
II. A ciry. Haran, HI. A Levite 
of the family of Gershou, 1 Chr. 
23. 9. IV. A" son of Caleb, 1 Chr. 
2.46. 

Hararite, a designation given to 
three of David's warriors, 2 Sa. 
23. 11, 33 : 1 Chr. 11. 34, 35. 

Harhoua, or Harhonah, one of the 
chamberlains of Ahasuems, Est. 
1.10; 7.9. 

HARE. 

Harel. a name given to the altar of 
bnrnt-offeriuff, Eze. 43. 15. 

HAreph, a son of Caleb, 1 Chr. 2. 51. 

Hareib. a forest and refriire of David. 
1 S:i. 22. 5. See DAVID : EOREST. 

Harhaiab, the fiiiber of one who 
helped to repair the wall of Jern- 
salein. Neh. 3. S. 

Harhas. an ancestor of Shallnm, 2 
Ki. 22. 14. Same as H;israh in 2 
Chr. S4. 22. 

Hartinr, one whose descend.ants re- 
turned from captivitv with Zerub- 
babel, Ezra 2. 51 ; Neh. 7. 53. 



Haiim, I. A head of one of the 
courses of priests, 1 Chr. 24. S ; 
Ejoa 2. 39; Neh. 7. 42. IL One 
whose son helped to repjtir the 
wallofJenisalem,Neh.3.ll. IU. 
One whose deiscendant^s returned 
with Zerubbabel, £ua 2. 32 ; Heh. 

Hariph, one whose descendants re- 
turn^ fn>m captivitv with Zerub- 
babel, Ndi. 7. 24; Eira 2. IS. 

HARLOT. 

HARMONY. 

Haniepher, a chieftain of Asher, 1 
Chr. 7. 36. 

Harness, I. A coat of mail, 1 Ki. 22. 
St See ARMS. H. Means of fes- 
leuiug an auiiual to a vehiciie, Jer. 
46.4. See CHARIOT. 

Harod, well of, Judg. 7. 1. See GIL- 
BOA. 

Hanodite, the designation siven to 
two of David's warriors, 2 Sa.23.25. 

Haroeh, a name in the fireneallosrical 
lists of Jadah, 1 Chr. 2. 52. Fer- 
haps same with Reaiah. 

Harorite. Same as Harodite, 1 Chr. 
11. 27. 

HAROSHETH 

Harp. See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 

HARROW. See PLOW. 

Harsha, one of the Nethinim, Eira 

2. 52 : Neh. 7. 51. 
HART. 

Harnm, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 4. a 

Harumaph, one whose son helped to 
repair the wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 
3.10. 

Haruphite, the designation of Sheph- 
atiah, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 12. 5. 

Haruz. father of Meshnllemeth, % 
KL 21. 19. 

HARVEST. 

Harvest, feast ol See H AK VEST : 
FENTECOST. 

Hstsadiah, a descendant of the royal 
line of Judah, 1 Chr. 3. 20. 

Hasennah, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 9. 7. 

Hashabiah. I. A Levite, I Chr. 6. 45. 
IL Another Leviie, 1 Chr. 9. 14; 
Neh. 11. 15. HL A Levite singer, 
1 Chr. 25. 3, 19. IV. A Leviie de- 
scended firom Hebron, 1 Chr. 26. 30. 
V. A chief of the Leviies in Da- 
vid's reign, 1 Chr. 27. 17. VI. A Le- 
vite or priest who accompanied 
Ezra, Ezra S. 19. 24. vn. A chief 
Levite iu Josiah's time. 2 Chr. 35. 
9. VHL One who heH>ed to re- 
pair the walls of Jerusalem, Neh. 
3. 17. rX. A Levite who sealed 
the coven:uit, Neh. W. 11. X. One 
from whom the overseer of the 
Levites after the captivity was de- 
scended, Neh. 11. 22. XT." A i^riest 
in the days of Joiakim.Neh. 12. 2L 

Hashabnah, one who sealed the cov- 
enant. Neh. 10. 25. 

Hashabuiah, I. The fother of one 
who helped to repair the wail of 
Jerus:ilem, Neb. 3. 10. IL A Le- 
vite who took }>art iu the solemn 
service, Neh. 9. 5. 

Hashbadana, one who stood with 
Ezra at the solemn reading of the 
law. Neh. S, 4. 

Has hem. one whose sons were 
amonir David's warriors, 1 Chr. 
34. : 2''Sa. 23. 32. Same as Jasheu. 

Hashmonah. an Israelitish station, 
Nu. 33. 29. 

Hashnb. I. One who helped to re- 
pair the wall of Jernsnlem. Neh. 

3. 11. n. A Leviie, Neh. 11. 15. 
Same .as Hnsshnb in 1 Chr. 9. 14. 

Hashabah. one of David's descend- 
ants, 1 Chr. 3. 20. 

Hashum, I. One whose descend.ints 
returned with Zerubbabel. Ezra 
2. 19 : Neh. 7. 22. II. One who as- 
sisted when Ezra read the law, 
Neh.S.4. 



IMDEX. 



104^ 



BushnphOj one -whose descendants 

retarnea from captivity with Ze- 

nibbabel, Heh. 7. 46. Home as 

Haffupha, 
Hasrab. Same as Harba«, 2 Chr. 

34.22- 
Hassenaab, prob. a place, Heh, 3. 3. 

Same as Senaah. 
Hasshab, a 3Ierarite Lerite, 1 Chr. 

9. 14. Called Ha#btt:> in Meh. IL 

15. 
Hasnpha, Ezra 2. 43. Same as Ha- 

shnpha. 
Hat, Da. 3. 21. See DKES8 ; HEAD- 
DRESS. 
Hatach, one of the chamberlains at 

the conrt of Aha^nems, EsU 4. 5- 

10. 
Hatbath, the son of Othniel, 1 Chr. 

4.13. 
Hatipba^ one whose descendants te- 

tamed from Babylon with Zemb- 

babel, Ezra 2. 54 ; Meh. 7. 56. 
Hatita, a person whose children re- 
turned from Babylon with Zemb- 

babel, Ezra 2. 42 : Meh. 7. 45. 
Hatred condemned, Le. 19. 17; Pr. 

10. 12,18; 26.24; Mat. 5. 43, 44; 1 

Jno,2.9;3.15. 
Hattemists. See SECT. 
Hattil, one of Solomon's servants, 

Ezra 2. 57; Meh, 7. 59. 
Hattash, L One of the descendants 

of David, 1 Chr. 3. ^. IL One who 

helped to repair the wall of Jc^- 

msalem, Neh, 3. 10. HL A priest 

who accompanied Zembbabel to 

Jemsalem, Meh. 12. 2. 
Hanran, a district, Eze, 47. 16, 18L 

See BASHAM. 
HAVILAH, I. A country. Havilah, 

IL One of the sons of Cnsh, Gen. 

10. 7; 1 Chr. 1. 9. in. A son of 

Joktan, Gen. 10. 29 ; 1 Chr. 1. 23. 
Havoih-jmr. See JAIB. 
HAWK. 
Hay, in the Bible means green grass. 

See GRASS. 
HAZAEL. 
Hazalab. a descendant of Jndah, 

Xeii. 11. 15. 
Hazar-addar, the name of a place, 

Mu-34.4. 
Hazar-enan, a town in the north of 

Canaan, Mo. 31. 9 ; Eze. 47. IT : 

4S. 1. 
Hazar-gaddah, a city in Jndah, Josiu 

15.27. 
Hazar-hatticon, a town on the bor- 
ders of Hanran, Eze. 47. 16. 
Hazar-maveth, one of the sons of 

Joktan, Gen. 10. 26. 
Hazar-shnal, a town first allotted :o 

Jndah, and afterward to Simeo'-. 

Josh. 15. 2S; 19.3. 
Hazar-susah, or Hazar-snsim. I- 

Simeon, Josh. 19. 5 ; 1 Chr. 4. S: . 
Hazazon-tamar, 2 Chr. 20. 2. Sai^e 

a« KN^-GEDI ; Hazezon-tamar. 
HAZEL. 
Haze . elponi, a daughter of the hous e 

ofJadah,lClir.4.3. 
HAZER. 
Hazerim, the villag es of the Av:r:i. 

De. 2. 23. See HAZEE, 
HAZEROTH. 
Hazezon-tamar. SameasE^-GEDI. 

Gen. 14. 7. 
Haz:e:. a Lerite, 1 Chr. 23. 9. 
Hazo. one of the sons of Xahor. 

Ge-. 22. 22. 
Hazor, L A citv of nonhe::": <"■-.- 

naan. S«eC^SAREAPHILT?PI. 

Josh. IL l-S : 12. 19 : 19. So : Ju :":_•. 

4. 2, 7 : 1 KL 9. 15 : 2 KL 15. 29. H. 

A citv in South Judah, Josh. 1.5. 

23. m. Three other place?. Jo^h. 

15.2.5: Neh.lLSS: Jer.4\i-. 
Hazor Hadattah, i. e.. Xew H z . . 

town inSoQthem Jndab..J,-i.:5. 

25. 
Head-bands. L=. 3. 20. Prob. fil^e-^ 

for the hair. See DP^SS: HEAD- 
DRESS. 



HEAD-DRESS. 

Heart: description of in its natural 
state. Gen, 6. 5 ; a 21 ; Pk. 53. 1-3 ; 
Be 9. 3 ; I*. 4t 20 ; Jer. 5. 23 ; 17. 9 ; 
Eze. IL 19; Mat. 12. 35; 15. 19; 
Bo. 1. 21 ; 8- 7: He. 3. 12. Judi- 
cially hardened, Ex. 4. 21 ; Ro. 9. 
17, 18 iPharmh) ; -De. 2. SO (m- 
Imn) ;— Josh. IL 20 iCamtanite«} ; 
— P«. 81. 12 : Itt 6. 10 ilmradite») ;— 
Ho. L 24 ((%n^Ze«). Benewed by 

rce, De. 30. 6 ; 1 8a- 2. 1 ; Meh, 9. 
Ps. 9. 1; 27, 8; 34. IS; 5L 17; 

57. 7; 112. 7; 119. 10, 112; Mat. 5. 

8; 121 35; Ac. 2. 46; He. 10. 22. 

God searches it, ISa. 1.13; 16.7; 

1 Chr. 29. 17; Ps. 44^21; Pr,16,l, 

9; Jer. 11. 20; 17. 10; 2L 12; Heu 

4.12L 
HE ARTH. 
HEATHEM. 
HEAVEM : or the firmament^ Gen. 

LL8; 7.11; 19.24: De.4.19; 9. 

1 ; Eze, 1. 1 ; Joel 2L 30 ; Mat. 16. 1 ; 

Mar. 13. 3L Or God's dwelling- 
place. Ex- 20. 4^ 22; De. 3. 24; 10. 

14; Josh. 2. 11 : 1 Ki. 8. 27, 30; 2 

Ki.2.1,11; Ps.2.4; LL4; S9. 6; 

139- 8; Is. 66. 1; Mat. 6. 9; Mar. 

16.19; Lu-3.21,22; Jno.3ul3: 6. 

38; 12.28; Ac L 11 ; 3. 21; 7. 56; 

He. 8. 1. The abode of angels. 



De. 4. 26: 32. 1 : Job 1.5. 15: 


Ps. 


89.5; Is. 14. Vl: L = .. i 


13, K 


35; 


Mat 18. 10: 2-J.i.-. : .4. 


>;Ln.lO. 


' lS;GaLLl>: H-, :^, ^ 


■ Re. f. 


11; 


19. 14- Th*^ 




-'-ni- 


ed,Ps.l7-Io 




.5. 


L2; CoLl.5; i: 
/; Be. 7. 9-17; 22 




/-. -. 






17; 66.22; 2Pe.S 






Heave-offering. Se- : 


J:.....!. 




PEBIMG. 






Heber, L One of tte 


i -, - T; -" 




of Asher, Gen. 46. ' 




,- ;' 


1 Chr. 7. 31, 32. I 
husband of Jael. J 








„ 


IL 17. 2L HI. A 




- - \ 


tionedintte - - 






dab, 1 Chr. 4 I 






mitechie^i i: 


',\ 1 




scendantof G : ' 


. ." . 1 .; . 


VI, 


A Benjamie i : 




ji ; 


Lt,,3.?.5, 













Chr, IL 30l Same as Heleb, pos^ 
sibJy with Heldai L 

Helel^ a descendiuit of Manasfeeli, 
Mn-26.30; Josh. 11.2. 

Heleldtes', a family of Manasseh de- 
scended from Beiek, Mu. 26, SO. 

Helem, L A chieftain of Asber, 1 
Clir. 7, 35. IL A peraon mention- 
ed in Zee 6. 14;. Same as Heldai 

n. 

Helepb, a place on the boundary of 
Maphitali, Josh. 19, 3SL 

Helez, L One of David's heroes 2 
Sa. 23. 26 ;1 Chr. 11. 27; 27- 10- IL 
One of Judah's posterity, 1 Chr. 
2.39. 

Heli, a peison in the line of oor 
Lord's ancestry, Lu. 3- 23w 

Helioj^Iis. SeeOM. 

Helkai, a priesL Meh- It. 15, 

Helkath, a border dty of Asber, af- 
terward allotted to the Gerse^hon- 
ite Levites, Josh, 19. 25 ; 2L 3L 
Hi 1 Chr, & 75, Hnkok is substi- 
tuted. 

Helkatb-hazznrim, a place near Gib- 
eon, 2 Sa. 2L 16. 

Hellenists. See GREECE. 

Helmet. SeeABMS. 

Helon, a Zebnlnnite, Cither of Eliah, 

Mu.1.9; 2-7; 7-24^29; 10.16. 
Helps, undergirdeis. See SHIP. 
Helv etic confession of faith. See 

CB imo, 

HEM OP GABMEMT, 
Hemam, son of Lotan, Gen. 36. 39L 
Heman, a Korahite. See KOBAB. 
Hemath, 1^, Same as Hamath, Am. 6. 

14. H- Father of the house of 

Kechab.l Chr. 2.55- 
::erfvd?*n, one of the descendants of 
he Horite, Gen. 36. 26. Some 
A .ram, in 1 Chr. 1. 41- 
i:-'-- " ■■--, >«eeGALL. 

-KL 18.34; 19.13; I& 

li : of a femOly of 

Ir :::- A- . . : Meh. 3L 18, 24; 



1. I 1 CbiT. 1. 3- Same as 
II. 1 Chr. L 33. Same as 



, HEERZ'-V, 
jj Hebrew.--, ^ee .JE7;^. 
1 HEBRE'.vs. £?!-■. LE TO THE- 
HEBRO>. I. A :;--■ : P^le^nne. 
HA;:::., II, A - :/:::':_ ■- , Ex. 

<:.:- v:. r, :;: : 'A/ :, •: .:.:2. 

III.T:.^:- v.-.r A ^ - ; ;^ . L^e. 



E 



A bron, Mu. 3. 2 7 ; 
: -^-3L 

--: AAA' E. 
lA . bamberlain of 

A . -:>_:-, A-- -. 3-15. 
Hr-_ -, -:: A..ANER5*. 



E-. 



27. 1; Joeh. :: J 
thedescend - 
4^6. HL I 

riors,! Chr. A . 

in Palestine . J ■ 

4.10. 
Hepherites, a : r 

descended. :: :-^ 

39 
He'Az^^^A. I, VTA 

.See HEZEKIAE. 

E^ ''- 

HAAA, Aa. 
Hr::-, :- 

H^ --■ , '. A 



A i.of the 
-0.32,33; 

IL One of 

0, 1 Chiu 

."!i's war- 

A". A 'Lace 
., -.7: : Ei 



aInL 
A-.l.^. 

: L'ir. 9. 15. 



lA"- 



Helam, a town near the EurLir: :e- 

2 Sa- 10. 17. 
Helbab. a town in Asher, Jnds. ] 

3L 
HELBOX. 
E- : L L A captain of David's rrA 

A 1 Chr. 27. 15. H. One vrL 

: r - =• -1 fr< im Babylon. Zee. 6 A. 

I Z , 14. he is called Heler/ . 
Et A I David's warrior;. 



E-- 

HE a: 

Er::.: 



E-. : 

el:a 

E; :.. 

ELL^ 
E.-.- - 
E-r : 



EEEE.SY. 
=>:^^::'t -^ Aiterpre- 

..~^^_'^:" a' -e, Eo. 

voi:a:e:^ll 

uQ aiK>aUte Christian, 
.P&42.6. Same 

, I ,11 ---HEROD. 



H-: 



.e of David's warriors, 1 1 Herod Piiiiip, L. IL ice EEL.OD. 



1044 



INDEX. 



Herod the Great. See HEROD. 
HERON. 

Herrnhutters. See MORAVIANS. 
Hesed, the father of one of Solo- 
mon's commissariat officers, 1 Ki. 

4.10. 
HESHBON. 
Heshmon, a town in Judah, Josh. 

15. 27. 
Heterodox. See ORTHODOX. 
Heih, one of the sons of Canaan. 

See HITTITES. 
Hethbon, a town in northern Syria, 

Eze. 4T.1G; 48.1. 
HEXAPLA. 

Hezeki, a Beujamite, 1 Chr. 8. 17. 
HEZEKI.4H. 
Hezion, the grandfather of Benha- 

dad I., king of Syria, 1 Ki. 1.5. IS. 
Hezir, I. The head of one of the 

courses of the priests, 1 Chr. 24. 

15. n. One who sealed the cove- 
nant, Neh. 10. 20. 

Hezrai, one of David's warriors, 2 
Sa. 23. 35. Same as Hezro, 1 Chr. 
11. 37. 

Hezro, 1 Chr. 11. 37. Same as Hez- 
rai. 

Hezron, I. One of the sons of Ren- 
ben, Gen. 46. 9 ; 1 Chr. 5. 3. II. A 
son of Pharez, and grandson of 
Judah, Gen. 46. 12 ; Ruth 4. 18, 19 ; 
1 Chr. 2. 9 ; 4. 1. HI. A city in the 
south of Judah. Same as Hazor. 

Hezronites, two families iu Reuben 
and Judah, Nu. 26. 6, 21. 

Hicksites. See FRIENDS. 

Hiddai, one of David's warriors, 2 
Sa. 23. 30. In 1 Chr. 11. 32, he is 
called Hurai. 

Hiddekel. See EDEN. 

Hiel, a Bethelite who rebuilt Jeri- 
cho, 1 Ki. 16. 34. See JERICHO. 

HTERAPOLIS. 

HIERARCHY. 

HIEROGLYPHICS. 

Higgaiou. See PSALMS. 

High -church. "See EPISCOPA- 
LIANS. 

Higher Life. See PERFECTION- 
ISTS. 

High Mass. See MASS. 

HIGH PLACES. 

HIGH -PRIEST, Ex. 28.; 29.; Le. 

16. As judge, 1 Sa. 7. 15-17 ; 8. 1 
-6. Condemned Jesus, Mat. 26. 
3_5, ,57-66 ; Lu. 22. 54-71 ; Jno. 18. 
10 -2S. Jesus Christ, the Great 
High-priest, Ps. 110. 4 ; Ro. S. 34 ; 
He. 4. 14; 5.4,5; 6.20; 7. ; 8. ; 9. : 

10. 1-22 ; 1 Jno. 2, 1. The sacri- 
fice, Himself, Is. 58. 5, 10 ; Mat. 20. 
28 ; Jno. 10. 11 ; Eph. 5. 2 ; Ti. 2. 
14; He. 9.11-28. 

Highway. See WAY. 

Hilen, a city of Judah allotted to 
the priests, 1 Chr. 6. 58. Also call- 
ed Hohm, Josh. 15. .51 ; 21. 15. 

HILKIAH, I. High-priest in reign 
of Josiah. Hiikiah, IL Father of 
Eliakim, 2 Ki. 18. 18, etc. : Is. 22. 

20. IIL Two Levites, 1 Chr. 6. 45 ; 
26.11. IV. A companion ofEM'a, 
Neh. 8. 4. V. A priest, Neh. 12. 7, 

21. VI. Father of Jeremiah, Jer. 
1. 1. VII, Father of one of Zede- 
kiah's ambassadors, Jer. 29. 3. 

Hill country. See PALESTINE 

II. 
Hillel, the father of the judge Ab- 

don, Juds;. 12. 13, 15. 
Hin. See MEASURES. 
Hind. See HART. 
Hindooism. See BRAHMANISM. 
Hinge. See GATE. 
Hinnom, valley of. See HELL. 
Hirah, an Adullamite, the friend of 

Judah, Gen. 38. 1,12, 20. 
HIRAM, I. A king of Tyre. Hiram, 

11. An artificer. 
HITTITES, 
HTVITES, 

Hizkiah, ancestor of Zephaniah, 
Zeph. 1.1. 



Hizkijah, one who sealed the cove- 
nant, Neh. 10. 17. 

HOBAB. 

Hobah, a city north of Damascus, 
Gen. 14. 15. 

Hod, a chieftain of Asher, 1 Chr. 7. 
37. 

Hodaiah, one of the descendants of 
David, 1 Chr. 3. 24. 

Hodaviah, I. A chief of Manasseh, 

1 Chr. 5. 24. II. A Beujamite, 1 
Chr. 9. 7. III. A Levite, Ezra 2. 
40. Called Hodevah in Neh. 7. 43. 

Hodesh, the wife of Shaharaim, a 
Beujamite, 1 Chr. 8. 9. 

Hodevah, Neh. 7. 43, Same as Ho- 
daviah, Ezra 2. 40. 

Hodiah, a wife of Ezra, 1 Chr. 4. 19. 

Hodijah, three persons who sealed 
the covenant, Neh. 8. 7 ; 9. 5 ; 10. 

10. 13, 18. 
Hoflfmauites. See SECT. 
Hoglah, a daughter of Zelophehad, 

Nu. 26. 33 ; Josh. 17. 3. 
Hoham, a king of Hebron, Josh. 10. 

3, 5, 16-27. See ADONI-ZEDEC. 
Holiness: of God, Ex. 28. 36; Ps. 

30. 4. In approaching God, 1 Chr. 

16. 29 ; 2 Chr. 31. 18 ; Ps. 29. 2 ; 93. 

5. Of God's people, Nu. 23. 21 ; 

Is. 35. 8 ; Jer. 2. 3 ; Zee. 14. 21 ; He. 

12. 14. Of the believer, Lu. 1. 75 ; 

2 Co. 7. 1 ; Eph. 4. 24 ; 1 Th. 3. 13 ; 
1 Tim. 2. 15. Engraved on the 
high-priest's mitre, Ex. 28. 36. 

Holocaust. See BURNT -OFFER- 
ING. 

Holon, I. A city, Josh. 15. 51 ; 21. 15. 
Also called Hilen. II. A town iu 
the plain of Moab, Jer, 48. 21. 

HOLY, HOLINESS. 

Holy Alliance. See HOLY. 

Holy Ashes. See ASH-WEDNES- 
DAY. 

Holy Candle. See CANDLEMAS. 

Holy Catholic Church. See HOLY. 

Holy City, a title applied to JERU- 
SALEM. 

Holy Cross Day. See HOLY. 

Holy Days. See FESTIVALS; 
HOLY. 

Holy Family. See HOLY. 

Holy Father, a title given to the 
POPE. 

Holy Fire. See FIRE. 

HolyFridav. See HOLY. 

HOLY GHOST : essential Godhead 
of, Ac. 5. 3, 4 ;— compare Ac. 28. 25, 
with Is. 6. 8, 9 ; — compare He. 3. 7, 
with Ex. 17. 7 ;— compare He. 10. 
15, 16, with Jer. 31. 31, 34. Nature 
and attributes of God ascribedto — 
eternal existence, He. 9. 14;— om- 
niscience, 1 Co. 2. 9-11; — omni- 
presence, Ps. 139. 7-12 ; 1 Co. 3. 16 ; 
— omnipotence, 1 Co. 12. 4-11; — 
creation, Ge. 1. 1, 2; Job 26. 13; 
27. 3 ; 33. 4; Re. 11. 11. Agent iu 
Christ's birth, Mat. 1. IS, 20 ; Lu. 

1 . 35 ; Jno. 3. 6 ; 1 Jno. 5. 6, 8 ;— in 
his resurrection, Ro. 1. 4; 8. 11 ; 1 
Pe. 3. 18 : — in the offering of his 
body. He. 9. 14. LTnion of, with 
Christ, 1 Co. 15. 45 ; 2 Co. 3. 17 ; 
Gal. 4. 6; Phi. 1. 19; 2 Th. 2. 8. 
Personality of, Mat. 3. 16 ; 28. 19; 
Mar, 1. 10 ; Lu. 3. 22 ; Jno. 1. 33 ; 2 
Co. 13. 14, etc. ; Eph. 4. 30. Char- 
acter and actings of, Jno. 14. 16, 
26 ; Ac. 13. 2 ; 14. 26 ; 16. 6, 7 ; Ro. 
8.26; 15. .30; Eph. 4. 30. Whence 
sent from, Jno. 15. 26 ; 16. 7-14. 
Offices of, reseneration, Jno. 3.3- 
5 : 4. 10-14 ; 6. 63 ; Ti. 3. 5-7 ;— con- 
viction of sin, Jno. 16. 8 ; Ac. 2. 37; 
— sanctification, Ro. 8. 6, etc. ; 1 
Co. 6. 11 ; Gal. 5. 22-26; 2 Th. 2. 
13;— dwelling in believers, 1 Co. 

2. 9-16 : 6. 17 ; 12. 13 ; Gal. 3. 5 ; 4. 
6. ; 5. 25 ; Eph. 2. 22 ; 3. 16 ; 5. 18 ; 
1 Pe. 1. 11 ; 1 Jno. 3. 24. Gift of, 
at Pentecost, Ac. 2. 1-4; — to the 
early disciples, Ac. 6. 3; 8. 15, 17; 
10. 44; 11. 15; 19. 6; — without 



measure to Christ, Lu. 4. 1-20; 
Jno. 3. 34. Prophesied of, as a 
Gospel blessing, Is. 32. 15 ; 44. 3 ; 
Eze. 36. 27 : Joel 2. 28. S9 ; fulfill- 
ed, Ac. 2. 17, 18. Sin against, un- 
paiHlonable, Mat. 1-2. §1 ; 1 Jno. 5. 
16. 
, called the Spirit of God, Gen. 

I. 2 ; 41. 38 ; Ex. 31. 3 ; 35. 31 ; Nu. 
2<1. 2; 1 6a. 10. 10 1 2 Chr. 15. 1; 
Eze. 11. 24 ; Mat. 3. 16 ; 12. 28 ; Ro. 

15. 10 ; 1 Co. 2. 14 ; 7. 40 ; 12. 3 ; 1 
Pe. 4. 14 ; 1 Jno. 4. 2 ; — also. My 
Spirit, Gen. 6. 3 ; Pr. 1. 23 ; Is. 30. 
1 ; 42. 1 ; 59. 21 ; Eze. 36. 27 ; Zee. 

4. 6; Mat. 12. 18; — Spirit of the 
Father, Mat. 10. 20;— Spirit of the 
Lord, Nu. 11. 29 • Juds. 3. 10 ; 6. 
34 ; 1 Sa. 16. 13 ; 2 Chr. 20. 14 ; Ac. 

5. 9 ;— Spirit of Christ, Ro. 8. 9 ; 1 
Pe. 1. 11 ;— the Comforter, Jno, 14. 

16, 26; 15. 26; 16. 7 ; — Spirit of 
Truth, Jno. 14. 17; 15. 26; 16. 13; 
—Spirit of Holiness, Ro. 1. 4; — 
Spirit of Grace. Zee. 12. 10 ; He. 
10. 29;— Spirit of Wisdom, Might, 
Counsel, etc.. Is. 11. 2;— Spirit of 
Promise, Eph. 1. 13; — Spirit of 
Glory, 1 Pe. 4. 14 ;— Good Spirit, 
Neh. 9. 20; Ps. 143. 10. 

Holy Grail. See GRAIL. 

Holy Handkerchief. See JERU- 
SALEM. 

Holy Innocents. See HOLY. 

Holy Land. See PALESTINE. 

Holy League. See HOLY. 

Holv Office, a name given to the 
INQUISITION. 

Holy of Holies, Ex. 26. 31-34; 28. 
29; Le. 4. 6; 16. 2, 3, 33 ; 1 Ki. 6. 
23-28 ; 2 Chr. 3. 8, 10-14 ; 5. 7-9 ; 
He. 9. .3. Contained the ark, Ex. 
26. 33 ; 40. 3, 21 ;— mercy-seat, Ex. 
26. 34; — cherubim, Ex. 25. 18-22 ; 
2 Chr. 3. 10-12 ; gold censer, Le. 16. 
12^ 13 ; He. 9. 4 ; — pot of manna, 
Ex. 16. 33, 34 ; He. 9. 4 ; — Aaron's 
rod, Nu. 17. 10; He. 9. 4; — the 
written law, De. 31. 26 ; 2 Ki. 22. 
8;2Chr. 5. 10. Directions con- 
cerning, Le. 16. 2, 4, 12-17 ; Nu. 4. 
5 ; He. 9. 7. Unveiled at the death 
of Jesus, Mat. 27. 51 ; He. 10. 19, 
20. A type of heaven, Ps. 102. 19 ; 
He. 9. 12, 24. See TABERNA- 
CLE ; TEMPLE. 

Holy Oil. See CHRISM. 

Holy Orthodox Catholic and 
Apostolic Church. See GREEK 
CHURCH. 

Holy Place. See TEMPLE. 

Holy Rood. See HOLY. 

Holy Scripture. See BIBLE. 

Holy Sepu.lchre. See JERUSALEM. 

Holy Spirit. See HOLY GHOST. 

Holy Thursday. See HOLY. 

Holy Wars. See CRUSADE. 

Holy Water. See HOLY. 

Holy Week. See HOLY. 

Homani, a descendant of Seir the 
Horite, 1 Chr. 1. 39. Same as He- 
man, Gen. 36. 32. 

Home Missionary Society. See 
CONGREGATIONALISTS. 

Homer. See MEASURES. 

Homicide: distinguished from mur- 
der, Ex. 21. 13, 14; Nu. 35. 16-21, 
25 ;— justifiable, Gen. 9. 6 ; Ex. 22. 
2 ; 35. 2 ; Le. 24. 16 ; Nu. 31. 7, 8 ; 
35. 27;— unjustifiable, Ex. 21. 13; 
Nu. 35. 22, 23; De. 19. 5;— laws 
concerning, De. 19. 11, etc. See 
MURDER. 

HOMILY, Homiletics. 

HOMO-OUSIAN, HOMOI-OU- 
SIAN. 

Honesty, Ex. 20. 15 ; Le. 19. 13, 35, 
36 ; De. 25. 13-15; 1 Sa. 12. 3, 4; 
Pr. 11. 1 ; 28. 8 : Jer. 7. 11 ; Mi. 6. 
8, 11 ; Mar. 10. 19 ; Eph. 4. 28 ; 1 Th. 
4. 6 ; 1 Tim. 2. 2 ;— means of pro- 
moting, Ex. 20. 17 ; Pr. 30. 8, 9 ; 2 
Co. 8. 21 ; 13. 7 ; Phi. 4. 8 ; 1 Th. 4. 

II, 12. 



INDEX. 



1045 



Houey. See FOOD. 

Honor, to be ascribed to God, Ps. 
29. 2; 71. 8; 145. 5; Mai. 1. 6; 1 
Tim. 1. 17 : Re. 4. 11 ; 5. 13 ;- given 
by him, 1 Ki. 3. 13 ; Est. S. 16 ; Pr. 
3. 16 ; 4. 8 ; 8. 18 ; 22. 4 ; 29. 23 ; Da. 
5. 18 ; Juo. 12. 26 ;— to be given to 
parents, Ex. 20. 12 ; De. 5. 16; Mat. 
15. 4 ; Ei)h. 6. 2, etc. ; -to the aged, 
Le. 19. 32; 1 Tim. 5. 1; — to the 
king, 1 Pe.2. 17. 

Hood. See HEAD-DRESS ; VEST- 
MENTS. 

HOOK, HOOKS. See FISH; REED. 

Hope, Pr. 10. 28 ; Ro. 8. 24; 12. 12 ; 
15.13; He. 11.1; 1 Pe. 1. 3; — its 
snbiects. Job 5. 16 ; 14. 7 ; Ps. 16. 
9 ; Ec. 9. 4 ; Zec. 9. 12 ;— its objects, 
Ps. 33. IS ; 42. ; 43. ; 78. 7 ; 119. 74 ; 
Jer. 14. 8 ; 17. 13 ; Joel 3. 16 ; Ro. 
5. 2 ; 1 Co. 9. 10 ; Gal. 5. 5 ; Col. 1. 
23, 27 ; 1 Tim. 1. 1 ; Ti. 2. 13 ; 1 Pe. 

I. 13 ;— vain, Job 8. 13 ; 31. 24 ; 41. 

9 ; Pr. 11. 7 ; 13. 12 ; La. 3. 18. 
Hophui, one of the two profligate 

sons of Eli. See ELL 

Hophra. See PHARAOH, 10. 

HOPKINSIANISM. 

HOR, I. A noted mountain on the 
frontier of Edom. Hor, 11. Prob. 
same as Lebanon, Nn. 24. 7, 8. 

Horara, king of Gezer, Josh. 10. 33. 

Horeb. See SINAI. 

Horem, a town in Naphtali, Josh. 
19. 38. 

Hor-hagidgad, a station of the Is- 
raelites in the wilderness, Nu. 33. 
32. Prob. same as Gudgodah. 

Hori, I. A son of Lotan and grand- 
sou of Seir, Gen. 36. 22; 1 Chr. 1. 
39. IL The father of Shaphat, Nu. 
13.5. 

Horim. Same as HORITE. 

HORITE. 

HORMAH. 

Horn. See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 

HORNET. 

HORNS. 

Horns of the altar. See CITIES 
OF REFUGE. 

Horonaim, a Moabitish city. Is. 15. 
^5 ; Jer. 48. 3, 5. 34. 

Horonite, Neh. 2. 10, 19; 13. 28. 
Prob. a native of Horonaim. 

HORSE. 

Horse-sate. See GATE. 

HORSE-LEECH. 

Horse sacrilice. See HORSE. 

Hosah, I. A Levite of the family of 
Merari, 1 Chr. 16. 38; 26. 10, 16. 

II. A town in Asher, Josh. 19. 29. 
Horseman. See ARMY ; HORSE. 
HOSANNA. 

HOSEA, the prophet and his writ- 
ings. 

Hoshaiah, I. One who led half the 
princes of Judah at the dedica- 
tion of the wall of Jerusalem, 
Neh. 12. 32, IL A Maachathite, 
2 Ki. 25. 23 ; Jer. 40. 8 ; 43. 2. 

Hoshama, a descendant of the house 
of David, 1 Chr. 3. 18. 

HOSHEA, L The last king of Isra- 
el. Hoshea, IL Same as JOSH- 
UA, De. 32. 44. III. A ruler of 
Ephraim, 1 Chr. 27. 20. IV. One 
who sealed the covenant, Neh. 
10. 23. 

HOSPICE. 

Hospitality : recommended, Ro. 12. 
13 ; 1 Tim. 3. 2 ; Ti. 1. 8 ; He. 1.3. 2 ; 
1 Pe. 4. 9. Instances of, Gen. IS. 
8-8 {Abraham) ;— Gen. 19. 2 {Lot) ; 
—Gen. 24. 31 {Lahan) ;— Ex. 2. 20 
{Jethro)\ — ii\\(\g. 19. 16-21 (acjed 
man at Gibeah) ;— Job 31. 32 {Job) ; 
—Ac. 16. 15 {Lvdia) ;— Ac. 28. 2, 7, 

10 (jicopU of Melita). See BAN- 
QUET. 

HOSPITALS. 

Host, elevation of. See MASS. 
Hothiim, a chieftain of Asher, 1 Chr. 
7.32. 



Hothan, the father of two of David's 
champions, 1 Chr. 11. 44. 

Hothir, a son of Heman, 1 Chr. 25. 
4, 28. 

HOUR. 

HOUSE. 

Houseliiug-cloth. See ORNA- 
MENTS. 

House of Bishops. See CONVEN- 
TION; EPISCOPALIANS. 

House of Clerical and Lay Deputies. 
See CONVENTION ; EPISCOPA- 
LIANS. 

HUGUENOTS. 

Hukkok, a place in Naphtali, Josh. 
19. 34. 

Hukok, a city, 1 Chr. 6. 75, Same 
as Helkath in Josh. 21. 31. 

Hal, a son of Aram, and grandson 
of Shem, Gen. 10. 23 ; 1 Chr. 1. 17. 

HULDAH. 

HULSEAN LECTURES. 

HUMANITARIANS. 

Humility: urged by precept and 
promise, Ps. 138. ; Pr. 11. 2 ; 16. 
19 ; IS. 12 ; 22. 4 ; Is. 57. 15 ; Mi. 6. 
8 ; Mat. IS. 4 ; 23. 12 ; Lu. 18. 14 ; 
Ro. 12. 10, 16 ; Phi. 2. 3 ; Col. 3. 12 ; 
Ja. 4. 10 ; 1 Pe. 5. 5, Examples 
of, 1 Ki. 19. 4 {Elijah) ;— Da. 2. 30 
{Daniel) ;— 1 Sa. 22. 14; Ps. 131. 1 
{David) ;— Lu. 3. 16 (John the Bap- 
tist) ;— Ac. 3. 12 ; 10. 26 {Peter) ;— 
1 Co. 15. 9 ; Eph. 3. 8 ; 1 Tim. 1. 15 
{Paul). 

Humtah, a town in Judah, Josh. 15. 
.54. 

HUNTING. 

Huntingtonians. See SECT. 

Hupham, one of the children of 
Benjamin, Nu. 26. 39. Same as 
Huppim in Gen. 46. 21. 

Huphamites, a family of Benjamin, 
Nu. 26. 39. 

Huppah, a priest, 1 Chr. 24. 13. 

Huppim, a descendant of Benjamin, 
Gen. 46. 21 ; 1 Chr. 7. 12, 15. Same 
as Hupham in Nu. 26. 39. 

Hur, I. A son of Calel), 1 Chr. 2. 19, 
50; 4. 1, 4; 2 Chr. 1. 5; Ex. 31. 2, 
IL Husband of Miriam, Ex. 17. 10 
-12 ; 25. 14. III. A prince of Mid- 
ian, Nu. 31. 8, 16. IV, The father 
of one of Solomon's purveyors, 1 
Ki. 4. 8. V. Father of Rephaiah, 
Neh. 3. 9. 

Hurai, one of David's warriors, 1 
Chr. 11. 32. Same as Hiddai, 2 
Sa. 23. 30. 

Huram, I. A descendant of Benja- 
min, 1 Chr. 8. 5. II. A king of 
Tyre, 2 Chr. 3. 12 ; 8. 2 ; 9. li), 21. 
See Hiram I. III. The artificer 
sent by the king of Tyre to su- 
perintend the works of Solomon's 
Temple, 2 Chr. 2. 13 ; 4. 11, 16. See 
Hiram IL 

Huri, a descendant of Gad, 1 Chr. 
5.14. 

Husband. See MARRIAGE. Duty 
of, Gen. 2. 24 : 24. 67 ; Mai. 2. 14, 
15 ; Mar. 10. 2 ; 1 Co. 7.3; 4. 11, 
14 ; Eph. 5. 25, 2S ; Col. 3. 19 ; 1 Pe. 
3. 7. God is one to his people, 
Sol. Song 3, 11 ; Is. 54, 5; Jer. 3. 
14 ; 31. 32 ; 2 Co. 11. 2 ; Re. 21. 2. 

Husbandman, Husbandry. See AG- 
RICULTURE. 

Hush ah, name of a person or place, 
1 Chr. 4. 4. 

HUSHAI. See ABSALOM. 

Husham, one of the earlv kings of 
Edom, Gen. 36. 34, .35 ; 1 Chr.'l, 45. 
46. 

Hushathite, a designation given one 
of Darvid's warriors, 2 Sa. 23, IS ; 
1 Chr. 11.29; 20.4; 27, IL 

Hushim, L Son of Dan, Gen. 46. 23. 
Same as Shuham, Nu. 26. 42. II. 
A descendant of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 
7, 12. III. One of the wives of 
Shaharaira, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8, 
8,11. 

HUSKS. 



Huss, Hussites, See MORAVIANS, 

Hutchinsonians. See SECT, 

Huz, the eldest son of Nahor, Gen. 
22. 21. Elsewhere rendered Uz. 

HUZZAB. 

HYENA, 

Hvmeneus, a heretic, 2 Tim, 2, 17, 
IS. See ALEXANDER. 

HYMN, HYMNOLOGY. 

Hymns, or Psalms, used in wor- 
ship, 1 Chr. 15. 27 ; 25. 6, 7 ; 2 Chr. 
35. 15 ; Ps. 95. 2 ; 98. 5 ; 105. 2 ; Mat. 
26. 30 ; Ac. 16. 25 ; Eph. 5. 19 ; Col. 
3. 16 ; Ja. 5. 13 ; Re. 4. 8, 9 ; 14. 2, 3. 

Hyper-Calvinists. See C A L V I N - 
ISTS. 

Hypocrisy, Job 8. 13 ; 27. 8 ; Is. 1. 
13, 14 ; 29. 13 ; 33, 14 ; 58. 3-7 ; Jer. 
3. 10 ; Eze. 33. 31 ; Mat. 6. 2, 5 ; 7. 
21 ; 23. 13-32 ; 24. 51 ; Lu. 12. 1 ; 16. 
15; 1 Pe. 2. 1; Re. 3. 1. Exam- 
ples of, 2 Sa. 15. 2-6 {Absalom) ;— 
Ac. 5 (Ananias and Sa2}phira) ; — 
Ac. 8, 19-23 {Simon Magus). 

HYPOSTASIS, 

HYSSOP. 



Ibhar, one of the sons of David, 2 
Sa.5. 15; IChr. 3. 6; 14.5. 

Ibleam, a town in the tribe of Ma- 
nasseh, Judg. L 27 ; 2 Ki. 9. 27; 
Josh. 17, 11. Perhaps same as Bi- 
leam, 

Ibneiah, a Benjamite who dwelt at 
Jerusalem, 1 Chr. 9. 8, 

Ibnijah, a Benjamite, 1 Chr, 9, 8, 

Ibri, a descendant of Merari, 1 Chr, 
24. 27. 

Ibzan, one of the judges of Israel, 
Judg. 12. 8-10, 

Ichabod, the son of Phinehas, and 
grandson of Eli, 1 Sa. 4, 19^22 ; 
14.3. 

Ichthus. See FISH. 

ICONIUM. 

ICONOCLASTS. 

Idalah, a town of Zebnlun, Josh. 19. 
15. 

Idbash, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 4. 3. 

IDDO, I. A prophet. Iddo, IL The 
father of one of Solomon's com- 
missariat otficers, 1 Ki. 4. 14. IIL 
A Gershonite Levite, 1 Chr. 6. 21, 
Called Adaiah in ver, 41, IV. 
The grandfather of the prophet 
Zechariah, Ezra 5. 1 ; 6. 14 ; Neh. 
12. 4, 16. V. A ruler in David's 
time, 1 Chr. 27. 21. VL A chief of 
the Nethinim at Casiphia, Ezra 8. 
17. 

IDEALISM. 

Idleness and sloth: forbidden, Ro. 
12. 11 ; He. 6. 12. Akin to extrav- 
agance, Pr. 12. 27 ; 26. 15. Leads 
to poverty, Pr. 10. 4; 20. 13; — 
M'ant, Pr. 20. 4; 24. 34; — hunger, 
Pr. 19. 15;— bondage, Pr. 12. 24;— 
ruin, Pr. 24. 30, 31 ; Ec. 10. IS ;— tat- 
tling and meddling, 1 Tim. 5. 13. 
Remonstrance against, Pr. 6. 6, 

9. False excuses for, Pr. 20. 4; 
22. 13. Illustrated, Pr. 26. 14; Mat. 
25.18,26. Exemplitied: Watch- 
men. Is. 56. 10; — Athenians, Ac. 

17. 21;— Thessalonians, 2 Th. 3, 
11. 

IDOLATRY: forbidden, Ex. 20, 4, 
23 ; 23. 13 ; Le. 26. 1 ; De. 4. 15-19 ; 

18. 9-12: 27. 15; Ps. 97. 7 ; 1 Co, 

10. 14 ; 1 Juo. 5. 21. Folly of, 1 Ki. 
18. 27 ; Ps. 115. 4-8 ; 135. 15 ; Is. 40. 
9, 20 ; 46. 1 ; Jer. 2. 26, 27 ; 10. 3-5. 
Punishment of, Ex. 22, 20 ; De, 12. 
29-31; 13.9; 17.2-7; Eph. 5. 5; 
Re. 21. 8 ; 22. 15. Monuments of, 
to be destroyed, Ex. 23. 24 ; 34. 13 ; 
De. 7. 5, 25; 12. 1-4. Examples, 
Ex. 32. ; Nu. 25. 1-5; Judg. 2. 11- 
13 ; 3. 7 ; 8. 33 ; 18. 30 {Israelite^) ; 
— 1 Ki, 11. 4 {Solomon); — 1 Ki. 
12. 28-33 {Jeroboam);— 1 Ki. 18. 



1046 



INDEX. 



(.Elijah and A hah) ; — 2 Ki. 16. 3 
{Ahaz);~2 Ki. IS. 29-3T (Samari- 
tans) ;— 2 Chr. 33. 2-10 (Blanasseh). 
Covetousiiess so called, Col. 3. 5. 
Idols, names of, mentioned in the 
Scriptures: Adrammelech, 2 Ki. 
IT. 31; 19. 3T; Is. 3T. 38;— Anam- 
melech, 2 Ki. 17. 31 ;— Asliima, 2 
Ki.17. 30;— Ashtaroth, Ashtoreth, 
Judg. 2. 13 ; 1 Sa. 7. 3 ; 1 Ki. 11. 33 ; 
—Baal, Judg. 2. 11-13 ; 6. 25 ; 1 Ki. 

18. 17^0 ; 2 Ki. 10. 18-28 ;— Baal- 
berith, Judg. 8. 33; 9. 4;— Baal- 
peor, Nu. 25. 1-3 ; Ps. 106. 28 ; Hos. 
9. 10 ; — Baal-zebiib, 2 Ki. 1. 2, 16 ; 
— Baal-zephon, Ex. U. 2; — Bel, 
Jer. 50. 2 ; 51. 44 ;— Chemosh, Nu. 
21. 29; 1 Ki. 11. 33; Jer. 48. 7;— 
Chinn, Am. 5. 26 ;— Dagou, Jndg. 

16. 23 ; 1 Sa. 5. 1-7 ;— Diana, Ac. 19. 
24, 27 ; — Huzzab, Na. 2. 7 ;— Jupi- 
ter, Ac. 14. 12; -Mercury, Ac. 14. 
12 ;— Merodach, Jer. 50. 2;— Mo- 
lech, or Milconi, Le. 18. 21 ; 1 Ki. 
11. 5, 7, 33 ;— Nergal, 2 Ki. 17. 30 ;— 
Nebo, Is. 46. 1 ;— Nibhaz and Tar- 
tak, 2 Ki. 17. 31 ;— Nisroch, 2 Ki. 

19. 37 ;— Queen of heaven, Jer. 44. 

17, 25; — Remphan, Ac. 7. 43; — 
Rimmon, 2 Ki. 5. 18;— Succoth-be- 
noth, 2 Ki. 17. 30 ;— Tammuz, Eze. 
8. 14. 

Idumea, Greek form of EDOM. 

Igal, I. The spy selected from the 
tribe of Issachar, Nu. 13. 7. II. 
One of David's warriors, 2 Sa. 28. 
36. Also called Joel, 1 Chr. 11. 
88. 

Igdalia, a man of God, Jer. 35. 4. 

Igeal, a descendant of David, 1 Chr. 
3. 22. 

Ignorance, Pr. 19. 2 ; Ac. 8. 17 ; 17. 
30; Eph. 4.18; 1 Pe. 2. 15; — sins 
of, sacrifices for, Le. 4. 5 ; Nu. 15. 
22-26 ;— voluntary. Job 21. 14 ; Pr. 
1. 22, 29 ; Hos. 4. 6 ; Jno. 3. 19 ; 2 
Pe, 3. 5 ; — involuntary, Jno. 9. 4 ; 
1 Tim. 1. 13. 

I. H. S. 

Jim, I. One of the stations of the Is- 
raelites, Nu. 33. 45. Identical with 
Ije-abarim. II. A town in the ex- 
treme south of Jndah. 

Ije-abarim, one of the stations of 
the Israelites, Nn. 21. 11 ; 33. 44. 
Called lim in verse 45. 

IJON. 

Ikkesh, the father of one of David's 
warriors, 2 Sa. 23. 26 ; 1 Chr. 11. 
28 ; 27. 9. 

Ilai, one of David's heroes, 1 Chr. 11, 
29, Called Zalmou in 2 Sa. 23. 28. 

ILLUMINATI. 

ILLUMINATION, ART OF. 

ILLYRIOUM. 

Image-breakers, See ICONO- 

_ CLASTS. 

imagery, chambers of. See CHAM- 
BERS OP IMAGERY, 

IMAGE-WORSHIP, 

IMAM, or IMAUM. 

Imla, or Imlah, the father of the 
prophet Micaiah, 1 Ki. 22. 8, 9 ; 2 
Chr. IS. 7,8. 

IMMACULATE CONCEPTION. 

IMMANUEL, or EMMANUEL. 

Immer, I. A place, Ezra 2. 59 ; Neh. 
7. 61. 11. A priest, 1 Chr. 24. 14. 
Same as Amariah IV., 1 Chr. 9. 
12; Neh. 11. 13; Le, 20. 1. 

Immersion. See BAPTISTS, 

IMMORTALITY, an essential attri- 
bute of God, Ex. .3. 14; Pr. 8. 85; 
Jno. 5. 26 ; S. 58 ; 1 Tim. 1. 17 ; 6. 
16; 2 Tim. 1. 10 ;— His gift to the 
believer cm Jesus, Jno. 5, 24; 11, 
2.5, 26 ; 1 Co. 1.5. 53, 54; 2 Tim. 1. 10. 

IMMUTABILITY, 

Imua, a chieftain of Asher, 1 Chr, 
7. 85. 

Imnah, I. The eldest son of Asher, 
1 Chr. 7. 30. Also called Jimna 
and Jimnah, Gen. 46. 17 ; Nu. 26. 
44. II. A Levite, 2 Chr. 31. 14. 



Impanation, a form of the doctrine 
of Real Presence. See CONSUB- 
STANTIATION; TRANSUB- 
STANTIATION. 

Im])osition of hands. See LAY- 
ING ON OF HANDS. 

Imprecatory Psalms. See PSALMS. 

IMPUTATION, of sin, Ps. 32. 2 ; Ro. 
5. 13 ; 2 Co. 5. 19 ; — of righteous- 
ness, Ro. 4, 3-24 ; Ja, 2. 23, 

Imrah, a chieftain of Asher, 1 Chr. 
7,36. 

Imri, I. A descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 9. 4. Same as Amariah VI. ; 
Neh. 11. 4. IL Father of Zaccur, 
Neh. 3. 2. 

Incantation. See DIVINATION; 
MAGIC. 

INCARNATION. 

INCENSE. 

INCUMBENT. 

Independents. See CONGREGA- 
TIONALISTS. 

INDEX. 

INDIA. 

INDIANS, NORTH AMERICAN, 
RELIGION OF. 

INDUCTION. 

INDULGENCES. 

Industry: commanded, Eph. 4. 28; 
1 Th. 4. 11. Required of man in 
a state of innocence, Gen. 2. 15 ;— 
of man after the fall, Gen. 3. 23. 
Characteristic of godly women, 
Pr. 31. 13. Requisite to supply 
our own wants and the wants of 
others, Ac. 20. 34, 35 ; 1 Th. 2. 9 ; 
Eph. 4. 28. General commenda- 
tion, Pr. 31, 31, Illustrated, Pr, 6. 
6-8. Exemplified : Rachel, Gen. 
29. 9;— Jacob, Gen. 31, 6;— Jeth- 
ro's daughters, Ex. 2. 16; — Ruth, 
Rtith 2. 2, 3 ;— Jeroboam, 1 Ki, 11. 
28;— David, 1 Sa, 16. 11 ;— Jewish 
elders, Ezra 6. 14, 15; — Dorcas, Ac. 
9. 39 ;— Paul, Ac. 18. 3 ; 1 Co. 4. 12, 

INFALLIBILITY. 

Infant baptism. See BAPTISM. 

Infant communion. See COM- 
MUNION. 

INFIDELITY. 

Infralapsarians. See SUPRALAP- 
SARIANS. 

Ingathering, feast of. Same as 
TABERNACLES, FEAST OF. 

Inghamites. See SECT. 

INHERITANCE: earthly. Gen, 15, 
7-21 ; Nu, 27. 1-11 ; 36. ; Ps. 105. 
11 ; Mat. 5. 8 ; He. 11. 8. Heaven- 
ly, Eph. 6. 11 ; He. 9. 15 ; 1 Pe. 1. 4. 

Ink, ink-horn. See WRITING, 

INN. 

Inner light. See FRIENDS, 

INQUISITION, 

I. N. R, I., initials for Jesus Naza- 
renus Bex Judceoruni (Jesus of 
Nazareth, King of the Jews), fre- 
quently used in inscriptions. 

Inscriptions. See ASSYRIA ; CAT- 
ACOMBS; EGYPT; HIERO- 
GLYPHICS; WRITING. 

INSPIRATION, See REVELA- 
TION. Of the Holy Ghost, fore- 
told, Joel 2. 28, with Ac. 2. 16-lS. 
All Scripture given by, 2 Tim, 3. 
16 ; 2 Pe. 1. 21. Design of: to re- 
veal future events, Ac. 1. 16; 28, 
25; — to reveal the mysteries of 
God, Am. 3. 7; 1 Co. 2, 10; -to 
give power to ministers, Mi. 3. 8 ; 
Ac, 1. 8 ;— to direct ministers, Eze. 
3. 24-27 ; Ac. 11. 12 ; 13. 2 ;— to con- 
trol ministers, Ac. 16. 6 ; — to testi- 
fy against sin, 2 Ki. 17, 13: Neh. 
9. 30 ; Mi. 3. 8 ; Jno. 10. 8, 9. Modes 
of, various. He. 1. 11 ; — by secret 
impulse, Judg. IB. 25; 2 Pe. 1. 21 ; 
—by a voice, Is. 6. 8 ; Ac. 8. 29 ; Re. 
1. 10 ;— by visions, Nu. 12. 6 ; E/.e. 
11. 24;— by dreams. Da. 7.1. Nec- 
essary to prophesying, Nu. 11. 25- 
27 ; 2 Chr, 20. 14-17. ^ Is irresisti- 
ble. Am, 3. 8. Despisers of pun- 
ished, 2 Chr. 36. 15, 16 ; Zee, 7. 12. 



INSTALLATION. 

INSTITUTION. 

Instruments. See MUSICAL IN- 
STRUMENTS. 

INTERCESSION: of the Holy Spir- 
it, Ro. 8. 26. Of Christ, Ro. 8, 34 ; 
He. 7. 25; 1 Jno. 2. 1. Instances 
of, Lu. 23. 34 {Jesus) ;— Gen. 18. 23- 
33 ; 20. 17 {A braham) ;— Ex. 32, 11 
-14, 31, 32 ; Nu. 11. 2 ; 12, 13 ; 14. 
13-19 {Moses) ;— 1 Sa. 7. 5, 9 (Sam- 
uel) ;— Job 42. 8 (Job) ;— Ac. 7. 60 
(Stephen);— 1 Tim. 2.1. See 
PRAYER. 

INTERDICT. 

Interest. See LOAN. 

INTERIM. 

INTERMEDIATE STATE. 

Interpretation. See EXEGESIS; 
PARABLES. 

Interpreter. See PR0PHJ:TS. 

INTONING. 

Introit, See MUSIC. 

Invention of the Cross, Festival of 
the. See CROSS. 

INVESTITURE. 

Invitation. See BANQUET. 

Invocation of angels. See AN- 
GELS. 

INVOCATION OF SAINTS. 

Iphedeiah, a Beujamite chieftain, 1 
Chr. 8. 25, 

Ir, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 7. 12. Same 
as Iri, 1 Chr. 7. 7. 

Ira, I. One of David's great officers, 
2 Sa. 20. 26. II. A Tekoite, one 
of David's warriors, 2 Sa. 23. 26 ; 
1 Chr. 11. 28. HI. An Ithrite, also 
a warrior of David, 2 Sa. 23. SS ; 1 
Chr. 11. 40. 

Irad, a grandson of Cain, Gen. 4. 18. 

Irani, one of the dukes of Edom, 
Gen. 86. 43 ; 1 Chr. 1. 54. 

Iri, a Beujamite, 1 Chr. 7. 7. Same 
as Ir, verse 12. 

Irijah, an officer who arrested Jere- 
miah, Jer. 37. 13. 14. 

Ir-nahash, a city, 1 Chr. 4,12, 

IRON, I. The metal. Iron, IL A 
city of Naphtali, Josh. 19. 38. 

Irpeel, a city of Benjamin, Josh, 18. 
27. 

Irresistible grace. See CALVIN- 
ISTS. 

IRRIGATION. 

Ir-shemesh, a citv of Dan, Josh. 19. 
41. Prob. same as BETH-SHE- 
MESH I. 

Iru, a scm of Caleb, 1 Chr. 4. 15. 

Irving, Irviugites. See CATHOLIC 
APOSTOLIC CHURCH. 

ISAAC. 

ISAIAH. 

Iscah, the daughter of Haran, and 
sister of Lot, Gen. 11. 29. Jewish 
tradition identifies her with Sarah. 

Iscariot, surname of the traitor JU- 
DAS. 

Ishbah, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 4. 17. 

Ishbak, one of the sons of Abraham 
by Keturah, Gen. 25. 2 ; 1 Chr. 1. 82. 

Ishbi-benob, brother of GOLIATH. 

ISHBOSHETH. 

Ishi, I., II. Two descendants of Ju- 
dah, 1 Chr. 2. 21 ; 4. 20, IH. The 
father of four chiefs of Simeon, 1 
Chr. 4. 42. IV. A chieftain of Ma- 
nasseh, 1 Chr. 5. 24. V. A symbol- 
ic name, Hos. 2. 16. See BAALI. 

Ishiah, a chieftain of Issachar, 1 
Chr. 7.3, 

Ishijah, one who had married a for- 
eiiiu wife, Ezra 10, 31, 

Ishma, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 4. 3. 

ISHMAEL, I. A son of Abraham. 
II. One of the roval family of Ju- 
dah. Ishmael, HI. One of the de- 
scendants of Saul, 1 Chr. 8. 38; 9. 
44. IV. A chief of Judah, 2 Chr. 
19. 11. V. A confederate of Jehoi- 
ada, 2 Chr. 23. 1. VI. A priest, 
Ezra 10. 22. 



INDEX. 



1047 



ISHMAELITES. 

Ishmaiah, a chief of Zebulun, 1 Chr. 
27. 19. 

Ishmeelites, Gen. 3T. 25-28 ; 39. 1 ; 1 
Chr. 2. 17. ■ Same as ISHMAEL- 
ITES. 

Ishmerai, a chieftain of Benjamin, 
1 Chr. 8. IS. 

Ishod, a descendant of Manasseh, 1 
Chr. 7. 18. 

Ishpau, a Benjamite chief, 1 Chr. 8. 
22. 

Tsh-tob, a small Syrian territory, 2 
Sa. 10. 6, 8. Prob. the district of 
Tob. 

Ishuai, one of the sons of Asher, 1 
Chr. 7. 30. Same as Isui and Jesui, 
Gen. 40. 17; Nu. 26. 44. 

Ishuah, second son of Ai^her, Gen. 
46. 17. Same as Isuah, 1 Chr. 7. 30. 

Ishui, second son of Saul, by Ahin- 
oam, 1 Sa. 14. 49. 

Islamism. See MOHAMMEDAN- 
ISM. 

Ismachiah, an overseer of the offer- 
ings nuder Hezekiah, 2Chr. 31. 13. 

Ismaiah, a Gibeonite, 1 Chr. 12. 4. 

Ismaveyilah. See ASSASSINS. 

Ispah, a Benjamite chief, 1 Chr. 8. 
13. 

ISRAEL. 

Israelites, descendants of ISRAEL. 
See JEW. 

ISSACHAR, L Son of JACOB. Is- 
sachar, 11, A Levi porter, 1 Chr. 
26.5. 

Isshiah, I. A Levite descended from 
Moses, 1 Chr. 24. 21. Same as Je- 
shaiah, 1 Chr. 26. 25. II. A Ko- 
liathite Levite, 1 Chr. 24. 25. Same 
as Jesiah, 1 Chr. 23. 20. 

Issue of Blood, a chronic hemor- 
rhage, Mat. 9. 20. 

Isnah"i sec(md son of Asher, 1 Chr. 
7. 30. Same as Ishuah. 

Isui, third son of Asher, Gen. 46. 17. 
Same as Jesui, Ishuai. 

Italian band, Ac. 10. 1. See ARMY. 

ITALY. 

Ithai, one of David's warriors,! Chr. 
11. 31. Same as Ittai, 2 Sa. 23. 29. 

itha:v[ar. 

iLhiel, I. A Benjamite, Neh. 11. 7. 
11. An unknown perscm to whom 
Agnr delivered his discourse, Pr. 
30. 1. 

Ithmah, a Moabite, one of David's 
warriors, 1 Chr. 11. 46. 

Ithnan, a city of Judah in the ex- 
treme south. Josh. 15. 23. 

Iihra, the father of Amasa, 2 Sa. 17. 
25. 

Ithran, I. One of the descendants 
of Seir the Horite, Gen. 36. 26. 
II. A chieftain of Asher, 1 Chr. 
7.37. 

Ithream, one of David's sous, 2 Sa. 
3. 5 ; 1 Chr. 3. B. 

Ithrite, the designation of two of 
David's warriors, 2 Sa. 23. 38. 

Itinerancy. See METHODISTS. 

Ittah-kaziu, a border town of Zebu- 
Inn, Josh. 19. 13. 

ITTAI, I. The Gittite. Ittai, U. A 
Benjamite warrior, 2 Sa. 23. 29. 
Same as Ithai, 1 Chr. 11. 31. 

ITUREA. 

Ivah. Same as Avah, 2 Ki. 18. 34, 

IVORY. 

Izehar, Nu. 3. 19. Same as Izhar, 

Izeharites, Nu, 3. 27. Same as Iz- 
harites. 

Izhar, one of the sons of Kohath, 
Ex. 6. 18, 21 ; Nu. 16. 1 ; 1 Chr. 6. 
2, IS ; 23. 12, 18. 

Izharites, a Levitical family de- 
scended from Izhar, 1 Chr. 24. 
22 : 26. 23, 29. 

Izrahiah, a chieftain of Issachar, 1 
Chr. 7. 8. 

Izrahite Shamhuth, one of David's 
milirary officers, 1 Chr. 27, 8. 

Izri, the head of a division of sing- 
ers, 1 Chr, 25. 11, Same as Zeri, 



Jaakan, De. 10, 6, Same as Jakan, 
1 Chr. L 42. 

Jaakobah, a chieftain of Simeon, 1 
Chr. 4. 36. 

Jaala, Jaalah, one of Solomon's 
servants, Ezra 2. 56; Neh. 7.58. 

Jaalam, one of Esau's sons, Gen, 36. 
5, 14, 18 ; 1 Chr. 1. 35, 

Jaanai, a chieftain of Gad, 1 Chr. 5. 
12. 

Jaare-oregim, a Beth-lehemite 
whose son is said to have killed 
the brother of Goliath, 2 Sa. 21. 
19. Same as Jair, 1 Chr. 20. 5. 

Jaasau, one who had married a for- 
eign wife, Ezra 10, 37. 

Jaasiel, the son of Abner, 1 Chr, 
27. 21. 

Jaazaniah, I, A captain, 2 Ki. 2.5. 
23; Jer. 40, 8. Same as Jezani- 
ah, Jer. 42.1. Also called Azari- 
ah, 11. A Rechabite, Jer. 35. 3. 
HL An idolater, Eze. 8. 11, IV, 
A prince, Eze. 11. 1, 

JAAZER, or JAZER. 

Jaaziah, a Levite of the family of 
Merari, 1 Chr. 24. 26, 27. 

Jaaziel, a Levite porter, prob. same 
as Aziel, a musician, 1 Chr. 15. 18. 

Jabal, son of Lamech, Gen, 4, 20, 

JABBOK, 

JABESH, I. A town, Jabesh, 11. 
Father of Shallum, 2 Ki, 15, 10, 
13, 14. 

Jabesh-gilead. See JABESH. 

Jabez, I, A person named among 
the posterity of Judah, 1 Chr. 4. 
9, 10. 11. A place where some 
families of scribes resided, 1 Chr. 
2. 55. 

JABIN. 

Jabneel, I, A town on the border 
of Jndah, Josh, 15, 11, II. A town 
of Naphtali, Josh. 19. 33. 

Jabneh, a town, 2 Chr, 26. 6, Same 
as Jabneel, I. 

Jachan, a chieftain of Gad, 1 Chr, 5. 
13. 

Jachin, I. Fourth son of Simeon, 
Gen. 46. 10 ; Ex. 6. 15. Also called 
Jarib, 1 Chr. 4. 24. II. A priest, 1 
Chr. 9. 10. IIL The head of one 
of the conrses of priests, 1 Chr. 24, 
17. IV, A column. See TEMPLE, 

Jachinites, the family descended 
from Jachin, son of Simeon, Nu. 
26, 12. 

JACINTH. 

JACOB, L Son of ISAAC. Jacob, 
II. Father of Joseph, Mary's hus- 
band. Mat. 1. 15, 16. 

Jacobins. See DOMINICANS ; MO- 
NOPHYSITES. 

JACOBITES. 

JACOB'S WELL. 

Jada, a descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 
2. 28, 32. 

Jadau, one who had married a for- 
eisn wife, Ezra 10, 43, 

Jaddua, I. One who sealed the cov- 
enant, Neh. 10. 21. II. A Jewish 
high-priesr, Neh. 12. 11, 22. 

Jadon, a person who took part in 
building the wall of Jerusalem, 
Neh. 3. 7. 

JAEL. 

Jaggernaut. See JUGGERNAUT. 

Jagur. a town of Judah, Josh. 15. 21, 

Jab, Ps. 68. 3, a poetic form of JE- 
HOVAH. 

Jahath, I. A descendant of Judah, 
1 Chr. 4. 2. IL A Levite of the fam- 
ily of Gershon, 1 Chr. 6. 20, 43. III. 
Another chief of the same family 
in David's time, 1 Chr, 23. 10, 11. 
IV. A Levite of the Kohathite fam- 
ily, 1 Chr. 24. 22. V. A Levite of 
the family of Merari, 2 Chr, 34. 12, 

JAHAZ. 

Jahaza, Josh, 13. IS, or Jahaznh, 
Josh. 21. 36 ; Jer, 48, 21. See JA- 
HAZ. 



Jahaziah, one who took part with 
Ezra in investigating the mar- 
riages with foreign v\^ives, Ezra 

10, 15. 

Jahaziel, I, A Benjamite chief, 1 

Chr. 12. 4. IL A priest, 1 Chr. 16. 

6, III, A Kohathite Levite, 1 Chr. 

2.3. 19 ; 24. 23. IV. A Levite of the 

sons of Asaph, 2 Chr. 20. 14-17. V. 

Son of Shechaniah, Ezra 8. 5. 
Jahdai, a name in the genealogies 

of Judah, 1 Chr. 2.47. 
Jahdiel, a chief of Manasseh, 1 Chr. 

5. 24, 
Jahdo, a Gadite, 1 Chr. 5. 14. 
Jahleel, one of the sons of Zebulun, 

Gen. 46. 14 ; Nu. 26. 26. 
Jahleelites, a family of Zebulun de- 
scended from Jahleel, Nu. 26. 26. 
Jahmai, one of Issachar's posterity, 

1 Chr. 7. 2. 
Jahza, 1 Chr. 6. 78. See JAHAZ. 
Jahzeel, a son of Naphtaii, Gen. 46. 

24 ; Nu. 26. 48, Same as Jahziel, 

1 Chr. 7. 13. 
Jahzeelites, a family of Naphtali, 

Nn. 26. 48. 
Jahzerah, one of the priests, 1 Chr. 

20, 12. Prob. Ahazai, Neh, 11, 13, 
Jahziel, See Jahzeel. 
JAIR, I. A warrior. II. A judge, 

Jair, III, A Benjamite, Est, 2.' 5. 

IV, Father of Elhauan, 1 Chr. 

20.5, 
Jairite, a descendant of Jair, 2 Sa, 

20. 26. 
JAIRUS. 
Jakan, one of the sons of Ezer the 

Horite, 1 Chr, 1. 42, Same as Akan, 

Gen. 36. 27, 
Jakeh, father of Agur, Pr. .30. 1. 
Jakim, I. A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 19. 

11. The head of one of the conrses 
of the priests, 1 Chr. 24. 12. III. A 
marginal reading of Mat. 1. 11, 
where it means Jehoiakim. 

Jalon, a descendant of Judah, IChr. 
4.17. 

Jambres, 2 Tim. 3. 8. See JANNES. 

JAMES. 

JAMES, EPISTLE OF. 

Jamin, I. A son of Simeon, Gen. 40. 
10;Ex, 6. 15. II. A descendant 
of Judah, 1 Chr. 2. 27. IIL One 
who expounded the law in the 
time of Ezra, Neh, S. 7. 

Jaminites, a family of Simeon, Nu. 
26. 12. 

Jamlech, a chieftain of Simeon, 1 
Chr. 4. 34. 

Janna, a person in the line of our 
Lord's ancestry, Lu. 3. 24, 

JANNES and JAMBRES, 

Janoah, a place in the north of Pal- 
estine, 2 Ki. 15. 29. 

Janohah, a border town of Ephra- 
im, Josh. 16. 6, 7. 

JANSENISTS. 

Jauum, a town in the mountain 
district of Judah, Josh. 15. 53, 

JAPHETH. 

Japhia, I. A king of Lachish, Josh, 
10. 3. See ADONI-ZEDEC. II, 
One of David's sons, 2 Sa. 5. 15 ; 1 
Chr, 3. 7 ; 14. 6. Ill, A place on 
the border of Zebulon, Josh, 19. 
12. 

Japhlet, a descendant of Asher, 1 
Chr. 7. 32, 33. 

Japhleti, a landmark on the south- 
ern frontier of Ephraim, Josh. 
16.3, 

Japho, Josh. 19, 46, Same as JOP- 
PA, 

Jarah, one of Saul's descendants, 1 
Chr, 9. 42. Same as Jehoadah, 1 
Chr, 8. 36, 

Jareb, Hos, 5. 13. Prob, a hostile 
king, 

Jared, father of Enoch, Gen. 5, 15- 
20 ; Lu, 3, 37. 

Jaresiah, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 27, 

Jarha, an Egyptian servant, 1 Chr. 
2. 31, 34, 35, 



1048 



INDEX. 



Jarib, I. One of the sous of Siraeoa, 
1 Ohr. 4. 24. Same as Jachiu, Gen. 
46. 10. II. One who accompanied 
Ezra, Ezra 8. 16. III. A priest who 
had married a foreign wife, Ezra 
10. IS. 

Jarranth, I. A town in Judah, Josh. 
15. 35 ; Neh. 11. 29. II. A Leviti- 
cal citv, Josh. 21. 29. Same as Ka- 
moth/l Chr. 6. T3. 

Jaroah, a Gadite, 1 Chr. 5. 14. 

Jashen, one whose sons were among 
David's warriors, 2 Sa. 23. 32. 

JASHER, BOOK OF. 

JASHOBEAM. 

Jashnb, I. One of the sons of Issa- 
char, Nu. 26. 24 ; 1 Chr. 7. 1. Same 
as Job, Gen. 46. 13. II. One who 
had married a foreign wife, Ezra 
10. 29. 

Jashubi-lehem, a person or place, 1 
Chr. 4. 22. 

Jashubiies, a family of Simeon de- 
scended from Ja.<hub, Nu. 26. 24. 

Jasiel, one of David's warriors, 1 
Chr. 11. 41. 

Jason, a Thessalouian Christian, 
Ac. 17. 5-9 ; Ro. 16. 21. 

JASPER. 

Jathniel, one of the Levite porters, 
1 Chr. 26. 2. 

Jattir, a town among the mount- 
ains of Judah, Josh. 15. 48. 

JAVAN, I. Sou of Japheth. Ja- 
van, II. A town in Southern Ara- 
bia, Eze. 27. 19. 

Javelin. See ARMS. 

Jazer. Same as JAAZER. 

Jaziz, an officer who had charge of 
David's flocks, 1 Chr. 27. 31. 

Jealousy, water of. See ADUL- 
TERY. 

Jearim, a mount on the border of 
Judah, Josh. 15. 10. 

Jeaterai, a Levite of the family of 
Gershon, 1 Chr. 6. 21. Same as 
Ethni, 1 Chr. 6. 41. 

Jeberechiah, the father of a Zecha- 
riah. Is. 8. 2. 

Jebus, Judg. 19. 10, 11. See JERU- 
SALEM. 

Jebusi, Josh. IS. 16, 28. See JERU- 
SALEM. 

JEBUSITES. 

Jecamiah, a person of the royal line 
of David, 1 Chr. 3. 18. Same as 
Jekamiah, 1 Chr. 2. 41. 

Jecholiah, mother of King Azariah, 
or Uzziah, 2 Ki. 15. 2. Same as 
Jecoliah, 2Chr. 26.3. 

Jechouias, Mat. 1. 11, 12. Greek 
form of Jeconiah, or Jehoiacbin. 

Jecoliah, mother of Azariah, 2 Chr. 
26. 3. Same as Jecholiah. 

Jeconiah. Same as JEHOIAKIM. 

Jedaiah, I. A Siineonite chieftain, 1 
Chr. 4. 37. II. One who assisted 
in repairing the wall of Jerusa- 
lem, Neh. 3. 10. ni. The head of 
one of the courses of tlie priests, 

1 Chr. 24. 7. IV. A person who 
came from Babyhm, Zee. 6. 10, 14. 

Jecliael, I. A descendant of Benja- 
min, 1 Chr. 7. 6, 10, 11. II. One of 
David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11. 45. 
III. A Levite porter, 1 Chr. 26. 2. 

Jedidah, the mother of King Josiah, 

2 Ki. 22. 1. 

Jedidiah, a name given to Solomon, 
2 Sa. 12. 25. 

JEDUTHUN. 

Jeezer. Same as Abiezer, Nn. 26. 
30. 

Jeezerites, descendants of Jeezer, 
Nn. 26. 30. 

Je^ar-sahadutha, Gen. 31. 43-55. 
Same as Galeed. 

Jehaleleel, I. A descendant of Ju- 
dah, 1 Chr. 4. 16. IL A Levite, 2 
Chr. 29. 12. 

Jehalelel, a Levite, 2 Chr. 29. 12. 

Jehdeiah, L A Levite, 1 Chr. 24. 20. 
n. An officer who had charge of 
David's asses, 1 Chr. 27. 30. 



Jehezekel, the chief of one of the 
courses of the priests, 1 Chr. 24.16. 

Jehiah, one of the door-keepers for 
the ark, 1 Chr. 15. 24. 

Jehiel, I. A Levite porter, 1 Chr. 15. 
IS, 20 ; 16, 5. IL A Gershonite Le- 
vite, 1 Chr. 23. 8. Same as Jehieli. 
III. One of David's officers, 1 Chr. 
27. 32. IV. A son of Jehoshaphut, 
2 Chr. 21. 2, 4. V. A Levite of the 
family of Hemau, 2 Chr. 29. 14. 
VI. A ruler of the house of God, 2 
Chr. 35. 8. VII. Father of one who 
returned to Jerusalem, Ezra 8. 9. 
VIIL Father of Shechaniah. Ezra 
10. 2. IX., X. Two who had mar- 
ried foreign wives, Ezra 10. 21, 26. 
XI. A Benjamite who dwelt at 
Gibeon, 1 Chr. 9. 35. XII. One of 
David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11. 44. 
XIII. Father of Kish, 1 Chr. 9. 35, 
30. 

Jehieli, 1 Chr. 26. 21. Same as Je- 
hiel. 

Jehizldah, one of the chiefs of Ephra- 
im, 2 Chr. 28. 12. 

Jehoadah, one of the descendants 
of Saul, 1 Chr. 8. 36. Same as Ja- 
rah. 

Jehoaddan, mother of Amaziah, 
king of Judah, 2 Ki. 14. 2 ; 2 Chr. 
25.1. 

JEHOAHAZ, L, or Shallum, seven- 
teenth king of Judah. II. Elev- 
enth king of Israel. Jehoahaz, 
III., or AHAZIAH, 2 Chr. 21. 17. 

Jehoash. See JOASH. 

Jehohanan, I. A Levite porter, 1 Chr. 
26. 3. IL A military chief, 2 Chr. 
17. 15. III. One who had married 
a foreign wife, Ezra 10. 28. IV. A 
priest, Neh. 12. 13. V. A priest 
who took part in the dedication 
of the wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 12. 
42. 

JEHOIACHIN. 

JEHOIADA, I. A high-priest. Je- 
hoiad.i, II. The father of Benai- 
ah, 2 Sa. 8. 18. III. One of Da- 
vid's counselors, 1 Chr. 27. 34. IV. 
A person who helped to repair the 
wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3. 6. V. 
The second priest in the reign of 
Zedekiah, Jer. 29. 25-29. 

JEHOIAKIM. 

Jehoiarib, the head of the first 
course of the priests, 1 Chr. 24. 7. 
Same as Joiarib, Neh. 11. 10 ; 12. 6. 

JEHONADAB. 

Jehonathan, I. The superintendent 
of David's store-houses, 1 Chr. 27. 

25. II. A Levite sent by Jehosh- 
aphat to teach the people, 2 Chr. 
17. 8. III. A priest, Neh. 10. 18. 

JEHORAM, I. King of Judah. Je- 
horam, II. King of Israel. 

Jehoshabeath, daughter of Jeho- 
ram, king of Judah, and wife of 
Jehoiada"", 2 Chr. 22. 11. Same as 
Jehosheba. 

JEHOSHAPHAT, I. King of Judah. 
Jehoshaphat, II. Recorder under 
David, 2 Sa. 8. 10 ; 20. 24. III. 
Commissariat officer under Solo- 
mon, 1 Ki. 4. 17. IV. Father of 
King Jehu, 2 Ki. 9. 2, 14. V. A 
priest, 1 Chr. 15. 24. 

JEHOSHAPHAT, VALLEY OP. 

Jehosheba, wife of JEHOIADA, 2 
Ki. 11. 2. 

Jehoshua, or Jehoshnah, the full 
form of the name generally found 
as Joshua, Nu. 13. 16. See JOSH- 
UA. 

JEHOVAH. 

Jehovah-jireh, Jehovah-nissi, Jeho- 
vah-slialom. See JEHOVAH. 

Jehozabad, I. One of the conspira- 
tors who slew Joash, king of Ju- 
dah, 2 Ki. 12. 21 ; 2 Chr. 24.'"26. IL 
One of the Levite porters, 1 Chr. 

26. 4. III. A military command- 
er, 2 Chr. 17. IS. 

Jehozadak, sou of the high-priest 



Seraiah, 1 Chr. 6. 14, i5. Same as 
Jozadak and Josedech. 

JEHU, L King of Israel. II. A proph- 
et. Jehu, III. A descendant of 
Judah, 1 Chr. 2. 38. IV. A Sime- 
onite chief, 1 Chr. 4. 35, V. A 
Benjamite, 1 Chr. 12. 3. 

Jehubbah, a chieftain of Asher, 1 
Chr. 7. 34. 

Jehucal, an eminent ])ersou in the 
reign of Zedekiah, Jer. 37. 3. 
Same as Jucal, Jer. 3S, 1. 

Jehud, a city allotted to the tribe 
of Dan, Josh. 19. 45. 

Jehttdi, a person who was sent for 
the roll of Jeremiah's prophecies, 
Jer. 36. 14, 21, 23. 

Jehudijah, wife of Mered, 1 Chr. 4. 
IS. Prob. same as Hodiah, 1 Chr. 
4.19. 

Jehush, a descendant of King Saul, 
1 Chr. 8. 39. Same as Jeush. 

Jeiel, I. A Reubenite chief, 1 Chr. 5. 
7. II. A Levite porter, 1 Chr. 15. 
18, 21. III. A Levite of the sous 
of Asaph, 2 Chr. 20. 14. IV. A 
scribe in the time of Uzziah, 2 
Chr. 26. 11. V. A Levite who took 
part in Hezekiah's reformation, 2 
Chr. 29. 13. VI. A chief Levite iu 
Josiah's time, 2 Chr. 35. 9. VII, 
One who accompanied Ezra from 
Babylon to Jerusalem, Ezra S. 13. 
VIIL One who married a foreign 
wife, Ezra 10. 43. 

Jekabzeel, a city in the south of Ju- 
dah, Neh. 11. 25. Same as Kab- 
zeel, Josh. 15. 21. 

Jekameam, a Levite in David's 
time, 1 Chr. 23. 19. ' 

Jekamiah, a descendant of Judah, 
1 Chr. 2. 41, 

Jekuthiel, one of Judah's descend- 
ants, 1 Chr. 4. 18. 

Jemima, the eldest of Job's daugh- 
ters. Job 42. 13, 14. 

Jemuel, eldest son of Simeon, Gen. 
46. 10 ; Ex. 6. 15. Same as N emu- 
el, Nu. 26. 12. 

Jephthae, Greek form of Jephthah, 
He. 11. 32. 

JEPHTHAH. 

Jephuuneh, I. Father of Caleb the 
spv, Nu, 13, 6. He is called a 
K e n e z i t e , Josh. 14. 14. II. A 
chieftain of Asher, 1 Chr. 7. 38. 

Jerah, Geu. 10. 26. A sou of Jok- 
tan, or tribe descended from him. 

Jerahmeel, I. Son of Hezrou, 1 Chr. 
2.9,25-42. IL A Levite of the fam- 
ily of Merari, 1 Chr. 24. 29. IIL 
One of those commanded to ar- 
rest Baruch and Jeremiah, Jer. 
36. 26. 

Jerahmeelites, descendants of Je- 
rahmeel, I., 1 Sa, 27. 10 ; 30, 29. 

Jered, I. 1 Chr. 1. 2. See Jared. 
II. A descendant of Judah, aud 
founder of Gedor, 1 Chr, 4, 18. 

Jeremai, one who had married a 
foreign wife, Ezra 10. 33. 

JEREMIAH, I. The second of the 
greater prophets. II. Father of 
iSamutal, the wife of Josiah, 2 Ki. 
23. 31 ; 24. 18. Same as Libnah. 
Jeremiah, III. A chief of Manas- 
seh, 1 Chr. 5. 24. IV. A Benjar 
mite, 1 Chr. 12. 4. V., VI. Two 
Gadite chiefs, 1 Chr. 12. 10,13. VIL 
A priest who sealed the covenant, 
Neh. 10. 2. 

Jeremias, Mat. 16. 14. A Greek form 
of Jeremiah. 

Jeremoth, I. A Benjamite chief, 1 
Chr. S. 14. IL A Levite of the fam- 
ily of Merari, 1 Chr. 23, 23, Same 
as Jerimoth, 1 Chr. 24. .30. IIL 
Head of one division of singers, 
1 Chr. 25. 22. Also called Jerimoth 
in verse 4. IV., V. Two persons 
who had married foreign wives, 
Ezra 10. 26, 27. 

Jeremy, Mat. 2. 17 ; 27. 9. Another 
form of Jeremiah. 



I^DEX. 



1049 



Jeriah, a Kohathite Levite, 1 Chr. 
23. 19 ; 24. 23. Same as Jerijah, 1 
Chr. 20. 31. 

Jeribai, oue of David's warriors, 1 
Chr. 11.40. 

JERICHO. 

Jeriel, a descendant of Issachar, 1 
Chr. 7. 2. 

Jerijah, 1 Chr. 20. 31. See Jeriah. 

Jerimoth, I., II. Two Beiijamites, 1 
Chr. T. T, S. III. A Beiijamite who 
joined David at Zikhm-, 1 Chr. 12. 
5. IV. A Merarire Levite, 1 Chr. 
24.80. See Jereinoth II. V.lChr. 
25.4. See Jeremothlll. VI. Ruler 
of Naphtali in David's reign, 1 Chr. 
27. 19. VII. Son of David, 2 Chr. 
11. 18. VIII. An overseer of offer- 
ings and tithes in the reign of 
Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 31. 13. 

Jei-ioth, wife of Caleb, 1 Chr. 2. IS. 

JEROBOAM. 

Jeroham, I. Father of Elkanah, 1 Sa. 
1. 1. II. A Benjamite chief, 1 Chr. 

8. 27. III. Another Benjamite, 1 
Chr. 9. 8. IV. A priest, 1 Chr. 9. 
12. V. Father of some warriors 
who joined David at Ziklag, 1 Chr. 
12. 7. VI. Father of the ruler of 
Dan in David's time, 1 Chr. 27. 22. 
VII. Father of one of Jehoiada's 
captains, 2 Chr. 23. 1. 

Jerubbaal, Judg. 6. 32. Same as 
GIDEON. 

Jerul)besheth, a name of GIDEON, 
2 Sa. 11. 21. 

Jeruel, a place where Jehoshaphat 
was forewarned he shcnild meet 
the Moabites and Ammonites, 2 
Chr. 20. 10. 

JERUSALEM {Holy City) : its his- 
tory as a citv, Judg. 1. 8, 21 ; 2 Sa. 
5. 0-10 ; 2 Ki. 25. 4-7 ; 2 Chr. 30. 17- 
21 ; Neh. 3. ; 4. ; 5. ; 0. ; 11. ; 12. 27- 
43 ; Jer. 39. 1-14; 52. 4-23. Threat- 
enings andexposturations, Jer. 1. 
15; 2.; 3. ; 4. ; 5. ; 0. ; 7. ; 8. ; 9. ; 
10. ; 11. ; Eze. 21. 22. Figurative 
representations. Is. 3. 20 ; Eze. 4. ; 
5. ; 10. Prophecy of its re-erec- 
tion, Jer. 31. 38-40. Its future 
name and signification, Eze. 48. 
30-35 ; Gal. 4. 20 ; Re. 21. 

Jerusalem, New, Church of. See 
SWEDENBORGIANS. 

Jerusha, or Jerushah, mother of 
King Jotham, 2 Ki. 15. 33 ; 2 Chr. 
27.1. 

Jesaiah, 1. A descendant of David, 
IChr. 3. 21. II. A Benjamite, Neh. 
11.7. 

Jeshaiah, I. S(m of Jeduthun, 1 Chr. 
25. 3, 15. IL A Kohathite Levite, 

1 Chr. 20. 25. Same as Isshiah I. 

III. One who returned from Babv- 
lon, Ezra 8. 7. IV. A Levite of the 
family of Merari, Ezra S. 19. 

Jeshanah, oue of tlie places taken 
by Abijah from Jeroboam I., 1 
Chr. 1.8. 19. 

Jesharelah, a musician, 1 Chr. 25. 14. 
Same as Asarelah, verse 2. 

Jeshebeab, chief of the fourteenth 
course of priests, 1 Chr. 24. 13. 

Jesher, one of the s<ms of Caleb, the 
son of Hezron, 1 Chr. 2. IS. 

JESHIMON. 

Jeshishai, a Gadite, 1 Chr. 5. 14. 

Jeshohaiah, a descendant of Sim- 
eon, 1 Chr. 4. 36. 

Jeshua, I. Head of a course of 
priests, Neh. 7. 39; Ezra 2. 30. 
Same as Jeshuah. II. A Levite, 

2 Chr. 31. 15. IIL A high-priest, 
Ezra 2. 2 ; 4. 3 ; 10. 18 ; Neh. 7. 7. 

IV. Head of a familv, Ezra 2. ; 
Neh. 7. 11. V. The progenitor of 
a Levitical house, Ezra 2. 40 ; Neh. 
7. 43. VL A Levite, Ezra 8. 33. 
Vll. Father of one who helped 
repair the wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 
3. 19. VIII. A Levite, Neh. 8. 7 ; 

9. 4, 5 ; 12. 8, 24. IX. Same as 
JOSHUA, Neh. 8. 17. X. A town 



in the south of Judah, Neh. 11. 
20. 

Jeshuah, I. Head of a course of 
priests, 1 Chr. 24. 11. Same as 
Jeshua I. 

Jeshurun, a name for Israel, De. 32. 
15. Same as Jesurun, Is. 44. 2. 

Jesiah, I. Oue of David's warriors, 
1 Chr. 12. 0. II. A Kohathite Le- 
vite, 1 Chr. 23. 20. Same as Isshi- 
ah, 1 Chr. 24. 25. 

Jesimiel, one of Simeon's descend- 
ants, 1 Chr. 4. 30. 

JESSE. 

Jesui, son of Asher, Nu.2G. 44. Same 
as Isui, Gen. 40. 17, and Ishuai, 1 
Chr. 7. 30. 

Jesuites, descendants of Jesui, Nu. 
20.44. 

JESUITS. 

Jesurun, Is. 44. 2, Same as Jeshu- 
run. 

Jesus, I. Greek form of Joshua, He. 
4. 8. II. Sou of Sirach. See EC- 
CLESIASTICUS. IlL Called also 
Justus, Col. 4. 11. 

JESUS CHRIST. See APPENDIX, 
pages 994-997. 

Jesus Christ, second coming of. See 
MILLENARIANS. 

Jether, I. Ex. 4. 18. See Jethro. IL 
Eldest son of Gideon, Judg. 8. 20. 
III. One who married Abigail, 1 
Ki. 2. 5, 32. Same as Ithra in 2 Sa. 
17. 25. IV. One of Judah's pos- 
terity, 1 Chr. 2. 32. V. Another 
descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 4. 17. 
VL A chief of Asher, 1 Chr. 7. 38. 
Perhaps same as Ithran in ver. 37. 

Jetheth, a duke of Edom, Gen. 30. 
40; 1 Chr. 1.51. 

Jethlah, a city allotted to Dan, Josh. 
19. 42. 

JETHRO. 

Jetur, a son of Ishmael, Gen. 25. 15 ; 
1 Chr. 1.31. 

Jeuel, a descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 
9.0. 

Jeush, I. One of the sons of Esau 
by Aholibamah, Geu. 30. 5, 14, IS. 
IL A Benjamite chief, 1 Chr. 7. 
10. III. A Gershonite Levite, 1 
Chr. 23. 10, 11. IV. A son of Re- 
hoboam, 2 Chr. 11. 19. 

Jeuz, a Benjamite chief, 1 Chr. 8. 10. 

JEW. 

JEW, WANDERING. 

Jewels: agate and amethyst, Ex. 
28. 19; Is. 54. 12; Re. 21. 20;— 
bdellium, Geu. 2. 12 ; Nu. 11. 7;— 
bervl, Ex. 28. 20; Eze. 1.10; 10.9; 
28. 13 ; Da. 10. ; Re. 21. 20 ;— car- 
buncle, Ex. 28. 17 ; Is. 54. 12 ; Eze. 
28. 13 ;— chalcedony. Re. 21. 19 ;— 
chrj-solite and chrysoprasus. Re. 
21. 20 ;— diamond. Ex 28. 18 ; Eze. 
28. 15 ;— emerald, Eze. 27. 10 ; Re. 
4. 3 ;— jacinth. Re. 9. 17 ; 21. 20 ;— 
jasper, Ex. 28. 20 ; Eze. 28. 13 ; Re. 
4. 3 ; 21. 11, IS, 19 ;— ligurc, Ex. 28. 
19 ; 39. 12 ;— onyx, Geu. 2. 12 ; Ex. 
28. 20 ; Job 28. 10 ; Eze. 28. 13 ;— 
pearl. Mat. 13. 45 ; 1 Tim. 2. 9 ; Re. 
17.4; 18.12,10; 21. 21 ;— ruby, sar- 
dine, or sardius, Ex. 28. 17; Job 
28. 18 ; Pr. 3. 15 ; 8. 11 ; 20. 15 ; 31. 
10 ; Eze. 28. 13 ; Re. 4. 3 ; 21. 20 ;— 
sapphire, Ex. 24. 10; 28. 18; Job 
28. 10; Is. 54. 11 ; La. 4. 7; Eze. 1 
20; 10. 1; 28. 13; Re. 21. 19;— to- 
l)az, Ex. 28. 17 ; 39. 10 ; Job 28.19 ; 
Eze. 28. 13 ; Re. 21. 20. See GEMS. 

Jewess, a woman of Hebrew birth, 
Ac. 10. 1 ; 24. 24. 

Jewrv, Da. 5. 13 ; Lu. 23. 5; Jno. 7. 
1. Aname of JUDEA. 

J e w p. w a i 1 i n g - p 1 a c e of. See 
MOURNING. 

Jezaniah, son of Hoshaiah, Jer. 40. 
8 ; 42. 1. lu Jer. 43. 2, called Aza- 
riah. See Jaazaniah I. 

JEZEBEL. 

Jezer, a son of Naphtali, Gen. 40. 
24; Nu. 26.49. 



Jezerites, descendants of Jezer, Nu. 
20. 49. 

Jeziah, one who had married a for- 
eign wife, Ezra 10. 25. 

Jeziel, a Benjamite chief, 1 Chr. 
12. 3. 

Jezliah, a Benjamite who dwelt in 
Jerusalem, 1 Chr. 8. 18. 

Jezoar, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 4. 7. 

Jezrahiah, overseer of the singers 
at the dedication of tlie wall of 
Jerusalem, Neh. 12. 42. 

JEZREEL, L A city of Issachar. 
Jezreel, IL A city in the hill coitu- 
try of Judah, Josh. 15. 50 ; 1 Sa. 

25. 43 ; 27. 3 ; 30. 5 ; 2 Sa. 2. 2 : 3. 2 ; 
1 Chr. 3. 1. III. A name in the 
geuealoay of Judah. 

, Fcmntain of. See GILBOA. 

■ , Valley of. See ESDRAE- 

LON. 

Jezreelite, Jezreelitess, an inhabit- 
ant of Jezreel, 1 Ki. 21. 1-16 ; 1 Sa. 
27.3. 

Jibsam, a descendant of Issachar, 
1 Chr. 7. 2. 

Jidlaph, son of Nahor, Gen. 22. 22. 

Jimna, or Jimnah, eldest son of 
Asher, Gen. 46. 17; Nu. 26. 44. 
Same as Imnah, 1 Chr. 7. 30. 

Jimnites, descendants of Jimna, 
Nu. 20. 44. 

Jiphtah, a city of Judah, Josh. 15. 
43. 

Jiphthahel, a valley. Josh. 19. 14, 27. 

JOAB, I. One of David's captains. 
Joab, li. A name in the genealo- 
gies of Judah, 1 Chr. 4. 14. IIL A 
person, Ezra 2. ; Neh. 7. 11. 

Joachimites. See SECT. 

Joah, L Son of Asaph, 2 Ki. 18. 18, 
20, 37 ; Is. 36. 3, 11, 22. II. A Ger- 
shonite Levite, 1 Chr. 0. 21. III. 
Son of Obed-edom, 1 Chr. 26. 4. 
IV. A Levite who assisted in the 
reforms of Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 29. 
12. V. Son of Joahaz, recorder to 
Josiah, 2 Chr. 34. 8. 

Joahaz, father of Joah, recorder to 
King Josiah, 2 Chr. 34. 8. 

Joanna, I. One of our Lord's ances- 
tors, Lu. 3. 27. II. One of the 
women who ministered to our 
Lord, Lu. S. 3 ; 24. 10. 

JOASH, I. Eighth king of Judah. 
IL Twelfth king of Israel. Joash, 
IIL Father of GIDEON, Judg. 6. 

11, etc. IV. Son of AHAB, 1 Ki. 
22. 26. V. A descendant of Judah, 
1 Chr. 4. 22. VI. A Benjamite chief, 
1 Chr. 12. 3. VII. Son of Bechor, 
1 Chr. 7. S. VIII. Officer of David, 
1 Chr. 27. 28. 

Joatham, Mat. 1. 9. Greek form of 
Jotham. 

JOB, I. A patriarch. Job, II. Gen. 
46. 13. See Jashub. 

Jobab, I. A son of Joktan, Gen. 10. 
29. II. One of the kings who 
reigned in Edom, Gen. 36. 3.3, 34; 
1 Chr. 1. 34, 35. III. King of Ma- 
dou. Josh. 11. 1. IV., V. Two Ben- 
jamite chiefs, 1 Chr. 8. 9, 18. 

Jochebed, wife of Amram, and 
mother of Moses, Ex. 6. 20; Nu. 

26. 59. 

Joed, a descendant of Benjamin, 
Neh. 11. 7. 

JOEL, I. Second minor prophet. 
Joel, IL Eldest son of Samuel, 1 
Sa. 8. 2 ; 1 Chr. 0. 33. III. A chief 
of the Simeonites, 1 Chr. 4. 35. IV. 
A descendant of Reuben, 1 Chr. 5. 
4, 8. V. A Gadite chief, 1 Chr. 5. 

12. VL A Kohathite, 1 Chr. 6. 36. 
VII. A descendant of Issachar, 1 
Chr. 7. 3. VIIL One of David's he- 
roes, 1 Chr. 11. 38. IX. A chief of 
the Gershonites, 1 Chr. 15. 7, 11. 
X. A Gershonite appointed over 
the treasures of the Lord's house, 
1 Chr. 23. 8. XL A chief of Ma- 
nasseh, 1 Chr. 27. 20. XII. A Ko- 



1050 



INDEX. 



hathi te, 2 Chr. 29. 12. XIII. A per- 
son who had a foreign wife, Ezra 

10. 43. XIV. A Benjamite over- 
seer, Neh. 11. 9. 

Joelah, aBeujamite chief, 1 Chr. 12. 

T. 
Joezer, a Benjamite, or Korhite, 

who joined David at Ziklag, 1 

Chr. 12. 6. 
Jogbehah, a city of Gad, Nu. 32. 35. 
Jogli, father of Bukki, a chief of 

Ban, Nu. 34. 22. 
Joha, I. A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 16. 

11. One of David's warriors, 1 Chr. 
11. 45. 

JOHANAN, I. A chief. Johanan, 

11. A son of Josiah, 1 Clir. 3. 15. 

III. A descendant of the house of 
David, 1 Chr. 3. 24. IV. One in 
the line of high-priests, 1 Chr. 6. 
9, 10. v., VI. Two warriors, a 
Benjamite and a Gadite, 1 Chr. 

12. 4, 12. VII. Father of a chief 
of Ephraim in the reign of Pe- 
kah, 2 Chr. 28. 12. VIII. One 
of those who returned with Ezra 
from Babylon, Ezra 8. 2. IX. Son 
of Eliasliib, Ezra 10. 6. X. Son of 
Tobiah, the Ammonite, Neh. 6.18. 
XI. Father of Jaddua, in the line 
of priests, also called Jonathan, 
Neh. 12. 11, 22. 

JOHN, I. The Baptist. II. The 
Apostle. Joliu, III. One of the 
high -priests' kindred, Ac. 4. 26. 

IV. Same as MARK, Ac. 12. 25. 
JOHN, EPISTLES OF. 

JOHN, GOSPEL OF. 

Johnsonians. See SECT. 

Joiada, one in the line of high- 
priests, Neh. 12. 10, 11, 22. 

Joiakim, a high-priest, Neh. 12. 10, 
12, 26. 

Joiarib, I. One of Ezra's compan- 
ions, Ezra 8. 16. II. A descendant 
of Judah, Neh. 11. 5. IIL A priest, 
Neh. 11. 10. Same as Jehoiarib, 2 
Chr. 24. 7. 

Jokdeam, a city of Judah, 1 Chr. 4. 
22. 

Jokim, a descendant of Shelah, 1 
Chr. 4. 22. 

Jokmeam, a city of Ephraim, 1 Chr. 
6.68. 

Jokneam, a city on the border of 
Zebulun, Josh. 12. 22 ; 19. 11 ; 21. 
34. 

Jokshan, a son of Abraham by Ke- 
turah. Gen. 25. 2, 3 ; 1 Chr. 1. 32. 

JOKTAN. 

Joktheel, I. A city of Judah, Josh. 
15. 38. II. The name which Am- 
aziah gave to Selah, the Edomite 
stronghold, after capturing it, 2 
Ki. 14. 7. 

Jona, father of the apostle Peter, 
Jno. 1. 42. See Jonas II. 

JON A DAB, L An unprincipled 
courtier. Jonadab, II. In Jer. ch. 
35, put for JEHONADAB. 

JONAH. 

Jonan, an ancestor of Christ, Lu. 3. 
30. 

Jonas, I. Greek form of Jonah, Mat. 
12. 39, 40, 41 ; 16. 4. II. Father of 
the apostles, Peter and Andrew, 
Jno. 21. 15-17. Same as Jona, 
Jno. 1. 42. 

JONATHAN, I. Son of Saul. IL 
Son of Sliiraeah. IIL Sou of Abi- 
athar. IV. Descendant of Ger- 
shon. V. Son of Joiada. Jona- 
than, VI. One of David's heroes, 2 
Sa. 23. 32. VIL Descendant of Je- 
rahmeel, 1 Chr. 2. 32, 33. VIIL 
Two persons mentioned by Ezra, 
Ezra 8. 6 ; ] 0. 15. IX. Two priests, 
Neh. 12. 14, 3.5. X. A scribe, Jer. 
37. 15, 20. XL A son of Kareah, 
Jer. 40. 8. 

J6nath-(''lem-rechnkim. See MU- 
SICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

JOPPA. 

Jorah, one whose descendants re- 



turned from Babylon with Ze- 
rubbabel, Ezra 2. IS. Same as 
Hariph, Neh. 7. 24. 

Jorai, a chieftain of Gad, 1 Chr. 5. 
13. 

Joram, I. Son of Toi, king of Ha- 
math, sent to salute David, 2 Sa. 
8. 10. Same as Hadoram, 1 Chr. 
18. 10. II. A king of Israel, 1 Ki. 
S. 16-29 ; 9. 14-29 ; 2 Chr. 22. 5, 7. 
See Jehoram I. III. A king of 
Judah, 2 Ki. 8. 21-24 ; 11. 2 ; 1 Chr. 
3. 11; Mat. 1. 8. See Jehoram. 
IV. A Levite, 1 Chr. 26. 25. 

JORDAN. 

Jordan, region beyond. See PE- 
REA. 

Jorim, a person named in the an- 
cestry of Christ, Lu. 3. 29. 

Jorists. See SECT. 

Jorkoam, a place in the tribe of Ju- 
dah, 1 Chr. 2. 44. 

Josabad, a Benjamite, 1 X^hr. 12. 4. 
In some copies called Jozabad. 

Josaphat, Mat. 1. 8. Greek form of 
Jehoshaphat. 

Jose, one in the line of our Lord's 
ancestry, Lu. 3. 29. 

Josedech, a high - priest. Hag. 1. 1, 
12, 14 ; 2. 2, 4 ; Zec. 6. 11. See Je- 
hozadak, Jozadak. 

JOSEPH, I. Son of Jacob. H. Re- 
puted father of our Lord. III. 
Of Arimathea. Joseph, IV. Fa- 
ther of Isal, Nu. 13. 7. V. A lay 
Israelite, Ezra 10. 42. VL Three 
ancestors of Christ, Lu. 3. 24, 26, 
30. VII. Joseph, called Barsa- 
bas, Ac. 1. 23. VHL A chief 
priest, Neh. 12. 14. 

JOSEPHUS. 

Joses, I. One of the BRETHREN 
OF THE LORD, Mat. 13. 55 ; 27. 
56 ; Mar. 6. 3 ; 15. 40, 47. II. Ac. 
4. 36. Same as BARNABAS. 

Joshah, a chief of Simeon, 1 Chr. 
4.34. 

Joshaphat, one of David's warriors, 
1 Chr. 11. 46. 

Joshaviah, one of David's warriors, 
1 Chr. 11. 46. 

Joshbekashah, the head of a divis- 
ion of singers, 1 Chr. 25. 4, 24. 

JOSHUA, I. Son of Nun. Joshua, 
II. Man of Beth-shemesh, 1 Sa. 6. 
14, 18. III. Governor of Jerusa- 
lem, 2 Ki. 23. 8. IV. High-priest 
after the captivity, Hag. 1. 1. 
Same as Jeshua. 

JOSHUA, BOOK OF. 

Joshua, Gate of, one of the gates of 
JERUSALEM, 2 Ki. 23. 8. 

JOSIAH, I. King of Judah. Josi- 
ah, II. A person, Zec. 6. 10. 

Josias, Greek form of Josiah, Mat. 
1. 10, 11. 

Josibiah, a chief of Simeon, 1 Chr. 
4.35. 

Josiphiah, one whose son returned 
from Babylon with Ezra, Ezra S. 
10. 

JOT. 

Jot bah, the place where King 
Amon's mother resided, 2 Ki. 21. 
19. 

Jotbath, Jotbathah, a station of the 
Israelites, Nu. 33. 33 ; De. 10. 7. 

JOTHAM, I. King of Judah. Jo- 
tham, II. Son of Gideon, Judg. 9. 
7. III. A descendant of Judah, 
1 Chr. 2. 47. 

JOURNEY. 

Journevs of the Israelites. See 
APPENDIX, page 1007. 

Joy, its source, Neh. 8. 10 ; Ps. 5. 11 ; 
21. 6; 63. 7: 66.; 118. 15; Pr. 1,5. 
23; Is. 35. 10; Lu. 2. 10; Jno. 3. 
29 ; Ro. 15. 13 ; Gal. 5. 22. Its ob- 
ject, Ps. 20. 5 ; 33. 1 ; 43. 4 ; Is. 01. 
10 ; Zee. 9. 9 ; Ro. 5. 2, 11 ; Phi. 3. 
3 ; lie. 12. 2 ; 1 Pe. 1. 8. Its frui- 
tion. Ps. 16. 11 ; 30. 5 ; 149. 5 ; Jno. 
17.13: Ac. 2. 28; 2 Jno. 12 ; Ju. 24. 

Jozabad, I., II. Two chiefs of Ma- 



nasseh who joined David at Zik-" 
lag, 1 Chr. 12. 20. III. One who 
took part in the reforms of Heze- 
kiah, 2 Chr. 31. 13. IV. A Levite 
chief, 2 Chr. 35. 9. V. A Levite, 
Ezra 8. 33. VI. A priest who mar- 
ried a foreign wife, Ezra 10. 22, 
VII. One wlio assisted Ezra in 
reading the law, Neh. 8. 7. VIIL 
A chief of the Levites, Neh. 11. 16. 
See Josabad. 

Jozachar, one of the murderers of 
Joash, king of Judah, 2 Ki. 12. 21. 
Same as Zabad, 2 Chr. 24. 26. 

Jozadak, Ezra 3. 2, 8 ; 5. 2 ; 10. 18 ; 
Neh. 12. 26. See Jehozadak. 

JUBAL. 

JUBILEE, THE YEAR OF. 

Jucal, a person, Jer. 38. 1. Same as 
Jehucal. 

Juda, I. One of the BRETHREN 
OF THE LORD, Mar. 6. 3. Same 
as Judas, Mat. 13. 55. IL One in 
the list of our Lord's ancestry, 
Lu. 3. 26. IIL Another in the 
same list, Lu. 3. 30. IV. Tlie pa- 
triarch Judah, Lu. 3. 33 ; He. 7. 14. 
Same as Jndas in Mat. 1. 2, 3. V. 
Used for the land. Mat. 2. 6. 

JudiBa. See JUDEA. 

Jndaeans. See JUDEA. 

JUDAH, I. Son of Jacob, his tribe 
and territory. Judah, II. A Le- 
vite, Ezra 3. 9. HI. A Levite who 
had a foreign wife, Ezra 10. 23. 
IV. A Benjamite, Neh. 11. 9. V. 
A Levite, Neh. 12. 8. VL, VIL 
Two who took part in the dedi- 
cation of the wall of Jerusalem, 
Neh. 12. 34, 36. 

Judaism. See JEW. 

JUDAS, I. Iscari(jt. II. Of Galilee. 
III. Brother of Jesus. IV. Broth- 
er of James. Judas, V. Greek 
form of Judah, Mat. 12. 3. VI. A 
person in Damascus, Ac. 9. 11, 17. 
\^I. A disciple, Ac. 1.5. 23. 

Jude, aform of JUDAS. 

JUDE, EPISTLE OF. 

JUDEA. 

JUDGES : appointed, Ex. 18. 21-24 ; 
De. 16. 18. Qualitications and duty 
of, Ex. 18. 21, 22 ; 21. 22 ; 23. 3, 6 ; 
Le. 19. 15 ; De. 1. 13, 16 ; 17. 8, 9 ; 2 
Chr. 19. 6 ; Ezra 7. 25 ; Ps. 82. ; Pr. 
18. 5 ; 24. 23 ; 31. 8, 9. Bad ones, 1 
Sa. 8. 1-5 ; Is. 1. 23 ; Mi. 3. 9 ; Zeph. 
3. 3 : Lu. 18. 2. 

JUDGES, BOOK OF. 

JUDGMENT, DAY OF. 

JUDGMENT-HALL. 

Judgment, the future : predicted, 1 
Chr. 16. 33 ; Ps. 1. 5 ; 9. 7, 8 ; 50. ; 
Ec. 3. 17; 11. 9; 12.14. To be ad- 
ministered by Christ, Mat. 16. 27 : 
25. 31-46 ; Jno. 5. 22, 27 ; Ac. 10. 42 ; 
17. 31 ; Ro. 2. 16 ; 14. 10 ; 2 Co. 5. 10 ; 
2 Tim. 4. 1 ; Ju. 14, 15 ; Re. 20. 12 ; 
22. 12. The time unknown. Mat. 
24. 36, 44 ; Mar. 13. 32 ; 1 Tli. 5. 2 ; 
2 Pe. 3. 10. Why delayed, 2 Pe. 3. 
9, 15. Signs preceding the, Mat. 
24. 14; 2 Th. 2. 8 ; 1 Jno. 2. 18; 
Re. 14. 16. The circumstances of, 
Zeph. 3. 8 ; Mat. 24. 31 ; 25. 32 ; 1 
Co. 15. 52 ; 1 Th. 4. 16 ; 2 Th. 1. 7- 
10 ; 2 Pe. 3. 7. The manner of the 
Lord's coming to. Da. 7. 10-13; 
Zec. 14. 4, 5 ; Mat. 16. 27 : 24. 30 ; 
26.04; Lu. 21.27; Ac. 1.11; 1 Th. 
3. 13 ; 4. 16 ; Re. 1. 7. The saints 
partakers in the, Ps. 149. 5-9 ; Da. 
7. 27 ; 12. 13 ; Mat. 19. 28 ; Lu. 22. 
30 ; 1 Co. 6. 2, 3 ; Re. 2. 26 ; 20. 4. 

Judcments of God, Ps.19.9; 30.6; 
119.39,75,1.37; Is. 26. 9 ; Ro. 2. 2 ; 
11. 33: Re. 16. 7. Upon nations: 
examples of. Gen. 6. 7, 17 {the old 
world) :— Gen. 19. 24 (Sodom, etc.) ; 
—Ex. 9. 14 {Eavi^t) ; — Nu. 14. 29, 

■ 35 ; 21. 6 (Israel) ;— 1 Sa. 15. 3 (Am- 
alekites) :— Nahum (Nineveh) . 
Upon individuals: Gen. 4. 11, 12 
(Cam);— Gen. 19. 26 (LoVs ici/e); 



INDEX. 



1051 



— Nu. 16. 33-35 (Korah, etc.);— 
Josh. T. 25 (Achan) ;— 2 Sa. 6. 7 (Uz- 
zah) ;— 2 Ki. 5. 27 (Gehazi) ;— Da. 
4. 31 {Nebuchadnezzar) ;— Lu. 1. 20 
(Zacharias) ;— Ac. 5. 1-10 {Anani- 
as, etc.) ;— Ac. 12, 23 {Herod). Pres- 
ervation dnriuiT : Gen. 7. 1, 16. etc. 
(.Yoa/i);— Gen.l9. 15-17 {Lot);— 
Gen. 45. 7 {.Joseph, etc.) ; — 1 Ki. 17. 
9 {Elijah) ;— 2 Ki. 4. 3S-41 (Elisha, 
etc.) ;— 2 Ki. 8. 1, 2 {Shunanimitc). 

Judicial proceedings. See 
JUDGES; SANHEDRIM; SYN- 
AGOGUE; TRIAL. 

JUDITH, THE BOOK OF. 

Jiicrgeniath. See JUGGERNAUT. 

JUGGERNAUT. 

Julia, a Christian female at Rome 
whom St. Paul salutes, Ro. 16. 15. 

Juliauists. See MONOPHYSITE. 

Julius, a centurion of Augustus's 
band, Ac. 27. ; 2S. 

Jumpers. Sec SECT. 

Junia, a kinsman of Paul, Ro. 16. 7. 

JUNIPER. 

JUPITER. 

Jushab-hesed, a person, 1 Chr. 3. 20. 

Justice : of God, Gen. IS. 25 ; De. 
32. 4 ; 2 Chr. 19. 7 ; Job 8. 3 : Ps. 
145. 17 ; Jer. 9. 24 ; Eze. 18. 25-30 ; 
Da. 9. 14 ; Ro. 3. 26 ; 1 Jno. 1. S : 
Re, 15. 3; 19.1,2. Required of 
man, De. 16. 20; Eze. 45. 9; Mi. 
6. 8 ; Mat. 7. 12 ; 22. 21 ; Lu. 6. 31 ; 
Ro. 13. 7 ; Phi. 4. 8. 

JUSTIFICATION, Job 9. 2 ; 25. 4. 
What it does not consist in. Job 
11. 2 ; Ps. 143. 2 ; Ro. 2. 13 ; 3. 20 ; 
4. 2 ; 1 Co. 4. 4 ; Gal. 2. 16, 17 ; 3. 
11 ; 5. 4. What it does consist in, 
Ps. 85. 10 ; Is. 45. 25 ; 50. 8 ; 53. 11 ; 
Lu. 18. 14 ; Ac. 13. 39 ; Ro. 3. 24 ; 4. 
25 ; 5. 1, 9, 18 ; 8. 30, 33 ; 1 Co. 6. 11 ; 
Gal. 3. 8, 24 ; Ti. 3. 7 : Ja. 2. 21-25. 

Justus, I. A surname of Joseph call- 
ed Barsabas, Ac. 1. 23. II. A Chris- 
tian atCoi-inth with whom St. Paul 
lodged, Ac. 18. 7. III. A surname 
of Jesus, one of St. Paul's fellow- 
laborers. Col. 4. 11. 

Juttah, a city of Judah, Josh. 15. 55. 
Afterward allotted to the priests, 
Josh. 21. 16. 



K. 



Kabbala. Same as CABALA. 
Kabzeel, a city of Judah, Josh. 15. 

21 ; 2 Sa. 23. 20. 
KADESH, KADESH-BARNEA. 
Kadmiel, I., II. Two Levites, Ezra 

2. 40 ; Neh. 7. 43 ; 9. 4 ; 10. 9 ; 12. 8. 
KADMONITES. 
Kallai, one of the priests in the days 

of Joiakim,Neh. 12. 20. 
Kanah, I. A town in the territory 

of Asher, Josh. 19. 28. II. A river 

or stream at the border of Ephra- 

ira and Mauasseh, Josh. 16. 8; 

17.9. 
Karaites. Same as CARAITES. 
Kareah, the father of Johanan, Jer. 

40. ; 41. 11 ; 43. Same as Careah. 
Karkaa, a place in the southern bor- 
der of Judah, Josh. 15. 3. 
Karkor, a place east of the Jordan, 

Judg. S. 10. 
Karnaira. See Ashtaroth-karnaim. 
Kartah, a town locally in Zebulun, 

allotted to the Levites, Josh. 21. 

34. 
Kartan, a city of Naphtali allotted 

to the Levites, Josh. 21. 32 ; 1 Chr. 

6. 76. 
Kattath, a town in the territory of 

Zebulun, Josh. 19. 15. 
KEDAR. 
Kedemah, one of the sons of Ish- 

mael. Gen. 25. 15 ; 1 Chr. 1. 31. 
Kedemoth, a citv assigned to the 

Levites, Josh. 13. 18; 21. 37 ; 1 Chr. 

6.79. 
KEDESH,LA city of Canaan. 

Kedesh, II. A place in the extreme 



south of Judah. See KADESH. 
III. A Levitical city in Issachar, 1 
Chr. 6. 72. Same as Kishion. 

Kedesh-uaphtali. See KEDESH. 

Kedron. See JEHOSHAPHAT, 
VALLEY OF. 

Kehelathah, a station of the Israel- 
ites, Nu. 33. 22, 23. 

KEILAH. 

Keithians. See SECT. 

Kelaiah, a Levite, Ezra 10. 23. 

Kelita. Same as Kelaiah, Ezra 10. 
13; Neh. 8. 7; 10.10, 

Kemuel, I. One of the sons of Na- 
hor, Gen, 22. 21. IL A chief of 
Ephraim, Nu. 34. 24. Ill, A Le- 
vite, 1 Chr. 27. 17. 

Kenan, son of Enos, 1 Chr, 1, 2. 
Same as Cainan. 

Keuath, a town and district of Ba- 
shan, Nu. 32. 42 ; Judg. 8. 11. 

Kenaz, LA son of Eliphaz, and 
grandson of Esau, Gen. 36. 11-15; 
1 Chr. 1. 36, 53. Prob. same as 
the father of Othniel, Josh, 15, 17 ; 
Judg, 1. 13 ; 3. 9, 11 ; 1 Chr. 4. 13, 
II. A grandson of Caleb, 1 Chr. 4. 
15. 

Kenezite. Same as Kenizzites, Nu. 
32. 12 ; Josh. 14. 6. 

KENITES. 

Kenizzites, a Cauaauitish tribe, 
Gen. 15. 19. 

Kerchief. See HANDKERCHIEF ; 
HEAD-DRESS. 

Keren-happuch, Job's third daugh- 
ter, born after his restoration to 
prosperity. Job 42. 14. 

Kerioth, I. A city in the extreme 
south of Judah, Josh. 15. 25. See 
Judas Iscariot. II. A citv of 
Moab, Jer. 48, 24, Same as Kiri- 
oth. 

Keros, one whose descendants re- 
turned from captivity with Ze- 
rubbabel, Ezra 2, 44 ; Neh, 7. 47. 

Kettle. See UTENSILS. 

KETURAH. 

KEY. 

Kezia, Job's second daughter, born 
after his restoration to prosperi- 
ty. Job 42. 14. See Jemima. 

Keziz, a valley mentioned among 
the cities of Benjamin, Josh. 18. 
21. 

KhalitF. See CALIPH. 

Khornthal, Society of. See SECT. 

Kibroth-hattaavah, a station in the 
wilderness. See WILDERNESS 
OF THE WANDERING. 

Kibzaim, a Levitical city in the ter- 
ritory of Ephraim, Josh. 21. 22 ; 1 
Chr. 6. 68. 

Kid. See GOAT. 

Kidron. See JEHOSHAPHAT, 
VALLEY OF. 

Kin. See INHERITANCE. Duty 
of, De. 25. 5-10 ; Le. 21. 2, 3 ; 25. 25, 
48, 49 ; Nu. 27. 11 ; Ruth 3. ; 4. 

Kinah, a city in the south of Judah, 
Josh. 15. 22. 

Kine. See BULL. 

KING. 

KINGDOM. 

KINGS, BOOKS OF. 

KIR. 

KIRCHENTAG. 

KIR-HARASETH. 

Kir-hareseth, Kir-haresh,Kir-heres, 
Is. 16. 7, 11 ; Jer, 48. 31, 36. See 
KIR-HARASETH. 

Kiriathaim, Jer. 48. 1, 23. Eze. 25. 
9. Same as Kirjathaim. 

Kirioth, Same as Kerioth, Am. 2. 2. 

Kirjath, a city of Benjamin, Josh. 
IS. 28. Perhaps same as Kirjath- 
jearim. 

Kirjathaim, I. A city east of the 
Jordan, Nu. 32. 37 ; Josh. 13. 19. 
Also called Kiriathaim. II. Same 
as Kartan, 1 Chr. 6. 76. 

Kirjath-arba. Same as HEBRON. 

Kirjath -arim, Kirjath -baal. See 
KIRJATH-JEARIM. 



Kirjath-huzoth, a city of Moab, Nu. 

22. .39. 
KIRJATH-JEARIM, 

Kirjath - sannah, Kirjath - sepher. 

See DEBIR, 
Kirk, Scottish for church. 
Kish, L Father of King SAUL, 1 Sa. 

9. 1-3 ; 10, 11-21 ; 14, 51 ; 1 Chr. 8. 

33 ; 9. 39 ; 12. 1 ; 26. 28, II. A Ben- 

jamite of the same family, 1 Chr. 

5. 30 ; 9. 36. Ill, A Levite, 1 Chr. 

23. 21, 22 ; 24. 29. IV. Another Le- 
vite, 2 Chr. 29. 12. V. An ances- 
tor of Mordecai, Est. 2. 5, See 
ESTHER. 

Kishi, a Levite, 1 Chr. 6. 44. 
Kishion, a city of Issachar allotted 

to the Levites, Josh. 19. 20. 
KISHON. 
Kishon, I. A stream. II. A city, 

Josh. 21. 28. Same as Kishion. 
Kisou, Ps. 83. 9, A form of Kishon. 
KISS. 

Kiss of peace. See KISS, 
Kitchen. See HOUSE. 
KITE, 
Kithlish, a town in Judah, Josh. 15. 

40. 
Kitron, a town of Zebulun, Judg. 1, 

30, 
Kittim. Same as CHITTIM. 
Kneading-trough, See BREAD; 

GOAT. 
Kneeling. See PRAYER. Ps. 95, 

6 ; Ro. 14. 11 ; Eph. 3. 14 ; Phi. 2. 

10. Examples, 1 Ki. 8. 54 ; 2 Chr. 

6. 13 ; Ezra 9. 5 ; Da. 6. 10 ; Mat. 
17. 14; Mar. 1. 40 ; 10. 17 ; Lu. 22, 
41 ; Ac. 7. 60 ; 9. 40 ; 20. 36 ; 21. 5. 

KNIFE. 

KNIGHTHOOD, ECCLESIASTIC- 
AL ORDERS OF. 

Knowledge, tree of. See TREE. 

Koa, perhaps a city of Babylon, 
Eze. 23. 23. 

Kohath, one of the sons of Levi, 
Gen. 46. 11 ; Ex. 6. 16, 18 ; Nu. 3. 17, 
19, 27. See KOHATHITES. 

KOHATHITES, descendants of Ko- 
hath. 

Kolaiah, I. A Benjamite, Neh. 11. 7. 

11. The father of the false proph- 
et Ahab, Jer. 29. 21. 

KORAH, LA Levite. Korah, H, 
Third son of Esau by Aholibamah, 
Am. 36. 5-9, 14, 18. HI. Perhaps 
sou of Eliphaz, Gen. 36. 16. Pos- 
sibly same as II. IV. A son of He- 
bron and descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 2. 43. 

Korahite. See KORAH. 

KORAN, AL. 

Korathite, Korhite. Same as Ko- 
rahite. See KORAH. 

Kore, I. A Levite of the ftimily of 
Korah, 1 Chr. 9. 19. II. A Levite 
porter, 2 Chr. 31. 14. 

Koz, a priest. Same as Hakkoz, 1 
Chr. 24. 10 ; Ezra 2. 61 ; Neh. 3. 4, 
21; 7.63. 

Ktistolatri. See MONOPHYSITE. 

Kushaiah, 1 Chr. 15. 17. See Kishi. 



L. 



Laadah, one of Judah's descend- 
ants, 1 Chr. 4. 21. 

Laadan, I. An Ephraimite, 1 Chr. 7. 
26. II. A Gershonite Levite, 1 
Chr. 23. 7, 8, 9 ; 26. 21. Perhaps 
same as Libni, Ex. 6. 17. 

Lnbadists. See SECT. 

LABAN, I. A man. Laban, II. A 
place, De. 1. 1. Same as LIBNAH 
I. 

LABARUM. 

Lal)c)r. See AGRICULTURE; 
HANDICRAFT. 

Lace, a cord or band, Ex, 28. 28, 87 ; 
39. 36. 

LACHISH. 

Lachrvmatories. See FUNERAL 
RITES. 



1052 



MDEX. 



Lael, a Gershonite Levite, Nu. 3. 24. 

Lahad, a desceudaut of Judah, 1 
Chr. 4. 2. 

Lahai-roi. Same as BEER-LAHAI- 
ROI. 

Lahmam, a town in Judah, Josh. 
15. 40. 

Lahmi, brother of GOLIATH,! 
Chr. 20. 5. 

Laish, I. A person. See MICIIAL. 
1 Sa. 25. 44 ; 2 Sa. 3. 15. II. A phice 
near Jerusalem, Is. 10. 30. III. 
Same as DAN IL, Judg. 18. 7. 

LAITY. 

Lake of fire, Ee. 19. 20 ; 20. 10, 14, 
15,- 21.8. 

Lakuin, a town of Naphtali, Josh. 
19.33. 

LAMA ISM. 

LAI-IEUH, I. A desceudan-t of Cain. 
Laraech, II. Son of Methuselah, 
and father of Noah, Gen. 5. 28. 

Lamb. See SHEEP ; SHEPHERD ; 
AGNUS DEI. 

LAMENTATIONS. 

LAMP. 

Lampetiaiis, See SECT. 

Lamps, Feast of. See LAMP. 

Lance, Lancet, a spear or javelin. 
See ARMS. 

Lano-uasre. See TONGUES, CON- 
FUSION OF. 

Lantern. See LAMP. 

Lanterns, Feast of. See LAMP. 

LAODICEA. 

Laodiceans, inhabitants of LAODI- 
CEA, Col. 4. 16 : Re. 3. 14. 

Lapidoth, husband of the prophet- 
ess Deborah. Judar. 4. 4. 

LAPSED CHRISTIANS. 

LAPWING. 

LARES. 

LASEA, or LAS^A. 

LASHA. 

Lasharon, a Canaanite town, Josh. 
12. 18. 

Latchet, the cord or strap which 
fastened the. Is. 5. 2T; Mar. 1. 7; 
Lu. 3. 16. See SANDAL. 

Lateran Councils. See ECUMEN- 
ICAL COUNCIL, 9, 10, 11, 12, 20. 

Latin version. See VULGATE. 

LATITUDINARIANS. 

Latter-day Saints. See MORMONS. 

Lattice, a latticed window, Jiidg. 5. 
28 ; Sol. Song 2. 9. See HOUSE ; 
WINDOW. 

Lands. See CANONICAL HOURS. 

LAYER. 

LAW, the: promulgated, Ex. 20. 1 ; 
De. 5. 6. Moses's charge respect- 
ing it, De. 27.; 28.; 29.; 30.; 31. 
Written on monumental stone, 
De. 27. 1-8. A book of, to be kept 
in the ark, De. 31. 24-26. To be 
recited every seventh year, De. 
31. 9-13. Proof of the neglect of 
this, 2 Chr. 29. 5-7; 30. 5: 31. 21 ; 
34. 14-33. Restoration after the 
captivitv, Neh. 8. Snmraarv of. 
Mat. 7. 12 ; Mar. 12. 29-31, Its ef- 
fect, Ro. 5. 20 ; 3.19,20; Gal. 3. 10, 
11, 21. Superseded, Ac. 15. 10, 24 ; 
Ro. 6. 1, 15 ; 7. 6 ; 8. 2-4 ; 1 Co. 9. 
21 ; 2 Co. 3. 7, 8, 11 ; Gal. 4. 31 ; 5. 
1, 13, 14, IS ; Eph. 2. 15. A new 
conamandmeut, Jno. 13. 34, 35. 

Laws of Moses. See JEW L The 
Commonwealth. Also APPEN- 
DIX, page 1004. 

LAWYER. 

Lav baptism. See BAPTISM. 

LAYING ON OF HANDS: in 
blessing, Gen. 48. 14; Mar. 10.16. 
In sacrificing, Ex. 29. 10 ; Le. 1. 4. 
In ordaining to ofiices, Nu. 8. 10 ; 

27. 18 ; De. 34. 9 ; Ac. 6. 6 ; 1 Tim. 
4. 14 ; 5. 22 ; 2 Tim. 1. 16. In mi- 
raculous cures, 2 Ki. 5. 11 ; Mar. 
6. 5 ; 16. 18 ; Lu. 13. 13 ; Ac. 9. 17 ; 

28. 8. At the impartation of the 
Holy Spirit, Ac. S. 17 ; 19. 6. 

Layman. See LAITY. 

Lay preaching. See PREACHING. 



LAZARUS. 

LEAD. See WRITING. 

Leaders, Leaders' Meetings. See 
CLASS MEETINGS. 

League. See ALLIANCE ; COVE- 
NANTERS. 

LEAH. 

LEATHER. 

LEAVEN. 

Lebana, or Lebanah, one of the 
NETHINIM, Ezra 2. 45 ; Neh. 7, 
48. 

LEBANON. 

Lebaoth, a city in Simeon, Josh. 15. 
32. Same as Beth-birei, Beth-leb- 
aoth. 

Lebbeus, one of the names of the 
apostle Jude, Mat. 10. 3. See JU- 
DAS IV. 

Lebonah, a place not far from Shi- 
loh, Judg. 21. 19. 

Lecah, a name found in the geneal- 
ogy of Judah ; prob. a town, 1 Chr. 
4.21. 

LECTERN. 

Lectures. See BAMPTON; 
BOYLE; HULSEAN. 

LECTURERS. 

Leech. See HORSE-LEECH. 

LEEK. 

LEES. 

LEGATE. 

LEGENDS. 

Legion. See ARMY. 

Lehabim, descendants of Mizraim. 
Same as the Libyans. See Lib- 
ya, Gen. 10. 13 ; 1 Chr. 11. 11. 

LEHI. 

Lemuel, an unknown prince, Pr. 31. 
2-9. 

Lending. See LOAN. Laws con- 
cernins, Ex. 22. 25; De. 15. 7; 24. 
10 ; Mat. 5. 42 ; Lu. 6. 34, 35. Com- 
mended, Ps. 37. 20 ; 112. 5. 

LENT. See EASTER. 

LENTIL. 

LEOPARD. 

LEPER, LEPROSY : laws concern- 
ing, Le. 13. 14 ; Nu. 5. 2. Instances 
of, Nu. 12. 10 (Miriam) ;— 2 Ki. 5. 
1-14 (Xaaman) ;— 2 Ki. 5. 27 (Ge- 
hazi) ;— 2 Ki. 7. 3-8 (four men of 
Samaria); — 2 Chr. i:6. 20-23 (Uz- 
ziah). See MIRACLES. 

Leshem, a city. Josh. 19. 47. Same 
as DAN m. 

LESSONS. 

Letter. See EPISTLES; WRIT- 
ING. 

Lettern. See LECTERN. 

Letters, epistles, Ac. 9. 2 ; 15. 30 ; 22. 
5 ; 2 Co. 3. 1 ; 2 Pe. 3. 16. Remark- 
able examples, 2 Sa. 11. 14, 15 {ha- 
vid to Joab) ;— 1 Ki. 21. 9-11 {.Jeze- 
bel) ; -2 Ki. 5. 5-7 {kin^f of S[/ria to 
the king of Israel) ;— 2 Ki. 10. 1-3, 
6, 7 {Jehu to the elders) ;— 2 Chr. 
30. 1, 6 {Hezekiah to all Israel) ;— 
2 Ki. 20. 12 ; 2 Chr. 32. 17 ; Is 37. 
14 ; 39. 1 {Merodach-haladan to Hez- 
ekiah) ;— Jer. 29. 24-32 {Shemaiah 
the Nehelamite to Zejihaniah) ;— 
Est. 3. 12-15 -—{Haman to the gov- 
ernors of Assyria) ;— Est. 8. 8-14; 
9. 20-32 -—{Mordecai to the Jews in 
4s.s/yrm) ;— Ezra 7. 11-26 {Arta- 
xerxes to Ezra) ■, — Ezvr 4. 8-16 
(SJmnshai to Artaxerxes) ; — Ezra 
4. 17, 22 {Artaxerxes'' s reply) ;— 
Ezra 5. 6-17 {Tatnai, etc., to Dari- 
us) ;— Neh. 6. .5-7 {Sanballat to Xe- 
hemiah) ;— Neh. 6. 17-19 {Tobiah, 
to and from); — Ac. 23. 25, etc. 
{Claudius Lvsias to Felix); — | 
Paul, James, Peter, John, Jude. ' 
See EPISTLES. 

Letters of dismission. See DIS- 
MISSION. 

Letushim, an Arabian tribe descend- 
ed from Dedan, Gen. 25. 3. 

Lenmmim, an Arabian tribe de- 
scended from Dedan. Gen. 25. 3. 

LEVI, L Son of Jacob. Levi, IL 
Same as MATTHEW, Mar. 2. 14 ; 



Lu. 5. 27. III. Two of our Lord's 
ancestors, Lu. 3. 24, 29. 

LEVIATHAN. 

LEVITES: separation of, to God, 
Nu.l. 49-51 ; 3. 6-51 ; 4. ; 18. 6 ; De. 
10.8; 18.1. Laws concerning, Le. 
25. 32-34. Cities appointed to, Nu. 
35. ; Josh. 21. ; 1 Chr. 6. 54-81. Serv- 
ices of, 1 Chr. 23. 6-13, 24-32. ; 24. ; 
25. ; 26. ; 27. ; Neh. 8. 7, 9 ; 9. 4. 
Failure of, 1 Sa. 2. 13-17 ; Eze. 48, 
11 ; Mai. 2. 8, 9. 

LEVITICUS. 

Libellarici. See LAPSED CHRIS- 
TIANS. 

Liberal Catholics. See ROMAN 
CATHOLIC CHURCH. 

LIBERAL CHRISTIANS. 

Liberality, De. 15. 7-14; Pr. 11. 24- 
26 ; 21. 26 ; Is. 32. 8 ; 1 Co. 16. 3, 17 ; 
2 Co. 8. 2, 19 ; 9. ; Ja. 1. 5. Ex- 
amples, 2 Ki. 5. 23 ; 2 Chr. 28. 15 
{Xaatnan). 

LIBERTINES. 

Liberty. Hos. 13. 14 ; Lu. 4. 18 ; Jno. 
8. 32, 36. Spiritual, Ro. 6. 17, 18 ; 
8. 2, 21 ; 1 Co. 7. 22 ; 15. 56, 57 ; 2 
Co. 3. 17 ; Gal. 5. 1, 13 ; Col. L 13 ; 
Ja. 1. 25 ; 2. 12 ; 1 Pe. 2. 16. See 
WILL, FREEDOM OF. 

LIBNAH. 

Libni, two Levites, Ex. 6. 17 ; Nu. 3. 

18 ; 1 Chr. 6. 17, 20, 29. 
Libnites, a family descended from 

Libni, Nu. 3. 21 ; 26. 58. 
Libya, a district in Northern Africa, 

Acts 2. 10. 
Libyans, inhabitants of Libya, Jer. 

46. 9 ; Da. 11. 43. 
LICE. 
Licentiate, a person authorized by 

the Church to preach. 
Life: natural, Ex. 20. 12; Pr. 3. 2, 

16; 9.11. Short and uncertain,! 

Chr. 29. 15 ; Job 14. 7-10 ; Ps. 39. 

5 ; 90. 5, 6, 9, 10 ; 103. 15, 16 ; Is. 40. 

0-8 ; Lu. 12, 20 ; Ja. 4. 14 ; 1 Pe. 1. 

24. Full of trouble and vanity, 

Gen. 47. 9 ; Job 5. 7 ; 14. 1 ; Ec. 1. 

2 ; 12. 1-8. Not to be preferred to 

our duty. Mat. 10. 39 ; 16. 25 ; Mar. 

8. 35 ; Lu. 9. 24 ; 17. 33 ; Jno. 12. 25. 
Life: eternal, Lu. 20. 36; Jno. 14. 

19 ; 17. 2, 3 ; 1 Co. 15. 12-57 ; He. 
12. 28 ; 1 Pe. 1. 4 ; Re. 7. 14-17 ; 21. 
4. Secure in Christ, Jno. 3. 15, 30 ; 
4. 14 ; 6. 40 ; 10. 28 ; 17. 2 ; Ro. 8. 
10,11; Col. 3. 4; 1 Th. 4.10, 17; 2 
Ti. 1. 10 ; 1 Jno. 4. 9 ; 5. 11, 12 ; Re. 
3. 12 ; 20. 6. 

Life, tree of. See TREE. 

Lights. See ORNAMENTS. 

Lights, Feast of. See DEDICA- 
TION, FEAST OF. 

Lights on the altar. See ALTAR; 
CANDLE. 

Lignaloes. Same as ALOES, Nu. 
24. 6. 

LIGURE. 

Likhi, one of the descendants of 
Manasseh, 1 Chr. 7. 19. 

LILY. 

Limbus Infantum. See INTERME- 
DIATE STATE. 

Linibns Patrnm. See INTERME- 
DIATE STATE. 

Limited atonement. See ATONE- 
MENT. 

Line, Am. 7. 17; Zee. 1, 16; 2. 1,'2. 
See CORD. 

LINEN. 

Linus, a Christian at Rome, 2 Tim. 
4.21. 

LION. 

LITANY. 

LITTER. 

LITURGY. 

LIVER. 

LIZARD. 

Loaf, Loaves. See BREAD. 

Lo-ammi. See AMMI. 

LOAN. 

Lock. See KEY. 

LOCUST. 



INDEX. 



1053 



Lod, a small town in Benjamin, 1 
Chr. 8. 12 ; Ezra 2. 33 ; Neh. 7. 37. 
Afterward called LYDDA. 

Lo-debar, a town east ofthe Jordan, 
near Mahanaim, 2 Sa. 9. 4, 5; 17. 
27. Prob. same as DEBIR. 

Lod^'e. See GARDEN. 

Lodging-place, bee INX. 

Loft, an upper chamber. See 
HOUSE. 

Log. See MEASURES. 

•Logos. See WORD OP GOD. 

Lois, a Christian woman, 2 Tim. 1. 5. 

LOLLARDS. 

Long-Friday. See GOOD-FRIDAY. 

LOOKING-GLASS. 

Lord, LA title ofthe Deity. II. Ap- 
plied to an earthly superior, Mat. 
10.14; 20.8. 

Lord's Dav. See SABBATH. 

LORD'S PRAYER. 

LORD'S SUPPER. See COMMUN- 
ION. 

Lo-ruharaah. See AMMI. 

Lost tribes. See BENI-ISRAEL. 

LOT, or LOTS. 

Lotan, one of the sons of Seir the 
Horite, Gen. 36, 20-29 ; 1 Chr. 1. 
38, 39. 

Lots, Feast of. See PURIM. 

Lot's wife. See LOT. 

Love. See CHARITY. 

Love: of God, Is. 42. 1 ; Mat. 3. 16, 
17; 17. 5; Juo. 3. 35; 10. 17; 14. 
31 ; 15. 9 ; 17. 24, 26 ; 2 Pe. 1. 17. 
Of God to man, De. 7. S, 13 ; 15. 16 ; 
23. 5 ; 2 Chr. 9. 8 ; Neh. IB. 26 ; Ps. 
146. 8 ; Is. 43. 4 ; Jer. 31. 3 ; Hos. 
11. 1 ; 14. 4 ; Ro. 1. 7 ; 8. 39 ; 11. 28 ; 
2 Co. 13. 14; 1 Jno. 4. 7, 8, 16. Of 
the Father, Pr. 3. 12; Jno. 3. 16; 
14. 21 ; 17. 23 ; Ro. 5. 6 ; Eph. 2. 4 ; 
2 Th. 2. 16 ; He. 12. 6 ; 1 Jno. 2. 15 ; 
3. 1 ; 4. 10. Of Jesiis, Is. 63. 7-9 ; 
Mar. 10. 21 ; Jno. 11. 5 ; 13. 1, 23 ; 
15. 13 ; 21.7; Ro. 8. 35 ; Gal. 2. 20 ; 
Eph. 3. 19 ; 5. 2, 25 ; Re. 1.5; 3. 9. 
Of the Spirit, Ro. 15. 30 ; 2 Co, 13. 
11 ; Gal. 5. 22. 

Love to God, De. 6. 5 ; 10. 12 ; 30. 20 ; 
Ps. 31. 23 ; 116. 1 ; Mat. 10. 37 ; 22. 
37 ; Jno. 14. 15, 21, 23 ; Ro. 8. 28 ; 
2 Th. 3. 5 ; 1 Pe. 1. 7, 8. Love a 
duty to all men, Le. 19. 18, 34 ; De. 
10. 19 ; Mat. 5. 48-46 ; Ro. 13. 10 ; 
Ja, 2. 8. Christian, Juo. 13. 24; 
Gal. 5. 13 : Phi. 1. 9 ; 1 Th. 4. 9 ; 2 
Tim. 1. 2 ; He. 10. 24 ; 1 Juo. 3. 4 ; 
2 Juo. 1. ; 3 Juo. 1. 

Love, natural affection : a father's, 
Gen. 22. 2 ; 2 Sa. 13. 39 ; 18. 33 ;— 
a mother's, Ex. 2. 2 ; 1 Ki. 3. 26 ; 
2 Ki. 4. 14-30 ; Is. 66. 13 ; Ln. 2. 19 ; 
Jno. 19. 25 ;— a child's, Gen. 9. 23 ; 
47. 12 ; Judg. 11. 34-39 ; Ruth 4. 15 ; 
Lu. 2. 51 ;— a husband's. Gen. 24. 
67 ; 1 Sa. 1. 5 ; Eph. 5. 25, 28 ; — a 
wife's, Pr. 5. 19; 31. 10-12; — a 
brother's. Gen. 37. 21 ; 42. 45 ;— a 
sister's, Jno. 11. 31; — a lover's. 
Gen. 29. 18, 20;— a friend's, 1 Sa. 
18. 1, 3;— a servant's, Gen. 24. 2- 
66 ; Ex. 21. 5 ; 2 Ki. 2. 1-12 ; a pa- 
triot's, Neh. 1, 4; Ps. 137. ; Da. 6. 
10. 

LOVE-FEASTS. 

Low -Church. See EPISCOPA- 
LIANS. 

Loyola. See JESUITS. 

Lubim, inhabitants of Libya. 2 Chr. 
12. 3 ; 16. 8 ; Da. 11. 43 ; Na. 3. 9. 
See Lehabim. 

Lucas, Philem. 24. Same as LUKE. 

Lucianists. See SECT. 

LUCIFER. 

Luciferians. See SECT. 

Lucius, a Cyrenian; a Christian 
teacher at Autioch, Ac. 13. 1 ; Ro. 
16.2. 

Lnd, I. A son of Shera, Gen. 10. 22 ; 
1 Chr. 1. 17. II. A people in Asia 
Minor, Is. t)6. 19 ; Eze. 27. 10. 

Ludirh, an African people, Gen. 10. 
13 ; 1 Chr. 1. 11. 



Luhith, a town of Moab, Is. 15. 5 ; 
Jer. 48. 5. 

LUKE. 

LUKE, GOSPEL OF. 

Lunatic. See DEMON. 

Lustration. See PURIFICATION; 
WASHING. 

Luther. See REFORMATION. 

Lutheran Catechism. See CATE- 
CHISM. 

LUTHERANS. 

Luz, I. Gen. 28. 19 ; 35. 6. Same as 
BETHEL, n. A city in the land 
of the Hittites, Judg. 1. 26. 

LYCAONIA. 

LYCIA. 

LYDDA. 

LYDIA, I. A woman. Lydia, 11. An 
African people, Eze. 30. 5. • Same 
as Ludim. 

Lydians, an African people, Jer. 46. 
9. Same as Ludim. 

Lying, Le. 6. 3 ; 19. 11, 12 ; Josh. 7. 
11 ;' Ps. 5. 6 ; 62. 4 ; 119. 163 ; Pr. 
12. 22 ; 14. 25 ; Is. 30. 9 ; Jer. 23. 25, 
26 ; Hos. 7. 13 ; Na. 3. 1 ; Eph. 4. 
25 ; Col. 3. 9 ; 1 Jno. 2. 22 ; 4. 20. 
Its pituishment, Ps. 101, 7; 120. 3, 
4; Pr. 19. 5; Jer. 50. 36; Hos. 10. 
13; Re. 21. 8, 27; 22. 15. Exam- 
ples, Gen. 3. 4 ; Jno. 8. 44 {the dev- 
il) ;— Gen. 4. 9 {Cain) ;— Gen. IS. 15 
(Sarah) ; — Gen. 27. 19 (Jacob) ;— 
Gen. 37. 31, 32 (Joneph's brethren) ; 
— Josh. 9. 9-13 (Gibeonites) \ — 
Judg. 16. 10 (Samson) ;— 1 Sa. 15. 
13 (Sa^ll)•,-l Sa. 21. 2 (David) ;— 

1 Ki. 13. 18 (prophet of Bethel) ; — 

2 Ki. 5. 22 (Gehazi) ;— Mat. 26. 72 
(Peter) ;— Ti. 1. 12 (Cretans). 

Lyons, Council of. See ECUMEN- 
ICAL COUNCIL, 13, 14. 

Lyre, a kind of harp. See MUSIC- 
AL INSTRUMENTS. 

Lysanias, tetrarch of ABILENE, Lu. 
3.1. 

LYSIAS, CLAUDIUS. 

LYSTRA. 



M. 



MAAC AH, or Maachah. L Grand- 
daughter of Absalom. II. A king- 
dom. Maacah, III. A child of Na- 
hor. Gen. 22. 24. IV. Father of 
Achish, 1 Ki. 2. .89. V. Mother of 
Absalom, 2 Sa. 3. 3. VI. Concu- 
bine of Caleb, 1 Chr. 2. 48. VII. 
Descendant of Benjamin, 1 Chr. 
7. 15, 16. VIIL Wife of Jehiel, 1 
Chr. 8. 29. IX. Father of one of 
David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11. 43. X. 
Father of a ruler of the Simeon- 
ites, 1 Chr. 27. 16. 

Maachathi. the inhabitants of Maa- 
cah, or Maachah, De. 3. 14. 

Maachathites, inhabitants of Maa- 
cah, or Maachah, Josh. 12. 5 ; 11. 
13 ; 2 Sa. 23. 34 ; 2 Ki. 25. 23 ; 1 
Chr. 4. 19. 

Maadai, one who had taken a for- 
eign wife, Ezra 10. 34. 

Maadiah, a priest, Neh. 12. 5. Call- 
ed also Moadiah in ver. 17. 

Maai, a Levite, Neh. 12. 36. 

Maaleh-acrabbim. See AKRAB- 
BIM. 

Maarath, a town in the mountains 
of Jndah, Josh.1,5. 59. 

Maaseiah, I. A Levite porter, 1 Chr. 
15. 18, 20. IL An officer in the 
reign of Joash, 2 Chr. 23. 1. IIL 
A ruler under King Uzziah, 2 Chr. 
26. 11. IV. A son of King Ahaz, 2 
Chr. 28. 7. V. Governor of Jeru- 
salem under .Jo^iah, 2 Chr. 34. 8. 
VL, VIL, Vin. Three priests who 
married foreign wives, Ezra 10. 
18-22. IX. A person who mar- 
ried a foreign wife, Ezra 10. 30. 
X. The father of one who repair- 
ed the wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3. 
23. XL One who assisted Ezra 
in reading the law, Neh. 8. 4, 7. 



Xn. A person who sealed the 
covenant, Neh. 10. 25. XIII. A 
descendant of Judah, Neh. 11. .5. 
XIV, A Benjamite, Neh. 11. 7. 
XV., XVI. Two priests, Neh. 12. 
41, 42. X VIL The father of Zeph- 
auiah, Jer. 21. 1 ; 29. 25. XVIII. 
Father ofthe false prophet Zede- 
kiah, Jer. 29. 21. XIX. A door- 
keeper of the Temple, Jer. 35. 4. 
XX. The grandfather of Baruch, 
Jer. 32. 12; 51.59. 

Maasiai. a priest, 1 Chr. 9. 12; comp. 
Neh. 11. 13. 

Maath, one of the persons named 
in our Lord's ancestry, Lu. 3. 26. 

Maaz, a descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 
2.27. 

Maaziah, I. The chief of the twen- 
ty-fourth course ofthe priests, 1' 
Chr. 24. IS. II. A priest who seal- 
ed the covenant, Neh. 10. 8. 

MACCABEES, BOOKS OF. 

Mace. See ARMS. 

MACEDONIA. 

Macednuian, an inhabitant of Mac- 
edonia, Ac. 27. 2. 

Machbanai, a Gadite chief who join- 
ed David, 1 Chr. 12. 13. 

Machbenah, prob. a town of which 
Sheva was the founder, 1 Chr. 2. 
49. 

Machi, father of the spy selected 
from the tribe of Gad, Nu. 13. 15. 

Machir, I. Giaudson of Joseph, and 
sou of Manasseh, Gen. 50. 23 ; 
Nu. 26. 29 ; De. 3. 15 ; Josh. 13. 
31 ; Judg. 5. 14. II. A person iu 
whose house Mephibosheth was 
preserved, 2 Sa. 9. 4, 5 ; 17. 27. 

Machirites, a family of Manasseh, 
descendants of Machir, Nu. 26. 
29. 

Machnadebai, one who had taken a 
foreign wife, Ezra 10. 40. 

MACHPELAH. 

Madai. one of the sons of Japheth, 
Gen.' 10. 2; 1 Chr. 1.5. 

Madian, the Greek form of Midian, 
Ac. 7. 29. 

Madmanuah, a town in the south of 
Judah, Josh. 15. 31 ; 1 Chr. 2. 49. 

Madmen, a town in the country of 
Moab, Jer. 4S. 2. 

Madmenah, a place to the north of 
Jerusalem, Is. 10. .81. 

Madness. See DEMON. Pr. 26. 18 ; 
Ec. 2. 2 ; 7. 7 ; Jer. 51. 7. David 
feigned. 1 Sa. 21.15. Jesus charged 
with, Juo. 10. 20. Paul, Ac. 26. 24. 
Cured by Jesus, Mat. 4. 24 : 17. 15. 

Madon, a city. Josh, 11. 1 ; 12. 19. 

MADONNA. 

Magbish, probably the name of a 
l)lace, Ezra 2. 30. 

MAGDALA. 

Macrdalene, an inhabitant of Mag- 
dala. See MARY 2. 

Magdalene Asvlums. See MARY 2. 

Magdalens. See MARY 2. 

Masidiel, one of the dukes of Edom, 
Gen. 36. 43 ; 1 Chr. 1. 54. 

MAGL 

MAGIC, MAGICIANS. 

MAGISTRATES: Ju. 18. 7; Ezra 
7. 25 ; Lu. 12. 11 ; Ac. 16. 20. Jew- 
ish commands respecting, Ex. 22. 
28 ; De. 17. 8-12 ; Ac. 23. 5. Chris- 
tian precepts concerning, Ro. 13. 
1-7 ; Ti. 3. 1 ; 1 Pe. 2. 13-17. 

MAGNIFICAT. 

MAGOG. 

Magor-missabib, a symbolical name 
given to Pashiir, Jer. 20. 3, 4. 

Mao-piash, one who sealed the cove- 
nant, Neh. 10. 20. 

Mahabharata, a sacred book of the 
Hindoos. See BRAHMANISM. 

Mahalah, a descendant of Manasseh, 
1 Chr. 7. IS. 

Mahalaleel, I. One of the antediluvi- 
an patriarchs, Gen. 5. 12-17; 1 Chr. 
1. 2. II. A descendant of Jndah, 
Neh. 11. 4. 



1054 



INDEX. 



Mahalath, I. A daughter of Ishraael 
whom Esau married, Genv 28. 9, 
also called Bashemath. II. One 
of the wives of Kehoboam, 2 Chr. 
11. IS. III. See MUSICAL IN- 
- STRUMENTS. 

MahalathLeamioth. SeeMUSICAL 
INSTRUMENTS. 

Mahali, a Levite, Ex. 6. 19, See 
Mahli I. 

MAHANAIM. 

Mahaneh-dau, a place within the 
border of Judah, Jndg. IS. 10. 

Maharai, oue of David's warriors, 2 
Sa. 23. 28 ; 1 Chr. 11. 30 ; 21. 13. 

Mahath, I. A Levite of the family of 
Kohaih, 1 Chr. 6. 35. IL Another 
Levite of the same family in the 
time of Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 29. 12 ; 
31.13. 

Mahavite, the designation of Eliel, 
one of 13avid's warriors, 1 Chr. 11. 
46. 

Mahazioth, a Levite of the sons of 
Heman, 1 Chr. 25. 4, 30. 

Maher shalal-hash-baz, the symbol- 
ical name given to the son of 
Isaiah, Is. 8.' 1,3. 

Mahlah, one of the five daughters 
of Zelophehad, Nu. 26. 33 ; Josh. 
17.3. 

Mahli, I. A Levite, son of Merari, 
Nu. 3. 20 ; 1 Chr. 6. 19, 29 ; 23. 21 ; 
Ezra 8. 18. Same as Mahali, Ex. 
6. 19. II. A grandson of Merari, 
IChr. 6. 4T; 23.23. 

Mahlites, descendants of Mahli, Nu. 
3. 33 ; 26. 58. 

Mahlon, husband of RUTH. 

Mahol, apparently the father of cer- 
tain wise men, 1 Ki. 4. 31. 

Mahomet or Mohammed. See MO- 
HAMMEDANISM. 

Maid-servant. See SLAVERY, Ps. 
123. 2 ; Is. 24. 2 ; Joel 2. 29. Laws 
concerning, Ex. 20. 10 ; De. 15. 17 ; 
16. 11. Examples, Gen. 16. 2 {Ha- 
gar) ;— Gen. 30. 3, 9 (Jacob's two) ; 
— 2 Ki. 5. 2, 4 (xYaajJtan'.s);— Mar. 

14. 66 ; Lu. 22. 56 (of the high- 
2->riest) ; -Ac. 12. 13 (Rhoda). 

Mail. See ARMS. 
Mainsail, Ac. 27. 40. See SHIP. 
Makaz, a place, 1 Ki. 4. 9. 
Makheloth, a station of the Israel- 
ites, Nu. 33. 25, 26. 
MAKKEDAH. 
Maktesh, a place, Zeph. 1. 11. 
MALACm. 
Malcham, I. A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 

9. IT. Prob. same as MOLECH, 
Zeph. 1.5. 

Malchiah, T. A Levite, 1 Chr. 6. 40. 
II., III. Two who married foreign 
wives, Ezra 10. 25, 31. IV., V. Two 
who helped to repair the wall of 
Jerusalem, Neh. 3. 14, 31. VL 
One \vho helped Ezra in reading 
the law, Neh. 8. 4. VIL A priest, 
Ezra 11. 12. VHI. An officer into 
whose dungeon Jeremiah was 
cast, Jer. 38. 6. 

Malchiel, a descendant of Asher, 
Gen. 46. 17 ; 1 Chr. 7. 31. 

Malchielites, descendants of Malchi- 
el, Nu. 26. 45. 

Malchijah, L A priest, 1 Chr. 9. 12. 
Same as Malchiah, Neh. 11. 12. 
II. One who took a foreign wife, 
Ezra 10. 25. III. One who aided 
in repairing the wall of Jerusalem, 
Neh. 3, 11. Same as Malchiah, Ezra 

10. 31. IV. One who took part in 
the dedication of the wall, Neh. 
12.42, 

Malchiram, one of David's descend- 
ants, 1 Chr. 3. IS. 

Malchi-shua, one of the sons of King 
Saul, 1 Chr. S. 33 ; 9. 39 ; 10. 2. 
Same as Melchi-shua, 1 Sa. 14. 49. 

Malchns, the high-priest's servant 
whose ear Peter cut off, Mat. 26. 
51 ; Mar. 14. 47 • Lu. 22. 50 ; Juo. 

15. 10. 



Maleleel, the Greek form of Mahala- 
leel, Lu. 3. 37. 

Malice: forbidden, Pr. 17.5; 24.17; 
Ac. 4. 25-27 ; Ro. L 29 ; 1 Co. 5. 8 ; 
14.20; Gal. 5. 20; Eph. 4. 31 ; Col. 
3. 8; Ti. 3. 3; 1 Pe. 2. 1, 16. Ex- 
amples, Gen. 4. S (Cain) ;— Gen. 27. 
41 (Esau);— Gen. 37. 5, 18 (Ja- 
cob's sons) ; — 1 Sa. 19. 10 {Saul) ;— 
Est. 3. 6-15 (Hamayi) ;— Mar. 6. 17 
{Herod) ;— Mar. 11. 18 (scribes and 
priests). 

Mallothi. a Levite, 1 Chr. 25. 4, 26. 

MALLOWS. 

Malluch, I. A Merarite Levite, 1 
Chr. 6. 4. IL, IIL Two who had 
married foreign wives, Ezra 10. 
29, 32. IV. A priest who return- 
ed from Babylon with Zerubba- 
bel, Neh. 10. 4 ; 12. 2, 14. Same as 
Melicu. V. One who sealed the 
covenant, Neh. 12. 27. 

MAMMON. 

MAMRE. 

MAN. See SPIRIT. As created. 
Gen. 1. 26-28, 31 ; 2. 15-18; Ps. 8. 
5-8 ; Ec. 7. 29 ; 1 Co. 11. 7 ; 15. 45 ; 
Ja. 3. 9. Fall of. Gen. 3. ; Hos. 13. 
9; Ro. 5. 12-19. Present condi- 
tion of. Gen. 3. 10 ; 0. 5 ; 1 Chr. 29. 
15 ; Job 5. 7 ; 7. 1 ; 14. 1 ; Ps. 51. 5 ; 
73. 3-20, 27 ; 90. 10 ; Is. 40. 6-8 ; 59. 
2 ; Mar. 7. 21-23 ; Ro. 1. 24, 25 ; 2. 
9-1 S, 23 ; 1 Co. 15. 47, 48 ; Eph. 2. 

2, 3 ; 1 Pe. 1. 24, 25. As redeemed 
by Christ, Nn. 23. 20-23 ; Ps. 32. 1 ; 
73. 23-26 ; Is. 54. 5, 17 ; Ro. 5. 1-5 ; 
8. 1, 33-39 ; 1 Co. 6. 19 ; 2 Co. 3. 18 ; 
Eph. 1. 3-8 ; 2. 1, 5-7 ; 1 Pe. 1. 18- 
23 ; 2 Pe. 1. 3-8 ; 1 Jno. 1.3; 3. 1. 
Future glory of. Is. 62. 3 ; 65. 17- 
25 ; Jno. 14. 2, 3 ; 17. 24 ; Ro. 8. 17, 
29 ; 1 Co. 2. 9-12 ; 15. 4:)-54 ; 2 Co. 
5. 1 ; Eph. 1. 10-12, 18-23 ; 1 Pe. 1. 

3, 4; 2 Pe. 1. 11 ; 3. 13 ; 1 Jno. 3. 
2 ; Ju. 24 ; Re. 1. 6 ; 2. 7, 10, 17, 28 ; 
3. 5, 12, 21 ; 4. ; 5. ; 7. 9-17 ; 14. 1- 
5 ; 15. 2, 3 ; 19. 1-9 ; 20. 4 ; 21. ; 22. 
3-5. 

Manaen, a Christian of Antioch, 
Ac. 13. 1. 

Manahath, I. A descendant of Seir 
the Horite, Gen. 36. 23 ; 1 Chr. 1. 
40. II. A place, 1 Chr. 8. 6. 

Manahethites, inhabitants of Man- 
ahath, 1 Chr. 2. 52, 54. 

MANASSEH, L Son of Joseph and 
tribe. II. King of Judah. Ma- 
nasseh, III. Erroneous reading 
for Moses, Judg. 18. 30. TV, V. 
Two persons mentioned in Ezra 

10. 30, 33. 

Mauasses, Mat. 1. 10 ; Re. 7. 6, Greek 
form of MANASSEH. 

MANAS3ES, PRAYER OF. 

Manassites, the descendants of Ma- 
uasseh, De. 4. 43; Judg. 12. 4; 2 
Ki. 10. 33. 

MANDRAKE. 

Maneh. See MONEY ; WEIGHTS. 

MANGER. 

MANICH^ANS. 

Maniple. See VESTMENTS. 

MMuitou. See INDIANS. 

MANNA. 

Man o ah, the father of Samson, 
Jadg. 13. ; 16. 31. 

Man of sin. See ANTICHRIST. 

Man of spirit, or Man of God. See 
PROPHETS. 

Man-slaver, Nu. .35. 6, 12 ; 1 Tim. 1. 9. 
See CITIES OF REFUGE. 

Mantle. See DRESS. 

Manu, Laws of, a sacred book of 
the Hindoos. See BRAHMAN- 
ISM; CASTE. 

Manufactures. See HANDICRAFT. 

MANUSCRIPTS. 

Maoch, the father of Achish, king 
of Gath, 1 Sa. 27. 2. Same as Maa- 
cah, 1 Ki. 2. 39. 

Maon, I. A name found in the gen- 
ealogies of Judah, 1 Chr. 2. 45. 

11. A town in the mountains of 



Judah, south-east of Hebron, 

Josh. 15. 55 ; 1 Sa. 25. 2. 
Maonites, an Arabian tribe. Judg. 

10. 12. Prob. same as Mehuuim, 2 

Chr. 26. 7. 
Mara, a name of Naomi. See RUTH. 
MARAH. 
Maralah, a place on the border of 

Zebulun, Josh. 19. 11. 
Maranatha. See ANATHEMA. 
MARBLE. 

Marcheshvan. See MONTHS. 
Marcionites. See GNOSTICS. 
Marcosians. See GNOSTICS. 
Marcus, Col. 4. 10 ; Philem. 24 ; 1 Pe. 

5. 13. Same as MARK. 
MARESHAH, LAcity. Mareshah, 

IT. A name in the genealogies of 

Judah, 1 Chr. 2.42; 4.21. 
MARIOLATRY. 
Marishes, Eze. 47. 11. Marshes. 
MARK. 

MARK, GOSPEL OF. 
Market. See COMMERCE. 
MARONTTES. 
Maroth. A place. Mi. 1. 12. 
MARRIAGE : divine institution of. 

Gen. 2. 21-24; Pr. 18. 22 ; 19.14; 

Mat. 19. 4-9 ; 1 Co. 7. 9 ; 1 Ti. 5. 

14 ; He. 13. 4. Nature and object 

of. Gen. 1. 28 ; 2. 18 ; Pr. 31. 10-31 ; 

Mai. 2. 15 ; Ro. 7. 2, 3 ; 1 Co. 7. 2. 

Laws concerning, Le. 18. 6, etc. ; 

21. 7, 14; De. T.3, 4: 24. 1, etc.; 
25. 5 ; Josh. 23. 12 ; Ezra 9. 11, 12 ; 
Mat. 19. 6, etc. ; 22. 24 ; 1 Co. 7 ; 
Eph. 5. 22-33; Col. 3. 18, 19; 1 
Tim. 4. 3. Modes of celebrating, 
Gen. 29. 22 : Ju. 14. 10 ; Jer. 33. 11 ; 
Mat. 22. 2-12; 25. 1-12; Jno. 2. 
1-10; 3. 29. Disused in heaven, 
Mat. 22. 30 ; Mar. 12. 25 ; Lu. 20. 
35. 

Marsena, oue of the seven princes in 
the Persian court. Est. 1. 14. 

Mars Hill. See AREOPAGUS. 

Mart, Is. 23. 3. See COMMERCE. 

MARTHA. 

MARTYR. 

Martvrs of the Bible ; (Abel), Gen. 4. 
8, with 1 Jno. 3. 12 ;— (Prophets and 
saints of old), 1 Ki. 18. 4; 19. 10; 
Lu. 11. 50, 51; He. 11. dl ;—(Uri- 
jah), Jer. 26. 23 ;—(John the Bap- 
tist), Mar. 6. 27 •—(Peter), Jno. 21. 
18, lSi\ — (Stephen), Ac. 7. 58; — 
(Primitive Christia'i is), Ac. 9. 1, 
with Ac. 22. 4 : 26. 10 ; — (James), 
Ac. 12. 2 \—(Antipas), Re. 2. 13. 

MARY, I. Mother of Jesus. Mary, 
IT. Magdalene. III. "Wife of Cleo- 
phas. IV. Sister of Martha. V. 
Two others. 

Maschil. See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 

Mash, a people. Same as Meshech, 
IL, Gen. 10. 23. 

Mashal, a town in Asher, 1 Chr. 6. 
74. Also spelled Misheal and 
Mishal, Josh. 19. 26 ; 21. 30. 

Masons, Masonry. See HANDI- 
CRAFT. 

Masora. See DOCTOR, JE^VISH. 

Masrekah, the seat of one of the 
early kings of Edom, Gen. 36. 36 ; 
1 Chr. 1. 47. 

MASS. 

Massa, one of the sons of Ishmael, 
Gen. 25.14; 1 Chr. L 30. 

Massacre of St. Bartholomew. See 
BARTHOLOMEW. 

Massah, a station in the wilderness. 
See Meribah, wilderness of the 
wandering. 

Masters, duty of, Ex. 20. 10 ; Le. 19. 
13; 25. 43-55; De. 24. 14, 15; Jer. 

22. 13-17; Mai. 3. 5; Eph. 6. 9; 
Col. 4. 1 ; Philem. 10-20 ; Ja. 5. 4. 
Examples, Gen. IS. 19 (Abraham)-, 
—Josh. 24. 15 (Joshua) ;— Job 31. 
13 (Job) ;— Mat. 8. 5-10; Lu. 7. 2- 
10 (centurion) ; —Ac. 10. 2 (Corne- 
lius). 

MATERIALISM. 



INDEX. 



1055 



Mathusala, Lti. 3. 3T. The Greek 

ft)rrn of Methuselah. 
Matius. See CANONICAL HOURS. 
Hatred, the mother of Meuetabel, 

Geu. 36. 39 ; 1 Chr. 1. 50. 
Matri, a Benjamite to whose family 

Saul helouged, 1 Sa. 10. 21. 
Matrimony. See MARRIAGE. 
Mattan, I. A priest of Baal. See JE- 

HOIADA. II. A person meutiou- 

ed by Jeremiah, Jer. 3S. 1. 
Mattanah, a place to the south-east 

of the Dead Sea, Nn. 21. IS, 11). 
Mattaniah, I. Son of Josiah, 2 Ki. 

24. 17. II. The head of one of the 

divisions of singers, 1 Chr. 25. 4, 

16. III. Several Levites, 1 Chr. 9. 
15 ; 2 Chr. 20. 14 ; 29. 13 ; Neh. 11. 

17, 22. IV. Four persons who had 
married foreign wives, Ezra 10. 
26, 27, 30, 37 ; Neh. 13. 13. 

Mattatha, a grandson of David, Lu. 

3.31. 
Mattathah, one who had married a 

foreign wife, Ezra 10. 33. 
M a 1 1 a t h i a s, two persons in our 

Lord's ancestry, Ln. 3. 25, 26. 
Matteuai, 1. Two perscms who had 

married foreign wives. Ezra 10. 

33, 37. II. A priest, Neh. 12. 19. 
Matthan, one of our Lord's ances- 
try. Mat. 1. 15. 
Matthat, two persons in our Lord's 

ancestrv, Lu.3. 24, 29. 
MATTHEW. 

MATTHEW, GOSPEL OF. 
MATTHIAS. 
Mattithiah, I. The name of several 

Levi res, 1 Chr. 9. 31 ; 15. 18, 21 ; 16. 

5 ; Neh. S. 4. 11. Son of Jeduthuu, 

1 Chr. 25. 3, 21. III. One who had 
taken a foreign wife, Ezra 10. 43. 

MATTOCK. 

Maul. See ARMS. 

Maunday-Thursday. See EASTER. 

Mausoleum. See BURIAL. 

Mazzaroth, Job 38. 23. An astro- 
nomical term, prob. the twelve 
signs of the zodiac. 

Meah, a tower of Jerusalem in the 
time of Nehemiah, Neh. 3. 1. 

MEALS. 

MEANS OF GRACE. 

Mearah, a place. Josh. 13. 3. 

MEASURES. 

Measuring -reed, Eze. 40. 3. See 
MEASURES. 

Meat. See FOOD ; MEAT-OFFER- 
ING. 

MEAT-OFFERING. 

Mebunnai, one of David's warriors, 

2 Sa. 23. 27. See Sibbechai. 
Mecherathite, the designation of one 

of David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11. 36. 
Medad, a prophet. See ELDAD. 
Medau, one of the sons of Abraham 

and Keturah, Geu. 25. 2 ; 1 Chr. 1. 

.32. 
Mede, Medes, Median. See MEDIA. 
MEDEBA. 
MEDIA. 
Median, Da. 5. 31, the designation of 

DARIUS. 
MEDIATOR. 
MEDICINE. 

Medicine-men. See INDIANS. 
Meditation: commended, Ps. 1. 2; 

19. 14; 77. 12; 107. 43; 119. 97. 

Exhortations to. Josh. 1. 8 ; Ps. 4. 

4; Pr. 4. 26; 1 Tim. 4. 15. See 

Gen. 24.63. 
Meekness, Gal. 6. 1; Eph. 4. 1, 2; 

Col. 3. 12 ; 1 Tim. 6. 11 ; 2 Tim. 2. 

25. The fruit of the Spirit, Gal. 

5. 22, 23; Eph. 5. 9; Ja. 3. 17, IS. 

Its blessedness, Ps. 25. 9 ; 37. 11 ; 

147. 6 ; 149. 4 ; Pr. 3. 34 ; Is. 57. 15 ; 

66. 2 ; Mat. 5. 5 ; 1 Co. 4. 21 : Ja. 

3. 13. Examples, Gen. 13. 8, 9 

(Ahrahavi) ;— Nu. 12. 3 (Moses) ;— 

1 Sa. 24. S-15 (David) ;— Jer. 26. 14 

iJerermiah) ;— Is. 53. 2-12 ; Mat. 11. 

29 ;- Jno. IS. 19-23 {Jesm^ ;— 1 Th. 

2. 7 {Paul). See Gentleness. 



MEGIDDO, MEGIDDON. 

Mehetabeel, a person, Neh. 6. 10. 
Mehetabel, the wife of Hadar, one 

of the kings of Edom, Gen. 36. 

39; iChr. 1.50. 
Mehida, one whose descendants re- 
turned from captivitv with Ze- 

rubbabel, Ezra 2. 52 ; Neh. 7. 54. 
Mehir, a man of Judah's posterity, 

1 Chr. 4. 11. 
Meholathite, 1 Sa. 18. 19 ; 2 Sa. 21. 8. 
Mehuiael, a descendant of Cain, 

Gen. 4. IS. 
Mehnman, one of the eunuchs at 

the court of Ahasuerus, Est. 1. 

10. 
Mehunims, a heathen people. Prob. 

same as Maonites, 2 Chr, 26. 7; 

Ezra 2. 50. Same as Meuuim, 

Neh. 7. 52. 
Mejarkon, a town of Dau, Josh. 19. 

46. 
Mekonah, a place in Judah, Neh. 

11. 28. 
Melatiah, a Gibeonite, Neh. 3. 7. 
Melchi, two persons among our 

Lord's ancestry, Lu. 3. 24, 2S. 
Melchiah, a priest, Jer. 21. 1. Same 

as Malchiah VII. 
Melchisedec, He. 5. 6, 10 : 6. 20, the 

Greek form of Melchizedek. 
Melchi -shua, one of the sons of 

King Saul, ISa. 14. 18-20. 
MELCHITE CHURCH. 
MELCHIZEDEK. 
Melea, one of our Lord's ancestors, 

Ln. 3. 31. 
Melech, a descendant of King Saul, 

1 Chr. 8. 35 ; 9. 41. 
Meletians. See SECT. 
Melicu, a priest, Neh. 12. 14. Same 

as Malluch IV. 
MELITA. 
MELON. 
Melzar, an official title in the court 

of Babvlon, Da. 1. 11, 16. 
MEMPHIS. 
Memucan, one of the princes at the 

court of Ahasuerus, Est. 1. 14, 16, 

21. 
MENAHEM. 
Meuau, one of our Lord's ancestors, 

Ln. 3. 31. 
Mendajans. See SECT. 
MENDICANT ORDERS. 
Mene, Mene, Tekel, Upharsin (num- 
bered, mimhered, tceighed, and di- 
vided), the inscription which was 

superuaturally traced upon the 

wall before Belshazzar, Da. 5. 5- 

28. 
MENI. 

MENNONITES. 
Men-stealer. See SLAVERY. 
Meonenin, plain of, Judg. 9. 37. 

Prob. should be rendered "oak 

of the diviners." 
Meonothai, one of the descendants 

of Judah, 1 Chr. 4. 14. 
Mephaath, a cirv, Jer. 48. 21. 
]\rEPHIBOSHE"TH. 
MERAB. 
Meraiah, a priest in the daj's of Jo- 

iakim, Neh. 12. 12. 
Meraioth, three priests, 1 Chr. 6. 6, 7, 

52 ; Ezra 7. 3 ; 1 Chr. 9. 11 ; Neh. 

11. 11 ; 12. 15. 
Merari, one of the sons of Levi, 

Gen. 46. 11; Ex. 6. 16. 19; 1 Chr. 

6. 1, 16. See MERARTTES. 
Merathaim, jM-ob. a svinl)olic name 

for Babvlonia, Jer. 50. 21. 
Merchant. See COMMERCE. 
MERCURIUS. 
MERCY. 
Mercy of God, Geu. 10. 16; Ex. 33. 

19; 2 Sa. 24. 14; Ps. 103. 13; 116. 

5 ; 119. 1.56 ; 136. ; 145. 9 ; Is. 1. IS ; 

Da. 9. 9 ; Hos. 14. 3 ; Ro. 9. 15 ; 

Eph. 2. 4 ; 1 Pe. 1. .3. 
Mercy, the dutv of man, Ex. 2. 6 ; 2 

Sa. 21. 7 ; 1 Ki. 20. 31 ; Job 6. 14; 

19. 21; Ps. 37. 21, 26; 112. 5; Pr. 

14. 21, 31 ; 19. 17 ; 28. S ; Da. 4. 37 ; 



Hos. 6. 6 ; Mi. 6. 8 ; Mat. 5. 7 ; 18. 

33 ; Ro. 12. 8 ; Phi. 2. 1 ; Col. 3. 12 ; 

Ja. 3. 17 ; Ju. 22. 
Mercv-seat. See ARK OF THE 

COVENANT. 
Mered, a descendant of Judah, 1 

Chr. 4. 17, 18. 
Meremoth, I. Two priests, Ezra 8. 

33 ; Neh. 3. 4 ; 10. 5 ; 12. 3. II. 

One who had married a foreign 

wife, Ezra 10. 36. 
Meres, one of the seven princes at 

the Persian court, Est. 1. 14. 
MERIBAH. 
Merib-baal. Same as MEPHIB- 

OSHETH IL 
Merits of Christ. See I M P U T A- 

TION. 
Merodach, a god, Jer. 1.2. Prob. 

an appellation of BAAL. 
MERODACH-BALADAN. 
MEROM. 
Meronothite, a designation given to 

Jehdeiah and Jadon, 1 Chr. 27. 30 ; 

Neh. 3. 7. 
Meroz, a place in the north of Pales- 
tine, Judg. 5. 23. 
Mesech, Ps. 120. 5. Same as ME- 

SHECH. 
MESHA, 1. King of Moab. Mesha, 

IL Son of Caleb, 1 Chr. 2. 42. III. 

A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 9. IV. A 

place, site uncertain, Geu. 10. 30. 
Meshach, the Chaldee name of Mish- 

ael, Da. 1.7; 2.49; 3.12-30. 
MESHECH, I. Son of Japhet. Me- 

shech, II. A people. Same as 

Mash, 1 Chr. 1. 17. 
Mesheleniiah, a Levite porter, 1 Chr. 

9. 21 ; 26. 1-9, called Shelcmiah in 

ver. 14. 
Meshezabeel, I. Grandfather of Me- 

shullam, Neh. 3. 4. II. Oue who 

sealed the covenant, Neh. 10. 21. 

III. A descendant of Judah, Neh. 

11. 24. 
Meshillemith, 1 Chr. 9. 12. Same as 

Meshillemoth IL, Neh. 11. 13. 
Meshilleraoth, I. An Ephraimite, 2 

Chr. 28. 12. II. A priest, Neh. 11. 

13, Same as Meshillemith, 1 Chr. 

9.12. 
Meshobab, a descendant of Simeon, 

1 Chr. 4. 34. 
Meshtillemeth, the mother of King 

Amon, 2Ki. 21.19. 
Meshullum, I. The grandfather of 

Shaphan the scribe^ 2 Ki. 22. 3. II. 

One of the sons of Zerubbabel, 

1 Chr. 3. 19. III. A descendant of 

Gad, 1 Chr. 5. 13. IV. Three Ben- 

jamites, 1 Chr. 8. 17; 9. 7, 8. V. 

Five priests, Neh. 11. 11 ; 1 Chr. 9. 

12 ; Ezra 10. 7 ; 12. 13, 16. VI. A 

Kohathite Levite, 2 Chr. 34. 12. 

The name also occurs in the fol- 
lowing passages, Ezra 8. 16 ; 10. 

15, 29 ; S. 4 ; 10. 20 ; 12. 25, 33 ; Neh. 

3. 4, 30 ; 6. IS ; 3. 6. 
Mesobaite, one of David's warriors, 

1 Chr. 11.47. 
MESOPOTAMIA. 
Messenger of Jehovah. See PROPH- 
ETS. 
MESSIAH. For Scripture refs. see 

APPENDIX, page 993. 
Messias, Jno. 1 . 41 ; 4. 25. The Greek 

form of MESSIAH. 
Metals. See HANDICRAFT, and 

see under various titles, as GOLD; 

SILVER; etc. 
Metempsychosis. See BRAHMAN- 
ISM ; FUTURE STATE. 
METHEG-AMMAH. 
Methodist Catechism. See CATE- 
CHISM. 
Methodist Episcopal Church of 

America. See METHODISTS. 
Methodist, New Connection. See 

METHODISTS. 
METHODISTS. 
Methnsael, one of the descendants 

of Cain, Gen. 4. 18. 
METHUSELAH. 



1056 



INDEX. 



Metonic cycle. See GOLDEN 
NUMBER. 

Metraus. See MARONITES. 

Metropolitan. See ARCHBISH- 
OP. 

Meunira, Neh. 7. 52. Same as Me- 
huuim. 

Mezahab, the grandfather of Mehet- 
abel, Geu. 36. 39 ; 1 Chr. 1, 50. 

Miamin, I. One who had married a 
foreign wife, Ezra 10. 25. II. A 
priest who returned to Jerusalem 
with Zerubbabel, Neh. 12. 5. Same 
as Mijamin and Miniamin, Neh. 

10. TO ; 12. 17, 41. 

Mibhar, one of David's warriors, 1 

Chr. 11. 38. 
Mibsam, I. One of the sous of Ish- 

mael, Ge.n. 25. 13; 1 Chr. 1. 29. 

11. A descendant of Simeon, 1 
Chr. 4. 25. 

Mibzar, one of the dukes of Edom, 

Gen. 36. 42; 1 Chr. 1. 53. 
MICAH, I. A man of Mt. Ephraim. 

11. A prophet. Mican, III. The son 
of Mephibosheth, 1 Chr. 8. 34, 35 ; 
9. 40, 41. Called Micha in 2 Sa. 
9. 12. IV. A Levile of the family 
of Asaph, 1 Chr. 9. 15. Called Mi- 
cha in Neh. 11. 17, 22, and Michai- 
ah in Neh. 12. 35. V. A Levite, 
the sou of Uzziel, a Kohathite, 1 
Chr. 23. 20. Same as Michah in 1 
Chr. 24. 24, 25. VI. The father of 
one of Josiah's officers, 2 Chr. 34. 

20. Called Michaiah in 2 Ki. 22. 

12. VII. One of Reuben's poster- 
ity, 1 Chr. 5. 5. 

Micaiah, a prophet in the reign of 
AHAB, 1 Ki. 22. 

Micha, I. 2 Sa. 9. 12. Same as Mi- 
cah III. II. A Levite who sealed 
the covenant, Neh. 10. 11. III. 
A descendant of Asaph, Neh. 11. 
17. 

MICHAEL, one of the chief an- 
gels. 

Michael, I. Father of the spy select- 
ed from the tribe of Asher, Nu. 

13. 13. IL, in. Two Gadites, 1 
Chr. 5. 13, 14. IV. A Levite, 1 
Chr. 6. 40. V. A chieftain of Is- 
sachar, 1 Chr, 7. 3. VI. A Benja- 
mite chief, 1 Chr. 8. 16. VIL A 
Manassite captain, 1 Chr. 12. 20. 

VIII. Father of the ruler of Issa- 
char in David's time, 1 Chr. 27. IS. 

IX. A sou of JehoshaphaV, 2 Chr. 

21. 2. X. Father of one who join- 
ed Ezra's caravan, Ezra 8. 8. 

Michah, son of Uzziel, 1 Chr. 24. 24, 
25. Same as Micah, 1 Chr. 23. 20. 

Michaiah, I. Father of one of Josi- 
ah's officers, 2 Ki. 22. 12. Called 
Micah in 2 Chr. 34. 20. II. Daugh- 
ter of Absalom, 2 Chr. 13. 2. Same 
as Maachah, 1 Ki. 15. 2, 10, 13. III. 
One of Jehoshaphat's officers, 2 
Chr. 17. 7. IV. A person, Neh. 12. 
.35. Same as Micah, 1 Chr. 9.15. 
V. A priest, Neh. 12. 41. VL An 
officer in the reign of Jehoiakim, 
Jer. 36. 11, 13. 

MICHAL. 

Michmas, a town, Ezra 2. 27. See 
MICHMASH. 

MICHMASH. 

Michmethah, a border town of 
Ephraim and Mauasseh, Josh, 16. 
6; 17.7. 

Michri, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 9. 8. 

Michtam. See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 

Middin, a city in the wilderness of 
Jndah, Josh. 15. 01. 

MIDIAN. 

Midianites, inhabitants of MID- 
IAN. 

Midwife. See BIRTH. 

Migdalel, a town of Naphtali, Josh. 
19. 38. Perhaps identical with 
Magdala, 

Migdal-gad, a city in the plain coun- 
try of Judah, Josh, 15. 37. 



MIGDOL, 

Migrou, a site in Benjamin, location 
unknown, 1 Sa. 14. 2 ; Is. 10. 28. 

Mijamin, two priests, 1 Chr. 24, 9 ; 
Neh. 10. 7. 

Mikloth, I, A Benjamite, 1 Chr, 8. 
32; 9. 37, 38. IL One of David's 
military officers, 1 Chr. 27. 4. 

Mikneiah, a Levite portei*, 1 Chr. 15. 
18, 21. 

Milalai, a priest, Neh. 12, 36. 

Milcah, L Wife of Nahor, Gen. 11. 
29 ; 22. 20, 23 ; 24, 15, 24, 27. IL 
One of the five daughters of Ze- 
lophehad, Nu. 26. 33; 27. 1; 36. 
11 ; Josh. 17. 3. 

Milcom, 1 Ki, 11. 5, 33 ; 2 Ki, 23, 13, 
Prob. same as MOLECH, 

Mile, Mat. 5. 41. See MEASURES. 

Miletum, a city, 2 Tim, 4, 20, Same 
as MILETUS. 

MILETUS. 

MILK. 

MILL. 

MILLENARIANS. 

Millennium. See MILLENARI- 
ANS. 

MILLERITES. 

MILLET, 

Millo, I, A citadel or fortress in 
Shechem, Judg. 9, 6, 20. II. A 
castle at Jerusalem, 2 Sa. 5. 9 ; 1 
Ki. 9, 15, 24 ; 11. 27. 

Minaret. See MOSQUE. 

MINE, MINING. 

Miniamin, LA Levite, 2 Chr. 31. 15. 
II. Neh. 12. 17, 41. Same as Mia- 
min, 

Minister, Ministry, used in refer- 
ence to Christ, Mat. 20, 28; Gal. 

2. 17; He. 8. 2, 6;— to angels, 
Ps. 103. 21 ; 104, 4 ; Da. 7, 10 ; He. 

1, 7, 14; — to the Levitical priests, 
Ex. 28. 35 ; 35. 19 : Is. 61. 6 ; Jer. 
33. 21, 22 ; Eze. 45. 4 ; Joel 1, 9 ; 2. 
17 ; Lu. 4. 20 ;— to aposiles, Ln. 1. 
2 ; Ac. 1. 25 ; Ro. 15. 8 ; Col. 1. 23, 
25; — to laborers in the Gospel, 
Eph. 6. 21 ; Col. 1,7; 4. 7 ; 1 Th. 3. 
2; 1 Tim. 4. 6; — to magistrates, 
Ro. 13. 4, 6;— to servants, Ex. 24. 
13 ; Nu. 11. 28 ; Josh, 1. 1 ; 1 Ki. 1. 
4; 2 Chr. 9. 4; Ac. 13. 5 ;— to the 
agents of Satan, 2 Co. 11. 15. 

MINISTER, Christian: called of 
God, Ac. 26. 16 ; 1 Co. 4, 1, 2 ; 2 Co. 

3. 6 ; 6. 4 ; Gal. 1. 15, 16 ; 1 Tim. 1. 
12 ; He. 6. 4. Qualified by the Holy 
Ghost, Ln. 24. 49; Ac. 2.4; Ro. 15. 
16 ; 1 Co. 12. 5 ; Eph. 3. 5, 7 ; 4. 12 : 
1 Pe. 4. 10, 11. Duties of, Jno. 21. 
15-17 ; Ac. 6. 4 ; Ro. 12. 7 ; 1 Co. 
16. 15 ; Col. 4. 17 ; 1 Tim. 3. ; 4. 6- 

16. Encouragements of. Mat. 28. 
18-20 ; Jno. 14. 16-27 ; 16. 13, 14 ; 

17. 20 ; 2 Co. 4, 1, 5-16 ; Phi. 4, 13 ; 
1 Tim, 4. 8-10. Privileges of. Mat. 
10. 10 ; Lu. 10. 7 ; Ro, 15, 27 ; 1 Co, 
9. 7 ; Gal. 6. 6 ; 1 Th. 2. 6 ; 2 Th. 3, 
9 ; 1 Tim, 5. 18 ; 2 Tim. 2. 6. Claims 
of, Jno. 13, 20 ; 1 Co, 4. 1 ; 16. 10, 16 ; 
Eph. 6. 19 ; Phi. 2. 29 ; 1 Th. 4. 8 ; 
5. 12, 13 ; 1 Tim, 5. 17 ; He. 13. 7, 
17. 

Minni, a province or district men- 
tioned only in Jer. 51. 27, in con- 
junction with Ararat. 

Minnith, a place east of the Jordan, 
Judg. 11. 33 : Eze. 27. 17. 

Minores. See FRANCISCANS, 

Minstrel. See MUSIC. 

MINT. 

Miphkad, one of the gates of Jeru- 
salem, Neh. 3. 31. 

MIRACLE-PLAYS. 

MIRACLES: power of God shown 
ill, De. 29. 23 ; Ps. 136. 4 ; Jno. 3. 2 ; 
Ac. 3. 12 ; 19. 11. Evidences of di- 
vine commission, Ex. 4. 1-5 ; Mat. 
11. 4-6 ; Mar. 16. 20 : Jno. 6. 36 ; Ac. 

2. 22 ; 14. 3 ; 15. 12 ; He. 2. 4. Guilt 
of rejecting their evidence, Nu. 
14. 22 ; Na. 9. 17 ; Mat. 11. 20-24 ; 
Mar. 6. 52 ; Jno. 12. 37 ; 15, 24. In- 



efficacious in themselves, Lu, 16, 
31 ; 23. 8 ; Ac. 4. 16. 
Miracles of Christ: Blind restored 
to sight. Mat. 9. 27-31 (two blind 
men) ;— Mar. 8. 22-26 {man o/Beth- 
saida);— Jno. 9. 1-39 {vian horn 
blind) ; — Mat. 20. 30-34 ; Mar. 10. 
46-52; Lu. 18. 35-43 {tuo men of 
Jericho). Centurion's servant, 
healed, Mat. 8. 5-13; Lu. 7. 2-10. 
Deaf and dumb restored. Mat. 9. 
32, 33 ; 12, 22 ; 17. 14-18 ; Mar. '.\ 
17-27 ; Lu. 9. 88-42 ; 11. 14 (the spir- 
its cast OMf); — Mar. 7. 32-15 {the 
man healed). Demoniacs cured. 
Mat. 8. 28-34 ; Mar. 5. 2-10 ; Lu. 8. 
27-36 {two men among the tombs) ; 
—Mar. 1. 23-26 ; Lu. 4. 33-35 (man 
at the syyiagogue). Draught of 
fishes, Lu. 5. 4-6 {Lake of Gennesa- 
ret) ;— Jno. 21. 3-6 {after the resur- 
rectio7i). Dropsy cured, Lu. 14. 2 
-4. Diseases (many and various) 
healed, Mat. 4. 23, 24 ; 14. 14 ; 15. 30 ; 
Mar. 1. 34; Lu. 6. 17-19; 7. 21, 22. 
Fig-tree cursed, Mat. 21. 18-20; 
Mar. 11. 12-14. Five thousand fed, 
Mat. 14. 14-21 ; Mar. 6. 34-44 ; Lu. 
9. 12-17 ; Jno. 6. 5-13 ;— four thou- 
sand fed. Mat. 15. 32-38 ; Mar. 8. 1 
-9. Hand, the withered. Mat. 12. 
10-13; Mar. 3. 1-5; Lu. 6. 6-10. 
Issue of blood stopped, Mat. 9. 20 
-22 ; Mar. 5. 25-34 ; Lu. 8. 43-48. 
Jairus's daughter restored. Mat. 
9. 18-25 ; Mar. 5. 22-43 ; Lu. 8, 41- 
56. Lazarus raised, Jno. 11. 1-44. 
Lepers cleansed. Mat. 8. 2-4 ; Mar. 

1. 40-44; Lu. 5. 12-14 {man at Ca- 
pernaum) :— Lu. 17. 12-19 {cure of 
the ten). Life of Christ preserved, 
Lu. 4. 29, 30. Malchus healed, Lu. 
22. 50, 51. Nobleman's son heal- 
ed, Jno. 4. 46-53. Paralytic cured. 
Mat. 9. 2-7 ; Mar. 2. 3-12 ; Ln. 5. 18 
-25. Peter's wife's mother. Mat. 

8. 14, 15; Mar. 1. 30, 31. Pool of 
Bethesda, Jno. 5. 2-9. Storm calm- 
ed. Mat. 8. 24-26 ; Zvlar. 4. 37-39 ; 
Lu, 8. 23, 24. Syrophoenician's 
daughter healed. Mat, 15. 22-28; 
Mar. 7. 25-30. Tribute -money. 
Mat. 17. 27. "Walking on the sea. 
Mat. 14. 25-32 ; Mar, 6. 48- 51 ; Jno. 
6. 19-21, Water turned into wine, 
Jno, 2. 1-12, Widow's son at Nain, 
Lu. 7.11-15, Withered hand, Mat, 
12, 10-13 ; Mar, 3. 1-5 ; Lu. 6, 6-10, 
Woman with an inffi-mity, Lu. 13, 
11-13. 

Miracles by the hand of God's serv- 
ants: Moses and Aaron : Moses's 
rod, Ex. 4. 2-4; 7. 9, 10;— Moses's 
hand, Ex. 4, 6, 7 ; — ten plagues of 
Egypt, Ex. 7. 20 ; 8. ; 9. ; 10. ; 12. 29, 
30 ;— the Red Sea, Ex. 14. 15-31 ;— 
water made sweet, Ex. 15, 23-25 ; 
— water from the rock in Horeb, 
Ex, 17. 6 ;— destruction of Korah, 
Nu. 16. 28-32;— water from the 
rock in Kadesh, Nu. 20. 11 ;— heal- 
ing by brazen serpent, Nu. 21. 8, 

9. Joshua: Jordan divided. Josh, 
3. 10-17; 4. 18;— Jericho taken, 
Josh. 6. 6-20; — the sun stayed. 
Josh. 10. 12-14;— Midianites de- 
stroyed, Ju. 7. 16-22. Samson : 
feats of strength, Ju. 14. 6, 19 ; 
15. 15 ; 16, 3, 9-14, 26-30, Samuel : 
thunder and rain in harvest, 1 Sa, 
12.18. The prophet of Judah: Jer- 
oboam's hand withered, etc., 1 Ki. 
13. 4-6. Elijah : drought, 1 Ki. 17, 
1 ; Josh. 5. 17, IS, and rain, 1 Ki. 
18. 41-45 ; — meal and oil multi- 
plied, 1 Ki. 17. 14-16;— child re- 
stored to life, 1 Ki. 17. 22, 23 ;— sac- 
rifice consumed by fire, 1 Ki. 18. 
36. 38;— men destroyed by fire, 2 
Ki. 1. 10-12 ;— Jordan divided, 2 
Ki.2. 8. Elisha: Jordan divided, 
2 Ki. 2. 14;— waters healed, 2 Ki. 

2. 21, 22;— oil multiplied, 2 Ki. 4, 
1-7 ;— child restored to life, 2 Ki, 



INDEX. 



1057 



4. 32-35 ;— Naaman healed, 2 Ki. 5. 
10, 14 ;— Gehazi struck with lepro- 
sy, 2 Ki. 5. 27 ;— iron made to swim, 
2 Ki. 6. 6 ;— Syrians blinded, 2 Ki. 
6. 18, 20;— man restored to life, 2 
Ki. 13. 21. Isaiah : Hezekiah heal- 
ed, 2 Ki. 20. 7 ;— shadows on the 
dial, 2 Ki. 20. U. The Seventy 
Disciples, Lu. 10. 9, 17. The Apos- 
tles, etc., Ac. 2. 43 ; 5. 12. Peter: 
lame man, Ac. 3. 7 ;— Ananias and 
Sapphira, Ac. 5. 5, 10;— the sick 
healed, Ac. 5. 15, 16 ;— Eneas made 
whole, Ac. 9. 34 ;— Dorcas restored 
to life, Ac. 9. 40. Stephen, Ac. 6. 
8. Philip, Ac. 8. G, 7, 13. Paul, Ac. 
19. 11, 12;— Elymas made blind, 
Ac. 13. 11 ;— lame man cured, Ac. 
14. 10 ;— unclean spirit cast out, 
Ac. 16. 18 ; — Eutychus restored, 
Ac. 20. 10-12 ;— viper's bite, Ac. 28. 
3 ;— Publius's father cured, Ac. 28. 
8. Paul and Barnabas, Ac. 14. 3. 

Miracles by evil agents: a mark of 
the apostasy, 2 Th. 2. 3-12 ; 1 Tim. 
4. 1 ; Re. 13. 12-15 ; 19. 20 ;— magi- 
cians of Egypt, Ex. 7. 11, 22 ; 8. 7 ; 
—witch of Endor, 1 Sa. 28. 7-14 ;— 
Simon Magus, Ac. 8. 9-11. 

Miraculous Conception. See IM- 
MACULATE CONCEPTION. 

MIPJAM, I. Sister of Moses. Mir- 
iam, II. A descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 4. 17. 

Mirma, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 10. 

Mirror, Ex. 38. 8. See LOOKING- 
GLASS. 

MISERERE. 

Misgab, a place in Moab, Jer. 48. 1. 

Mishael, I. A Levite, Ex. G. 22; Le. 
10. 4. II. One who stood by Ezra 
when he read the law, Neh. 8. 4. 
III. The original name of Meshach, 
Dan. 1. 6-19 ; 2. 17. 

Mish al or Misheal, Josh. 19. 26. See 
MASHAL. 

Misham, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 12. 

Mishma, I. One of the sous of Ish- 
mael. Gen. 25. 14 ; 1 Chr. 1. 30. II. 
A Simeonite, 1 Chr. 4. 25, 26. 

Mishmannah, a Gadite chief, 1 Chr. 
12. 10. 

Mish n a. See TALMUD. 

Mishraites, a family, 1 Chr. 2. 53. 

Mispar, one who returned from Bab- 
ylon with Zerubbabel, Ezra 2. 2. 

Mizpereth, Neh. 7. 7. Same as Mis- 
par. 

Misrephoth-main,a place or district 
not far from Sidon, Josh. 11. 8; 13. 
6. 

MISSA. 

MISSAL. 

MISSIONS. 

Mite. See MONEY. 

Mithcah, a station of the Israelites, 
Nu. 33. 28, 29. 

Mithnite, Joshaphat, one of David's 
warriors, 1 Chr. 11. 43. 

Mithredath, I. Treasurer of Cyrus, 
king of Persia, Ezra 1. 8. IL A 
Persian oflBcer in Samaria, Ezra 
4.7. 

MITRE. See HEAD-DRESS. 

MITYLENE. 

Mizar, the name of a summit, Ps. 
42.6. 

Mizpah. Same as Mizpeh. 

Mizpeh, I. A city of Benjamin where 
thelsraelites were often convened, 
Judg. 20. 1, 3 ; 21. 1. 5, 8 ; 1 Sa. 7. 
5-7, 11-16 ; 10. 17. IL A district 
near Mt. Lebanon, Josh. 11. 3, 8. 

III. A city of Judah, Josh. 15. 38. 

IV. A town in Gilead, perhaps 
same as RAMOTH- GILEAD, 
Judg. 10. 17. V. A town of Moab, 
1 Sa. 22. 3. 

MIZRAIM. 

Mizzah, one of the descendants of 

Esau, Gen. 36. 18, 17 ; 1 Chr. 1. 37. 
Mna?on, a Christian of Cyprus, Ac. 

21. 16. 
MOAB. 

67 



Moabites, natives of MOAB. 

MOABITE STONE. 

Moadiah, a priest, Neh. 12. 17. Same 
as Maadiah. 

MOHAMMEDANISM. 

Moladah, a town in the south of Ju- 
dah, Josh. 15. 26 ; 1 Chr. 4. 28. 

MOLE. 

MOLECH. 

Molid, a descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 
2.29. 

Molinists. See SECT. 

Moloch. Same as MOLECH. 

Molten Sea. See BRAZEN SEA. 

MONACIIISM. 

MONARCHIANS. 

Monarchy Men. See FIFTH MON- 
ARCHY MEN. 

MONASTERY. 

MONERGISM. 

MONEY. 

MONEY-CHANGERS. 

Monk. See MONACHISM. 

MONOPHYSITE. 

MONOTHEISM. 

Monothelites. See MONOPHY- 
SITE. 

MONTANISTS. 

MONTH. 

Monument. See BURIAL, Gen. 19. 
26 {Lot's loife) ; — Gen. 28. 18-22 ; 
35. 14, 20 {Bithel) ;— Gen. 31. 45-54 
{Mizpeh) ;— Ex. 24. 4 {Sinai) ;— De. 
27. 2-4, 8 ; Josh. 8. 32 {Mount Ebal) ; 
—Josh. 4. 3-21 (Jbr(/«n) ;— Josh. 
24, 25-27 ; Ju. 9. 6 {Shechem) ■— 

1 Sa. 7. 12 {Ebenezer); — 2 Sa. 18. 
18 {Absalom). 

MOON. 

Moon-worship. See MOON. 

Moralities. See MIRACLE-PLAYS. 

MORAL SCIENCE. 

Morasthite, the designation given 
to the prophet Micah, Jer. 26. 18 ; 
Mi. 1. 1, as being probably a na- 
tive of M(n-esheth-galh. 

MORAVIANS. 

MORDECAL 

MOREH. See HERMON. 

Moresheth-gath, a place near, per- 
haps a suburb of Gath, Mi. 1. 14. 

MORIAH. 

Morisonians. See EVANGELIC- 
AL V. 

MORMONS. 

MORTAR. 

Mortification {Romanist). See PEN- 
ANCE. 

Mosaic Dispensation. See JEW I. 
{Commonwealth). 

Mosaic Law. See APPENDIX, 
page 1004; 

Mosera, a station of the Israelites, 
De. 10. 6. See HOR. {Xote.) 

Moseroth, a station in the Avilder- 
ness, Nu. 33. 30. See WILDER- 
NESS OF THE WANDERING. 

MOSES. 

Moses, books of. See P E N T A- 
TEUCH. 

MOSLEMS. See MOHAMMEDAN- 
ISM. 

MOSQUE. 

Mortal Sin. See SIN. 

MOTH. 

Mother, duty of, Pr. 31. 1 ; compare 

2 Tim, 1. 5, with 3. 15 ; Ti. 2. 4, 5 ; 
duty toward, De. 27. 16 ; Pr. 1. 8 ; 
6. 20 ; 23. 22. 

MOURNING. 

MOUSE. 

Mouth of the righteous, etc., Ps. 37. 

30 ; Pr. 10. 31 ; Ec. 10. 12. Of the 

wicked, Ps. 32. 9 ; 63. 11 ; 107. 42 ; 

109. 2 ; Pr. 4. 24 ; 5. 3 ; 6. 12 ; Ro. 3. 

14 ; Re. 13. 5. Of babes, Ps. 8. 2 ; 

Mat. 21. 16. Of God, De: 8. 3; 

Mat. 4. 4. 
Moza, I. A descendant of Judah, 1 

Chr. 2. 46. H. A descendant of 

Saul, 1 Chr. 8. 36, 37 ; 9. 42, 43. 
Mozah, a place. Josh. IS. 26. 
MUEZZIN. 
MUFFLERS. See ORNAMENTS. 



Muggletonians. See SECT. 

MULBERRY-TREE. 

MULE. 

Muppim, a Benjamite, Gen. 46. 21. 
Same as Shuphan. 

MURDER, Ex. 20. 13; De. 5. 17. 
Laws relating to it, Gen. 9. 6 ; Le. 
24. 17 ; Nu. 35. 30 ; De. 21. 1-9. Ex- 
amples, Gen. 4. 8 {Cain) :— 2 Sa. 3. 
27 ; 20. 8-13 {Joab) ;— 1 Ki. 21. 5- 
14 {A hab) ;— Jno. 8. 40, 44 : Ac. 4. 
27 ; 5. 30 ; 8. 32 {all the ivorld). 

Murmuring : forbidden, 1 Co. 10. 10 ; 
Phi. 2. 14 ;— against God, Pr. 19. 3; 
Ro. 9. 19, 20 ;— acainst Christ, Jno. 
6. 41-43, 52 ; ministers of God, Ex. 
17. 3; Nu. 16. 41; — disciples of 
Christ, Mar. 7. 2 ; Lu. 5. 30. Pun- 
ishment of, Nu. 11. 1; 14.27-29; 
16. 45, 46; Ps. 106. 25, 26. Illus- 
trated, Mat. 20. 11. Exemplified, 
Cain, Gen. 4. 13, 14;— Mo^es, Ex. 
5. 22, 23; — Israelites, Ex. 14. 11 ; 
Nu. 21. 5;— Aaron, Nu. 12. 1-S; — 
Elijah, 1 Ki. 19. 4 ;— Job, Job 3. 1 ; 
Jeremiah, Jer. 20. 14-18; — Jonah, 
Jo. 4. 8, 9 ;— disciples, Mar. 14. 4, 
5; Jno. 6. 61 ;— Pharisees, Lu. 15, 
2 ; 19. 7 ;- Jews, Jno. 6. 41-43. 

MURRAIN. 

Mushi, a son of Merari, Ex. 6. 19 ; 
Nu. 3. 20 ; 1 Chr. 6. 19, 47. 

Mushites, descendants of Mushi, 
Nu. 3, 33 ; 26. 58. 

MUSIC. 

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

Mussulmans. See MOHAMMED- 
ANISM. 

MUSTARD. 

Muth - labbeu. See MUSICAL IN- 
STRUMENTS, 

Mutual Council. See CONGREGA- 
TIONALISTS. 

Myra, a town of LYCIA, Ac. 27. 5. 

MYRRH. 

MYRTLE, 

MYSIA. 

MYSTERIES. 

MYSTICS. 

N. 

Naam, a son of Caleb, 1 Chr. 4. 5. ' 
Naaraah, I. Daughter of Lamech, 

Gen. 4. 22. II. Mother of REHO- 

BOAM, 1 Chr. 14. 21, 31. IIL A 

town of Judah, Josh. 15. 41. 
NAAMAN, I. The Syrian. Naaman, 

II. A descendant of Benjamin, 

Gen. 46. 21 ; Nu. 26. 40. 
Naamathite, the designation of Zo- 

phar. Job 2. 11 ; 11.1 ; 20. 1 ; 42. 9. 
Naamites, descendants of Naaman, 

Nu, 26. 40. 
Naarah, one of the wives of Ashur, 

1 Chr. 4. 5, 6. 
Naarai, one of David's warriors, 1 

Chr. 11. 37. Same as Paarai, 2 

Sa. 23. 35. 
Naaran, a border-place of Ephraim, 

1 Chr. 7. 28. 
Naarath, a place, Josh. 16. 7. 
Naashon, Ex. 6. 23. Same as Nah- 

shon. 
Naason,Mat.l.4; Lu.3.32. Greek 

form of Naashon, Nahshon. 
NABAL. 
NABOTH. 
Nachou, a threshing-floor, 2 Sa. 6. 6. 

Same as Chidon. See UZZA. 
Nachor, Greek form for Nahor, 

Josh. 24. 2 ; Lu. 3. 24. 
NADAB, I. Son of Aaron, See ABI- 

HU. IL King of Israel. See 

BAASHA. Nadab, III. One of 

Judah's posterity, 1 Chr. 2. 28. 

30. IV. A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 

30 ; 9. 36, 
Naeuia, a Roman funeral -song. 

See BURIAL, 
Nairge, one of our Lord's ancestors, 

Lu. 3. 25, 
Nahalalj a city of Zebul.un, Josh. SI. 

35. 



1058 



INDEX. 



Nahaliel, a station of the Israelites, 

Nu. 21. 19. 
Nahallal, Nahalol, Josh. 19. 15; 

Jiidg. 1. 30. Same as Nahalal. 
Naham, one of Judah's posterity, 1 

Chr. 4. 19. 
Nahamaui, one who returned with 

Zerubbabel, Neh. 7. 7. 
Naharai, Nahari, one of David's 

warriors, 2 Sa. 23. 37 ; 1 Chr. 11. 

39. 
NAHASH. 
Nahath, I. A grandson of Esau, Gen. 

36. 13, 17 r 1 Chr. 1. 37. II. The 

name of two Levites, 1 Chr. 6. 26 ; 

2 Chr. ?>!. 13. 
Nahbi, the spy se]ected from the 

tribe of Naphtali, Nu. 13, 14. 
Nahor, I. Father of Terah, Gen. 11. 

22-25 ; 1 Chr. 1. 26, called Nachor 

iu Luke. 11. Son of Terah, Gen. 

11. 26, called Nachor in Josh. 24. 2. 
Nahshou, a prince of the tribe of 

Judah, Nu. 1. 7 ; Rtith 4. 20 ; 1 Chr. 

2. 10. Same as Naashou, Ex. 6. 23, 

and Naasson, Mat. 1. 4 ; Lu. 3. 32. 
NAHUM, and BOOK OF. 
Nail. See HANDICKAFT 2. 
NAIN. 
NAIOTH. 
Name : given as expressive of some 

event or circumstance. Examples, 

Is. 7. 14, Immanuel {God icith ws) ; 
• — Mat. 1. 21, Jesus (a Savioiir) ;— 

Gen. 27. 36, Jacob (supplanter) ; — 

Gen, 21. 6, Isaac (laughter) ; — Gen. 

17. 15, Sarah {princess)', — Ex. 2. 

10, Moses {drawn out) ; — Gen. 2S. 
17, 19. Beth-el {house of God) ;— 
Euth 1. 20, Naomi {pleasant). 
Changed by the Lord. Examples, 
Gen. 17. 5 {Abram to Abraham) ; 
— Gen. 17. 15 {Sarai to Sarah) ; — 
Gen. 32. 28 ; 35. 10 {Jacob to Isra- 
el);— Juo. 1. 42 {Simon to Cephas, 
or Peter). 

NANTES, EDICT OP. 
Naomi. See RUTH. 
; Naphish, one of the sons of Ishmael, 

Gen. 25. 15 ; 1 Chr. 1. 31. Same as 

Nephish iu 5. 19. 
NAPHTALI. 
NAPHTUHIM. 
Napkin, Lu. 19. 20 ; Jno. IL 44 ; 20. 

7. See HANDKERCHIEF. 
Narcissus, a person, Ro. 16. 11. 
NARTHEX. 
NATHAN, I. A prophet. Nathan, 

11. A sou of David, 2 Sa. 5. 14 ; 1 
Chr. 3. 5. III. One of David's 
mighty men, 2 Sa. 23. 36. IV. 
One of the tribe of Judah,! Chr. 
2. 34, 36. V. A chief of the Le- 
vites, Ezra 8. 16. VI. One who 
had a strange wife, Ezra 10. 39. 

NATHANIEL. 

Nathan-melech, a eunuch or officer 
of state iu Jerusalem, 2 Ki. 23. 11. 

National Council. See ECUMENIC- 
AL COUNCIL. 

National Covenant. See COVE- 
NANT; COVENANTERS. 

Nations. See GENTILE. 

Nativity, Cave of. See BETHLE- 
HEM. Of Christ. See JESUS 
CHRIST. 

Natural man, 2 Co. 1.14. Man un- 
regenerate by the Spirit of God. 
See MAN : ORIGINAL SIN ; SIN ; 
DEPRAVITY; REGENERA- 
TION. 

Nature, religion of. See RATION- 
ALISM. 

Naum, one in the line of our Lord's 
ancestry, Lu. 3, 25. 

Nave. See CHURCH EDIFICES. 
i Navigation. See SHIP; COM- 
MERCE. 

Navy. See SHIP. 

NAZARENES. 

NAZARETH. 

NAZARITE. 

Neah, a place on the border of Zeb- 
uluu. Josh. 19. 13. 



NEAPOLIS. 

Neariah, I. One of David's descend- 
ants, 1 Chr. 3. 22, 23. II. A Sime- 
onite chieftain, 1 Chr. 4. 42. 
Nebai, one who sealed the cove- 
nant, Neh, 10. 19. 
NEBAIOTH, NEBAJOTH. 
Neballat, a town of the Benjamites, 

Neh. 11. 34. 
Nebat, father of Jeroboam I., 1 Ki. 

11. 26 ; 12. 2, 15. 
NEBO. 

NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 
Nebuchadrezzar, Jer. 21. 2, 7, etc. 

Same as NEBUCHADNEZZAR. 
Nebushasban, a chief officer of Bab- 
ylon, Jer. 39. 13. 
Nebuzar-adan, one of the great mil- 
itary officers iu the army of Neb- 
uchadnezzar, 2 Ki. 25. 8, 11, 20; 
Jer. 39. 9, 10, 11. 
Necho. Same as PHARAOH-NE- 

CHO. 
NECROLOGY. 

Necromancer. See DIVINATION ; 
MAGIC; WITCHCRAFT; 
WITCH OF ENDOR. 
Nedabiah, one of David's descend- 
ants, 1 Chr. 3. IS. 
Needle-work. See EMBROIDERY. 
Negiuah, Neginoth. See MUSIC- 
AL INSTRUMENTS. 
Nehelamite, a person, Jer. 29. 24, 31, 

32. 
NEHEMIAH, L Son of Hachaliah. 
Nehemiah, II. A leader under Ze- 
rubbabel, Neh. 7, 7, III, Son of 
Azbuk, Neh. 3. 16, 
NEHEMIAH, BOOK OF. 
Nehiloth, See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 
Nehum, Neh. 7. 7, perhaps copyist's 

error for Rehum, 
Nehushta, the mother of King Je- 

hoiachin, 2 Ki, 24. S. 
Nehushtan, 2 Ki. 18. 4. See BRA- 
ZEN SERPENT. 
Neiel, a place on the border of Ash- 

er. Josh. 19. 27. 
Neighbor: who is our? Lu, 10. 36. 
We must love, as ourselves, Le. 
19.18; Mar. 12. 31; Ro,13.9; Gal. 
5. 14 ; Ja, 2. 8. Not to bear false 
witness against. Ex, 20. 16, Be 
merciful to, Ex. 22. 26 ; De. 15, 2. 
Nekeb, a place iu Naphtali, Josh. 

19. 33. 
Nekoda, one whose descendants re- 
turned with Zerubbabel, Ezra 2. 
48; Neh. 7. 50, 52, 
Nemuel, I. A descendant of Reu- 
ben, Nu. 26. 9, II. One of the 
sons of Simeon, 1 Chr, 4. 24. Same 
as Jemuel, 
Nemuelites, descendants of Nemu- 
el, Nu. 26. 12. 
Neology, new doctrines in theolo- 
gy. Equivalent to RATIONAL- 
ISM. See also INFIDELITY, and 
titles there referred to. 
NEOPHYTES. 

Neo-Platonists, a school of profess- 
ed followers of Plato. See ACA- 
DEMICS. 
Nepheg, I. A Levite, Ex. 6. 31, II. 
One ^of the sons of David, 2 Sa. 
5. 15 ; 1 Chr, 3. 7, 
Nephish, a son of Ishmael and his 
descendants, 1 Chr. 5. 19. Same 
as Naphish. 
Nephishesim, Neh. 7. 52. Same as 

Nephusim. 
Nephthalim, Mat. 4. 13, 15. Greek 

formofNAPHTALL 
Nephtoah, a fountain. Josh. 15. 9 ; 

18. 15. 
Nephusim, whose children returned 
from Babylon with Zerubbabel, 
Ezra 2. 50. 
NER. 
Nereus, a Christian at Rome, Ro. 

10. 15. 
NERGAL. 
NERGAL-SHAREZER. 



Neri, one among our Lord's ances- 
try, Lu. 3. 27. 

Neriah, father of Baruch, Jer. 32. 12, 
16 ; 36. 4, 8. 

NERO. 

NESTORIANS. 

Nestorius. See NESTORIANS. 

Net. See HUNTING. 

Nethaueel, i. A prince of Issachar, 
Nu, 1,8; 2. 5 ; 7. 18, 23, II. The 
fourth son of Jesse, 1 Chr. 2, 14. 
III. One of Jehoshaphat's nobles, 
2 Chr. 17. 7. IV. Four priests, 1 
Chr. 15. 24 ; Ezra 10. 22 ; Neh. 12. 
21, 36. V. Three Levites, 1 Chr. 
24. 6 ; 26. 4 ; 2 Chr. 35. 9. 

Nethauiah, I. Father of Ishmael, 
who murdered Gedaliah, 2 Ki. 25. 
23, 25. IL Head of one of the di- 
visions of singers, 1 Chr. 25. 2, 12. 
IIL A Levite, 2 Chr. 17. 8, IV, Fa- 
ther of Jehudi, Jer. 36. 14. 

Netherlands, religion of the. SeeRE- 
FORMED (DUTCH) CHURCH. 

NETHINIM. 

Netophah, a place mentioned with 
Bethlehem, Ezra 2. 22 ; Neh. 7. 26. 

Netophathi, Netophathires, the in- 
habitants of Netophah, 2 Sa. 23. 
28,29; 2Ki.25. 23; Neh. 12. 28. 

NETTLE. 

New birth. See REGENERATION. 

New Jerusalem Church. See SWE- 
DENBORGIANS. 

New Lights. See SECT. 

New Moon, Feast of the. See 
MOON; NEW YEAR, FEAST 
OF THE. 

New Platonists. See ACADEM- 
ICS. 

New Testament. See BIBLE. 

NEW YEAR, FEAST OF THE. 

Neziah, one whose descendants re- 
turned from captivitv Avith Ze- 
rubbabel, Ezra 2. 54 ; Neh. 7. 56. 

Nezib, a town in Judah, Josh. 15. 
43. 

NIBHAZ. 

Nibshau, a city in the wilderness 
of Judah, Josh. 15. 62. 

Nicanor, one of the seven chosen 
to administer the goods of ihe 
early Church, Ac. 6. 5. See DEA- 
CON. 

Nice, Councils of. See ECUMEN- 
ICAL COUNCIL, 1, 7. 

Niceue Creed. See CREED. 

Nicholas, iu some copies instead of 
Nicolas, Ac. 6. 5. 

NICODEMUS. 

NICOLAITANS. 

Nicolas, one of seven chosen to ad- 
minister the goods of the early 
Church, Ac. 6. 5. See DEACON ; 
NICOLAITANS. 

NICOPOLIS. 

Niger, Ac. 13. 1, a _sumame of Sim- 
eon. 

NIGHT. 

Night-hawk. See HAWK. 

Night-watch, Night-watchings. See 
FVFS 

Nihilists. See SECT. 

NILE. 

Nimrah, a fenced city, Nu, 32. 3. 
See Beth-nimrah. 

Nimrim, a stream in MOAB, Is. 15. 

; Jer. 48. 34. 
NIMROD. 

Nimshi, grandfather of King Jehu, 

1 Ki. 19. 16 ; 2 Ki. 9. 2, 14, 20. 
Nineve, Mat. 12. 41 ; Lu. 9. 32, Greek 

form of Nineveh. 
NINEVEH. 
Ninevites, the people of Nineveh, 

Lu. 11. 30. 
Nisan. See MONTHS. 
NISROCH. 
NITRE. 
No, a city of E<jfypt, Jer. 46. 25 ; Eze. 

30. 14-16. See THEBES. 
Noadiah, I. A Levite, Ezra 8. 33. H. 

A prophetess, Neh. 6. 14. 
NOAH, I. The patriarch. Noah, 11. 



INDEX. 



1059 



One of the daughters of Zelophe- 

had, Nu. 26. 33 ; Josh. 18. 3. 
Noamou. Same as No. See 

THEBES. 
NOB. 
Nobah, I. A Manassite, Nu. 32. 42. 

II. Another name of the towu 

Kenath, Judt?. 8. 11. 
Noblemau, Juo. 4. 46. See CHUZA. 
Nocturns. See CANONICAL 

HOURS. 
Nod, the land in which Cain is said 

to have dwelt, Gen. 4. IG. 
No dab, possibly an Ishmaelite 

tribe, 1 Chr. 5. 19. 
Noe, Mat. 24. 3T, 38, the Greek form 

of NOAH. 
Noetians. See MONARCHIANS. 
Nogah, a son of David, 1 Chr. 3. 7 ; 

14.6. 
Nohah, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 2. 
Nou, father of Joshua, 1 Chr. 7. 27. 

Same as Nun, Ex, 33. 11 ; Nu. 1. 

10. 
Nou -conformists. See DISSENT- 
ERS. 
Nones. See CANONICAL HOURS. 
NON-JURORS. 
NON-RESIDENCE. 
Noph, Is. 19. 13 ; Jer. 2. 16. Same 

as MEMPHIS. 
Nophah, a Moabite town, Nu. 21. 30. 
NORTH. 
North American Indians, religion 

of. See INDIANS. 
Nose-jewels. See ORNAMENTS. 
Novatians. See SECT. 
NOVICES. 

Novitiate. See NOVICES. 
NUMBERS. 
NUN, NUNNERY. 
Nun, father of Joshua, Ex. 33. 11 ; 

Nu. 1. 10. Also called Non, 1 Chr. 

7. 2T. 
NUNC DIMITTIS. 
NUNCIO. 

Nuptials. See MARRIAGE. 
NUT. 
Nymphas, a Christian at Laodicea, 

Col. 4. 15. 



OAK. 

OATH: value of. Josh. 9. 19, 20; 2 
Sa. 21. 7 ; He. 6. 16. Use of. Gen. 
26. 28; 31. 44, 53; 50. 25; Ex. 22. 
11 ; Nu. 5. 19 ; Josh. 2. 12 ; 1 Sa. 
20. 16, 17 ; 2 Ki. 11. 4; 2 Chr. 15. 
14, 15 ; Neh. 10. 29. Laws concern- 
ing, Le. 5. 4 ; Nu. 30. 2-16 ; De. 6. 
13~; Is. 65. 16 ; Jer. 4. 2 : Zee. 8. 17 ; 
Mat. 5. 34-37 ; Ja. 5. 12. Modes of 
administering. Gen. 14. 22; 24. 2, 
4, 9 ; 47. 29 ; 1 Ki. 22. 16 ; Da. 12. 7 ; 
Mat. 26. 63 ; Re. 10. 5, 6. Forms of 
expression in. Gen. 31. 53 ; Judg. 
8. 19 ; Ruth 1. 17 ; 3. 13 ; 1 Sa. 1. 26 ; 
3. 17; 25. 26; 2 Sa. 19. 7; 1 Ki. 2. 
42 ; 2 Co. 1. 23 ; Gal. 1. 20 ; 1 Th. 2. 
5 ; 5. 27. Instances of rash, Josh. 
9. 15, 16 (Joshua) : — Jndg. 11. 20- 
36 (Jephthah) ;— Judg. 21. 7 (Benja- 
' mites) ;— 1 Sa. 14. 27, 44 (Saul) •— 
Mat. 14. 7-9 {Herod) ; — Ac. 23. 20 
(the Jews). 

Ob. See DIVINATION. 

OBADIAH, I. A prophet. IL Gov- 
ernor of Ahab's house. Obadiah, 
III. A descendant of the house of 
David, 1 Chr. 3. 21. IV. A chief of 
Issachar, 1 Chr. 7. 3. V. One of 
Saul's posteritv, 1 Chr. 8. 38 ; 9. 44. 
VI. Three Levites, 1 Chr. 9. 16 ; 2 
Chr. 34. 12 ; Neh. 12. 25. VII. A 
Gadite captain, 1 Chr. 12. 9. VIIL 
Father of the ruler of the tribe 
of Zebulun, 1 Chr. 27. 19. IX. A 
prince, 2 Chr. 17. 7. X. One who 
joined Ezra, Ezra 8. 9. XL A 
priest who sealed tne covenant, 
Neh. 10. 5. 

Obal, a son of Joktan, Gen. 10. 28. 
Same as Ebal, 1 Chr. 1. 22. 



Obed, I. Sou of Boaz, and father of 
Jesse, Ruth 4. 17, 21, 22 ; 1 Chr. 2. 
12 ; Matt. 1. 5 ; Lu. 3. 32. II. One 
of Judah's posterity, 1 Chr. 2. 37, 
38. III. One of David's warriors, 
1 Chr. 11. 47. IV. A Levite por- 
ter, 1 Chr. 26. 7. V. Father of one 
who assisted in making Joash 
king, 2 Chr. 23. 1. 

OBED-EDOM. 

Obedience : of Christ, Ro. 5. 19 ; Phi. 
2. 8 ; He. 5. 8. Due to parents, 
Eph. 6. 1; Col. 3. 20; — to hus- 
bands, Ti. 2. 5 ; — to masters, Eph. 
6. 5 ; Col. 3. 22 ; Ti. 2. 9 ;— to mag- 
istrates, etc., Ti. 3. 1 ; He. 13. 17 ; 
— to God commanded, De. 13. 4. 
Justification through Christ's, 
Ro. 5. 19. Should be from the 
heart, De. 11. 13 ; Ro. 6. 17. Prom- 
ises to, Ex. 23. 22 ; 1 Sa. 12. 14 ; Is. 
1. 19 ; Jer. 7. 23. Punishment of 
refusing, De. 11. 28; 28. 15-68; 
Josh. 5. 6. 

Obil, an Ishmaelite, 1 Chr. 27. 30. 

OBIT. 

Obituary. See NECROLOGY. 

OBLATIONS. See OFFERINGS. 

Oberamraergau. See MIRACLE- 
PLAY. 

Oboth, a station of the Israelites, 
Nu. 21. 10, 11 ; 33. 43, 44. 

Observers of times. See DIVINA- 
TION. 

Ocran, father of Pagiel, prince of 
Asher, Nu. 1. 13 ; 2. 27 ; 7. 72 ; 10. 
26. 

OCTAVE. 

Oded, I. Father of the prophet Aza- 
riah, 2 Chr. 15. 1-8. IL A prophet 
in Samaria, 2 Chr. 28. 9-11. 

Offense : sin, Ro. 5. 20. Stumbling- 
block, Is. 8. 14 ; Lu. 17. 1 ; Ro. 9. 
33; 14, 20; Gal. 5. 11. Scandal, 
1 Sa. 25. 31 ; Mat. 18. 7 ; 2 Co. 6. 3. 

OFFERING: burnt-offering, Gen. 8. 
20 ; 22. 2-8 ; Ex. 18 12 ; 40. 29 ; Le. 
1. ; 6. 9 ; 1 Ki. 3. 4 ; Ezra 3. 5 ; He. 
10. 6, 8. Meat-offering, Le. 2. ; 4. ; 
6. ; 14. ; Nu. 15. 1-16 ; Eze. 44. 29. 
Peace or thank offering, Ex. 20. 
24; Le.3. ; 7. 11-21, 29-34; Nu. 6. 
4 ; 1 Ch. 16. 2 ; Eze. 46. 12 ; Am. 5. 
22. Sin-offering, Ex. 29. 14 ; Le. 4. ; 

5. 1-13 ; 2 Chr. 29. 21 ; Ezra 8. 35 : 
Eze. 45. 17. Trespass-offering, Le. 
5. 14-19 ; 6. 1-7 ; 7. 1-7 ; 1 Sa. 6. 3 ; 
Eze. 46. 20. Drink-offering, Gen. 
35. 14 ; Ex. 29. 40 ; Le. 23. 13 ; Ps. 
16. 4 ; Joel 2. 14. Heave-offering, 
Ex. 29. 27, 28 ; Nu. 15. 20 ; 18. 8-29. 
Wave-offering, Ex. 29. 24, 26, 27 ; 
Le. 7. 30 ; 8. 27 ; Nu. 6. 20 ; 18. 11. 
For the making of the tabernacle, 
Ex. 25. 1-9 ; 35. 21-29 ; 36. 3-7. For 
the Temple, 1 Chr. 29. 2-17 ; 2 Chr. 
24. 5-12 ; 31. 5-14 ; Ezra 8. 25 ; Lu. 
21. 4. Spiritual, Ro. 12. 1 ; 15. 16 ; 
Eph. 5. 2 ; 2 Tim. 4. 6. 

Offering-days. See OBLATIONS. 

Offertory. See OBLATIONS. 

OFFICES. 

OG. 

Ohad, one of the sons of Simeon, 
Gen. 46. 10 ; Ex. 6. 15. 

Ohel, one of David's descendants, 
1 Chr. 3. 20. 

OIL, for the sanctuary, Ex. 27. 20 ; 
Le. 24. 1-4. Anointing, Ex. 30. 22- 
38; 37.29. Used in the consecra- 
tion of monuments. Gen. 28. 18 ; 
35. 14. The priests and taberna- 
cle, Le. 8. 10, 12, 80; Ps.l33. 2. The 
service of the sanctuary, Ex. 27. 
20; 30. 24-31; Le. 2. 1 ; 7. 10 ; 2 
Chr. 2. 10. Cleansing of the leper, 
Le. 14. 16, 26, 29. Anointing of 
kings, 1 Sa. 10. 1 ; 16. 1, 13 ; 1 Ki. 
1. 39. In healing of the sick. Mar. 

6. 13 ; Ja. 5. 14. As a symbol of 
spiritual blessing, Ps. 23. 5 ; 45. 7 ; 
He. 1. 9. 

Oil-tree, Is. 41. 19. See OLIVE. 
Ointment. See ANOINTmG. 



Old age, venerable, Le. 19.32; Pr. 16. 
31 ; 20. 29 ; 1 Tim. 5. 1, 2. Duty of, 
Ti. 2. 2, 3 ; 1 Pe. 5. 1-4. 

Old Catholics. See ECUMENICAL 
COUNCIL 22 ; ROMAN CATHO- 
LIC CHURCH. 

Old- school Baptists. See BAP- 
TISTS. 

Old Testament. See BIBLE. 

OLIVE. 

OLIVES, MOUNT OF ; OLIVET. 

Olympas, a Christian at Rome to 
whom Paul sent salutation, Ro. 
16. 15. 

Omar, one of the descendants of 
Esau, Gen. 36. 11, 15 ; 1 Chr. 1. 36. 

Omega, the last letter of the Greek 
alphabet, Re. 1. 8, 11 ; 21. 6 ; 22. 
13. See ALPHA. 

Omen. See DIVINATION. 

Omer. See MEASURES. 

OMNIPOTENCE. 

OMNIPRESENCE. 

OMNISCIENCE. 

OMRI, I. Sixth king of Israel. 
Omri, II. A son of Becher, 1 Chr. 
7. 8. III. A descendant of Pharez, 
1 Chr. 9. 4. IV. A chief of Issa- 
char, 1 Chr. 27. 18. 

ON, L A town. On, II. A Reuben- 
ite, Nu. 16. 1. See KORAH. 

Onan, one of the sons of Judah, 
Gen. 38. 4, 8, 9 ; 46. 12 ; Nu. 26. 
19 ; 1 Chr. 2. 3. 

ONESIMUS. 

Onesiphorus, a Christian friend of 
Paul, 2 Tim. 1. 16-18 ; 4. 19. 

ONIONS. 

Ono, a city and plain of Benjamin, 
1 Chr. 8. 12'; Neh. 6. 2 ; 7. 37 ; IL 
35. 

ONYCHA. 

ONYX. 

OPHEL. 

OPHIR. 

Ophites, or Serpentinians. A sect 
of GNOSTICS. 

Ophni, a town of Benjamin, Josh. 
18. 24. 

Ophrah, I. A name in the genealo- 
gies of Judah, 1 Chr. 4. 14. II. A 
town of Benjamin, Josh. 18. 23; 1 
Sa. 13. 17. III. A city of Manas- 
seh, Judg. 6. 11, 24 ; 8. 27, 32 ; 9. 5. 

Ophthalmia. See MEDICINE. 

OPUS OPERATUM. 

ORACLE. 

ORATORY. 

ORDERS. 

Orders, religious. See MONA- 
CHISM; MENDICANT OR- 
DERS. 

Ordibarii. See SECT. 

ORDINAL. 

ORDINATION. 

OREB. 

Oren, a descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 
2. 25 ; Gen. 4. 21. Same as Augab. 

Organ. See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 

Oriental Church. Same as EAST- 
ERN CHURCH. 

OrJgenists. See PRE-EXIST- 
ENCE ; SECT. 

ORIGINAL SIN. 

ORION. 

ORMUZD. 

ORNAMENTS. 

Oman, a king, 1 Chr. 2L 15-28; 2 
Chr. 3. 1. Same as ARAUNAH. 

Orpah, Ruth 1. 4. See RUTH. 

ORTHODOX. 

Osee, Ro. 9. 25. Greek form of 
HOSE A. 

Oshea. Same as JOSHUA, Nu. 13. 
8,16. 

OSPREY. 

OSSIFRAGE. 

Ossilegiura. See FUNERAL 

RITES. 
OSTRICH. 

Othni, a Levite porter, 1 Chr, 26, 7, 
OTHNIEL. 
Oven. See BREAD. 



1060 



INDEX. 



OWL. 

Ox. See CATTLE. 

Ox-goad. See GOAD. 

0/ein, I. A son of Jesse, 1 Chr. 2. 15. 

IL A son of Jerahmeel, 1 Chr. 2. 

'/5. 
Ozui, a son of Gad, Nu. 26. 16. Same 

as Ezbon, Gen. 40. 16. 
Ozuites, descendants of Ozn', Nu. 

26. 10. 



Paarai, a warrior, 2 Sa. 23. 35. Same 
as Naarai. 

Pace. See MEASURES. 

PACIFICATION, EDICTS OF. 

Padau, Gen. 48. 7. Same as Padan- 
aram. See ARAM; MESOPO- 
TAMIA. 

Padan-aram, a country. Gen. 28. 2, 
etc. See ARAM; MESOPOTA- 
MIA. 

Padon, one whose children return- 
ed from captivity with Zerubba- 
bel, Ezra 2.44; Neh. 7. 4T. 

PAGANS. 

Pagiel, a prince of the tribe of Ash- 
er, Nu. 1. 13 ; 2. 27 ; 7. 72, 77 ; 10. 
26. 

PAGODA. 

Pahath-moab, one whose descend- 
ants returned to Jerusalem with 
Zerubl)abe], Ezra 2. 6; 8. 4; 10. 
30 ; Neh. 3. 11 ; 7. 11 ; 10. 14. 

Pai, a citv, 1 Chr. 1. 50. Same as 
Pan, Gen. 36. 39. 

PAINT, PAINTING. 

Painting the eye. See EYE. 

PALACE. 

Palal, one who helped to repair the 
wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3. 25. 

Palatinate Catechism. See CREED. 

Palestina, Ex. 14. 14, See PALES- 
TINE. 

PALESTINE. 

Palimpsest manuscripts. See MAN- 
USCRIPTS. 

PALL. 

Pallium. See ARCHBISHOP. 

Pallu, son of Reuben, Ex. 6. 14 ; Nu. 
V6. 5, 8 ; 1 Chr. 5. 3. Same as Phal- 
lu, Gen. 46. 9. 

Palluites, descendants of Pallu, Ex. 
0.14. 

PALMERS. 

PALM, PALM-TREE. 

Palmerworm, Joel 1. 4 ; 2. 25 ; Am. 
4. 9. Prob. a species of LOCUST. 

PALM-SUNDAY. 

PALSY. 

Palti, the spy from the tribe of Ben- 
jamin, Nu. 13. 9. 

Paltiel, a chief of Issachar, Nu. 34. 
26. 

Paltite, the designation of one of 
David's warriors, 2 Sa. 23. 26. 
Elsewhere called the Pelouite, 1 
Chr. 11. 27. 

PAMPHYLIA. 

Pan. See UTENSILS. 

Paneas, another name for C-ESA- 
REA PHILIPPI. 

Pannag, perhaps a place, Eze. 27. 17. 

PANTHEISM. 

Papacy. See POPE. 

Paper. See WRITING. 

PAPHOS. 

Papists. See POPE; ROMAN 
CATHOLIC CHURCH. 

Papyrus. See REED. 

PARABLES. 

Paraclete, Greek term for HOLY 
GHOST. 

PARADISE. 

Parah, a town of Benjamin, Josh. 
18. 23. 

Parallel, Parallelism. See POET- 
RY. 

Paralysis. See PALSY. 

PARAN. 

Parbar, i Chr. 26. 18. Perhaps the 
porticoes of the Temple. 

Pardon. See ABSOLUTION; 



ATONEMENT; FORGIVE- 
NESS; INDULGENCES; PEN- 
ANCE. 

Pardon-bell. See BELLS. 

Parents. See CHILDREN. To be 
honored, Ex. 20. 12 ; De. 5. 16 ; Pr. 
1. 8;Eph. 6. 2, Law against curs- 
ing or smiting, Ex. 21. 15-17: 
Le. 20. 9 ; Pr. 20. 20. Duty of, to 
their children. Gen. 18. 19 ; De. 4. 
9 ; 6. 6, 7 ; 11. 19 ; 32. 46 ; Ps. 78. 5 ; 
Pr. 13. 24 ; 19. 18 ; 22. 6, 15 ; 23. IS, 
14; 29. 15, 17; Joel 1. 3; Mat. 19. 
13 ; 2 Co. 12. 14 ; Eph. 6. 4 ; Col. 3. 
21 ; 1 Tim. 5. 8. Reward of, Pr. 
10. 1 ; 15. 20 ; 29. 17. Examples 
for imitation. Gen. 18. 19; 1 Chr. 
28. 9-20 ; Job 1. 5 ; Pr. 31. 1-9 ; 2 
Tim. 1. 5; 3. 15, For warning. 
Gen. 37. 3, 4 ; 1 Sa. 2. 22-36 ; 3. 12- 
18. 

PARIAH. 

PARISH. 

Parlor. See HOUSE. 

Parmashta, one of Haman's sons, 
Est. 9. 9. 

Parmenas, one of the seven select- 
ed to administer the secular bus- 
iness of the church, Ac. 6. 5. 

Parnach, father of a chief of Zebu- 
lun, Nu. 34. 25. 

Parosh, one whose descendants re- 
turned from captivity with Ze- 
rubbabel, Ezra 2. 3; Neh. 7. 8. 
Same as Pharosh, Ezra 8. 3. 

PARSEES. 

Parshandatha, one of Haman's sons. 
Est. 9. 7. 

PARSON. 

PARTHIA. 

PARTRIDGE. 

Paruah, father of one of Solomon's 
officers, 1 Ki. 4. 17. 

Parvaim, a place, site unknown, 2 
Chr. 3. 6. 

Pasach, an Asherite chief, 1 Chr. 7. 
33. 

Pasch, a name for EASTER. 

Pas-dammim, a place, 1 Chr. 11. 13. 
Same as Ephes-dammim. 

Paseah, I. One of Judah's posterity, 
1 Chr. 4. 12. II. One whose de- 
scendants returned with Zerub- 
babel, Ezra 2. 49. Same as Pha- 
seah, Neh. 7. 51. III. Father of 
one who helped to repair the 
wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3, 6. 

Pashur, the name of two priests, 1 
Chr. 9. 12 ; Neh. 7. 41 ; 10. 3 ; 11. 
12 ; Jer. 20. 1-6 ; 21. 1 ; 38. 1. 

Passage of Red Sea. See EXODUS 
OF THE ISRAELITES. 

Passing bell. See BELLS. 

Passicm. See CRUCIFIXION ; 
GETHSEMANE; JESUS 
CHRIST; MONARCHIANS. 

Passion-play. See MIRACLE- 
PLAYS. 

Passion - week. See EASTER ; 
HOLY. 

PASSOVER. 

PASTOR. See CLERGY; 
PREACHING. 

Pastoral Staff. Same as CROSIER. 

Patara, a town of LYCIA, Ac. 21. 1. 

Paten, See ORNAMENTS. 

Paternoster. {Our Father) Roman 
Catholic title of LORD'S PRAY- 
ER. 

PATHROS. 

Pathrusim, the people of Pathros, 
Gen. 10. 14; 1 Chr. 1. 12. 

Patience : instances, Nu. 12. 3 ; Job 
1. 20, 22 ; Ps. 40. 1 ; 1 Th. 1. 3 ; He. 
10. 34. Christ our example. Is. 
53. 7 ; 1 Pe. 2. 23. 

PATMOS. 

PATRIARCH. 

Patriarchate. See PATRIARCH. 

Patripassians. See MONARCHI- 
ANS. 

Patrobas, a Christian at Rome, Ro. 
16. 14. 

PATRON, PATRONAGE. 



Pan, a place in Iduraea, Gen. 36. 39. 
Same as Pai. 

PAUL. 

PAULICIANS. 

Paulus, Ac. 13. 6-12. Same as Ser- 
gius Paulus. 

Pavement, Jno. 19. 13. See GABBA- 
THA. 

Pavia, Council of See ECUMEN- 
ICAL COUNCIL IS. 

PAX. 

pax' vobiscum. 

Peace: earthly, Le. 26. 6; Judg. 4. 
17 : 2 Sa. 19. 24 ; 1 Chr. 22. 9 ; Mat; 
5. 9 ; Lu. 2. 14 ; 1 Co. 14. 33 ; He. 
12. 14. Spiritual, Ps. 4. 8; Is. 26. 
3; 54. 13; Na. 1, 15; Lu. 7, 50; 
Phi. 4. 7; 1 Pe. 5. 14. Source of, 
Ps. 85. 8, 10 ; Pr. 3. 2, 17 ; Is. 9. 6 ; 
48. IS ; Jer. 14. 13 ; Jno. 14. 27 ; 16, 
33 ; 20, 19-26 ; Ro, 1. 7 ; 5, 1 ; Eph. 

I. 2 ; 2. 14-17 ; Ja. 3. 17, 18. False, 
Jer. 6. 14 : 28. 9 ; 1 Th. 5. 3. 

PEACE-OFFERING. 

PEACOCK. 

PEARL. 

Pectoral, the high -priest's 

BREASTPLATE. 
Pedahei, a chief of Naphtali, Nu. 34. 

28. 
Pedahznr, father of Gamaliel, prince 

of Mauasseh, Nu. 1. 10; 2. 20^ 7. 

54, 59 ; 10. 23. 
Pedaiah, I. Father of Jehoiakim's 

mother, 2 Ki. 23. 36. II. Father 

of Zerubbabel, 1 Chr. 3. 18, 19. 

III. Father of Joel, 1 Chr. 27. 20. 

IV. One who helped repair the 
wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3. 25. V. 
ALevite,Neh.S.4,13. VI.ABeu- 
jamite, Neh. 11. 7. 

Pedobaptists. See BAPTISM. 

PEKAH. 

PEKAHIAH. 

Pekod, a name given to BABYLON, 
Jer. 50. 21 ; Eze. 23. 23. 

Pelagiauism. See ORIGINAL 
SIN. 

Pelagians. See SECT. 

Pelaiah, I. One of David's posterity, 
1 Chr. 3. 24. II. A Levite, Neh. 
8, 7 ; 10. 10. 

Pelaliah,a priest, Neh. 11. 12. 

Pelatiah, I. One of David's posteri- 
ty, 1 Chr. 3. 21. IL A Simeonite 
captain, 1 Chr. 4. 42. III. One who 
sealed the covenant, Neh. 10. 22. 
IV. A prince of the people, Eze. 
11. 1, 13. 

PELEG. 

Pelet, I. One of Judah's posterity, 

1 Chr. 2. 47. II. A Benjamiffe 
chief, 1 Chr. 12. 3. 

Peleth, I. A Reubeuite, Ne. 16. i. 

II. A descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 

2 33 

Peleth'ites. See CHERETHITES. 

PELICAN. 

Pelonite, the designation of some 
of David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11. 27, 
36 ; 17. 10. Same as Paltite. 

Pen. See WRITING. 

PENANCE. 

PENIEL. 

Peuinnah, one of the Avives of El- 
kanah, 1 Sa. 1. 2, 4. 

Penitence. See REPENTANCE. 

Penitentiaries. Same as PENI- 
TENTIAL PRIESTS. 

PENITENTIAL PRIESTS. 

PENITENTIAL PSALMS. 

PENITENTS. 

Penitent thief. See CRUCIFIXION. 

Pennon. See BANNERS. 

Penny. See MONEY. 

PENTATEUCH. 

PENTECOST. 

PENTECOSTALS. 

Penuel, I. One of the descendants 
of Judah, 1 Chr. 4. 4. IL A Ben- 
jamite chief, 1 Chr. S. 2.5. IIL A 
place. Gen, 32. 31 ; Juds:, 8. S. 9, 17 : 
1 Ki. 12. 25. Same as PenieJ. 

Peor, I. A mountain of Moab, Nu. 



INDEX. 



lOGl 



23. 2S. II. Same as Baal-peor. Nu. 
25. 18 ; Josh. 22. 17. 

Pepuzians. See MONTANISTS. 

PERAMBULATION. 

Perazim, Is. 23. 21. See BAAL 6. 

PEREA. 

Pei-esh, a descendant of Manasseh, 
1 Chr. 7. 16. 

Perez, sou of Judah, 1 Chr. 27. 3 ; 
Neh. 11. 4, 6. Same as Pharez. 

Perez-Uzza, or Perez-Uzzah, aplace. 
See Uzzah, 2 Sa. G. 8 ; 1 Chr. 13. 11. 

PERFECTIONISTS. 

Perfume. See ANOINTING ; FU- 
NERAL RITES ; INCENSE. 

Perga, a town iu Pamphylia, Ac. 13. 
13, 14 ; 14. 25. 

PERGAMOS, or Pergamum. 

Perida, Neh. 7. 5-7. Same as Peruda. 

Peripatetics. See ARISTOTELI- 
ANS. 

PERIZZITES. 

Perjury, 1 Tim. 1. 10. See OATH. 

Perpetual curates. See CURATE. 

Persecution. See AUTO-DA-FE; 
HUGUENOTS ; INQUISITION; 
MARTYR ; WALDENSES. 

■ , how to be endured, Mat.5. 44; 

10. 22 ; Ro. 12. 14 ; 1 Co. 4. 12 ; 2 
Co. 12. 10 ; 1 Pe. 4. 19. Blessing 
connected with. Mat. 5. 10 ; 16. 25; 
Mar. S. 35 ; Lu. 9. 24 ; He. 12. 6-11 ; 
Ja. 1. 2 ; 1 Pe. 4. 14 ; Re. 6. 9 ; 7. 
13-17. Instances, Gen. 37. 18, 19 
(Joseph) • Ex. 1. 11, 14, 22 {the Is- 
raelites) ; 1 Sa. 18. 11, 29 ; 23. 8, 9, 
22, 23 ; 26. 2 {David) ; Ezra 4. 1, 4- 
24 ; Neh. 4. 1-8 (the Jews) ; Jer. 26. 
20-23 (Vrijah); Jer. 38. 4^6 (Jere- 
iniah) ; Da. 3 (the three children) ; 
Da. 6 (Daniel) • Ac. 7. 57-60 (Ste- 
phm) • Ac. 8. 1 ; 9. 1 ; 12. 1, 2 ; He. 

11. 35-38 {the Church). 
Perseverance, in duty enjoined, 

Mat. 24. 13 ; Lu. 9. 62 ; Ac. 13. 43 ; 

1 Co. 15. 58 ; 16. 13 ; Col. 1. 23 ; 2 

Th. 3. 13 ; 1 Tim. 6. 14 ; He. 3. 6, 

14; 10. 23, 38; 2 Pe. 3. 17; Re. 2. 

10, 25. Of the saints, Job 17. 9 ; 

Ps. 94. 14 ; 125. 1,2; Pr. 4. 18 ; Is. 

54. 4-10 ; Jer. 31. 3; 32. 38-40 ; Jno. 

3. 5, 6, 14, 15 ; 5. 24; 10. 27, 28 ; 17. 

1-12; Ac.20. 28; Ro. 8. 28-39; Eph. 

1. ; 3. 10-12 ; Phi. 1. 6 ; 2 Th. 2. 13, 

14; Ti.2. 14; 3.5; He. 13. 5. 
PERSEVERANCE OF THE 

SAINTS. 
PERSIA. 
Persia, religion of. See ZOROAS- 

TRIAN RELIGION. 
Persians. Inhabitants of PERSIA. 
Persis, a Christian woman, Ro. 16. 

12. 
Person. See HYPOSTASIS; 

TRINITARIANS. 
Peruda, one of Solomon's servants, 

Ezra 2. 55. Same as Perida, Neh. 

7.57. 
Peshito. See VERSIONS. 
Pestilence. See PLAGUE. One of 

God's judgments, Le. 26. 25; Nu. 

14. 12 ; De. 28. 21; Jer. 34. 17; Eze. 

7. 15 ; Ha. 3. 5 ; Mat. 24. 7. In- 
stances, Nu. 14. 37 ; 16. 46-50 ; 25. 

9 ; 2 Sa. 24. 
PETER. 

PETER, THE EPISTLES OF. 
PETER-PENCE. 
Pethahiah, I. A chief of a course of 

priests, 1 Chr. 24. 16. H. A Le- 

vite, Ezra 10. 23 ; Neh. 9. 5. III. 

A descendant of Judah, Neh. 11. 

24. 
Pethor, the residence of Balaam, 

Nu. 22. 5 ; De. 23. 4. 
Pethuel, father of the prophet Joel, 

Joel 1. 1. 
Petra. See SELA. 
Petrobrussians. See SECT. 
Peulthai, a Levite porter, 1 Chr. 

26.5. 
Pews. See CHURCH EDIFICES. 
Phalec, Lu. 3. 35, Greek form of PE- 

LEG. 



Phallu, Gen. 46. 9. Same as Pallu. 

Phalti, 1 Sa. 25. 44. Same as Phal- 
tiel. See MICHAL. 

Phaltiel, 2 Sa. 3. 15. See MICHAL. 

Phauuel, an Asherite, father of the 
prophetess Anna, Lu. 2. 36. 

Phansiagers. See THUGS. 

PHARAOH. 

Pharaoh, wife of, 1 Ki. 11. lS-22, See 
PHARAOH G. 

Pharaoh's daughter, I. Ex. 2. 5-10, 
the deliverer of Moses. See PHA- 
RAOH 3. II. 1 Chr. 4. IS, wife of 
Mered. See Bithia; PHARAOH 
5. III. Wife of Solomon, 1 Ki. 6. 
1, 37, 38. See PHARAOH 7. 

Phares, Greek form of Pharez, Mat. 
1. 3 ; Lu. 3. 33. 

Pharez, a sou of Judah, Gen. 38. 29 : 
46. 12 ; Nu. 26. 20, 21 ; Ruth 10. 12, 
18. 

PHARISEES. 

Pharosh, Ezra 8. 3. Same as Pa- 
rosh. 

Pharpar, a river, 2 Ki. 5. 12. See 
ABANA. 

Pharzites, a family of Judah, de- 
scendants of Pharez, Nu. 26. 20. 

Phaseah, Neh. 7. 51. See Paseah 
II. 

Phebe, or Phoebe, a deaconess of 
the church at Cenchrea, whom St. 
Paul commends to the Romans, 
Ro. 16. 1, 2. See DEACONESS. 

PHENICE ; PHCENICIA. 

Phichol, chief captain of the forces 
of Abimelech, king of Gerar, Gen. 
21.22,32; 26.26. 

PHILADELPHIA. 

Philadelphiaus. See SECT. 

PHILEMON. 

PHILEMON, EPISTLE TO. 

Philetus, a heretic, 2 Tim. 2. 17. See 
ALEXANDER. 

PHILIP. See HEROD. 

PHILIPPL 

PHILIPPIANS, EPISTLE TO 
THE. 

Philistia. See PALESTINE III. 

Philistim, Gen. 10. 14. Same as 
PHILISTINES. 

PHILISTINES. 

Philistines, plain of. See PALES- 
TINE III. 

Philologus, a Christian at Rome, 
Ro. 16. 15. " 

Philosophy. See under various ti- 
tles, as ACADEMICS ; ARISTO- 
TELIANS ; EPICUREANS; STO- 
ICS, etc. 

PHINEHAS. 

Phlegon, a Christian at Rome whom 
St. Paul saluted, Ro. 16. 14. 

Phoebe. Same as Phebe. 

Phoenicia. See PHENICE. 

PHRYGIA. 

Phrygians. See MONTANISTS. 

Phurah, the servant or armor-bear- 
er of Gideon, Josh. 7. 10, 11. 

Phut, or Put, I. A son of Ham, Gen. 
10. 6 ; 1 Chr. 1. 8. II. A district of 
Africa, perhaps Libya, Na. 3. 9; 
Jer. 4(5. 9, etc. In Is. &Q. 19, writ- 
ten Pnl. 

Phuvah, one of the sons of Issachar, 
Gen. 40. 13. Same as Pua and 
Puah, Nu. 26. 23 ; 1 Chr. 7. 1. 

Phygellus, a person of Asia, 2 Tim. 
1.15. 

PHYLACTERY. 

Physician. See MEDICINE. 

PI-BESETH. 

Picards. See SECT. 

Pictures. See CHAMBERS OF IM- 
AGERY; PAINTING. 

Piece of monev. See MONEY. 

Piety. See GODLINESS. 

Pigeon. See DOVE. 

Pihahiroth, a place near the Red 
Sea where Pharaoh's host over- 
took the Israelites, Ex. 14. 2, 9 ; 
Nu. 33. 7, S. See EXODUS. 

PILATE (PONTIUS). 

PILATE'S STAIRCASE. 



Pildash, one of the sons of Nahor, 
Gen. 22. 22. 

Pileha, one who sealed the cove- 
nant, Neh. 10. 24. 

PILGRIMAGES. 

Pilgrims. See PILGRIMAGES. 

Pil'larists. See STYLITES. 

Pillar of cloud and fire. See SHE- 
KINAH. 

Pillar of salt. Gen. 19. 26. See LOT. 

PILLARS (consecrated). 

Pillow. See BED. 

Piltai, a priest in the days of Joia- 
kim, Neh. 12. 17. 

PINE. 

PINNACLE. 

Pinon, one of the dukes of Edora, 
Gen. 30. 41 ; 1 Chr. 1. 52. Prob. 
same as Punon. 

Pipe. See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 

Piram, a king of Jarmuth, Josh. 
10. 3. See ADONI-ZEDEC. 

Pirathon, a place iu the land of 
Ephraim, Judg. 12. 15. 

Pirathonites, inhabitants of Pira- 
thon, Judg. 12. 13, 15 ; 2 Sa. 23. 30 ; 
1 Chr. 11. 31. 

Pisa, Council of. See ECUMENIC- 
AL COUNCIL 16. 

Pisciculi. See FISH. 

Piscina. See FISH; ORNAMENTS, 

PISGAH. 

PISIDIA. 

PISON. 

Pispah, a chieftain of Asher, 1 Chr. 
7. 38. 

PIT. 

PITCH. 

Pitcher. See UTENSILS. 

PITHOM. 

Pithon, a descendant of King Saul, 
1 Chr. 8. 35 ; 9. 41. 

Pitv, Job 6. 14 ; Ps. 41. 1, 2 ; Pr. 18. 
8-10 ; Is. 63. 9. 

PLAGUE, THE. 

PLAGUES OF EGYPT. 

Plain. See ARABAH; ESDRAE- 
LON: PALESTINE HI. 

Plains: of Moab, of Jericho, etc. 
See ARABAH. 

Plait, Plaiting, 1 Pe. 3. 3. See HAIR. 

PLANTS. 

Plaster, Le. 14. 42, 48 ; De. 27. 2, 4. 
See MORTAR. 

Platonists followers of Plato. See 
ACADEMICS. 

Pledge. See LOAN. 

PLEIADES. 

Plenary indulgence. See INDUL- 
GENCES. 

Plenary inspiration. See INSPI- 
RATION. 

PLOW. 

PLURALIST. 

Plymouth Brethren. See BRETH- 
REN. 

Pochereth of Zebaim, a person, Ezra 
2.57; Neh. 7. 59. 

POETRY. 

Polity,ecclesiastical. SeeCHURCH; 
CLERGY; ORDERS. 

Pollution. See UNCLE ANNESS. 

Pollux, Ac. 28, 11. See CASTOR. 

Polygamy. See MARRIAGE. 

Polytheism. See IDOLATRY; IM- 
AGE-WORSHIP. 

POMEGRANATE. 

PONTIFEX. 

Pontifex Maximus. See PONTI- 
FEX. 

Pontiff. See POPE. 

PONTIFICAL. 

Pontifical books. See PONTIFEX. 

Pontifices. See PONTIFEX. 

Pontius Pilate. See PILATE. 

PONTUS. 

POOL. 

Poor. See ALMS. 

Poor-min's box. See ALMS- 
BOWL. 

POPE; PAPACY. 

POPLAR. 

Poratha, a son of Hamau, Est, 9. 8. 



10o2 



INDEX. 



PORCH. See NAETHEX. 

Poicius Festiis. See FESTUS. 

PORTER. 

Port Royal. See JANSENISTS. 

POSITIVISM. 

POSTILS. 

Posts, messengers, Est. 3. 13 ; Job 
9.25. See FOOTMAN. 

Pot. See POTTER, POTTERY; 
UTENSILS. 

POTIPHAR. 

Potipherah, the priest of On, Gen. 
41. 45, 5U; 46.20. 

Potsherd, a fragment of earthen- 
ware. See POTTER. 

Pottage. See Gen. 25. 29-34. 

POTTER, POTTERY. 

Potter's field. Zee. 11. 12, 13 ; Mat. 
27. 7. See ACELDAMA. 

Pound. See MONEY ; WEIGHTS. 

Poverty, voluntary. See MENDI- 
CANT ORDERS ; MONACHISM. 

Prseceiitor. See PRECENTOR. 

PRiETORIUM. 

Praise: due to God, Father, Son, 
and Spirit, 2 Sa. 22. 4; Ps. 18. 3 ; 
67. 3 ; 147. 1 ; 148. ; 150. ; Is. 60. 6, 
18 ; Ro. 9. 5 ; 15. 11 ; 1 Pe. 1.3; 4. 
11 ; Re. 19. 5. Prerequisites to, 
Ps. 22. 23 ; 33. 1 ; 118. 21 ; Is. 38. 
18, 19. Motives to, Ps. 63. 3 ; 89. 
1 ; 103. 1-4 ; 106. 1 ; 139. 14 ; Is. 12. ; 
44. 23 ; 1 Co. 15. 57 ; 2 Co. 9. 15 ; 
Eph. 1. Examples, Ex. 15. 1-19 
(Moses) ;— 1 Sa. 2. 1-10 {Hannah) ; 
— Ps. 119. 164 (tJie Psalmist) ;— Lu. 
1. 64, 67-73 {Zacharias) ; — Ln. 1. 
46-55 {Mary)- — Ln. 2. 13, 14 {the 
heavenly host) ;— Lu. 19. 37, 38 {the 
Jews) ; — Ro. 11. 33-36 (Paid) ; — 1 
Pe. 1. 3, 4 {Peter) ;— Re. 4. 11 ; 5. 9, 
12 ; 15. 3, 4 {saints in heaven) ; — 
Re. 5. 13 {the luhole creation). 

PRAJSE-MEETING. 

PRAYER : private, Gen. 32. 24 ; Ps. 
5. 3 ; 55. 16, 17 ; Da. 6. 10 ; Hos. 12, 

4. Social and family, Gen. 35. 2, 

3, 7 ; Jer. 10. 25 ; Mat. 18. 19, 20 ; 
Ac. 1.13, 14; 10.9; 12. 12; 16.25. 
Public, Ex. 20. 24 ; 2 Chr. 7. 14, 16 ; 
Ps. 95. 6 ; 122. 1 ; Is. 56. 7 ; Zee. 8. 
21 ; Lu. 1. 10 ; Ac. 3. 1 ; 12. 5 ; 1 Co. 

, 14. 14-17. Essential characteris- 
tics of, and qualirtcations for, 2 
Chr. 33. 12, 13 ; Ps. 80. 18 ; Zee. 12. 
10 ; Mat. 21. 12 ; Jno. 4. 24 ; 14. 13, 
14 ; 15. 16 ; 16. 23, 24 ; Gal. 4. 6 ; 1 
Tim. 2. 8 ; Ja. 1. 6 ; 4. 2^. Exhor- 
tations to, Ps. 27. 6 ; Is. 55. 6 ; Ro. 
12. 12 ; Eph. 6. 18 ; Phi. 4. 6 ; 1 Th. 

5. 17; He. 10. 19-22; Ja. 5. 13 ; 1 
Pe. 4. 7 ; Ju. 20. Encouragements 
to, 2 Chr. 7. 14 ; 30. 27 ; Job 22. 27 ; 
Ps. 34. 6 ; 56. 9 ; 62. 8 ; 65. 2 ; 145. 
18 ; Is. 26. 3 ; Jer. 29. 13 ; Lu. 11. 9, 

10 ; 18. 1-8 ; He. 4. 15, 16 ; Ja. 5. 16, 
17 ; 1 Jno. 5. 14, 15 ; Re. 5. 8. Ex- 
amples of, Mat. 6. 9-13 ; Ln. 11. 2- 
4 ; 22. 42 ; Jno. 11. 41, 42 ; 12. 27, 
28 ; 17. (the Lord Jesus) ;— Gen. 18. 
23-32 {Abraham) ;— Gen. 24. 12-15 
(£:iiezer); — 'Ex. 32. 11-13, 31, 32; 
Nu. 14. 13-19 (Moses); — Jndg. 6. 
13, 36, 39 (Gideon) ;— 2 Sa. 7. 18-29 
(David) ; — 2 Chr. 6. (Solomon) ; — 
Pr. 30. 7-9 (A(]ur) ;— 2 Ki. 20. 2, 3 
(Hezekiah) ; — 2 Chr. 20. 5-12 (Je- 
hoshaphat) ;— Jer. 32. 16-25 (Jere- 
Tniah) ; — Jon. 2. 1 -9 (Jonah) ; — 
Ezra 9. 5-15 (Ezra) ;— Neh. 1. 4- 

11 (Nehemiah) ; — Neh. 9. (Jeshua, 
etc.) ;— Hab. 2. (Habakkuk) ;— Lu. 
23, 42 (the thief on the cross) ; — Ac. 

4. 24-30 (the disciples) ;— Ac. 7. 59, 
60 (Stephen) ;— Eph. 3. 16-21 (Paul). 

PRAYER-BOOK. 

PRAYER-MILL. 

PREACHING: forms of prayer and 
thanksgiving, a divine appoint- 
ment, Is. 61. 1 ; Jon. 3. 2; Mat. 28. 
19 ; Mar. 16. 15 ; Lu. 9. 2, 60 ; 24. [ 
46, 47 ; Ac. 10. 42 ; 1 Co. 1. 17-29 ; ' 
9. 16 ; 12. 4-11 ; 2 Co. 5. 19. Rules I 
for, 1 Co. 2. 1-7 ; 3. 10, 11 ; 4. 12 ; | 



14.; 2 Co. 3. 4-8; 4.5; 6.; Col. 1. 
28. Of John the Baptist, Mat. 3. 
1-12 ; Jno. 1. 6, 7, 15-27, 29-34, 36 ; 
3. 27-36. Of Jesus, Mat. 4. 17 ; 5. ; 
6. ; 7. ; 23. ; Lu. 4. 18, 19. Of the 
apostles, Ac. 4. 2 ; 5. 42 ; 8. ; 9. 20, 
27 ; 10. 36-48 ; 11. 19, 20 ; 13. 5, 16 
-41 ; 14. 15, 25 ; 17. 3, 13, 18 ; 20. 18 
-36 ; 28. 31 ; Ro. 10. 8, 11 ; 1 Co. 2. 
2 ; 4. ; 15. 11-14 ; 2 Co. 11. 4 ; Gal. 

1. 8; 5.11; Eph. 2.17; 3. 8 ; Phi. 
1. 15-18 ; 1 Tim. 3. 16 ; 2 Tim. 4. 2 ; 
Ti. 1. 3 ; He. 4. 2. Success of, Ac. 

2. 41 ; 4. 4 ; 8. 35-40 ; 10. 34-48 ; 16. 
14, 15, 31-34 ; 1 Co. 3. 6, 7. 

Prfe-Adamites. See SECT. 

Prebendaries. See CANON. 

PRECENTOR. 

Precious stcmes. See GEMS. 

PREDESTINATION. 

PRE-EXISTENCE. 

PREFACES. 

Prelacy, prelatical. See PRELATE. 

PRELATE. 

Presbyter. See ELDERS. 

PRESBYTERIANS. 

Presbytery. See PRESBYTERI- 
ANS. 

PRESENTATION. 

Presessio. See CHRISTMAS. 

Press, Joel 3, 13 ; Hag. 2. 16. See 
VINE. 

Pride : is siu, Pr. 21. 4. Is hateful to 
God, and to Christ, Pr. 6. 16, 17 ; 
8. 12, 13; 16. 5. Often originates 
in self-righteousuess, Lu. 18. 11, 
12. Unsanctified knowledge, 1 Co. 
8. 1. Possession of power and 
wealth, Le. 26. 19 ; Eze. 30. 6 ; 2 
Ki. 20. 13. Forbidden, 1 Sa. 2. 3 ; 
Ro. 12. 3, 16. A hinderance to 
seeking God, Ps. 10. 4 ; Hos. 7. 
10. A characteristic of the devil, 1 
Tim. 3. 6. The world, 1 Jno. 2. 16. 
Leads men to contempt and re- 
jection of God's word and min- 
isters, Jer. 43. 2. Exhortation 
against, Jer. 13. 15. Is followed by 
shame, Pr. 11. 2. Destruction, 
Pr. 16. 18 ; 18, 12. Woe to, Is. 28. 

1, 3. They who are guilty of, shall 
be resisted, Ja. 4. 6. Shall be 
brought low and abased, Ps. 18. 
27 ; Is. 2. 12 ; Da. 4. 37, with Mat. 
23. 12. Exemplified (Ahithophel), 

2 Sa. 17. 23 -—(Hezekiah), 2 Chr. 32. 
25 -—(Pharaoh), Neh. 9. 10 \—(Ha- 
man), Est. 3. 5 •,—(Moab), Is. 16. 6 ;— 
(Tyre), Is. 23. 9 -,— (Israel), Is. 28. 1 ; 
Hos. 5. 5, 9;—iJudah), Jer. 13. 9 ;— 
(Babylon), Jer. 50. 29, 32 \— (Assyr- 
ia), Eze. 31. 3, 10 ---(Nebuchadnez- 
zar), Da. 4. 30 ; 5. 20 -,—(Edom), Oba. 

3 ; _ {Scribes), Mar. 12, 38, 39 ;— 
(Herod), Ac. 12. 21-28 -,-~{Laodice- 
ans), Re, 3, 17. 

PRIEST. 

Priests : before the law, Gen, 4, 4 ; 

8. 20 ; 12. 7, 8 ; 14. 18 ; 22. 9 ; 26. 
25; 33. 20;— under the law, Ex. 
28. 29 ; Le. 6. 8-30 ; 7. 28-36 ; 8. ; 

9. ; 10. 8-11 ; 21. ; 22. 1-25 ; Nu. 3. 
1-4; 18. ; Eze. 44. 15-31;— genealo- 
gies of, 1 Chr. 6. 50^60 ; 9. 10-13. 
David's ordering of, 1 Chr. 24. 1- 
19 ; Neh. 12. ;— failure of, 1 Sa. 2. 
12-17 ; 22. 28-30 ; 2 Ki. 12. 4-7 ; 23. 
21, 22 ; Neh. 13. 29 ; Jer. 5. 31 ; 23. 
11 ; La. 4. 13 ; Eze. 22. 26 ; Mi. 3. 
11 ; Zeph. 3. 4 ;— saints are, 1 Pe. 

2. 5, 9 ; Re. 1.6; 5. 10 ; 20, 6. 
PRIMATE, 

Prime. See CANONICAL HOURS. 

Primitive Methodists. See METH- 
ODISTS, 

Primitive Methodists in Ireland, 
See METHODISTS, 

Prince of the Captivity. See AICH- 
MALOTARCH. 

Prior, Pi'ioress, Priory, See AB- 
BEY. 

Prisca, 2 Tim, 4. 19, Same as Pris- 
cilla. SeeAQUILA, 

Priscilla. Wife of AQUILA. 



Priscillianists. See SECT, 

PRISON. 

Procession of the Holy Ghost. See 
FILIO-QUE ; HOLY GHOST. 

PROCESSIONS. 

Proconsul. See DEPUTY. 

PROCTOR. 

Procurator. See GOVERNOR, 

Progressive Friends. See 
FRIENDS. 

Promises of God : their infinite val- 
ue, Nu. 23. 19 ; De. 7. 9 ; Ps. 89, 3, 
34; 105. 8; Is. 41. 10; 42. 16; Jer. 

32. 40 ; La. 3. 31, 32 ; Lu. 1. 45 ; 
2 Co. 1. 20 ; He. 13. 5 ; Ja. 1. 17 ; 
2 Pe. 1. 4. Particular ones: to 
Noah, Gen. 8. 21; 9. 9-17; — to 
Abraham, Gen. 12. 7 ; 13. 14-17 ; 
15. 1-6 ; 17. 1-22 ; 18. 10-14 ; 22. 15- 
18 ; to Hagar, Gen. 16. 10 ; 2L 17, 
18;— to Isaac, Gen. 26. 2-4 ;— to 
Jacob, Gen. 28. 13-15 ; 31. 3 ; 32- 
12 ; 35. 11-13 ; 46. 3, 4 ; — to Phin- 
eas, Nu. 25. 10-13;— to David, 2 
Sa. 7. 12-17;— to Solomon, 2 Chr. 

I. 7-12 ; 7. 12 ; — to the stranger, 
the fatherless, and the widow, De. 
10. 18 ; Ps. 10. 14, 18 ; 68. 5 ; 146. 9 : 
Pr. 15. 25 ; 23. 10, 11 ; Jer. 49. 11 ; 
Hos. 14. 3 ;— to the poor, Ps. 9. 18 ; 
12. 5; 69. 33; 72. 12, 13; 102. 17; 
107. 41 ; 109. 31 ; 113. 7. Temporal 
blessings, Ex. 23. 25 ; Le. 26. 6 ; 
Ps. 34. 9, 10 ; 37. 3, 23 ; 102. 28 ; 112. 
2 ; 121. 3 ; 128. 2 ; Pr. 3. 6, 33 ; 14, 

II, 26 ; Is, 32. 18 ; 33. 16 ; Mat. 6. 
25-32 ; Phi. 4. 19. Spiritual bless- 
ings: pardon and reconciliation, 
Ex. 34. 7 ; Ps. 65. 3 ; 103. 3, 13 ; 130. 

4. 8 ; Is. 1. 18 ; 27. 5 ; 43. 25 ; 44. 22 ; 
45. 25; 46. 13; 53. 11 ; Jer. 31. 34; 

33. 8 ; Eze. 33. 16 ; 36. 25 ; Mi. 7. IS, 
19 ; Ro. 5. 9, 10 ; Eph. 2. 13-17 ; 
Col. 1 . 21-23 ;— adoption, Is. 63. 16 ; 

• Ro. 9. 26 ; 2 Co. 6. 18 ; — strength 
and succor, Ps. 37. 39 ; 94. 22 ; Is. 
40. 29-31 ; 41. 10 ; 49. 14-16 ; 54. 9, 
10; Hos. 13. 10; Ro.16.20; 1 Co. 
10. 13 ; 2 Co. 12. 9 ;— love and care, 
Ps. 42. 8 ; 103. 13, 17 ; Is. 30. 18 ; 43. 
4 ; 46. 3, 4 ; 63. 9 ; Jer. 31. 3 ; Hos. 

14. 4 ; Zeph. 3. 17 ; Zee. 2. 8 ; 1 Pe. 

5. 7; — answers to prayer (see 
PRAYER) ;— increase in holiness 
and wisdom, Ps. 1. 3 ; 92. 12-15 ; 
Is. 2. 3; 29. 18, 24; Jer. 31. 12 ; 
Hos. 14. 5, 6 ; Mai. 4. 2 ; Jno. 15. 2, 
5-; Ja. 1. 5 ;— support in death, Ps. 
23. 4 ; 37. 37 ; 73. 26 ; Pr. 14. 32 ; Is. 
25. 8 : Hos. 13. 14 ; Ro. 8. 38, 39 : 1 
Co. 15. 55-57. Of the Holy Spirit, 
Joel 2. 28 ; Zee. 2. 10 ; Mat. 3. 11 ; 
Ln. 24. 49 ; Jno. 7. 38, 39 ; 14. 16, 17, 
26 ; 16. 7, 13 ; Ac. 1. 4-8 ; 2. 17, 18. 
After death, Ps. 84. 11 ; Lu. 16. 25 ; 
23. 43 ; 2 Co. 5. 8 ; Phi. 1. 21, 23 ; 
He. 12. 23 ; Re. 2. ; 3. ; 14. 13. See 
RESURRECTION. 

PROPAGANDA. 

Prophecy. See PROPHETS. 

Prophecies accomplished, compare 
Gen. 15. 13, with Ex. 2. 24, 25 ; 6. 1- 
8 ; 12. 40, 41 ;— Gen. 18. 10, with 21. 
l;_Gen. 37. 5-11, with 42. 6 ;— 
Josh. 6. 26, with 1 Ki. 16. 34;— iSa. 
2. 34, with 4, 11 ; 1 Sa. 28. 19, with 

31. 2-6 ; 1 Ki. 13. 2, with 2 Ki. 23 ;— 
1 Ki. 13. 22, with 23-30 ;— 1 Ki. 14. 
10-14, with 15. 29 ;— 1 Ki. 16. 3, with 
22. 38 ;— 1 Ki. 21. 21, 22, with 2 Ki. 
10. 11 ;— 1 Ki. 21. 23, with 2 Ki. 7. 
1, with 18. : — 2 Ki. 7. 2, with 19. 
20;— 2 Ki. 10. 30, with 15. 12 ;~2 Ki, 
13. 14-19, with 25 ;— 2 Ki.l9. 7, with 
37 ; 2 Ki. 20. 17, with 24. 13 ; 25. 
13, 17. Spoken by Christ, Mat. 12. 
40 ; 17. 22 ; 20. 18 ; 24. 2, 11 ; 26. 21, 

32, 34 ; Mar. 9. 31 ; 10. 32, 39 ; 13. 
14-37 ; 16. 17 ; Lu. 9. 22 ; 13. 33 ; 
18. 31-33 ; 19. 43 ; 21. 6 ; 22. 21, 31 ; 
Jno. 2. 19 ; 6. 70 ; 11. 23 ; 12, 23 ; 13. 

15, 38 ; 14. 16, 26 ; 15. 26; 16. 2, 32 ; 
21.18; Ac. 1.5, 8. 

Prophetess. See PROPHETS. 



INDEX. 



1063 



PROPHETS, Geu, 20. 7 ; Ex. T. 1 ; 

De. 13. 1 ; 1 Sa. 9. 6, 9 ; 1 Ki. 18. 4, 
22 ; 2 Ki. 5. 3 ; — inspired aud sent 
by God, 2 Chr. 36. 15 ; Is. 6. 5-9 ; 
Jer. 1. 5 ; 35. 15 ; Eze. 3. 17 ; Hos. 
12. 10 ; Lu. 1. 70 ; Ac. 28. 25 ; Eph. 
4. 1 1 ; 2 Ti. 3. 16, 17 ; He. 1. 1 ; 2 Pe. 
1. 21 ; — responsibility of, De. 18. 
20 ; Jer. 26. 2 ; Eze. 2. 5-8 ; 38. 9, 

„ 17-21 ; 1 Co. 14. 32 ;— honor of, Nu. 
12. 8 ; 1 , Sa. 3. 3-14 ; Da. 10. 11-21 ; 
Am. 3. 7 ; Ke. 22. 8, 9 ;— afflictioDS 
of, 2 Chr. 36. 16 ; Is. 16. 9-11 ; Jer. 
9. 1-7 ; 20. 2 ; Mat. 5. 12 ; 21. 35, 36 ; 
23. 37; Lu. 11. 47-51 ; Eo. 11. 3; 
Ja. 5. 10 ; Re. 18. 20, 24 ;— in the 
Church, Ac. 2. 17, IS ; 11. 27 ; 13. 1 ; 
Eo. 12. 6 ; 1 Co. 12. 10 ; 14. ;— false, 
De. 13. 1-5 ; 1 Ki. 13. 18 ; 22. 22, 24 ; 
Jer. 6. 13 ; 14. 13-17 ; 23. 1, 9. 

Prophets of Ceveuues. See GIFTS 
OF TONGUES. 

PEOPHETS, SCHOOLS OF THE. 

Propitiation. See ATONEMENT; 
OFFERINGS; SACRIFICE. 

Propitiation, day of. See ATONE- 
MENT, DAY OF. 

PROSELYTE. 

Prosperity, its dangers, De. 6. 10; 
Pr. 1. 32 ; 30. 8 ; Lu. 6. 24 ; 12. 16 ; 
Ja. 5. 1. 

Protestant Episcopal Church. See 
EPISCOPALIANS. 

PROTESTANTS. 

Provender. See HERD. 

PROVERBS. 

PROVIDENCE. 

PROVINCE. 

Provincial Council. See ECUMEN- 
ICAL COUNCIL. 

PSALMS. 

PSALTER. 

Psalterv. See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 

Psychic force. See SPIRITUAL- 
ISM. 

Ptolemais. Same as ACCHO. 

Ptolemaites, a sect of GNOSTICS. 

Pua, Nu. 26. 23. Same as Phnvah. 

Puah, I. 1 Chr. 7. 1. Same as Phu- 
vah. II. A descendant of Issa- 
char, Judg. 10. 1. III. A midwife 
who refused to obey Pharaoh's 
cruel command, Ex. 1. 15-21. 

Public worship. See WORSHIP, 

PUBLICANS. 

Publius, a person in authority at 
Melita, Ac. 28. 7, 8. 

PUDENS. 

Puhites, a patronymic given to some 
of Judah's posterity, 1 Chr. 2. 53, 

PUL, I. A king, Pul, II. A region, 
possibly same as Phut. 

Pulpit. See PREACHING. 

Pulse, prob. grain as distinguished 
from meats. Da, 1. 12, 16, See 
FOOD. 

PUNISHMENT, civil, of the Jews : 
imprisonment, Ezra 7. 26 ; Ps. 105. 
IS ; Jer. 38. 6 ; — the stocks, Jer. 
20. 2 ; Ac. 16. 24 ;— fine, Ex. 21. 22 ; 
De. 22. 19;— retaliation, Ex. 21. 
24; De. 19, 21 ; — scourging, De. 
25. 2, 3 ; Mat. 27. 26 ; Ac. 22, 25 ; 
2 Co. 11, 24, 25;— banishment. Re. 
1. 9 ;— putting out the eyes, Judg. 
16. 21 : 1 Sa. 11. 12 ; — mutilation, 
Judg. 1. 5-7 ; Eze. 23. 25 ;— pluck- 
ing out the hair, Neh. 13. 25; Is. 
50. 6;— burning, Gen. 38. 24; Le. 
20. 14 ; De. 3. 6 ;— hanging, De. 21. 
22, 23 ; Josh. 8. 29 ; 2 Sa. 21. 12 ; 
Est. 7. 9, 10 ; Gal. 3. 13 ;— crucifix- 
ion. Mat. 20. 19 ; 27. 35 ;— behead- 
ing. Gen. 40. 19 ; Mar. 6. 16, 17 ;— 
the sword, 1 Sa. 15. 33 ; Ac. 12. 2 ; 
—stoning, Le. 24. 14; De. 13. 10; 
Ac. 7. 59 ; — exposing to wild 
beasts, Da. 6. 16-24 ; 1 Co. 15, 32 ; 
— casting headlong from a rock, 
2 Chr. 25. 12 ; Lu. 4. 29. 

— for sin : in this life, Gen. 3. 

10-19, 23, 24 ; 4. 11, 12 ; 6. 7 ; 7. 23 ; 
9. 25; 12. 17; 19. 24, 25; Nu, 12. 



10 ; 20. 12 ; 2 Sa. 12. 15 ; 2 Chr. 36. 
15-21 ; Job 27. 13-23 ; Is. 57. 21 ; 1 
Co. 5. 1-5 ; 11. 29-32 ; 1 Tim. 1. 20 ; 
—in the life to come (see FU- 
TURE PUNISHMENT i, Ps. 11. 
6 ; Pr. 8. 36 ; 21. 15 ; Is. 66. 24 ; Da. 
12. 2; Mat. 18. 8; 2.5. 41, 46; Mar. 
3. 29 ; 9. 43 ; Lu. 3. 17 ; 2 Th. 1. 9 ; 
Ju,7. 

Punites, descendants of Pua, or 
Phuvah, Nu. 26. 23. 

Puuon, a station of the Israelites, 
Nu. 33, 42, 43, 

Pur, a lot, Est. 3. 7 ; 9. 24. See PU- 
RIM. 

Puranas, sacred books of the Hin- 
doos. See BRAHMANISM, 

PURGATORY. 

PURIFICATION. 

PURIM. 

PURITANS. 

Purity : becometh saints, Eph. 5. 3 ; 
1 Pe. 2. 11, Essential for minis- 
ters, 1 Tim. 5. 22. Of God's word 
aud law, Ps. 12, 6 ; 19. 8 ; 119. 140 ; 
Pr. 30. 5. 

Purple. See COLORS. 

Purse. See GIRDLE. 

PUSEYITES. 

Put, 1 Chr. 1, 8 ; Jer, 46, 9. Same as 
Phut. 

PUTEOLI. 

Putiel, father-in-law of Eleazar, Aa- 
ron's son, Ex. 6. 25. 

PYGARG. 

Pyra. See FUNERAL RITES. 

PYRAMID. 

Pyre. See FUNERAL RITES. 

Pyrolatry, fire-worship. See FIRE. 

PYTHAGOREANS. 

Python. See APOLLO. 

Pyx. See ORNAMENTS. 

Q. 

Quadragesima, Latin uamefor Lent, 
formerly applied to the first Sun- 
day in Lent. See LENT. 

QUAIL. 

Quakers. See FRIENDS. 

(QUATERNION. 

Quartus, a Christian of Corinth, 
Ro. 16. 23. 

QUEEN. 

Queen Anne's bounty. See FIRST- 
FRUITS. 

Queen of Heaven, Jer. 7. IS. Prob. 
same as ASHTORETH. 

Queen of Sheba. See SABEANS ; 
SOLOMON. 

QUICKSANDS. 

Quinquagesima, a Sunday so call- 
ed because the fiftieth day before 
EASTER. 

QUIVER. 

Quotations. See APPENDIX, page 
997. 



Raamah, one of the sons of Cush, 

Gen. 10. 7 ; 1 Chr. 1. 9. 
Eaamiah, one who returned from 

Babylon with Zerubbabel, Neh. 7. 

7. Prob. same as Eeelaiah, Ezra 

2.2. 
Eaamses, a province, Ex. 1.11. Same 

as RAMESES. 
RABBAH, I. A city of the Ammon- 
ites. Rabbah, n. A town of Ju- 

dah. Josh. 15. 60. 
Rabbi, Rabbin, or Rabboni. See 

DOCTOR (Jewish). 
Rabbith, a city of Issachar, Josh. 19, 

20. 
Rabboni (my master), Jno. 20. 16. 
Eab-mag, an oflicer, Jer. 39. 3, 13. 

See NERGAL-SHAREZER. 
Rabsaris, the oflicial title of an As- 
syrian or Babylonian oflficer, 2 

Ki. 18. 17 ; Jer. 39. 3, 13. 
EABSHAKEH. 
Eaca, a term of contempt meaning 

worthless, Mat. 5. 22. 



Eace, Ec. 9. 11 ; 1 Co. 9. 24-27 ; He. 
12. 1. See GAMES. 

Rachab, Mat. 5. 1. Same as EA- 
HAB. 

Eachal, a place in dudah, to the in- 
habitants of which David sent a 
present, 1 Sa. 30. 29. 

EACHEL. 

Eacovian Catechism. See CATE- 
CHISM. 

Raddai, fifth son of Jesse, 1 Chr. 2. 
14. 

RADICALS. 

Ragau, a patriarch, Lu. 3. 35, Greek 
form of Reu. 

Raguel, Nu. 10. 29, Prob, same as 
JETHRO. 

RAHAB, I. A woman. Rahab, IL 
A symbolical name for Egypt, Ps. 
87.4. 

Raham, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 2.44. 

Rahel, Jer. 31. 15. Same as EA- 
CHEL. 

Raiment, See DRESS, 

Rain. See SEASON. 

RAINBOW. 

Raisins. See FOOD. 

Eakem, one of the descendants of 
Mauasseh, 1 Chr. 7. 16. 

Rakkath, a city of Naphtali, Josh. 
19. 35. 

Rakkon, a city of Dan, Josh. 19. 46. 

Ram, I. A son of Hezron, and de- 
scendant of Judah, Job 32. 2; 
Ruth 4. 19 ; 1 Chr. 2. 9, 10. Same 
as Aram, Mat. 1. 3, 4 ; Lu. 3. 33. 
II. Another descendant of Judah, 
the son of Jerahmeel, 1 Chr. 2. 25, 
27. 

Ram. See BANNEE; ENGINES; 
SHEEP. 

Eama, Mat. 2. 18, Greek form of Ea- 
mah. 

Eamah, I. A town in Benjamin near 
Gibeah, Josh. 18. 25; 1 Ki. 15. 17- 
22; Jer. 31. 15; 40. 1 ; Mar. 2. 16- 
18. IL The birthplace of SAM- 
UT:L, Josh.l9. 29. m. A town of 
Naphtali, Josh. 19. 36. IV. A land- 
mark of Asher, Josh. 19. 29. V. A 
designation of EAMOTH-GILE- 
AD, 2 Ki. 8. 29 ; 2 Chr. 22. 6. 

Eamath, a city in the south of Pal- 
estine belonging to the tribe of 
Simeon, Josh. 19. 8. Also called 
Eamoth, 1 Sa. 30. 27. Prob. same 
as Baalath-beer. 

Eamathaim-zophira, a place in Ju- 
dah. See Eamah. 

Eamathite, an inhabitant of Ea- 
mah, 1 Chr. 27. 27. 

Eamath-lehi. See LEHI. 

Eamath -mizpeh. See RAMOTH- 
GILEAD. 

Ramayana, a sacred book of the 
Hindoos. See BRAHMANISM. 

RAMESES. 

Eamiah, a man, Ezra 10. 2.5. 

Eamoth, I. See EAMOTH -GILE- 
AD. II. 1 Sa. 30. 27. Same as 
Eamath. III. 1 Chr. 6. 73. Same 
as Remeth. 

RAMOTH-GILEAD. 

Ram's horns. Josh. 6. 4-13. See 
SHEEP. 

Ransom. See REDEMPTION. 

Eapha, I. A giant. See GOLIATH. 
II. A descendant of Benjamin, 1 
Chr. 8. 2. III. One of Saul's pos- 
terity. Also called Eephaiah, 1 
Chr. 8. 37, 43. 

Eaphu, father of the spy selected 
from Benjamin, Nu. 13. 9. 

Eate. See CHUECH-EATES. 

EATIONALISM. 

EAVEN. 

Eazor. See HAIE. 

EEADER. 

Reading-desk. See LECTERN. 

Readings. See BIBLE. 

Reaia, a descendant of Reuben, 1 
Chr. 5. 5. Same as Reaiah, 1 Chr. 
4.2. 



1064 



INDEX. 



Reaiah, I. One of Judah's posterity, 
1 Chr. 4. 2. 11. One whose chil- 
dren returned with Zerubbabel, 
Ezra 2. 47 ; Neh. 7. 50. 

Real presence. See TRANSUB- 
STANTIATION. 

Reaping. See HARVEST. 

Reason in religion. See RATION- 
ALISM. 

Reba, a chief of the Midianites slain 
by the Israelites, Nu. 31. 8 ; Josh. 
13. 21. 

Rebecca, Ro. 9. 10, Greek form of 
REBEKAH. 

REBEKAH. 

Recantation. See ABJURATION. 

Rechab, I. One of the murderers 
of Ishbosheth, 2 Sa. 4. 1-9. See 
DAVID; ISHBOSHETH. 11. An- 
cestor of the Rechabites, 2 Ki. 10. 
15. 23. III. A person, Neh. 3. 15. 

RECHABITES. 

Rechah, a place probably in Judah, 
1 Chr. 4. 12. 

Recluse. See MONACHISM. 

Recognition of friends in heaven. 
See HEAVEN. 

Reconciliation, Le. 8. 15 ; 2 Chr. 29. 
24; Da. 9. 24; He. 2. 17. See 
ATONEMENT. 

RECORDER. 

RECTOR. 

RECUSANT. 

Red. See COLORS. 

REDEMPTION. 

RED SEA. 

REED. 

Reelaiah, one who returned with 
Zerubbabel, Ezra 2. 2. Same as 
Raamiah, Neh. 7. 7. 

REFINER. 

REFORMATION. 

REFORMED CHURCH. 

Reformed Church of France; Re- 
formed Dutch Church ; Reformed 
German Church. See REFORM- 
ED CHURCH. 

Reformed or Radical Jews. See 
JEW. 

Reformed Protestant Episcopal 
Church. See EPISCOPALIANS. 

Refuge. See CITIES OF REFUGE. 

Regem, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 2. 47. 

Regem-raelech, a person sent in the 
reign of Darius to the house of 
God, Zee. 7. 2. 

REGENERATION, or new birth, 
Jno. 1. 13 ; 3. 3-21 ; Ro. 6. 23 ; 12. 
2 ; 2 Co. 4. 16 ; 5. 17 ; Gal. 6. 15 ; 
Eph. 2. 1-5 ; 4. 22-24 ; Col. 3. 10 ; 
Ti. 3. 5 ; 1 Pe. 1. 23 ; 1 Jno. 3. 9, 
14; 4. 7; 5. 4, 18. Represented 
by baptism, Ro. 6. 4 ; Col. 2. 12. 
Applied to the resurrection, Mat. 
19. 28. 

REGISTER (parish). 

REGIUM DONUM. 

Rehabiah, a descendant of Moses, 1 
Chr. 23. 17. 

Rehob, I. Father of Hadadezer, 2 
Sa. 8. 3, 12, II. One who sealed 
the covenant, Neh. 10. 11. III. 
Two towns in the territory of 
Asher, Josh. 19. 28. IV. 2 Sa. 10. 
8. Same as Beth-rehob. 

REHOBOAM. See ABIJAH ; JER- 
OBOAM; SHISHAK. 

Rehoboth, I. An Assyrian city. Gen. 
10. 11. II. The name of a well. 
Gen. 26. 22. III. The native city 
of one of the early Edomitish 
kings. Gen. 36. 37 ; 1 Chr. 1. 48. 

Rehum, I. One who returned from 
captivity with Zerubbabel, Ezra 
2. 2. Called also Nehum andlla- 
rim, Neh. 7. 7 ; 12. 15. II. A Per- 
sian governor, Ezra 4. 8-23. III. 
A Levite who helped to repair 
the wall of Jerusalem, Neh. 3. 17. 
IV. One who sealed the covenant, 
Neh. 10, 25. 

Rei, a friend of David, 1 Ki. 1. 8. 

REINS. 



Rekem, T. A chief of Midian slain by 
the Israelites, Nu. 81. 8 ; Josh. 13. 
21. II. A name in the genealogies 
of Judah, 1 Chr. 2. 43, 44. III. A 
city of Benjamin, Josh. 18. 27. 

RELICS. 

Relief Church. See PRESBYTE- 
RIANS. 

RELIGION. 

Religious experience. See EXPER- 
IMENTAL RELIGION. 

Religious liberty. See CHURCH 
AND STATE ; PROTESTANTS ; 
REFORMATION. 

RELLYANISTS. 

Remaliah, father of PEKAH, 2 Ki. 
15. 25 ; 16. 1 ; 2 Chr. 28. 6 ; Is. 7. 1 ; 
8. 6. See PEKAH. 

Remedy. See MEDICINE. 

Remeth, a city of Issachar, Josh. 19. 
21. 

Remission of sins. See FORGIVE- 
NESS. 

Remmon, a city of Simeon, Josh. 19. 
7. Same as RIMMON. 

Remmon -methoar, Josh. 19. 13. 
Same as Rimmon V. 

Remonstrants. See ARMINIANS. 

REMPHAN. 

Renovation. See SANCTIFICA- 
TION. 

REPENTANCE : nature of true, 1 
Ki. 8. 47, 48 ; Ps. 51. 17 ; 119. 59 ; 
Eze. 18. 21; 36. 31; Hos. 14. 1, 2; 
Joel 2. 12 ; Zee. 12. 10; Ac. 3. 26 ; 
2 Co. 7. 10. Exhortation to, Is. 1. 
16 ; Eze. 18. 30 ; Hos. 6. 1 ; 12. 6 ; 
Zeph. 2. 3 ; Zee. 1. 3 ; Lu. 13. 3 ; Ac. 
3. 19 ; 17. 30 ; 26. 20 ; Re. 2. 5, 16 ; 3. 
3, 19. Motives to, 1 Sa. 7. 3 ; Neh. 
1. 9 ; Job 22. 23 ; Ps. 32. 5 ; Is. 55. 
7 ; Jer. 4. 1 ; Eze. 33. 11 ; Re. 2. 5. 
Danger of delay, Ps. 18. 41 ; Pr. 
1. 28 ; 29. 1 ; Jer! 7. 16 ; 11. 11 ; 14. 

10 ; Eze. 8. 18 ; Mi. 3. 4 ; Zee. 7. 13 ; 
Mat. 25. 10 ; Lu. 12. 20 ; 19. 44 ; 2 
Co. 6. 2; He. 3. 7, 15; 12. 17. 
Preached by John the Baptist, 
Mat. 3. 2 ; Mar. 1. 4 ; Lu. 3. 3 ;— by 
Jesus, Mat. 4. 17 ; Mar, 1. 15 ; Lu. 
13. 3, 5. 

Rephael, a Levite porter, 1 Chr. 

26.7. 
Rephah, a descendant of Ephraim, 

1 Chr. 7. 25. 

Rephaiah, I. One of David's poster- 
ity, 1 Chr. 3. 21. II. A captain of 
the Simeonites, 1 Chr. 4. 42. IIL 
A descendant of Issachar, 1 Chr. 
7. 2. IV. A person of the line of 
Saul, 1 Chr. 9. 43. V. The ruler of 
the half part of Jerusalem, Neh. 
3.9. 

REPHAIM. 

REPHAIM, VALLEY OF. 

REPHIDIM. See WILDERNESS 
OF THE WANDERING. 

Reprobation. See PREDESTINA- 
TION. 

Rescripti. See MANUSCRIPTS. 

Resen, a city between Nineveh and 
Calah, Gen, 10. 12. 

Reserved cases. See ABSOLU- 
TION. 

Resheph, a descendant of Ephra- 
im, 1 Chr. 7. 25. 

Residence. See NON-RESIDENCE. 

Resignation, instances of. Gen. 22. 
3-12 (Abraham) ; — Le. 10. 3 (Aa- 
ron) ;— 1 Sa. 3. IS (Eli) ;— 2 Sa. 15. 
26 (David); — 2 Ki. 4. 26 (the SMi- 
namite) ;— 2 Ki. 20. 19 (Hezekiah) ; 
—Job 1. 21 ; 2. 10 (Job) ;— Ps. 39. 9 ; 
Mat. 28. 42 ; Mar. 14. 36 ; Jno. 18. 

11 (the Lord Jesus); — Lu. 1. 38 
(Mary) ;— Ac. 2. 14 (Christians) ;— 

2 Co. 12. 9, 10 ; Phi. 4. 11 (Paid). 
Responses. See LITURGY; WOR- 
SHIP. 

Restoration ists. SeeUNIVERSAL- 
ISTS; FUTURE PUNISHMENT. 

RESURECTION, Lu. 20. 35, 36; 
Jno. 11. 25 ; 14. 2, 3 ; Phi. 3. 21 ; 
Col. 3. 4. The believer's hope, 



Job 19. 25-27; Ps. 16. 10; 116. 9, 
10 ; Is. 26. 19 ; Da. 12. 2, 13 ; 1 Co. 
15.; 2 Co. 4. 13, 14; 5.1^; 1 Th. 
4. 16-18 ; He. 11. 10, 16, 19, 40 ; 1 Pe. 
1. 3-9 ; 1 Jno, 3. 2, 3 ; Re, 20. 12-15. 
Preached by Jesus, Mat. 22. 31 ; 
Jno. 5. 21, 28 ; 6. 39, 40, 44. His 
own foretold, Mat. 16. 21 ; 17. 9, 
23 ; Mar. 9. 31 ; 14. 28 ; Jno. 2. 19. 
Witnesses of, Ac. 1. 22 ; 2. 24, 32 ; 

8. 15 ; 4. 33 ; 5. 31, 32 ; 10. 40, 41 ; 
13. 30, 31, 37 ; 17. 3, 18, 31 ; 28. 6 ; 
Ro. 1.4; Eph.l. 19, 20; Phi. 3. 10; 

1 Th. 1. 10 ; 1 Pe. 1. 3-11, 
Resurrection, first and second. See 

MILLENARIANS, 

RESURRECTION OF JESUS 
CHRIST. 

Retribution. See FUTURE PUN- 
ISHMENT. 

Reu, a patriarch in the line of Shem, 
Gen, 11. 18-21 : 1 Chr. 1. 25. Call- 
ed Ragau in Lu. 3, 85, 

REUBEN. 

Reubenites, descendants of REU- 
BEN. 

Reuel, I, A son of Esau, Gen. 86. ; 1 
Chr. 1. 35. IL Father of Eliasaph, 
Nu. 2. 14. III. A Beujamite, 1 Chr. 

9. 8. IV. Ex. 2. IS. Prob. same as 
JETHRO. 

Reumah, a concubine of Nahor, 
Gen. 22. 24. 

REVELATION. See INSPIRA- 
TION. 

REVELATION, BOOK OF. 

Revenue. See TAXES. 

REVEREND. 

REVIVALS. 

Rezeph, a place destroyed by the 
Assyrian kings, 2 Ki. 19. 12 ; Is, 
37, 12. 

Rezia, a chieftain of Asher, 1 Chr. 
7.39. 

REZIN, L King of Damascus. Re- 
zin, II. Ancestor of certain NE- 
THINIM, Neh. 7. 50. 

REZON. 

RHEGIUM. 

Rhemish Version. See AUTHOR- 
IZED VERSION. 

Rhesa, an ancestor of our Lord, Lu. 
8.27. 

Rhoda, a damsel mentioned in Ac. 
12. 12-15. 

RHODES. 

Ribai, father of Ittai, 2 Sa, 23. 29 ; 1 
Chr. 11. 31. 

RIBLAH. 

Riches : vanity and uncertainty of, 
Pr. 11. 4 ; 23. 5 ; 27. 24 ; Ec. 5. 12 ; 
Mat. 6. 19 ; 1 Tim. 6. 17 ; Ja. 1. 11 ; 
Re. 18. 16, 17 ;— danger of possess- 
ing, De. 8. 13, 14 : 82.15; Pr.22.7; 
30. 9 ; Eze. 28. 5 ; Da. 5. 4, 23 ; Mat. 
13. 22 ; 19. 22 ; Mar, 10, 23-25 ; 1 
Tim. 6. 9, 10, 17 ; Ja, 5. 1-3 ; prop- 
er use of, 1 Chr. 29. 3, 12-14 ; Pr. 
3.9; Mat. 19. 21; 27.57; Lu. 16.9; 
Ro. 12. 18 ; 1 Tim. 6. IS ; 1 Juo. 3. 
17 ;_God, the giver of, De. 8. IS ; 
ISa. 2.7; 2 Chr. 1.12; Ec.5.19; — 
the true, Pr. 3, 16 ; 8. 18 ; 10. 22 ; 
Mat. 6. 20 : Ro. 11. 33 ; 1 Co. 4. 8 ; 

2 Co. 8. 9 ; Phi. 4. 19 ; Re. 3. IS. 
RIGHTEOUSNESS. 

Rig-veda, a sacred book of the Hin- 
doos. See BRAHMANISM. 

RIMMON, L A Syrian deity. Rim- 
mon, II. A Benjamite, 2 Sa. 4. 2-9. 

III. A city in the south of Pales- 
tine, Josh. 15. 32. Same as AIN. 

IV. A rock near the desert, Judg. 
20. 45, 47. V. A town in Zebuluu, 
1 Chr. 6. 77. Same as Remmon- 
methoar, 

Rimmon-parez, a station of the Is- 
raelites, Nu. 3.3. 19, 20. 

Rings. See ORNAMENTS. 

Riniiah, one of Judah's posterit}', 1 
Chr. 4. 20. 

Riphath, a son of Gomer, Gen. 10. 3. 

Rissah, a station of the Israelites in 
the wilderness, Nu. 33. 21, 22. 



INDEX. 



1035 



EITE; EITUALISM. 

Rithmah, a statiou of the Israel- 
ites iu the wilderness of Paran, 
Nu. 12. 16 ; 33. IS, 19. 

Eitnalist. See EPISCOPALIANS. 

RIVEE. 

River of E<,'ypt. See NILE, 

RIZPAH. 

Road. See WAY. 

ROBBERY. 

Robe. See DRESS. 

Robe of the ephod. See EPHOD. 

Roboam, Mat. 1. 7. Greek form of 
. REHOBOAM. 

Rochet. See VESTMENTS. 

Rock, a symbol of God, 2 Sa. 22. 2, 
47 ; 23. 8 ; Ps. 28. 1 ; 81. 2 ; Isa. 26. 
4; 32.2; 44.8; 1 Co. 10. 4. 

ROD. 

Eodauim, in some copies for Doda- 
uim. 

EOE. See GOAT. 

EOGATION DAYS. 

Eogelim, a town iu Gilead, 2 Sa. 17. 
27; 19.31. 

Eohgah, a chieftain of Asher, 1 Chr. 
7.34. 

Eoll. See MANUSCEIPTS ; WEIT- 
ING. 

Eomamti-ezer, a chief of one of the 
courses of singers, 1 Chr. 25. 4, 81. 

Eoman (citizen). See CITIZEN- 
SHIP. 

EOMAN CATHOLIC CHUECH. 

EOMANS. EPISTLE TO. 

EOME, CITY OF. 

ROME, EMPIRE OF. 

Eoof. See HOUSE. 

EOOM. 

ROSARY. 

ROSE. 

Eo!?etta stone. See EGYPT. 

Eosh, a sou of Benjamin, Gen. 46. 21. 

Eosicrucians. See SECT. 

Eonndheads. See PUEITANS. 

Rowites. See SECT, 

RUBRICS. 

RUBY. 

RUE. 

Rnfus, a Christian. Possibly the 
S(m of Simon, the Cyreuian,"Mar. 
15. 21 ; Ro. 16. 13. 

Riihama, Hos. 2. 1. See AM3II. 

Ruler of the feast. See BANQUET. 

Rumah, a place, 2 Ki. 23. 36. 

Runner. See FOOTMAN. 

Rush. See REED. 

RUSSO-GEEEK CHUECH. 

EUTH. 

EYE. 



SABAOTH, LOED OF. 

SABBATH, Gen. 2. 2, 8. Charge to 
keep it, Ex. 16. 23-29 ; 20. S, 10 ; 
81. 13-16 ; 34. 21 ; 35. 2 : Le. 23. 3- 
8S ; De. 5. 12. 14 ; Jer. 17. 21. Of- 
ferings on it, Nu. 2S. 9, 10. Break- 
er of, stoned, Nu. 15. 32-36. How 
to be kept, Neh. 10. 31 ; 13. 15-22 ; 
Is. 58. 13 ; Eze. 44. 24. Given as a 
sign to the Israelites, Eze. 20. 12. 
The Lord's leaching and actions 
concerning. Mat. 12. 1-13 ; Mar. 2. 
23-28: 3. 2, 4: Lu. 13. 14-1 G ; Jno. 
5. 9-lS ; 7. 23 ; 9. 14-16. Eeasons 
for the Christian observance of 
the lirst day instead of the sev- 
enth, Mat. 28. 1; Mar. 16. 2, 9; 
Jno. 20. 1, 19, 26; comp. Ac. 2. with 
Le. 23. ; Ac. 20. 7 ; 1 Co. 16. 1, 2 ; Ee. 
1.10. 

Sabbath-day's journey. See MEAS- 
UEES. 

SABBATH-SCHOOLS. 

Sabbatarians, a name given to the 
Seventh-day Baptists. See BAP- 
TISTS. 

SABBATICAL YEAE. 

SABEANS. 

SABELLIANS. 

Sabta, Sabtah, a son of Cush, Gen. 
10.7; IChr. 1. 9. | 



Sabtecha, yimngest sou of Cush, 
Gen. 10. 7 ; 1 Chr. 1. 9. 

Sabureans. See DOCTOE (Jetvish). 

Sacar, I. The father of Ahihani, one 
of David's warriors, 1 Chr. 11. 35. 
Same as Sharar, 2 Sa. 23. 33. IL 
A Levite porter, 1 Chr. 26. 4. 

Sackbut. See MUSICAL INSTEU- 
MENTS. 

SACKCLOTH. 

SACEAMENTS. 

Sacred College. See CAEDINAL. 

Sacriticate. See LAPSED CHRIS- 
TIANS. 

SACRIFICE. 

Sacrist, Sacristan, Sacristy. See 
SEXTON. 

Saddle. See ASS. 

SADDUCEES. 

Sadoc, a person in the line of our 
Lord's ancestry, Mat. 1. 14. 

Sadue. See CALIPH. 

SAFFRON. 

Saints. See COMMUNION OP 
SAINTS; INVOCATION OF 
SAINTS; BEATIFICATION; 
CANONIZATION ; INTERCES- 
SION. 

Sakti. See SIVA. 

Sala, Lu. 3. 35, Greek form of Salah. 

Salah, one of the patriarchs in the 
line of Shem, Gen. 10. 24. Same 
as Shelah, I'Chr. 1. 18, 24. 

SALAMIS. 

SALATHIEL. 

SALCAH. 

Salchah. See SALCAH. 

SALEM. 

Salem witchcraft. See WITCH- 
CRAFT. 

SALIM. 

Sallai, L A Beujamite, Neh. 11. 8. 
IL A priest, Neh. 12. 20. 

Salln, L A Beujamite, 1 Chr, 9. 7 ; 
Neh. 11. 7. II. A priest, Neh. 
12.7. 

SALMA, SALMON. 

Salmah. Same as SALMA. 

Salmon, I. Ruth 4. 20, 21. Same 
as SALMA. IL A hill, Ps. 68. 14. 
Same as Zalmon. 

Salmoue, east point of the island of 
Crete, Ac. 27. 7. 

SALOME, 

SALT. 

Salt, city of, a town in the wilder- 
ness of Judah, Josh, 15. 62. 

Salt, pillar of, Gen. 19. 26. See LOT. 

SALT SEA. 

SALT, VALLEY OP. 

Salu, a Simeonite chief, Nu. 25. 14. 

SALUTATION. 

Salvation, See REDEMPTION. 
God the author of, Ex. 15, 2 ; Job 
13, 16 ; Ps. 8. 8 ; 27, 1 ; 62. 1 ; Is. 
12. 2 ; Jer. 3. 23, By Christ Jesus, 
Ps. 20. 6 ; Mat. 1. 21 ; Lu. 2. 11 ; Jno. 
3. 17 ; Ac. 4. 12 ; 16. 30, 31 ; Ro. 1. 
6 ; He. 5. 9 ; Re. 1. 5, 6. Through 
the Spirit, Jno. 8. 5; 2 Th. 2. 18; 
1 Pe. 1. 2, 5. Offered to all, Eze. 
18. 32 ; 83. 11 ; Jno. 1. 9, 29 ; 1 Tim. 
2. 4 ; Ti. 2. 11 ; 2 Pe. 8. 9. The day 
of, Is. 49. 8; 2 Co. 6. 2. Manifes- 
tation and full enjoyment of. Is. 
26. 1 ; 52. 10 ; 60. IS ; 62. 1 ; Ro. 18. 
11; 1 Th. 5. 9; He. 9. 28; 11. 89, 
40 ; 1 Pe. 1. 7-11 ; Re. 12. 10. 

SAMARIA. 

SAMARITAN PENTATEUCH. 

SAilARITANS. 

Samgar-nebo, a prince of Babylon, 
Jer. 89, 8, 

Samlah, an ancient king of Edom, 
Gen. 36. 36, 37 ; 1 Chr. 1. 47, 48. 

SA3I0S. 

Samosatians. See SECT. 

SAMOTHRACIA, 

SAMSON, SeeLEHI. 

SAMUEL. 

SAMUEL, BOOKS OF. 

SANBALLAT, 

SANCTIFICATION. See PER- 
FECTIONISTS. 



Sanctuary. See TEMPLE, 
Sanctuary, right of. See CITIES 

OF REFUGE. 
Sauctus bell. See ORNAMENTS. 
SANDAL. 
SANDEMANIANS. 
SANHEDRIM. 
Sansanuah, a city in the south of 

Judah, Josh. 15. 31. 
Saph. See GOLIATH. 
Saphir, a place in the Philistine 

plain. Mi. 1.11. 
Sapphira. See ANANIAS. 
SAPPHIRE. 
Sara, He. 11. 11. Same as SARAH, 

Ro. 4. 19, 
SARAH. 
Sarai, Gen. 11. 29, the original name 

of Abraham's wife, SARAH, 
Saraph, a descendant of Judah, 1 

Chr. 4. 22. 
Sarcophagus. See BURIAL. 
Sardine, Re. 4, 8, Same as SAR- 

DIUS. 
SARDIS. 

Sardites, a family of Zebulun de- 
scended from Sered, Nu. 26. 26. 
SARDIUS, or SARDINE. 
SARDONYX. 
Sarepta, a town, Lu. 4. 36. Same as 

ZAREPHATH, 
SARGON, 

Sarid, a place on the border of Zeb- 
ulun, Josh. 19. 10, 12, 
Saron, a district or town, Ac. 9. 85. 

Same as Sharon II, 
Sarsechim, a Babylonian prince, 

Jer, 39, 3. 
Saruch, a patriarch, Lu. 8. 35, Same 

as Serusf, 
Satan. See DEVIL, 
Satisfaction. See ATONEMENT; 

PENANCE; SACRIFICE, 
Saturnians, a sect of GNOSTICS. 
SATYRS. 
SAUL, I. King of Israel. Saul, IL 

Of Tarsus, See PAUL, III. A 

king of Edom, Gen, 36. 37, 38. 

Called also Shaul, 
Saviour, See REDEMPTION. 
Savoy Confession of Faith. See 

CREED, 
Saw, See HANDICRAFT. 
Scab. See MEDICINE. 
Scala Santa (holy staircase). See 

PILATE'S STAIRCASE, 
SCAPE-GOAT, See ATONEMENT, 

DAY OF, 
Scapular, See VESTMENTS, 
Scarlet, See COLORS. 
Sceptre, a rod or staff of anthoritv, 

Eze. 19. 11 : Am. 1. 5 ; Est, 4, 11 ; 5. 

2; S. 4. Figuratively used. Gen. 

49. 10 ; Nu. 24. 17 ; Ps. 45, G ; Is. 14. 

5 ; He. 1. 8. 
Sceva, a Jewish priest whose sonfe 

were exorcists, Ac. 10. 14. 
Schism, Schismatic. See HERESY. 
Schceuus or measuring -line. See 

MEASURES. 
SCHOLASTICS, SCHOLASTICISM. 
SCHOOLS. 
Schools of the Prophets. See 

PROPHETS, SCHOOLS OF THE. 
SCHWENKFELDERS. 
SCORPION, 
Scotists, See SECT. 
SCOURGING. 
Screech-owl. See OWL, 
SCRIBES. 
Scrip, a bag for carrving provisions, 

1 Sa, 17, 40 ; Mat. 10, 9, 10. 
Scriptures. See BIBLE, Given by 

inspiration, Ac. L 16 ; 2 Tim. 3, 16 ; 

He. 3. 7 ; 2 Pe. 1. 21. Use of, Ps. 

19. 7, 8 ; 119. 9.3, 130 ; Pr. 1. ; 2. ; 3. ; 

4. ; 8. ; 9. ; Jno. 17. 17 ; 20. 31 ; Ro. 

15. 4; 1 Co. 10. 11 ; Eph. 5. 20 ; G. 

17 ; 2 Tim. 8. 15 ; Ja. 1. 21, 25. To 

be frequently meditated upon, De. 

6. 6-9; 11.18-20; 17. 18-20; Ps.l, 

2 ; 119, ; Jno. 5, 39 ; 2 Pe. 3. 2. To 

be preserved entire, De, 4, 2 ; Pr. 

30. 5, 6 ; Re. 22. 18, 19, A privilege 



1066 



INDEX. 



to possess, De. 4. 7, 8 ; Ro. 3. 2. 
Dauber of rejectiug, Pr. 1. 20-31 ; 
Is. 65. 12 ; Juo, 12. 48 ; He. 2. 3 ; 
10. 28 29 • 12. 25. 

Scroll, is. 34. 4; Re. 6. 14. The al- 
Insiou is to the roll of a book. 
See WRITING ; BOOK. 

Sciu-vv. See MEDICINE. 

SCYTHIAN. 

Sea. See BRAZEN SEA ; LAYER. 

Sea of the plain, De. 4. 49 ; 2 Ki. 14. 
25 ;— the east sea, Joel 2. 20 ; Eze. 
4T. IS ; —the sea, Eze. 47. S ; — for- 
mer sea, Zee. 14. 8 : names of the 
SALT SEA. 

Sea : uttermost sea, De. 11. 24 ;— ut- 
most sea, De. 34. 2 ; Joel 2. 20 ;— 
sea of the Philistines, Ex. 23. 31 ;— 
the sea. Gen. 49. 13; Ps. 80. 11 ; 107. 
23, etc. : names of the Mediterra- 
nean Sea. See GREAT SEA. 

Sea of Galilee, Mat. 4. IS, etc. ;— of 
Chiuuereth, Nn. 34. 11 ;— of Cinne- 
reth, Josh. 11. 2; — of Cinneroth, 
1 Ki. 4. 20 ;— of Tiberias, Jno. 6. 1 : 
names of the Sea of Gennesaret. 
See GENNESARET, SEA OF. 

Seah. See MEASURES. 

SEAL. 

Sea-mousters. See DRAGON. 

Seance. See SPIRITUALISM. 

Seas of Palestine: Dead Sea or 
SALT SEA; Sea of Galilee, or 
Tiberias, orGenuesaret. See GEN- 
NESARET, SEA OF ; Mediterra- 
nean Sea. See GREAT SEA; RED 
SEA; JAAZER. 

SEASON. 

SEBA. 

Se-baptists. See BAPTISM 6. 

Sebaste. See SAMARIA 1. 

Sebat, Zee. 1. 7. See MONTH. 

Secacah, a town in the wilderness 
of Judah, Josh. 15. 61. 

SECEDERS. 

Sechu, a place near Ramah, 1 Sa. 19. 
22. 

Second Advent. See MILLENA- 
RIANS. 

Second Adventists. See MILLER- 
ITES : MILLENARIANS. 

Secret chambers. See HOUSE. 

SECRET DISCIPLINE. 

SECT. 

Seenndus, a Christian of Thessalo- 
uica, Ac. 20. 4. 

Sedilia. See CHANCEL; ORNA- 
MENTS. 

See. See APOSTOLICAL. 

Seed-time, Gen. 8. 22. See SEA- 
SON. 

Seer, 1 Sa. 9. 9. See PROPHETS. 

Sesub, I. Youngest son of Hie), 1 
Ki. 16. 34. li. A descendant of 
Judah, IChr. 2.21, 22. 

SEIR, I. A mountain in Edom. II. 
A mountain in Judah. Seir, III. 
A Horite chief, Gen. 36. 20, 21 ; 1 
Chr. 1. 38. See HOR ; HOR ITE. 

Seirath, a district, Jiidg. 3. 26. 

SELA, SELAH. 

Selah. See PSALMS. 

Sela-hammahlekoth, a rock in the 
wilderness of Maon, 1 Sa. 23. 27, 
28. 

Seled, a descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 
2.30. 

SELEUCIA. 

Self-denial, Mat. 5. 29, 30; 16. 24; 
Mar. 8. 34; Ln. 9. 23 ; 1 Co. 8. 13; 
9. 17-27 ; 10. 23, 33 ; 2 Co. 10. 5 ; 
Gal. 5. 24; Ti. 2. 12. Christ our 
great example, Jno. 5. 19, 30 ; 13. 
12-17 ; Ro. 15. 3-5 ; 2 Co. S. 9 ; Phi. 
2. 5-7 ; He. 12. 3, 4. 

Sem, Lu. 3. 36, Greek form of SHEM. 

Scmachiah, a Levite porter, 1 Chr. 
26.7. 

Semei, father of Mattathias, Lu. 3. 
26. 

Semi-Arians. See ARIANS. 

Semi-Pelagianism. See ORIGINAL 
SIN. 

Semitic race. See ETHNOLOGY. 



Seiiaah, a town in Judah, Ezra 2. 

35 ; Neh. 7. 38. 
Senate, the body of elders, Ac. 5. 

21. 
Seneh, a rock, 1 Sa. 14. 4. See 

MICHMASH. 
Senir, Mount Hermou, 1 Chr. 5, 23; 

Eze. 27. 5. 
SENNACHERIB. 
Senteutiarii. See BIBLICISTS. 
Senuah, a Benjamite, Neh. 11. 9. 

Prob. Haseuuah, 1 Chr. 9. 7. 
Seorim, a priest, 1 Chr. 24. 8. 
Separatists. See SECT. 
Seohar, a city, Gen. 10. 30. 
Sepharad, a district, Oba. 20. 
SEPHARVAIM. 

Sepharvites, inhabitants of SE- 
PHARVAIM. 
SEPTUAGINT. 
Sepulchre. See BURIAL. 
Serah, daughter of Asher, Gen. 46. 

17 ; 1 Chr. 7. 30. 
Seraiah, I. Son of Neriah, Jer. 51. 

59, 61. IL Son of Keuaz, 1 Chr. 

4. 13, 14. III. A scribe or secre- 
tary of David, 2 Sa. 8. 17. Al^jo 
called Sheva, Shisha, and Shav- 
sha, 2 Sa. 20. 25 ; 1 Ki. 4. 3 ; 1 Chr. 
18. 16. IV. A high-priest in Zede- 
kiah's time, 2 Ki. 25. 18-21 ; 1 Chr. 
6. 14; Ezra 7. 1; Jer. 52. 24-27. 
V. Son of Sanhuraeth, the Netoph- 
athite, 2 Ki. 25. 23. VI. And va- 
rious others, 1 Chr. 4. 35 ; Ezra 2. 
2 ; Neh. 10. 2 ; 11. 11 ; 12. 1, 12 ; 
Jer. 36. 26. 

SERAPHIM. 

SERAPIS. 

Sered, a son of Zebulun, Gen. 46. 

14 ; Nu. 26. 26. 
Sergius Paulus. See DEPUTY; 

PAUL. 
SERMON ON THE MOUNT. 
Sermons. See PREACHING. 
SERPENT. 
Serpent, brazen. See BRAZEN 

SERPENT. 
SERPENT-CHARMERS. 
Serug, a patriarch, Gen. 11. 20, 23 ; 

1 Chr. 1. 26. 

Servants. See SLAVERY. Jew- 
ish laws concerning, Ex. 20. 10; 
21. 1-11, 20-27 ; De. 23. 15, 16 ; 24. 
14, 15. General commands con- 
cerning, Pr. 18. 9 ; Jno. 6. 12; Eph. 
6. 5-8 ; Col. 3. 22-25 ; 1 Tim. 6. 1, 

2 ; Ti. 2. 9, 10 ; 1 Pe. 2. 18-25. 
Servetians. See SECT. 

Seth, son of Adam, Gen. 4. 25, 26; 

5. 3-8 ; Lu. 3. 38. Called Sheth in 
1 Chr. 1. 1. 

Sethites, a sect of GNOSTICS. 

Sethur, the Asherite spy, Nu. 13. 13. 

Seven, a sacred and mystical num- 
ber. Seven vears' service. Gen. 
29. 18 ;— famine. Gen. 41. 30 ; 2 Sa. 
24. 13; 2 Ki. 8. 1;— madness of 
Nebuchadnezzar, Da. 4. 23. Sev- 
en prophetic weeks, Da. 9. 25. 
Seventy prophetic weeks, Da. 9. 
24. Ceremonial use of the num- 
ber, Ex. 29. 30, 35, 37 ; Le. 4. 6 ; 12. 
2; 13.4; 14.7-16; Nu. 23. 1. Use 
of the number in laws of Moses, 
Ex. 12. 15 ; 22. 30 ; Gen. 2. 2, with 
Ex. 20. 10 ; Le. 23. 15 ; 25. 8. In 
O. T. history. Gen. 7. 2 ; 21. 28 ; Le. 
23. 18 ; Nu. 29. 32 ; 1 Chr. 15. 26 ; 
Josh. 6. 4 ; 1 Ki. 18. 43 ; 2 Ki. 5. 
10; Da. 3. 19. In N. T. historv. 
Mat. 12. 45 ; IS. 22 ; Mar. 16. 9. In 
prophecy, Am. 5. 8 ; Zee. 3. 9 ; 4. 
10; Re. 1.16; 5.1, 6; S. 2; 11.13; 
12. 3 ; 15. 1 ; 17. 9, 10. 

Seventh -day Baptists. See B2VP- 
TISTS. 

Seventv. See JEW L ; SEPTUA- 
GINT, seventy elders, Ex. 24. 1, 9; 
Nu. 11. 16, 24, 25. Seventy disci- 
ples, Lu. 10. 1, 17. 

Severians. See MONOPHY^SITE. 

Sext. See CANONICAL HOURS. 
i SEXTON. 



I Shaalabbin, a city of Dan, Josh. 19. 
42. Identical with Shaalbim. 

Shaalbim, a place not far from Aja- 
lou, Judg. 1. 35; lKi.4. 9. 

Shaalbonite, an inhabitant of Shaal- 
bim, 2 Sa. 23. 32 ; 1 Chr. 11. 33. 

Shaaph. I. Son of Jahdai, 1 Chr. 2. 
47. II. Son of Caleb, 1 Chr. 2. 49. 

Shaaraim, I. A city of Judah, 1 Sa. 
17. 52. Called Sharaim in Josh. 
15. 36. II. A citv of Simeon, 1 Chr. 
4. 31. See Shillim. 

Shaashgaz, chamberlain to Ahasue- 
rus. Est. 2. 14. 

Shabbethai, a Levite, Ezra 10. 15; 
Neh. 8. 7; 11.16. 

Shachia, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 10. 

Shaddai. an appellation of the Dei- 
ty, Gen. 17. 1 ; Ex. 6. 3. See GEN- 
ESIS. 

Shadows. See TY^PES. 

Shadrach, a friend of DANIEL, Da. 

I. 7-20 ; 2. 49 ; 3. 8-30. 
Shage, a Hararite, 1 Chr. 11. 34. 
Shaharaim, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 8. 
Shahazimah, a border-place of Issa- 

char, Josh. 19. 22. 

SHAKERS. 

SHALEM. 

Shalim, a district of Ephraim, 1 Sa. 
9.4. 

Shalisha, a district of Ephraim, 1 Sa. 
9. 4 ; 2 Ki. 4. 42. 

Shallecheth, a gate of the Temple, 
1 Chr. 26. 16. 

SHALLUM, I. Fifteenth king of Is- 
rael. Shallum, IL, same as JE- 
HOAHAZ I., 1 Chr. 3. 15 ; Jer. 22. 

II. in. Husband of HULDAH, 2 
Ki. 22. 14. IV. The name of several 
persons, 1 Chr. 2. 40, 41 ; 4. 28 ; 6. 

12, 13 ; 7. 13 ; 9. 17, 19, 31 ; 2 Chr. 
28. 12; Ezra T. 2; 10. 24- Neh. 3. 
12 ; Jer. 32. 7 ; 35. 4. 

Shallun, son of Col-hozeh, Neh. 3. 

15. 
Shalmai, children of, Ezra 2. 46; 

Neh. 7. 48. 
Shalmau, Hos. 10. 14. Same as 

SHALMANESER. 
SHALMANESER. 
Shama, one of David's warriors, 1 

Chr. 11. 44. 
Shamariah, a son of Rehoboam, 2 

Chr. 11. 19. 
Shamed, son of Elpaal, 1 Chr. 8. 12. 
Shamer, I. A Levite, 1 Chr. 6. 46. 

n. An Asherite, 1 Chr. 7. 34. 
SHAMGAR. 
Shamhuth, one of David's captains, 

1 Chr. 27. 8. 

Shamir, I. A Levite, 1 Chr. 24. 24. 

II. A town in Judah, Josh. 15. 48. 

in. A place in Ephraim, Judg. 10. 

1,2. 
Shamma, a chieftain of Asher, 1 

Chr. 7. 37. 
Shammah, I. A descendant of Esau, 

Gen. 36. 13, 17; 1 Chr. 1. 37. II. 

Third son of Jesse, 1 Sa.l6. 9 ; 17. 

13. III. Two of David's warriors, 

2 Sa. 23. 11, 25, 33. 

Shammai, three descendants of Ju- 
dah, 1 Chr. 2. 28, 32, 44, 45 ; 4. 17. 

Shammoth, 1 Chr. 11. 27. Same as 
Shammah, David's warrior. 

Shanimua, I. A Reubenite, Nu. 13. 
4. II. Son of David, 1 Chr. 14. 4. 
Same as Shammuah, 2 Sa. 5. 14; 
and Shimea, 1 Chr. 3. 5. III. A Le- 
vite, Neh. 11. 17. IV. A priest, 
Neh. 12. IS. 

Shamsherai, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. S. 
2G. 

Shapham, a Gadite, 1 Chr. 5. 12. 

Shaphan, scribe or secretary to Jo- 
siah, 2 Ki. 22. 3-14 ; 25. 22 ; 2 Chr. 
34. 8-20 ; Jer. 26. 24 ; 29. 3 : 36. 10- 
12 ; 39. 14 ; 40. 5-11 ; 41. 2 ; 43. 6 : 
Eze. 8. 11. 

Shaphat, I. The Simeonite spy, Nu. 
13. 5. IL Father of Elisha, 1 Ki. 
19. 16. 19. III. A descendant of 
David, 1 Chr. 3. 22. IV. A Gad- 



INDEX. 



1067 



ite, 1 Chr. 5. 12. V. One of Da- 
vid's herdsmeu, 1 Chr. 2T. 29. 

Shapher, a mountain, Nu. 33. 23, 24. 

Sharai, s'on of Bani, Ezra 10. 40. 

Sharaim, a city, Josh. 15. 36. See 
Shaaraiin. 

Sharar, father of Ahiam, 2 Sa. 23. 33. 
Same as Sacar. 

Sharezer, son of SENNACHEKIB, 
2 Ki. 19. 37 ; Is. 37. 3S. 

Sharon, I. A plain, 1 Chr. 27. 29. See 
PALESTINE III. n. A district 
or town east of the Jordan, 1 Chr. 
5.16. 

Sharonite, inhabitant of Sharon, 1 
Chr. 27. 29. 

Shaniheu, a city of Simeon, Josh. 
19. 6. See Shilhim. 

Shashai, son of Bani, Ezra 10. 40. 

Shashak, a Beujamite, 1 Chr. 8. 14, 
25. 

Shastra, the sacred books of the 
Hindoos. See BRAIBIANISM. 

Shaul, I. See SAUL, sou of Sim- 
eon, Gen. 46. 10 ; Ex. 6. 15 ; Nu. 26. 
13. IL An Edomitekius:, IChr.l. 
48, 49. IIL A Levite, 1 Chr. 6. 24. 

Shaulites, a family of Simeon, Nu. 
26. 13. 

Shaveh, a plain or valley. Gen. 14. 
17. 

Shaveh Kiriathaim, a plain near the 
city of Kirjathaim, Gen. 14. 5. See 
Kiriathaim. 

Shaving. See HAIR. 

Shavsha, a scribe to David, 1 Chr. 
18. 16. 

Shawm. Same as cornet. See MU- 
SICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

Shea), son of Bani, Ezra 10. 29. 

Shealtiel, Ezra 3. 2, 8 ; 5. 2 ; Neh. 12. 
1 ; Hag. 1. 1-14 ; 2. 2, 23; See Sa- 
lathiel. 

Sheariah, a descendant of Saul, 1 
Chr. S. 38 ; 9. 44. 

Shear -jashub, a symbolical name 
given to a son of Isaiah, Is. 7. 3. 

Sheba, L A Beujamite, 2 Sa. 20. 1-22. 
See JOAB. IL A Gadite chief- 
tain, 1 Chr. 5. 13. ni. A i)lace. 
Josh. 19. 2. Perhaps same as 
BEERSHEBA. IV. A descendant 
of Ciish, Gen. 10. T ; 1 Chr. 1. 9. 
See SABEANS. V. A sou of Jok- 
tan, Gen. 10. 28 ; 1 Chr. 1. 22. See 
SABEANS. VI. A son of Jok- 
shan. Gen. 25. 1 ; 1 Chr. 1. 32. 

Sheba, queen of See SABEANS. 

Shebah, the well at Beer-sheba, Gen. 
26. 33. 

Shebam. Same as SIBMAH. 

Shebaniah, I. Two priests, 1 Chr. 15. 
24; Neh. 10. 4. II. Two Levites, 
Neh. 9. 4,5; 10.12. 

Shebarim, name of a place, Josh. 7. 5. 

Sheber, son of Caleb, 1 Chr. 2. 48. 

SHEBNA. 

Shebuel, I. A descendant of Moses, 
1 Chr. 23. 16 ; 26. 24. Also called 
Shubael, 1 Chr. 24. 20. IL A Le- 
vite singer, 1 Chr. 25. 4. Also 
called Shubael in verse 20. 

Shecaniah, I. A priest under David, 
1 Chr. 24. 11. II. A priest under 
Hezekiah, 2 Chr. 31. 15. 

Shechaniah, I. A descendant of Da- 
vid, 1 Chr. 3. 21, 22. II. Two per- 
sons whose descendants returned 
with Ezra, Ezra 8. 3, 5. IH. An 
associate of Ezra, Ezra 10. 2. IV. 
One whose son repaired the wall 
of Jerusalem, Neh. 3. 20. V. Fa- 
ther-in-law of Tobiah, Neh. 6. IS. 
^X Head of a priestlv familv, Neh. 
12. 3. Also called Shebauiah and 
Shecaniah. 

SHECHEM, L A citv. Shechem, IL 
S(m of Hamor, Gen. 33. 19 ; 34. 
III. Two descendants of Manas- 
eeh, Nu. 26. 31 ; Josh. 17. 2 ; 1 Chr. 
T.19. 

Shecbemites, descendants of She- 
chem, Nu. 26. 31. 

Shechinah. See SHEKINAH. 



Shedeur, a Reubeuite, Nu. 1. 5 ; 2. 
• 10 ; 7. 30, 35 ; 10. 18. 
SHEEP. 
SHEEP-FOLD. 
Sheep-gate. See GATE. 
Shehariah, a Beujamite, 1 Chr. 8. 26. 
SHEIK. 

Shekel. See MONEY ; WEIGHTS. 
; SHEKINAH. 
Shelnh, I. Third son of Judah, Gen. 

38. 5 ; 46. 12 ; Nu. 26. 20 ; 1 Chr. 4. 
21, 22. See ACHZIB. II. Son of 
Arphasad. Same as Salah. 

Shelauites, descendants of Shelah 

I., Nu. 26. 20. 
Shelemiah, I. A priest, Neh. 13. 13. 

11. Son of Cushi, Jer. 36. 14. IIL 
A person, 1 Chr. 26. 14. Same as 
Meshelemiah, 1 Chr. 26.1. IV. The 
name of several persons, Ezra 10. 

39, 41 : Neh. 3. 30 ; Jer. 36. 26 ; 37. 
3 13 • 38. 1. 

Sheleph, son of Joktan, Gen. 10. 26 ; 

1 Chr. 1. 20. 
Shelesh, a chieftain of Asher, 1 Chr. 
i 7. 35. 
Shelomi, father of Ahihud, Nu. 34. 
27. 
t Shelomi tb, I. A Danite woman, Le. 
24. 11. ll. Daughter of Zerubba- 
bel, 1 Chr. 3. 19. III. Three Le- 
vites, 1 Chr. 23. 9, 18 ; 26. 25, 26. 
IV. A child of Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 
[ 11. 20. V. Sons of, Ezra 8. 10. 

Shelomoth, a form of Shelomith, 1 
i Chr. 24. 22. 

Shelumiel, a prince of Simeon, Nu. 
I 1. 6 ; 2. 12 ; 7. 36, 41 ; 10. 19. 
SHEM. 

Shema, I. A descendant of Judah, 
1 Chr. 2. 43, 44. II. A Reubeuite, 
1 Chr. 5. 8. m. A Beujamite, 1 
Chr. 8. 13. IV. An assistant of 
Ezra, Neh. 8. 4. V, A city of Ju- 
dah, Josh. 15. •:&. 
Shemaah, a Beujamite, 1 Chr. 12. 3. 
Shemaiah, I. A prophet, 1 Ki. 12. 22- 
24 : 2 Chr. 11. 2-A. IL One of Da- 
vid's posteritv, 1 Chr. 3. 22. III. 
A Simeouite, 1 Chr. 4. 37. IV. A 
Reubeuite, 1 Chr. 5. 4. V, Six Le- 
vites, 1 Chr. 9. 14, 16 ; Neh. 11. 15 ; 
1 Chr. 15. 8, 11 ; 24. 6 : 2 Chr. 17. 
8 : 29. 14 ; 35. 9. VI. First-born 
of Obed-edom, 1 Chr. 26. 4-7. VIL 
Father of Uriiah the prophet, Jer. 
26. 20. VIII. The name of several 
persons, Ezra 8. 13, 16 ; 10. 21, 31 ; 
Neh. 6. 10-13 ; 10. 8 ; 12. 6, IS, 34, 
35, 36, 42 ; Jer. 29. 24-32 : 36. 12. 
I Shemariah, I. A Beujamite, 1 Chr. 

12. 5. II. Two who had married 
foreign wives, Ezra 10. 32, 41. 

Shemeber, king of Zeboiim, Gen. 
14. 2. 
i Shemer, the original owner of Sa- 
maria. 1 Ki. 16. 24. See OMRI ; 
SAMARIA. 
Shemida, Shemidah, a Manassite, 
Nu. 26. 32 ; Josh. 17. 2 ; 1 Chr. 7. 
19. 
Shemidaites, descendants of Shemi- 
da, Nu. 26. 32. 
Shemiuith. See MUSICAL IN- 
STRUMENTS. 
Shemiramoth, I. A Levite musician, 
1 Chr. 15. 18. II. A Levite teach- 
er, 2 Chr. 17. 8. 
Shemitic race. Same as Semitic 
race. See ETHNOLOGY. 
; Shemuel. I. A Simeouite, Nu. 34. 20. 
I II. 1 Chr. 6. 33. Same as SAM- 
I UEL. III. A chieftain of Issachar, 
t 1 Chr. 7. 2. 
I Shen, a place, 1 Sa. 7. 12. 
I Shenazar, a descendant of David, 1 
Chr. 3. IS. 
Shenir, a name of Hermon or a part 
of it, De. 3. 9 ; Sol. Song 4. 8. See 
HERMON. 
Sheol. See DEATH ; HELL. 
Shepham, a place, Nu. 34. 10, 11. 
Shephathiah, a Beujamite, 1 Chr. 
9. 8. In some copies Shephatiah. 



Shephatiah, I. David's son, 2 Sa. 3. 
4 ; 1 Chr. 3. 3. II. A warrior of 
David's, 1 Chr. 12. 5. IIL A Sim- 
eouite, 1 Chr. 27. 16. IV. Son of 
King Jehoshaphat, 2 Chr. 21. 2. 
V. Two persons, Ezra 2. 4, 57; 
Neh. 7. 9, 59. VI. A descendant 
of Judah, Neh. 11. 4. VII. Au 
eminent man, Jer. 38. 1-4. 

SHEPHERD. 

Shephi, a descendant of Seir, 1 Chr. 

I. 40. Same as Shepho, Gen. 36. 23. 
Shepho, Geu. 36. 23. Same as She- 
phi. 

Shephuphan, a descendant of Benja- 
min, 1 Chr. 8. 5. 
Sherah, daughter of Ephraira, 1 Chr. 

7. 24. 
Sheiebiah, a chief Levite, Ezra 8. 18, 

24 ; Neh. S. 7 ; 9. 4, 5 ; 10. 12 ; 12. S, 

24. 
Sheresh, a descendant of Mauasseh, 

1 Chr. 7. 16. 
Sherezer, a person sent in the reign 

of Darius to the house of God, 

Zee. 7. 2. 
Sheshach, a symbolical name of 

Babylon, Jer. 25. 26 ; 51. 4. 
Sheshai, sou of Anak, Nu. 13. 22; 

Josh. 15. 14 ; Jndff. 1. 10. 
Sheshan, a descendant of Judah, 1 

Chr. 2. 31-35. 
Sheshbazzar, Ezra 1. 8, 31 ; 5. 14. 16, 

the Persian name of ZERUBBA- 

BEL. 
Sheth, I. Same as Seth, 2 Chr. 1. 1. 

II. Prob. mistranslation for ta- 
mult, Nu. 24. 17. 

Shethar, one of the seven princes 

of Persia, Est. 1.14. 
Shethar-bozuai. a Persian officer in 

Syria, Ezra 5. 3, 6 ; 6. 6, 13. 
Sheva, I. David's secretary, 2 Sa. 20. 

25. Same as Shavsha; Seraiah 

III. II. Son of Caleb, 1 Chr. 2. 49. 
SHEW-BREAD. 

Shibboleth, used only in Judg. 12. 
6. The meaning is" uncertain. 

Shibmah, a place, Nu. 32. 38. Same 
as SIBM.AH. 

Shicron, a place, Josh. 15. 11. 

Shield. See ARMS. 

Shiggaion, Ps. 7 (title). See MUSIC- 
AL INSTRUMENTS. 

Shigiouoth, Hab. 3. 1. See MUSIC- 
AL INSTRUMENTS. 

Shihon, a city of Issachar, Josh. 19. 
19. 

Shihor, 1 Chr. 13. 5. See NILE. 

Shihor-libnath, a boundary of Ash- 
er, Josh. 19. 26. 

Shilhi, father of King Jehoshaphat's 
mother, 1 Ki. 22. 42 ; 2 Chr. 20. 31. 

Shilhim, a city in Judah, Josh. 15. 
32. 

Shillera, a son of Naphtali, Gen. 46. 
24 ; Nu. 26. 49. Same as Shallum, 
1 Chr. 7. 13. 

Shillemites, descendants of Shillera, 
Nu. 26. 49. 

Shiloah, Is. 8. 6. Same as SILO AM. 

SHILOH, I. A place. II. Prob. a 
person. 

Shiloui, prob. a descendant of She- 
lah, Neh. 11. 5. 

Shilonite, I. Au inhabitant of SHI- 
LOH. II. A desceudant of She- 
lah, 1 Chr. 9. 5. Same as Shelau- 
ites. 

Shilshah, a chieftain of Asher, 1 
Chr. 7. 37. 

Shimea, son of David, 1 Chr. 3. 5. 
Called also Shammna and Sham- 
muah. II. Two Levites, 1 Chr. 6. 
30, 39. III. A brother of David, 1 
Chr. 20. 7. Same a< Shammah in 
1 Sa. 16. 9; 17. 13; Shimeah in 2 
Sa. 13. 3, 32 ; 21. 21 ; and Shimma 
in 1 Chr. 2. 13. 

Shimeah, I. Same as Shimea IIL, 
1 Chr. 20. 7. II. A Beujamite, 1 
Chr. 8. 32. 

Shimeam, son of Mikloth, 1 Chr. 9. 
38. 



1068 



INDEX. 



Shimeath, au Aramouitess, 2 Chr. 

24. 26. 
Shimeathites, a family who dwelt 

at Jabez, 1 Chr. 2. 55. 
SHIMEI, I. A Benjamite. Shimei, 

II. A descendant of Gershou, Nu. 

3. 18 ; 1 Chr. 6. 11, 42 ; 23. 7, 10. 
Called Shimi in Ex. 6. IT. III. 
One of David's mighty men, 1 Ki. 

I. 8 : 4. IS. IV. A descendant of 
David, 1 Chr. 3. 19. V. A Simeon- 
ite, 1 Chr. 4. 26, 2T. VI. A Eeu- 
benite, 1 Chr. 5. 4. VII. Four Le- 
vites, 1 Chr. 6. 29; 25. 17; 2 Chr. 

. 29. 14 ; Ezra 10. 23. VIII. A Ea- 
mathite, 1 Chr. 27. 27. IX. Son of 
Hashnm, Ezra 10. 33. X. Son of 
Bani, Ezra 10. 38. XI. A Benja- 
mite, Est. 2. 5. 

Shimeou, sou of Harim, Ezra 10. 31. 

Shimhi, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 21. 

Shimi, grandson of Levi, Ex. 6. IT. 

Shimites, descendants of Shimi, or 
Shimei, Nu. 3. 21. 

Shimma, son of Jesse, 1 Chr. 2. 13. 

Shimon, a man of Judah, 1 Chr. 4. 
20. 

Shimrath, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 21. 

Shimri, I. A Simeonite, 1 Chr. 4. 37. 

II. Father of Jediael, 1 Chr. 11. 

45. III. A Levite, 2 Chr. 29. 13. 
Shimrite, 1 Chr. 11. 45, an appella- 
tion of Jediael. 

Shimrith, a Moabitess, 2 Chr. 24. 26. 

Called Shtmier in 2 Ki. 12. 21. 
Shimrom, 1 Chr. 7. 1, a form of Shim- 

ron. 
Shimron, I. Sou of Issachar, Gen. 

46. 13 ; Nu. 26. 24. II. A Canaan- 
itish city. Josh. 11. 1; 19. 15. 
Same as Shimron -meron, Josh. 
12. 20. 

Shimronites, a family of Issachar, 

Nu. 26. 24. 
Shimron -meron. Josh. 12. 20. See 

Shimron. 
Shimshai, an officer or scribe, Ezra 

4. 8-23. 

Shinab, king of Admah, Gen. 14. 2. 

Shi liar, a plain. Same as CHAL- 
DEA, Gen. 10. 10 ; 11. 2 ; 14. 1 ; Is. 
11. 11, etc. 

SHIP: Noah's ark the first, Gen. 6. 
14-22 ; 7. 8. Early in use, Gen. 49. 
13; Judg.5.17; 1 Ki. 9. 26-28; 10. 
11, 22 ; 22. 48, 49 ; 2 Chr. 20. 36, 37 ; 
Mat. 4. 22. Prophecies concern- 
ing, Is. 33. 21 ; Da. 11. 30 ; Re. 8. 
9; 18. 17,19. 

Ship-building. See HANDICRAFT. 

Shi phi, a Simeonite, 1 Chr. 4. 37. 

Shiphmite, au inhabitant of Shiph- 
moth, 1 Chr. 27. 27. 

Shiphrah, an-Egyptian midwife, Ex. 
1.15. 

Shiphtan, father of Kemuel, Nu. 34. 
24. 

Shisha, father of Elihoreph and 
Ahiah,lKi. 4.3. 

SHISHAK. 

Shitrai, overseer of herds to David, 
1 Chr. 27. 29. 

SHITTAH-TREE, SHITTIM. 

Shittim, I. Nu. 25. 1 ; Josh. 2. 1 ; 3. 
1 ; Mi. 6. 6. Same as ABEL-SHIT- 
TIM. II. A valley mentioned in 
Joel 3. 18, perhiips of Jehosha- 
phat. See JEHOSHAPHAT, 
VALLEY OF. 

Shittim -wood. See SHITTAH- 
TREE. 

Shiza, a Reubenite, 1 Chr. 11. 42. 

Shiva, a district of Assyria, Eze. 23. 
23. 

Shobab, I. Son of Davifl, 2 Sa. 5. 14 ; 
1 Chr. 3. 5 ; 14. 4. II. Sou of Ca- 
leb, 1 Chr. 2. 18. 

Shobach, commander of the forces 
of Hadarezer, 2 Sa. 10. 16, 18. 
Same as Shophach, 1 Chr. 19. 16, 
18. 

Shobai, children of, Ezra 2. 42; Neh. 
7.45. 

Shobai, I. A Horite duke, Gen. 36. 



20, 23, 29; 1 Chr. 1. 38, 40. IL 
Founder of Kirjath-jearim, 1 Chr. 
2. 50, 52 ; 4. 1, 2. 

Shobek, an associate of Nehemiah, 
Neh. 10. 24. 

Shobi, an Ammonite, 2 Sa. 17. 27. 

Shocho, Shochoh, Shoco, 1 Sa. 17. 1 : 
2 Chr. 11. 7 ; 28. 18. See SOCOH. 

Shoe. See SANDAL. Taken off, 
a token of reverence, Ex. 3. 5 ; 
Josh. 5. 15 ; Ec. 5. 1 ; Ac. 7. 33 ;— of 
humiliation, 2 Sa. 15. 30; Ps. 60. 
8 ; Is. 20. 2-4 ; Eze. 24. 17 ;— of a 
surrendered right, De. 25. 9 ; Ruth 
4.7. 

Shoham, a Levite, 1 Chr. 24. 27. 

Shomer, I. An Asherite, 1 Chr. 7. 
32. Called Shamer in ver. 34. 
II. Name of a person, 2 Ki. 12. 21. 

Shophach, a captain, 1 Chr. 19. 16, 
18. Same as Shobach. 

Shophan, a town, should be joined 
with the preceding word, Atroth, 
in Nu. 32. 35. 

Shoshannim, Shoshanuim - eduth. 
See MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS. 

Shovel, Is. 30. 24. See HARVEST. 

Shrines. See DEMETRIUS. 

Shroud. See FUNERAL RITES. 

SHROVE-TUESDAY. 

Shua, I. Father-in-law of Judah, 1 
Chr. 2. 3. Same as Shuah, Gen. 
38. 2, 12. IL A daughter of the 
house of Asher, 1 Chr. 7. 32. 

Shuah, I. Son of Abraham, Gen. 25. 
2. IL Gen. 3S. 2, 12. Same as 
Shua, 1 Chr. 2. 3. III. A descend- 
ant of Judah, 1 Chr. 4. 11. IV. 
A district. See BILDAD. 

Shual, L An Asherite, 1 Chr. T. 36. 

11. Land of, 1 Sa. 13. IT. 
Shubael, 1 Chr. 24. 20 ; 25. 20. See 

Shebuel L, IL 

Shuham, son of Dan, Nu. 26. 42. 
Same as Hushim, Gen. 46. 23. 

Shuhamites, descendants of Shu- 
ham, Nu. 26. 42. 

Shuhite, prob. a descendant of Shu- 
ah, Job 2. 11 ; 8. 1 ; 17. 1 ; 25. 1 ; 
42. 9. 

Shulamite, a symbolical name giv- 
en to a maiden in Sol. Song 6.'^13. 

Shumathites, the designation of a 
tribe, 1 Chr. 2. 53. 

Shunammite, an inhabitant of Shu- 
nem, 1 Ki. 1. 3, 15 ; 2. 17, 21, 22 ; 2 
Ki. 4. 12, 25, 36. 

SHUNEM. 

Shuui, son of Gad, Gen. 46. 16 ; Nu. 
26. 15. 

Shunites, descendants of Shuni, Nu. 
26. 15. 

Shupham, sou or grandson of Ben- 
jamin, Nu. 26. 39. Same as Mup- 
pim and Shephuphau. 

Shuphamites, descendants of Shu- 
pham, Nu. 26. 39. 

Shuppim, I. A Benjamite, 1 Chr. T. 

12. Possibly the" same with Shu- 
pham. II. A Levite porter, 1 
Chr. 26.16. 

SHUR. 

SHUSHAN. 

Shushan- eduth. See MUSICAL 

INSTRUMENTS. 
Shuthalites, descendants of Shuthe- 

lah, Nu. 26. 35. 
Shuthelah, son of Ephraim, Nn. 26. 

35,36; 1 Chr. T. 20, 21. 
Shuttle, Job 7. 6. See HANDI- 
CRAFT. 
Sia, Siaha, Ezra 2. 44; Neh. 7. 47, 

one whose descendants returned 

with Zernbbabel. 
Sibbecai, Sibbechai, one of David's 

warriors, 2 Sa. 21. 18 ; 1 Chr. 11. 

29; 20.4; 27.11. 
Sibboleth, Judg. 12. 6. Same as 

Shibboleth. 
SIBMAH, SHEBAM, SHIBMAH. 
Sibraim, a city, Eze. 47. 16. 
Sichem, a city. Gen.' 12. 6. See SHE- 

CHEM. 
Sickle. See HARVEST. 



Sickness: sent as punishment for 
sin, Nu. 12. 10 ; De. 28. 21, 22, 27, 
28, 35, 45 ; 1 Sa. 5. 6, 12 ; 2 Sa. 12. 
15 ; 2 Ki. 5. 27 ; 15. 5 ; 1 Co. 11. 30 ; 
— as chastening. Job 2. 7, 8 ; Is. 
38. 1, 3. Tenderness of the Lord 
in, Ps. 41. 3 ; Is. 53. 4 ; 63. 9 ; Zee. 2. 
8 ; Mat. 8. 7, 17 ; Jno. 11. 35. How 
to be borne, 2 Chr. 16, 12 ; Job 5. 
17 ; Ps. 94. 12 ; Ac. 14. 9 ; Ja. 5. 13 
-15. 

SIDDIM. 

SIDON, or ZIDON. 

Sidoniaus, inhabitants of SIDON. 

Sieve. See HARVEST. 

Sign. See MIRACLES. 

Signal. See BANNERS. 

Signet. See SEAL. 

Sign of the cross. See CROSS. 

SIHON. 

Sihor, a Hebrew name of the NILE. 

Sihor-libuath. Same as Shihor-Iib- 
nath. 

SILAS. 

SILK. 

Silla, a place, 2 Ki. 12. 20. 

Siloah, Neh. 3.15. Same as SILO- 
AM. 

SILOAM. 

Silvanus. Same as SILAS, 2 Co. 1. 
19 ; 1 Th. 1. 1 ; 2 Th. 1. 1 ; 1 Pe. 5. 
12. 

SILVER. 

Silverling, Is. 7. 23, prob. a shekel. 
See MONEY. 

Silversmith. See HANDICRAFT; 
SILVER. 

SIMEON, I. Sou of JACOB. Sim- 
eon, II. An aged saint, Lu. 2. 25, 
35. III. Au ancestor of Christ, 
Lu. 3. 30. IV. A Christian teach- 
er at Antioch, Ac. 13. 1. V. Ac. 15. 
14. Same as PETER. 

Simeonites, descendants of SIME- 
ON L 

SIMON, I. Brother of Jesus. H. 
The Canaanite. IIL Of Cyreue. 
IV. Simon Magus. Simon, V. The 
leper. Mat. 26. 6. See MARTHA. 
VI. Simon Petei-, Mat^4. 18, etc. 
See PETER. VII. A Pharisee, Lu. 
7. 40. VIIL The tanner, Ac. 9. 43. 
IX. The father of Judas Iscariot, 
Jno. 6. 71 ; 13. 2, 26. 

Simonians. See SECT. 

SIMONY. 

Simplicitv of moral action. See 
PERFECTIONISTS. 

Simri, a Levite, 1 Chr. 26. 10. 

SIN, a city. 

SIN: origin of, in the world. Gen. 
3. 1-5 ; Jno. 8. 44 ; Ro. 5. 12. Curse 
consequent on. Gen. 3. 14-19: 4. 
11, 12 ; Eze. 18. 20 ; Jno. 3. 19 : Eo. 
6. 23; 1 Co. 15. 56; Re. 19. 12-14; 
22. 15. All are born in, Gen. 5. 
3; Job 15. 14; 25. 4; Ps. 51. 5. 
All commit, 1 Ki. 8. 46 : Ps. 53. 2, 
3; Ec. T. 20; Gal. 3. 22. Jesus 
alone without, Jno. 14. 30; 2 Co. 
5. 21 ; He. 4. 15 ; T. 26 ; 1 Jno. 3. 5. 
His blood, the remission for, Lu. 
22. 20; Jno. 1. 29; Ro. 3. 25, 26; 
Eph. 1. T; He. 9. 12-14, 22; 1 Pe. 
2. 24 ; 1 Jno. 1. T. One unpardon- 
able, Ex. 23. 21 ; Mat. 12. 31, 32 ; 
Mar. 3, 28, 29 ; 1 Jno. 5. 16. 

SIN. WILDERNESS OF. 

Siua, Mount, Ac. 6. 30, 38, Greek 
form of SINAI. 

SINAI. 

Singing. See MUSIC. 

SINIM. 

SINITE. 

SIN-OFFERING. 

SINTO-ISM. 

Sion. Same as HERMON. See 
ZTON. 

Siphmoth, one of David's haunts, 1 
Sa. 30. 28. 

Sippai, a Philistine giant, 1 Chr. 20. 
4. Also called Saph, See GO- 
LIATH. 

Sirah, name of a well, 2 Sa. 3. 26. 



INDEX. 



1069 



Siriou, a name given to HERMON, I 

De. 3. 9 ; Ps. 29. 6. 
Sisamai, a descendant of Judah, 1 

Chr. 2. 40. 
SISERA, I. A general. See also Ba- 

rak-Jael. Sisera, II. One of the 

Nethinim, Ezra 2. 53 ; Neh. 7. 55. 
Sister of Charity, of Mercy, etc. See 

MONACHISM. 
Sitnah, a well. Gen. 26. 21. 
SIVA. 

Si van. See MONTH. 
Six- principle Baptists. See BAP- 
TISTS. 
Skepticism. See INFIDELITY; 

RATIONALISM. 
Slander, censured, Ex. 23. 1 ; De. 22. 

19 ; Ps. 15. 3 ; 50. 19, 20 ; 64. 3, 4 ; 

101. 5 ; Pr. 10. IS ; Ro. 1. 30 ; 2 Co. 

12. 20 ; Ti. 3. 2 ; Ja. 4. 11 ;— how to 

be borne. Mat. 5. 11 ; 1 Co. 4. 12, 

13; IPe. 2. 21-23. 
Slave. See SLAVERY. 
SLAVERY. 
Sleep, deej), sent by God, Gen. 2. 21 ; 

15. 12 ; 1 Sa. 26. 12 ; Job 4. 13 ;— 

figurative, Ps. 13. 3 ; Da. 12. 2 ; 

Mar. 13. 36 ; Ro. 13. 11 ; 1 Co. 11. 

80 ; 15. 20 ; 1 Th. 4. 14. 
Slime. See BRICK; MORTAR; 

CITIES OP THE PLAIN. 
Sliuo-, Slinger. See ARMS. 
Smith. See HANDICRAFT. 
SMYRNA. 
SNAIL. 

Snare. See HUNTING. 
Snow : in Palestine, 2 Sa. 23. 20. In 

Uz, Job 6. 16 ; 9. 30. On Lebanon, 

Jer. IS. 14. 
Snuffers, snuff-dishes, Ex. 25. 38, 

golden utensils used for trimming 

the candles in the Temple. 
SO. 

SOAP. 

Sobrietv. See TEMPERANCE. 
Socho, Sochoh, 1 Ki. 4. 10 ; 1 Chr. 4. 

IS. Same as SOCOH. 
SOCIALISM. 
SOCINIANS. 
SOCOH. 
Sodi, father of the Gadite spy, Nu. 

13. 10. 
SODOM. See CITIES OF THE 

PLAIN. 
Sod )nia, Ro. 9. 29. Greek form of 

SODOM. 
SODOMITES. 
Soldier. See ARMY. 
Solemn league and covenant. See 

COVENANT. 
SOLOMON. 
Solomon's Porch. See TEMPLE. 

soLo:\roN's servants. 

SOLOMON'S SONG. 

Solomon, the wisdom of. See WIS- 
DOM OF SOLOMON, BOOK OP. 

Son. See CHILDREN; BIRTH- 
RIGHT. 

Son of God. See CHRISTOLOGY. 

Son of Man. Equivalent to man, 
Nu. 23. 19 ; Job 25. 6 ; Eze. 2. 1, 2, 
etc. Equivalent to the Messiah, 
Da. 7. 13, 14 ; Mat. 8. 20 ; 9. 6, etc. 

Sons-. See HYMN; MUSIC; PO- 
ETRY. 

Song of Solomon. See SOLOMON, 
THE SONG OF. 

Song of the Three Holy Children. 
See DANIEL, APOCRYPHAL 
ADDITIONS TO. 

SONGS OF DEGREES. 

SONS OF GOD. 

Sons of Temperance. See TEM- 
PERANCE. 

Sooth saver. See DIVINATION. 

Sop, Jno. 13. 26-30. See LORD'S 
SUPPER. 

Sopater, a Christian of Berea. Ac. 20. 
4. 

Sophereth, children of, Ezra 2. 55 ; 
Neh. 7. 57. 

Sorcerer, sorcerv. See DIVINA- 
TION ; MAGIC ; WITCHCRAFT. 

Sorek, a valley, Judg. 16. 4. 



Sorrow: Jufct causes of, 2 Sa. 12. 13 ; 
Ps. 119. 136, 15S ; Mat. 26. 38, 75 ; 
Phi. 2. 27. Good effects of, Ps. 34. 
18 ; 51. 17 ; 126. 6 ; Ec. 7. 3 ; Mat. 

5. 4 ; 2 Co. 7. 10 ; Ja. 4. 9, 10. Bad 
effects of, Pr. 12. 25 ; 15. 13, 15 : 17. 

22. Signs or expressions of, Gen. 
37. 34 ; 2 Sa. 1. 2 ; 13. 19 ; 15. 32 ; 1 
Ki. 21. 27 ; 2 Chr. 34. 27 ; Ezra 9. 3, 
5 ; Job 1. 20 ; 2. 12 ; Eze. 27. 31 ; 
Jno. 11. 35. 

Sosipater, a kinsman or fellow- 

tril)esmau of St. Paul, Ro. 16. 21. 

Prob. Sopater of Berea. 
SOSTHENES. 
Sotai, children of, Ezra 2. 55. Neh. 

7.57. 
SOUTH. 

S(mthcottians. See SECT. 
South Ramoth, a city in the south of 

Palestine. Same as Ramath, 1 

Sa. 30. 27. 
Soutras, See BUDDHISM. 
SOW; SOWER; SOWING. See 

AGRICULTURE. 
Sow, 2 Pe. 2. 22. See SWINE. 
Spain. Mentioned only in Ro, 15. 

24, 28. But see TARSHISH. 
Span. See MEASURES. 
SPARROW. 
Spear. See ARMS. 
Spearmen, light -armed troops, Ac. 

23. 23. 

Speckled bird. See HYENA. 
Speech : directions concerning, De. 

6. 7 ; Pr. 4. 24 ; 10. 19 ; 15. 4 ; 18. 6, 
7, 13, 21 : Ec. 10. 12, 13 ; Mat. 5. 22 ; 
12. 36 ; Eph. 4. 29 ; 5. 4 ; Col. 3. 8 ; 
4. 6 ; 1 Th. 4. IS ; Ti. 2. S ; 3. 2 ; Ja. 
1. 26 ; 3. 2-18 ; 1 Pe. 3. 10. Benefit 
of, when seasonable, Pr, 12. 25 ; 15. 
23 ; 16. 24 ; 25. 11, 15. 

SPICES. 

SPIDER. 

SPIKENARD. 

Spinning. See HANDICRAFT. 

Spinozism. See PANTHEISM. 

SPIRIT. 

Spirit, Holy. See HOLY GHOST. 

Spiritual body. See RESURREC- 
TION. 

SPIRITUALISM. 

Spirituals. See SECT. 

SPONGE. 

SPONSORS. 

Spouse. See MARRIAGE. 

Spring. See SEASON: FOUNTAIN. 

Sprinkling. See BAPTISM. 

Stachys, a Christian at Rome, Ro. 
16.9. 

STACTE. 

Staff'. See ROD. 

Stairs. See HOUSE. In Neh. 3. 15, 
reference is made to a flight of 
steps on the south-east slope of 
Jerusalem. 

Stalls. See CHURCH EDIFICES. 

Standard. See BANNERS. 

Star. See ASTROLOGY ; ASTRON- 
OMY. 

Star-gazers. See ASTROLOGY. 

STAR IN THE EAST. 

Stater. See MONEY. 

Statute. See LAW. 

St. Barnabas's Day. See BARNA- 
BAS. 

Stealing. See ROBBERY. 

STEEL. 

Stephanas, a Corinthian Christian 
whose house, or family, St. Paul 
baptized, 1 Co. 1. 16. 

STEPHEN. 

rfc. John's bread. See HUSKS. 

Stoa Basilica. See TEMPLE. 

Stocks, an ancient instrument of 
punishment. Job 13. 27 ; 33. 11 ; 
Jer. 20. 2 : Ac. 16. 24. See PUN- 
ISHMENT. 

"STOICS. 

Stole. See VESTMENTS. 

Stomacher, an article of female at- 
tire, Is. 3. 24. 

Stone, Stoning. See PUNISH- 
MENT. 



Stones. See PILLARS. 

Stones, precious. See GEMS. 

Stoue-squarers, 1 Ki. 5. IS. The Gib- 
lites, a skillful people. 

Stone-worship. See PILLARS. 

STOOL. 

Store-house. See BARN. 

STORK. 

STRANGER. 

Strange woman. See HARLOT. 

Straw. See BRICK. 

Stream of Egypt, Is. 27. 12. See 
NILE. 

Street. See CITIES. 

Stripes. See PUNISHMENT. 

Strong drink. See WINE. 

St. Simonians. See SECT; SOCIAL- 
ISM. 

STYLITES. 

Suah, an Asherite, 1 Chr. 7. 36. 

SUB-DEACON. 

Sublapsarians. See SUPRALAP- 
SARIANS. 

Succession. See APOSTOLICAL 
SUCCESSION. 

SUCCOTH, I. A town east of the 
Jordan. Succoth, II. An encamj)- 
ment of the Israelites, site un- 
known, Ex. 12. 37 ; 13. 20. 

SUCCOTH-BENOTH. 

Suchathites, a family of scribes, 1 
Chr. 2. 55. 

Sufferings, how to be borne, exem- 
plified by the apostles, Ac. 5. 40 ; 
9. 6 ; 13, 50, 51 ; 14. 19, 20 ; 16. 23- 
25; 20. 24; 21. 13; 1 Co. 4. 12; 2 
Co. 1. 4; 4. 8-18; 6. 4, 5 ; 11. 23- 
33; Phi. 1. 29, 30; 1 Tim. 4. 10 ; 1 
Pe. 2. 19 ; 3. 14 ; 4. 12-19 ; Re. 12. 
11. 

Sufferings of Christ, Ps. 22. ; 55. 4- 
14; Is. 53. ; Zee. 13. 6, 7; Mat. 2. 
13-15; 8.20; 11.19; 26.56,67; 27. 
27-35, 46 ; Mar. 14. 34-36, 65 ; 15. 
19-24; Lu. 22. 41-44; 23. 33; Jno. 
12. 27 ; IS. 22, 23 ; 19. 1-18 ; He. 5. 
7, 8 ; 1 Pe. 2. 21-25. 

SUFFRAGANS. 

SUFFRAGE. 

Sukkiims, an African people, 2 Chr. 
12. 3. 

Sum'm'er. See SEASON. 

Sun, Gen. 1. 14 ; Ps. 136. 7, 8. Not to 
be worshiped, De. 4. 19 ; 17. 3 ; 
Job 3t. 26, 27 ; Eze. 8. 16, 18. Mir- 
acles connected with. Josh. 10. 19, 
13 ; 2 Ki. 20. 9-11 ; Lu. 23. 44, 45. 
Prophecies concerning. Is. 24. 23 ; 
30. 26; 60. 19, 20; Joel 2. 10, 31; 
3.15. 

Sunday. See SABBATH. 

SUN-WORSHIP. 

Sun-dial. See DIAL. 

SUPERNATURAL. 

Superstition. See ANIMAL 
WORSHIP; BRAHMANISM; 
BUDDHISM; CONFUCIANISM; 
FETICHISM; IDOLATRY; IM- 
AGE-WORSHIP. 

SUPEREROGATION. 

Supper. See MEALS; LORD'S 
SUPPER. 

SUPRALAPSARIANS. 

Sur, a gate of the Temple, 2 Ki. 11. 
6; 1 Chr. 23. 5. 

Suretyship, evils of, Pr. 6. 1 ; 11. 15 ; 
17. 18 ; 20. 16 ; 22. 26 ; 27. 13. 

Surplice. See VESTMENTS. 

Susanchites, inhabitants of Shu- 
shan, Ezra 4. 9. 

Susanna, one of the women who 
ministered to our Lord, Lu. S. 3. 

Susanna, history of. See DANIEL, 
APOCRYPHAL ADDITIONS 
TO. 

Susi, father of the Manassite spy, 
Nu. 13. 11. 

Suttee. See FUNERAL RITES. 

SWALLOW. 

SWAN. 

Swear, Swearing. See OATH. 

Sweat, bloody. ' See GETHSEMA- 
NE. 

S WEDENBORGI ANS. 



1070 



INDEX. 



SWINE. 

Sword. See AEMS. 

SYCAMINE-TKEE. 

SYCAMORE-TKEE. 

Sychar, Sychem,Ac.7.16. SeeSHE- 
CHEM. 

Syene, a city in the southern ex- 
tremity of EGYPT, Eze. 29. 10. 

SYMBOLISM. 

SYNAGOGUE. 

Synergism. See MONERGISM. 

Synod. See PRESBYTERIANS. 

Syntyche, a Christian female at Phi- 
lippi, Phi. 4. 2. 

Syracuse, a celebrated city of Sicily, 
Ac. 28. 12. 

SYRIA. 

Syria - maachah, 1 Chr. 19. 6. Same 
as Aram-maachah. See ARAM. 

Syrians, inhabitants of SYRIA. 

SYRO-PH(ENICIAN. - 



TAANACH. 

Taanath-shiloh, a place on the bor- 
der of Ephraim, Josh. 16. 6. 

Tabbaoth, children of, Ezra 2. 43 ; 
Neh. 7. 4G. 

Tabbath, name of a place, Judg. 7. 
22. 

Tabeal, a person, Is. 7. 22. 

Tabee], an officer of the Persian gov- 
ernment, Ezra 4. 7. 

Taberah, a station in the wilder- 
ness, Nn. 11. 3. See WILDER- 
NESS OF THE WANDERING. 

TABERNACLE: ordering and 
building of, Ex. 25. ; 26. ; 27. ; 36. ; 
37. ; 88. Preparations for, Ex. 35. 
Set up, Ex. 40 ; Nu. 7 {in the wil- 
derness) ;— Josh. 18. 1 {at Shiloh) ; 
—2 Sa. 6. 17 {in Zion). Service of, 
Nu. 4. Removal of to the Tem- 
ple, 2 Chr. 5. 1-10. Typical import 
of. He. 8. ; 9. ; 10. 

TABERNACLES, FEAST OF. 

TABITHA. 

Table. See BANQUET. 

Tables of Covenant. See TEN 
COMMANDMl<:.NTd. 

Tablet, an ornament, Ex. 35. 22; Nu. 
31. 50. 

TABOR, I. The mount. II. The Le- 
vitical city. Tabor, III. An oak or 
grove of oaks, not a plain, in the 
territory of Benjamin, 1 Sa. 10. 3. 

Taborites. See MORAVIANS. 

Tabrets. See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 

Tabrimon, the father of Ben-hadad, 
king of Syria, 1 Ki. 15. IS. 

Taches. hooks used to fasten the 
curtains of the Tabernacle, Ex. 26. 
6. 11,33; 35. 11; 36. 13, 18; 39. 33. 
See HOOK. 

Tachmonite, 2 Sa. 23. 8. Same as 
Hachmonite. 

TADMOR. 

Tahan, an Ephraimite, Nu. 26. 35 ; 1 
Chr. 7. 25. 

Tahanites, descendants of Tahan, 
Nil. 26. 35. 

Tahapanes. a city, Jer. 2. 16. Same 
as TAHPANHES. 

Tahoth, I. A Levite, 1 Chr. 6. 24, 
27. II., III. Two descendants of 
Ephraim, 1 Chr. 7. 20. IV. A sta- 
tion of the Israelites, Nu. 33. 26, 
27. 

TAHPANHES. 

Tahpenes, 1 Ki. 11. 19, 20, Queen of 
PHARAOH 6. 

Tahrea, a descendant of Saul, 1 
Chr. 9. 41. Called Tarea in 1 Chr. 
8.35. 

Tahtim-hodshi, laud of, a district 
near Gilead, 2 Sa. 24. G. 

Tale - bearing, Le. 19. 16 ; Pr. 11. 13 ; 
17. 9; 18. 8; 20. 19; 25. 9; 26. 20, 
22; ITim. 5.13; 1 Pc. 4. 15. 

Talent. See MONEY ; WEIGHTS. 

TALLETH. 



Talmai, I. A son of Anak, Nu. 13. 22 ; 
Josh. 15. 14; Judg. 1. 10. IL A 
king of Geshur, whose daughter 
Maacahwas David's wife and Ab- 
salom's mother, 2 Sa. 3. 3 ; 13. 37 ; 

1 Chr. 3. 2. 

Talmon, I. A Levite porter, 1 Chr. 9, 
27 ; Neh. 11. 19 ; 12. 25. II. Chil- 
dren of, Ezra 2. 42 ; Neh. 7. 45. 

TALMUD. 

Tamah, or Thamah, children of, 
Neh. 7. 55 ; Ezra 2. 53. 

Tamar, I. Daughter-in-law of Judah, 
Gen. 38. G-30 ; Ruth 4. 22. Same 
as Thamar. II. Sister of Absalom, 

2 Sa. 13 ; 1 Chr. 3. 9. III. Daugh- 
ter of Absalom, 2 Sa. 14. 27. TV. 
A town on the south-east border 
of Palestine, Eze. 47. 19 ; 48. 28. 

TAMMUZ. See MONTH. 

Tanach, a citv. Josh. 21. 25. See 
TAANACH." 

TANAITES. 

Tanhumeth, father of a captain who 
joined Gedaliah, 2 Ki. 25. 23 ; Jer. 
40.8. 

Tanis, Greek name for Zoan. 

Tanner, Tanning. See HANDI- 
CRAFT. 

Tanquilinians. See SECT. 

Tantras, sacred books of the Hin- 
doos. See BRAHMANISM. 

TA-OISM. 

Taphath, a daughter of Solomon, 1 
Ki. 4. 11. 

Tappuah, I. A person named among 
the descendants of Judah, 1 Chr. 
2. 43. II. A town in Judah, Josh. 

15. 34. III. A city or district. Josh. 

16. 8 ; 17. 8. 

Tarah, a station of the Israelites, 
Nu. 33. 27, 28. 

Taralah, a city of Benjamin, Josh. 
I 18. 27. 
I Tarbe. See MOSQUE. ' 

Tarea, a descendant of Saul, 1 Chr. 
8. 35. Same as Tahrea. 

TARES. 

Target. See ARMS. 

Targums. See VERSIONS. 

Tarpelites, a tribe settled in Sama- 
ria, Ezra 4. 9. 

TARSHISH, I., II. Two cities. Tar- 

■ shish. III. A son of Jovan, Gen. 
10.4; IChr. 1. 7.' IV. One of the 
seven princes of Persia, Est. 1. 14. 

TARSUS. 

Tartak, an Avite idol, 2 Ki. 17. 31. 

Tartan. Prob. the official title of a 
general under Sargou and Sen- 
nacherib, 2 Ki. 18. 17 ; Is. 20. 1. 

TARTARUS. 

Tatnai, a Persian governor in Pales- 
tine, Ezra 5. 3, 6 ; 6. 6, 13. 

Taverns, Three. See APPII FO- 
RUM. 

TAXES. 

Tear-bottle. See BOTTLE. 

Teachers. See PREACHING. 

Teachers of the Law. See DOC- 
TOR (Jewish). 

Tebah, son of Nahor, Gen. 22. 24. 

Tehaliah, a Levite, 1 Chr. 26. 11. 

Tebeth. See MONTH. 

TE DEUM. 

Tehaphnehes, Eze. 30. IS. See TAH- 
PANHES. 

Tehinnah, a descendant of Judah, 
1 Chr. 4. 12. 

Teil-tree, Is. 6, 13, a species of 
OAK. 

TEKOA. 

Tekoites, 2 Sa. 23. 26 ; 1 Chr. 11. 28 ; 
27. 9 ; Neh, 3. 5, 27. The inhabit- 
ants of Tekoah. 

Telabib, a place in Babylonia, Eze. 
3. 15. 

Telah, a descendant of Ephraim, 1 
Chr. 7. 25. 

Telaim, a place, 1 Sa. 15. 4. 

Telassar, the name of a district, Is, 
37. 12. Also called Thelasar, 2 
Ki. 19. 12. 

Telem, I. A door-keeper, Ezra 10. 



24. IL A city of Judah, Josb. 15. 
24. Prob. same as Telaim. 

Tel-haresha, orTel-harsa, a Babylo- 
nian town, Ezra 2. 59 ; Neh. 7. 61. 

Tel-melah, a Babylonian town, Ezra 
2. 59 ; Neh. 7. 61. 

TEMA. 

TEMAN. 

Temani, Gen. 36. 34. See TEMAN. 

Temanite, an inhabitant of TE- 
MAN, 1 Chr. 1. 45. 

Temeni, a descendant of Judah, 1 
Chr. 4. 6. 

TEMPERANCE, Le. 10. 8-11 ; Pr. 
23. 1-3, 29-35 ; Is. 5. 11, 22 ; Gal. 5. 
23; Eph.5.18;Ti. 1.8; 2.2; 2Pe. 
1.6. 

TEMPERANCE SOCIETIES. 

TEMPLARS. 

TEMPLE, the first, David's prepa- 
rations, 1 Chr. 22. 2-5, 14-16 ; 29. 2- 
5. Built by Solomon, 1 Ki. 6. ; 7. 
Dedication of, 1 Ki. 8. Repaired 
by Joash, 2 Ki. 12. 1-15 ;— by Hez- 
ekiah, 2 Chr. 29. ; — by Josiah, 2 
Chr. 34. Burned by the Chalde- 
ans, 2 Ki. 25. 9 ; 2 Chr. 36. 19. The 
second, building of, Ezra 3. ; 5. ; 
6. ; 7. ; 8. Cleansed, Neh. 13. 9. 
Described in vision, Eze. 40. ; 41. ; 
42. ; 44. : 46. ; 47. ; 48. ; Re. 11. 1. 2. 

TEMPTATION OF OUR LORD, or 
trial from God, Gen. 22. 1; De. 8. 
2, 5 ; 2 Chr. 32. 31 ; Job 23. 10 ; Ps. 
17. 3 ; 66. 10 ; Da. 12. 10 ; Zee. 13. 
9 ; He. 11. 17 ; Ja. 1. 12 ; 1 Pe. 1. 7 ; 
4. 12, 13 ;— or incentive to sin from 
Satan, Gen. 3. 1-13 : 1 Chr. 21. 1 ; 
Mat. 6. 13; 26. 41; Lu. 22. 40, 46; 
Eph. 6. 10-18 ; 1 Th. 3. 5; 1 Pe. 5. 
8, 9. Of Jesus, Mat. 4. 1-11 ; Mar. 
1.13; Lu.4. 1-13; He. 4. 15. 

Tempter. See DEVIL. 

TEN COMMANDMENTS. 

TENT. 

Tenth deal. See MEASURES. 

Tent-makers. See HANDICRAFT. 
1 TERAH. 

TERAPHIM. 

Terce. See CANONICAL HOURS. 
i Teresh, chamberlain to Ahasuerus, 
[ Est. 2. 21 ; 6. 2. 

Tertius, an amanuensis for Paul, 
I Ro. 16. 22. 

Tertullus, an advocate employed to 
i accuse Paul. Ac. 24. 1-9. 

Testament. See COVENANT ; BI- 
BLE ; GOSPEL. 

Testimony. See TEN COMMAND- 
MENTS. 

TETRARCH. 

Text. See BIBLE. 

Thaddeus, Mat. 10. 3, Same as JU- 
DAS 4. 

Thahash, son of Nahor, Gen. 22. 24. 

Thamah, Ezra 2. 53. See Tamah. 

Thamar, Mat. 1. 3. Same as Ta- 
mar I. 

Thank-offering. See OFFERINGS. 

THANKSGIVING-DAY. 

Thara, father of Abraham, Lu. 3. 34. 
See TERAH. 

Tharshish, L 1 Ki. 10. 22; 22. 48. 
Elsewhere written TARSHISH. 
II. A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 7. 10. 

THEATRE. 

THEBES. 

Thebez, a to\yn not far from She- 
chem, Jiidg. 9. 50 ; 2 Sa. 11. 21. 

Theft. See ROBBERY. 

Theism. See DEISM. 

Thelasar, 2 Ki. 19. 12. See Telassar. 

THEODICY. 

THEOLOGY. 

Theopasclntes. See SECT. 

Theophilanthropists. See SECT. 

THEOPHILUS. 

Therapeutfe. See ESSENES. 

THESSALONIANS, EPISTLES 
TO THE. 

THESSALONICA. 

THEUDAS, 

Thieves, See CRUCIFIXION; 
ROBBERY. 



INDEX. 



1071 



Thimnathah, a Danite city, Josh. 
19. 43. 

Thirty-nine articles of the Church 
of England. See CREED. 

Thistle. See THORN. 

THOMAS. 

Thomists. See SECT. 

THORN. 

Thread. See FLAX. 

Three denomiucUions. See DIS- 
SENTERS. 

Three Taverns. See APPH FORUM. 

Threshing. See HARVEST. 

Throne: of kiiiirs, Gen. 41. 40; Ex. 
11. 5 ; 1 Ki. 2. 19 ; Jon. 3. G. Near 
the gate, 1 Ki. 22. 10 ; Est. 5. 1. Sol- 
omon's ivory throne, 1 Ki. 7. 7 ; 
10. 18-20 ; 2 Chr. 9. 17-19. Sitting 
on, signifies ruling and honor, 1 
Ki.1.13; Zee. 6. 13; Re. 20.4. Il- 
lustrative, 2 Chr. 19. IS ; Ps. 9. 47 ; 
Jer. 17. 12 ; Mat. 25. 31 ; Re. 3. 21. 
Symbolical, Eze. 1. 26; 10. 1 ; Re. 
4. 2-10; 20. 11. See CATHE- 
DRAL. 

THUGS. 

Thummim. See URIM. 

Thunder, Job 40. 9 ; Ps. 29. ; 46. 6 ; 
77.17,18; 104.7. Thunder-bolts, 
Ps. 78. 48. Miraculous, Ex. 9. 23- 
34; 19. 16 ; 1 Sa. 7. 10. Symbolic- 
al, Re. 4. 5 ; 10,3; 11.19. 

Thurible. See CENSER ; ORNA- 
MENTS. 

Thuriticate. See LAPSED CHRIS- 
TIANS. 

THYATIRA. 

THYINE-WOOD. 

TIARA. 

TIBERIAS. 

'JTBERIUS. 

Tibhath, a city of Zobah, 1 Chr. 
18. 8. 

Tibni, an unsuccessful aspirant to 
the throne of Israel, 1 Ki. 16. 21, 
22. See OMRI. 

Tidal, a prince. Gen. 14. 1-9. 

TIGLATH-PILESER. 

Tigris, a noted river of the East; 
the Hiddekel of Scripture. 

Tikvah, L Father of Shallum, 2 Ki. 
22. 14. Spelled Tikvath in 2 Chr. 
34. 22. II. Father of Jahaziah, 
Ezra 10. 15. 

Tikvath. Same as Tikvah I. 

Tile. See BRICK. 

Tilgath-pilueser, a variation of TIG- 
LATH-PILESER. 

Tillage. See AGRICULTURE. 

Tilon, a descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 
4.20. 

Timhiel. See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 

Timeus, father of blind Bartimeus, 
Mar. 10. 46. 

Timna, I. Concubine of Eliphaz, 
Gen. 36. 12, 20, 22 ; 1 Chr. 1. 39. 
n. Duke of Edom, Gen. 36. 40; 1 
Chr. 1. 51. Also called Timnah. 

Timnah, I. A town. Josh. 15. 10; 2 
Chr. 28. 18. IL A town in the 
mountains of Judah, Josh. 15. 57. 

Timnath, Timnathah, a city, Gen. 
38. 12, 13, 14 ; Judg. 14. 1, 2, 5. 

Timnath-heres, a city, Judg. 2. 9. 

Timnath -serah, a city in Mount 
Ephraim, Josh. 19. 50 ; 24. 30. 

Timnite, an inhabitant of Timnah, 
Judg. 15. 6. 

Timon, one of the seven oflScers of 
the early church, Ac. G. 5. 

Timotheus, the Greek name of Tim- 
othv, 1 Co. 4. 17 ; 16. 10. 

TIMOTHY. 

TIMOTHY, EPISTLES TO. 

TIN. 

Tiphsah, a city, 1 Ki. 4. 24 ; 2 Ki. 15. 
16. 

Tiras, a sou of Japheth, Gen. 10. 2 ; 
1 Chr. 1. 5. 

Tirathites, a family of scribes, 1 
Chr 2 55 

T^rps." SeeHEAD-DRESS ; ORNA- 
MENTS. 



TIRHAKA. 

Tirhanah, son of Caleb, 1 Chr. 2. 48. 

TIRSHATHA. 

TIRZAH, I. A city. Tirzah, II. A 
daughter of Zelophehad, Nu. 26. 
33 ; 27. 1 ; 36. 11 ; Josh. 17. 3. 

Tishbite, the desiirnation of the 
prophet Elijah. See ELIJAH. 

Tisri. See MONTH. 

TITHES. 

TITTLE. 

TITUS. 

TITUS, EPISTLE TO. 

Tizite, the designation of one of 
David's heroes, 1 Chr. 11. 45. 

Toah, a Levite, 1 Chr. 6. 34. 

TOB. 

Tob-adonijah, a Levite, 2 Chr. 17. S. 

TOBIAH, I. An Ammonite. Tobi- 
ah, II. One v^'hose descendants 
returned from the captivity with 
Zerubbabel, Ezra 2. 60 ; Neh. 7. 62. 

Tobi.jah, I. A Levite, 2 Chr. 17. 8. 
II. One to whom a crown was 
given, Zee. 6. 10, 14. 

TOBIT, THE BOOK OP. 

Tochen, a place, 1 Chr. 4. 32. 

Togarmah, a son of Gomer, Gen. 
10. 3 ; 1 Chr. 1. 6. 

Tohu, an ancestor of Samuel, 1 Sa. 
1.1. 

Toi, king of Hamath, 2 Sa. 8. 9, 10. 
Called Ton in 1 Chr. 18. 9, 10. 

Tola, I. A son of Issachar, Gen. 46. 
13 ; Nu. 26. 23 ; 1 Chr. 7. 1, 2. II. 
A judge of Issachar, Judg. 10. 
1,2. 

Tolad, a city of Simeon, 1 Chr. 4. 29. 
Same as Eltolad. 

Tolnites, descendants of Tola, Nu. 
26. 23. 

Tomb, Tombstone. See BURIAL. 

Tongue (see GIFT OF TONGUES), 
power of, Ps. 10. 7 ; 12. 4 ; 52. 1-4 ; 
57. 4 ; Pr. 18. 21 ; Jer. 9. 5 ; Ja. 3. 2 
-12. Control of, Ps. 31 . 20 ; 34. 13 ; 
Pr. 21. 23 ; 25. 15; Ja. 1. 26 ; 1 Pe. 
3.10. Evil of, Ps. 120. 2-7 ; Pr. 10. 
31 ; 25. 24 ; 26. 22. 

TONGUES, CONFUSION OF. 

TONSURE. 

TOPAZ. 

Tophel, name of a place, De. 1. 1. 

Tophet. See HELL. 

Torch. See LAMP. 

TORTOISE. 

Tou, 1 Chr. IS. 9, 10. Same as Toi. 
A king of Hamaih. 

Tower of Babel. See BABEL. 

Town. See CITIES. 

TOWN CLERK. 

Trachouitis, Lu. 3. 1, a region called 
Argob in the O. T. 

Tractarian controversy. See EPIS- 
COPALIANS. 

Tractarians. See PUSEYITES. 

Trade. See COMMERCE. 

TRADITION. See TALMUD. 

Tradi tores. See LAPSED CHRIS- 
TIANS. 

Traducianism. See CREATION- 
ISM. 

TRANCE. 

Transept. See CHURCH EDI- 
FICES. 

Transfiguration of Christ, Mat. 17. 
1-8 ; iVIar. 9. 2-8 ; Lu. 9. 28-36 ; 2 
Pe. 1. 17, 18. 

Trans- Jordanic region. See PE- 
REA. 

Transmigration of souls. See FU- 
TURE STATE. 

TRANSUBSTANTIATION. 

Trap. See HUNTING. 

Treasure cities, Ex. 1. 11. See RA- 
MESES; PITHOM. 

Treasury, Lu. 21. 1; Jno. 8. 20, etc. 
See TEMPLE. 

TREE OF LIFE. 

OF KNOWLEDGE OF 

GOOD AND EVIL. 

Trees. See PLANTS. 

Trent, Council of. See ECUMEN- 
ICAL COUNCIL 21. 



Trespass -offering. See SIN-OF- 
FERING. 

Triad of Hindoos, a threefold god. 
See BRAHMA; BRAHMANISM; 
SIVA; VISHNU. 

TRIAL. 

Tribe. See JEW 1 ; and for various 
tribes, under their respective ti- 
tles. 

TRIBUTE. 

Tridentine Catechism. See CATE- 
CHISM 7. 

Triformians. See SECT. 

TRINITARIANS. 

Trinity. See TRINITARIANS ; 
GOD. 

Tritheists. See TRINITARIANS. 

TROAS. 

TROGYLLIUM. 

TROPHIMUS. 

Trumpet. See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 

Trumpets, Feast of the. See MOON ; 
NEW YEAR, FEAST OF THE. 

Trust: the only object worthy of, 
Ps. 52. 8; 71. 5; 144. 2 ; Is. 12. 2; 
Mat. 12. 21 ; 2 Co. J. 9 ; Eph. 1. 12, 
13; 1 Tim. 4. 10. Motives to, 2 
Sa. 22. 31 ; Ps. 32. 10 ; 34. 8 ; 125. 1 ; 
Pr. 28. 25 ; 29. 25 ; Is. 26. 3 ; 50. 10 ; 
Da. 3. 28. Folly of, in anv thing 
but God, Job 31. 24-28; Ps. 49. 6, 
7 ; 52. 7 ; G2. 10 ; 146. 3 ; Is. 30. 1- 
3 ; 31. 1 ; Jer. 17. 5 ; Mar. 10. 24 ; 1 
Tim. 6. 17. 

Truth, the, Jno. 14. 6 ; 17. 19 ; IS. 37 ; 
2 Co. 4. 2 ; Gal. 3. 1 ; Eph. 4. 21 ; 
Ja. 5. 9; — or sincerity, Josh. 24. 
14; 1 Sa. 12. 24; Ps. lH. 2; 51. 6; 
Pr. 3. 3 ; 8. 7 ; 12. 17, 19 ; 1 Co. 5. 8 ; 
Eph. 4. 25;— or faithfnlness, Gen. 
24. 27 ; Ps. 58. 10 ; 90. 4 ; 93. 3. 

T r y ]) h e n a, a Christian woman at 
Rome, Ro. 16. 12. 

T r y p h o s a, a Christian woman at 
Rome, Ro. 16. 12. 

TSABIANS. 

TUBAL. 

TUBAL-CAIN. 

TUBINGEN SCHOOL. 

Tumuli. See BURIAL. 

Turtle. Turtle-dove. See DOVE. 

TYCHICUS. 

Types of Christ. Persons, before 
the law : Adam, Gen. 1. 2G ; Ro. 5. 
14; 1 Co. 15. 45 ;— Abel, coinp. Gen. 
4. 8, 10 with Ac. 2. 23 ; He. 12. 24; 
— Melchizedec, Gen. 14. 18-20 with 
He. 7. 1-17 ;— Abraham, Gen. 17. 5 
with Eph. 3. 14, 15;— Isaac, Gen. 
22. 1-14 with He. 11. 17 - 19 ; — Jo- 
seph, Gen. 50. 19, 20 with He. 7. 25 ; 
Ps. 106. 17-22 with Phi. 2. 6-11, etc. 
Persons, under the law; Moses, 
comp. Ex. 32. 11-13, 30-32 with Ro. 
8. 34 and 1 Pe. 2. 24 ; Nu. 12. 7 with 
He. 3. 2 ; Da. 18. 15 with Ac. 3. 20- 
22 ;— Joshua, Josh. 1. 5, 6 with He. 
4. 8, 9 ; Josh. 11. 23 with Ac. 20. 32 ; 
—Samson, Judg. 16. 30 with Col. 2. 
14,15 ;_David, 2 Sa. 8. 15 with Eze. 
87. 24 ; Ps. 89. 19, 20 with Phi. 2. 9, 
etc. ;— Solomcm, 2 Sa. 7. 12, 13 with 
Lu. 1. 32, 33 ; — Jonah. Jon. 1. 17 
with Mat. 12. 40 ; — Zerubbabel, 
Zee. 4. 7-9 with He. 12. 2, 3. Or- 
ders of Persons : first-born, comp. 
Ex. 13. 2 with Ro. 8. 29 ; — Naza- 
rites, Nu. 6.; He. 7.26;— prophets, 
Lu. 24. 19 ; Jno. 7. 40 ; — priests, 
He. 4. 14, etc. ; — kings. Mat. 2. 2 ; 
21. 5 ; 1 Tim. 6. 15 ; Re. 17. 14. 
Things : Jacob's ladder, comp. 
Gen. 28. 12 with Jno. 1. 51 ;— man- 
na, Jno. 6. 32, 33, 48-51 ;— the rock, 

1 Co. 10. 4 ; — the brazen serpent, 
Jno. 3. 14, 15 ;— the vail, Ex. 40. 21 ; 

2 Chr. 3. 14 Avith He. 10. 20. Ac- 
tions : deliverance out of Egypt, 
Gal. 1. 4; passage over the Jor- 
dan, comp. Josh. 3. 4 with Ps. 16.9- 
11; He. 2. 14, 15; — entrance into 
Canaan, He. 4. Rites: circumci-- 
ion, Col. 2. 11, 12 ;— sacrifices, He. 



1072 



INDEX. 



9. 12-14,19-26;— first-fruits, Le. 23. 
10-12; Jno. 20.1,17; 1 Co. 15. 20 ; 
— purifications, coinp. Le. 16. 30 
with Jno. 15. 3 ; — baptism, Ro. 6. 
3-6 : 1 Pe. 3. 21 ;— the Sabbath, He. 
4. 3. Places: cities of refuge, 
corap. Nu. 35. 6 with He. 6. IS;— 
tabernacle, Ex. 40. 2, 24 with Col. 
2. 9 ; He. 8. ; 9. ;— Temple, Jno, 2. 
19-21 ; Eph. 2. 20-22. Types of 
the Church : Eve, comp. Gen, 2. 23 
with Eph, 5. 30-32 and 2 Co, 11. 2, 
3 ; _ Eebekah, Gen. 24 with Mat. 
10, 37 ;— Isaac, Geu. 21. 10-12 with 
Gal. 4. 22-31 ;— the priesthood, Le, 
8 with 1 Pe. 2. 9 and Re. 1. 6 ;— two 
wave loaves, Le, 23. 1.V17 with Ac, 
2. 1, 41 ;— Jerusalem, Is. 62, 4 with 
Gal. 4. 26, 27 ; Re. 21. 9, 10. 

TYPES, TYPOLOGY. 

Tyrannns, a person at Ephesus in 
whose school Paul disputed, Ac, 
19.9, 

TYRE. 

Tyrus. Same as TY'RE. 



U. 



Ubiquitarians. See SECT. 

Ucal, a person to whom Agur ad- 
dressed his maxims, Pr. 30. 1. 

Uel, one who had a foreign wife, 
Ezra 10. 34. 

ULAI. 

Ulam, I, A descendant of Manasseh, 
1 Chr. 7. 16, 17. IL A Benjamite, 
1 Chr. S, 39, 40. 

Ulla, a chieftain of Asher, 1 Chr, 7. 
39. 

Ultramontanes, See ROMAN 
CATHOLIC CHURCH, 

Uramah, a city of Asher, Josh. 19. 
30. 

Unbelief. See INFIDELITY ; RA- 
TIONALISM. 

UNCLEANNESS. 

Unction. See EXTREME UNC- 
TION. 

Undergirdiug. See SHIP. 

UNICORN. 

UNIFORMITY, ACT OF. 

UNION CHURCHES. 

UNITARIANS. 

United Brethren, See MORAVI- 
ANS, 

United Greek Church, See GREEK 
CHURCH. 

United Methodist Fi-ee Churches, 
See METHODISTS. 

United Society of Believers. See 
SHAKERS, 

Universal Friends. See SECT. 

UNIVERSALISTS. 

Unleavened Bread, Feast of. See 
PASSOVER. 

Unni, I. A Levite, 1 Chr, 15, IS, 20, 
IL A Levite, Neh, 12. 9. 

Unpardonable sin. See BLASPHE- 
MY. 

Upharsin, Da. 5. £5, See Mene, 

Uphaz, a place, Jer, 10, 9 ; Da. 10. 5, 
Same as OPHIR. 

UR, a place, Ur, IL Father of one 
of David's heroes, 1 Chr. 11, 35. 

Urbane, a Christian at Rome, Ro. 
16,9. 

Uri, L Father of Bezaleel, Ex. 31. 2 ; 
35. 30 ; 3S. 22 ; 1 Chr, 2. 20 ; 2 Chr. 
1, 5. II. Father of one of Solo- 
mon's commissariat officers, 1 Ki. 
4. 19. III. A Levite who had a for- 
eign wife, Ezra 10. 24. 

URIAH, I. Commander under Da- 
vid. IL A high-priest. Uriah, III. 
The head ot a course of priests, 
Ezra 8. 33. Called Urijah in Neh, 
3, 4, 21, 

Urias, Mat.l. 6. Same as URIAH I. 

Uriel, I. A Levite, 1 Chr. 6. 24. II. A 
chief of the Kohathites, 1 Chr. 15. 
5, 11. III. Father of Michniah, 
'-ife of Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 13. 2. 



URIJAH, I. A prophet. Urijah, II. 
A high-priest, 2 Ki. 16. 10. Same 
as URIAH II. III. Father of Mer- 
emoth, Neh. 3. 4, 21. Same as 
URIAH III, IV, A priest and as- 
sistant of Ezra, Neh. 8. 4, 

URIM AND THUMMIM. 

Ursuliues, an order of Nuns. 

Ustriuuin. See FUNERAL RITES, 

Usury. See LOAN. 

UTENSILS. 

Uthai, I. S(m of Ammihud, 1 Chr. 
9. 4. II, Son of Bigvai, Ezra 8, 
14. 

Utilitarianism. See MORAL SCI- 
ENCE, 

Uz, L A place — land of JOB, IL 
Son of Aram, Gen. 10. 23 ; 1 Chr, 
1, 17. III. A descendant of Seir, 
Gen, 36. 28 : 1 Chr. 1, 42. 

Uzai, father of Palal, Neh, 3. 25. 

UZAL. 

Uzza, I. A son of Abinidab. 1 Chr, 
13. 7. Same as UZZAH. II. An- 
cestor of certain NETHINIM, 
Ezra 2. 49. III. A Benjamite, 1 
Chr. 8. 7. IV. A Levite, 1 Chr. 6. 
29. V. Garden of, 2 Ki. 21. 18, 26. 
See MANASSEH, 

UZZAH. 

Uzzen-sherah, a town, 1 Chr, 7. 24. 

Uzzi, I. A priest, 1 Chr. 6. 5, 6, 51 ; 
Ezra 7. 4. IL A descendant of Is- 
sachar, 1 Chr. 7. 2, 3. III. Son of 
Bela, 1 Chr. 7. 7. IV. A Benjamite, 
1 Chr. 9. 8, V, An overseer of the 
Levites, Neh, 11, 22. VI, A priest, 
Neh. 12. 19, 42. 

Uzzia, one of David's warriors, 1 
Chr, 11. 44, 

UZZIAH. 

Uzziel, I. Son of Kohath, Ex. 6. 18 ; 
Le. 5. 4 ; Nu. 3, 19, 30 ; 1 Chr, 6. 2, 
18. II, A Simeonite captain, 1 Chr. 
4. 42. in. Son of Bela, 1 Chr. 7. 7. 
IV. Son of lleman, 1 Chr. 25, 4. V. 
A Levite, 2 Chr. 29, 14, VI. Son of 
Harhaiah, Neh, 3. S. 

Uzzielites, descendants of Uzziel, 
Nu, 3, 27 ; 1 Chr, 26. 23. 



V. 



Vajezatha, son of Haman, Est, 9, 
9, 

Valentinians. See GNOSTICS. 

VALE, VALLEY, See BACA ; JE- 
HOSHAPHAT, 

Vaniah, son of Bani, Ezra 10, 36. 

Vashni, a corruption for Joel, comp, 
1 Chr. 6. 28; lSa,8.2. 

VASHTI. 

Vatican Manuscript. See MANU- 
SCRIPTS. 

Vatican, Council of. See ECU- 
MENICAL COUNCIL 22, 

Vaudois, See WALDENSES, 

Vault. See BURIAL. 

Vedas, sacred books of the Hin- 
doos. See BRAHMANISM. 

VEIL. 

Veil, taking of the. See NUN. 

Veil of the tabernacle. See TAB- 
ERNACLE: TEMPLE, 

Venial sins. See SIN, 

VERGER, 

Vermilion, See COLORS. 

Verschoorists, See SECT. 

VERSIONS. 

Vespers. See CANONICAL 
HOURS, 

VESTMENTS (ECCLESIASTIC- 
AL). 

VESTRY. 

Vials: fall of odors, Re, 5.8. The 
seven vials of God's wrath. Re. 
15. 7 ;— poured out, Re. 16. 

VIATICUM. 

VICAR. 

VICARIOUS. 

Vienna, Council of. See ECUMEN- 
ICAL COUNCIL 15. 



Vigils. See EVES, 

VILLAGES, 

Vinava, Sacred writings of. See 
BUDDHISM. 

VINE, VINEYARD, VINTAGE. 

Vine-dresser. See VINE. 

Vine of Sodom, Prob, the Osher of 
the Arabs, See APPLE OF SOD- 
OM. 

VINEGAR. 

Viol. See MUSICAL INSTRU- 
MENTS. 

Violet. See COLORS. 

Viper. See SERPENT. 

Virgin : laws concerning, Ex. 22. 16, 
17 ; Le. 21. 3, 14 ; De. 22. 23, 28 ; 1 
Co. 7. 25, 28, 34. Prophecy con- 
cerning. Is. 7. 14. 

Virgin Mary, See IMMACULATE 
CONCEPTION ; MADONNA ; 
MARIOLATRY ; MARY I, 

VISHNU. 

Vision. See PROPHETS; TRANCE. 

Visions: of God, Ex. 24. 10: 1 Ki. 
22. 19 ; Is. 6. 1 ; Da, 7. 9, 10 ; Ac. 7. 
55, 56; Re. 4. Under different 
symbols : baskets of figs, Jer. 24. ; 
— burning bush, Ex. 3. 2-6 ; Ac, 
7. 30-32; — candlestick, Zee. 4. 1, 
2; Re, 2, 1-5; — carpenters. Zee. 

I, 20 ;— chariots. Zee, 6. 1 ;— cher- 
ubim, Geu. 3. 24; Eze. 1. 4; 10.; 

II. 22 ; Re. 4. ;— dry bones, Eze. 
37. 1-10;— ephah. Zee. 5. 6;— frogs, 
Re. 16. 13; — horns. Zee. 1. IS ;— 
horses, Zee. 1, 8; Re. 6, ; — kiue, 
Gen. 41. 2-4; — leopard. Da. 7, 6; 
Re. 13. 2; — olive-tree, Zee, 4, ;— 
ram. Da, 8. ;— seraphim, Is, 6, 1- 
4; — sealed book. Re. 5. ;— trump- 
ets, Re. 8, 6;— vials. Re, 15, ; 16. ; 
17.; 18, ; — waters, Eze, 47. 1-12; 
Zee, 14. S; Re. 7. 17; 22. 1, 17;— 
wheels, Eze. 1. 15-21 ; 10. 10-22 ;— 
whore. Re. 17.; — witnesses. Re. 
11. 3-14 ;— woes. Re. 8. 13 ;— wom- 
an. Re. 12. To Abraham, Gen. 

15. 1, 17;— Jacob, Gen. 46. 2 ;— 
Samuel, 1 Sa. 3, 2-15 ;— Nathan, 2 
Sa. 7, 4-17;— Ezekiel, Eze. 1. ; 8, ; 
10. ; 11. 22-25; 37. 1-10; 40. ; 48. ; 
— Nebuchadnezzar, Da. 2. 2S ; 4. 
5 ;— Daniel, Da. 2. 19 ; 7. ; 8. ; 10, ; 
— /.mos. Am, 7, 1-9 ; 8. 1-6 ; 9. 1 ; 
— Zechariah, Zee. 1. 8; 3, 1 ; 4. 2 ; 
5. 2; 6. 1;-Paul, Ac. 9, 3, 6, 12; 

16. 9 ; 18. 9 ; 22. IS ; 27, 23 ; 2 Co, 
12, 1-4 ;— Ananias, Ac. 9. 10, 11 ;— 
Cornelius, Ac. 10. 3;— Peter, Ac, 
10, 9-17 ;— John, Re. 1. 12, etc. ; 4 ; 
22, 

VISITATION, 

Voice of God: in Eden, Gen, 3. 8, 

10; — on Mount Moriah, Gen, 22. 

11 ;— at Sinai, Ex. 19. 19 ; 20, ; De. 

4. 12, 33, 36; 5. 22-26;— from the 
mercy-seat, Nu, 7. 89 ;— to Samu- 
el, 1 Sa. 3. 4-10;— to Elijah, 1 Ki. 
19. 12, 13 ;— to Job, Job 3S. 1, etc, ; 
—to Isaiah, Is. 6, 8;— to Ezekiel, 
Eze. 1. 24, 25, 28 ; 9. 1 ; 43. 2 ;— to 
Nebuchadnezzar, Da. 4. 31; — to 
Daniel, Da, 8. 16; 10, 9;— at the 
baptism of Jesus, Mat. 3. 17 ; Mar. 
1, 10 ; Lu, 3, 22 ;— at the transfigu- 
ration, Mat. 17. 5; Mar. 9. 7; Lu. 
9. 35 : 2 Pe. 1, 18 ;— in the Temple, 
Jno, 12. 28. 

Vophsi, father of the Naphtalite 

spy, Nn. 13, 14, 
VOW: rules concerning, Le. 27.; 

Nu, 30. ; De. 23. 21-23 ;'' Ps. 50. 14 ; 

56.12; 66.13; 76.11; 116.18; Ec, 

5. 4. Instances of. Gen. 28. 20-22 ; 
31. 13 (Jacob) ;-Nu. 21. 2 (Israel- 
ites) ;— Judg. 11. 30, 31 (Jcphthah) -. 
—1 Sa. 1, 11 (Hannah) ;— Ps. 132. 2 
-5 (David) ;— Jer. 35. 6, etc. (Jona- 
dab, the son of Rechab) ; — Jon. 1. 
16 (Jonah) ;— Ac. 18. IS (Paul) ;— 
Ac. 21. 23-26 (certain Jews). 

VULGATE. 

Vulture. See KITE ; EAGLE. 



INDEX. 



1073 



W. 

Wady. See RIVER ; VALE. 

WAFERS. See MASS. 

Wao'es: of laborers not to be de- 
tained, Le. 19. 13 ; De. 24. 15; Ja. 
5. 4. Of sin is death, Ro. 6. 23, 

Wagon. See CART. 

Wail, Wailing, Wailiug-place of the 
Jews. See MOURNING. 

Wake. See MOURNING. 

WALDENSES. 

Walls. See CITIES ; GATE. 

Wandering. See WILDERNESS 
OF THE WANDERING. 

WAR: Jewish laws couceroiug, De. 
20. ; 23. 9 ; 24. 5. Ordered by God, 
Ex. IT. 16 ; Nu. 31. 1, 2 ; De. 7. 1, 
2; 1 Sa. 15. 1-3. As a judgment, 
Le. 26. 25; Judg. 3. S, 12; 4. 2 ; 6. 
1 ; 10. 7 ; 2 Chr. 16. 9 ; Jer. 5. 15 ; 
Eze. 14. IT. The original cause 
of, Ja. 4. 1. 

Ward, a prison, GeUi 40. 3, 4 ; some- 
times a watch station. Is. 21. S ; or 
the guards themselves, Neh. 13. 30. 

Wars of the Lord. See BOOK. 

WASHING: a ceremonial rite, Ex. 
29. 4 ; Le. 6. 27 ; 13. 54 ; 14. 8, 9 ; 
17. 16 ; De. 21. 6 ; 2 Chr. 4. 6. Su- 
perstitious practice of. Mar. 7. 3 ; 
Lu. 11. 38. The feet, Lu. 7. 38; 
Jno. 13. 5-14; 1 Tim. 5. 10. 

Washingtonians. See TEMPER- 
ANCE SOCIETIES. 

WATCHES OF NIGHT. 

Watchfulness, Mat. 24. 42 ; 25. 13 ; 
Mar. 13. 37 ; Lu. 12. 39, 40 ; 21. 86 ; 
1 Th. 5. 6 ; 1 Pe. 5. 8 ; Re. 3. 2 ; 16. 
15. 

Water. See IRRIGATION ; WASH- 
ING ; WELL, etc. 

Waterlanders. See SECT. 

Wave - offering. See PEACE-OF- 
FERING. 

WAY. 

Weapon. See ARMS. 

WEASEL. 

Weaving. See HANDICRAFT. 

Wedding, Wedding ceremonies. See 
MARRIAGE. 

Wedding garment. See BANQUET. 

WEEK. 

Weeks, Feast of. See PENTE- 
COST. 

WEIGHTS, required to be just, Le. 
19. 35 ; De. 25. 15 ; Pr. 11. 1 ; 16. 
11 ; 20. 10, 23 ; Eze. 45. 10 ; Mi. 6. 
10. 

WELL. 

Welsh Calvinistic Methodists. See 
METHODISTS. 

Wesley, John. See METHODISTS. 

Weslevan Reform Union. See 
METHODISTS. 

Wesleyans. See METHODISTS. 

Westminster Assembly's Catechism. 
See CATECHISM 5. 

Westminster Assembly's Confession 
of Faith. See CREED. 

WHALE. 

WHEAT. 

Wheel. See CART. 

Whip, 1 Ki. 12. 11. See PUNISH- 
MENTS ; SCOURGINGS. 

Whirlwind. See WINDS. 1 Ki. 19. 
11-13 ; 2 Ki. 2. 1, 11 ; Job 38. 1 ; 40. 
6 ; Pr. 1. 2T ; Jer. 25. 32 ; Eze. 1. 
4; Am. 1.14. 

White. See COLORS. 

Whitsunday. See PENTECOST. 

Whitsun - farthings. See PENTE- 
COSTALS 

Whitsuntide! See PENTECOST. 

Whore. Same as HARLOT. 

Wife. See MARRIAGE. 

Wild boar. See SWINE. 

Wild bull. See CATTLE. 

Wilderness. See DESERT. 

WILDERNESS OF THE WAN- 
DERING. 

Wild goat. See GOAT. 

WILL, FREEDOM OF. 

Will, testamentary, Gen. 49. 1 ; 1 Ki. 
68 



2. 1 ; He. 9. 16, IT. See INHERIT- 
ANCE. 
Wilhelminians. See SECT. 
WILLOWS. 
Wimple, a woman's shawl, Is. 3. 22. 

See DRESS. 
WINDOW. 
WINDS. 
WINE. 

Wine-press. See VINE. 
Winebrenuerians. See CHURCH 

OP GOD. 
Winnowing. See HARVEST. 
Winter. See SEASON. 
Wisdom: of God, Job 36. 4, 5; Ps. 

139. 6 ; Is. 40. 13-28 ; Jer. 10. T ; 

Ro. 11. 33. Manifestations of. Job 

38. ; 39. ; 40. ; 41. ; Ps. 104. 24 ; 

136. 5 ; Pr. 3. 19 ; Jer. 10. 12 ; 32. 

19 ; 1 Co. 1. 24 ; Eph. 1. 6-8 ; 3. 10. 

Personitication of, Pr. 1. 20-33; 

8. ; 9. ; Lu. T. 35 ; 1 Co. 1. 30. The 

true, De. 4. 6 ; Job 28. 12-28 ; Ps. 

111.10; Pr.9. 10; 28.7; Ec. 2. 13 ; 

7. 19 ; 9. 13 ; Jer. 9. 24 ; Mat. 7. 24 ; 

Ja. 3. 13, 17. 
Wisdom of Jesus the Son of Sirach, 

book of. See ECCLESIASTICUS. 
WISDOM OP SOLOMON, THE 

BOOK OP (1). 
Wise men. See MAGI. 
Witch. See DIVINATION; WITCH 

OP ENDOR; WITCHCRAFT. 
WITCHCRAFT. 
WITCH OP ENDOR. 
Withered hand. See MEDICINE. 
Witness. See TRIAL ; OATH. 
Wizard. See WITCHCRAFT; 

DIVINATION. 
WOLF. 
Woman : created. Gen. 1. 27 ; 2. 21- 

23. Deceived, Gen. 3. 1-6 ; 2 Co. 

11. 3 ; 1 Tim. 2. 14. Punishment 

of, Gen. 8. 16. Promise to. Gen. 

3. 15 ; Is. 7. 14 ; 1 Tim. 2. 15. Po- 
sition of. Gen. 3. 16; 1 Co. 11. 3; 

14. 84, 85 ; 1 Tim. 2. 11, 12 ; 5. 14 ; 

Ti. 2. 3-5; 1 Pe. 3. 1-6. Virtuous, 

Pr. 31. 10-31 ; Lu. 10. 39, 42 ; Ro. 

16. 1, 6, 12. Wicked, Pr. 6. 24-28 ; 

7. ; Ec. 7. 26. Directions for her 

dress, 1 Tim. 2. 9; lPe.3. 3. 
Wood. See FOREST. 
WOOL. 
Woolen and liuen, garment of. See 

WOOL. 
Words of the covenant. See TEN 

COMMANDMENTS. 
WORD OF GOD. 
Works, good, necessarily the fruit 

of faith. Mat. 5. ; 2 Co. 9. 8 ; Eph. 

2. 10 ; Col. 1. 10 ; 1 Tim. 2. 10 ; 2 

Tim. 2. 21 ; 3. 17 ; Ti. 2. 14 ; 3. 8, 

14; He. 13. 16, 21; Ja. 2. 14-26; 3. 

13. 
WORM. 
WORMWOOD. 
WORSHIP, due to God only, Ex. 

20. 1-6 ; De. 5. 7-10 ; 6, 13, 14 ; Mat. 

4. 10 ; Lu. 4. 8 ; Ac. 10. 25, 26 ; 14. 

13-18 ; Col. 2. 18 ; Rev. 19. 10 ; 22. 

8, 9. Paid to the Lord Jesus, Ac. 

7. 59 ; 9. 14 ; 1 Co. 1. 2 ; 2 Co. 12. 8 

(see ver. 9). By angels, Is. 6. 8 

(see John 12. 41) ; He. 1. 6. In 

heaven, Re. 5. 8, 9, 10. 
WRITING. 

Wrestling. See GAMES. 
Wycliffe. See LOLLARDS. 

Y. 

Yarn, 1 Ki. 10. 28. See LINEN. 
YEAR. 

Yellow. See COLORS. 
YOKE. 

YOUNG MEN'S CHRISTIAN AS- 
SOCIATION. 
Yule, name for CHRISTMAS. 



Zaanaim, a plain, Judg. 4. 11. Same 
as Zaauauuim. 



Zaanan, a place. Mi. 1. 11. Perhaps 

same as Zenan, Josh. 15. 87. 
Zaauannim, a plain on the border 

of Naphtali, Josh. 19. 38. Same as 

Zaanaim, Judg. 4. 11. 
Zaavan, a Horite, Gen. 36. 27. Same 

as Zavan. 
Zabad, I. A descendant of Judah, 

and one of David's mighty men, 

1 Chr. 2. 86, 37 ; 11. 41. II. An 
Ephraimite, 1 Chr. 7. 21. III. One 
who murdered King Joash, 2 Chr. 
24. 26. Same as Jozachar, 2 Ki. 
12. 21. IV., v., VI. Tiiree who had 
foreign wives, Ezra 10. 27, 33, 43. 

Zabbal, I. Son of Bebai, Ezra 10. 28. 
II. Father of Baruch, Neh. 3. 20. 

Zabbud, son of Bigvai, Ezra 8. 14. 

Zabdi, I. A descendant of Judah, 
Josh. 7. 1, 17, 18. Perhaps same 
as Zimri in 1 Chr. 2. 6. II. A Ben- 
jamite, 1 Chr. 8. 19. III. Superin- 
tendent of David's vineyards, 1 
Chr. 27. 27. IV. A Levite, Neh. 11. 

17. Perhaps same as Zaccur 3, 
and Zichri 5. 

Zabdiel, I. Father of one of David's 
officers, 1 Chr. 27. 2. II. An over- 
seer of the priests, Neh. 11. 14. 

Zabud, an officer of Solomon, 1 Ki. 
4. 5. Perhaps same as Zabad I. 

Zabulon, Mat. 4. 13, 15 ; Re. 7. 8. A 
Greek form of Zebulun. 

Zaccai, sons of, Ezra 2. 9 ; Neh, 7. 
14. 

ZACCHEUS. 

Zaccbur, a Simeonite, 1 Chr. 4. 26. 

Zaccur, I. Father of the Reubenite 
spy, Nu. 13. 4. II. A Merarite Le- 
vite, 1 Chr. 24. 27. HI. Son of 
Asaph, 1 Chr. 25. 2; Neh. 12. 35. 
IV. Son of Imri, Neh. 8. 2. V. Son 
of Mattauiah, Neh. 13. 18. VL An 
associate of Nehemiah, Neh. 10. 
12. 

ZACHARIAH, L King of Israel. 
Zachariah, II. Father of Abi, 2Ki. 

18. 2. Also called Zechariah, 2 
Chr. 29. 1. 

ZACHARIAS, I. A prophet. Zacha- 
rias, II. Father of John the Bap- 
tist. 

Zacher, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 31. 
Also called Zechariah, 1 Chr. 9. 
37. 

ZADOK, I. A high-priest. Zadok, 

II. Father of Jerusha, 2 Ki. 15. 33. 

III. A priest, 1 Chr. 6. 12. Per- 
haps same as I. IV., V. Two who 
helped repair the wall of Jerusa- 
lem, Neh. 3. 4, 29. VI. A scribe, 
Neh. 13. 13. 

Zaham, a son of Rehoboam, 2 Chr. 

11.19. 
Zair, a place, 2 Ki. 8. 21. 
Zalaph, father of Hannu, Neh. 3. 80. 
Zalmon, I. One of David's warriors, 

2 Sa. 23. 28. Called Ilai in 1 Chr. 
11. 29. II. A hill near Shechem, 
Judg. 9. 48. 

Zalmonah, a station of the Israel- 
ites, Nu. 33. 41,42. 
ZALMUNNA. 
Zamzummim, De. 2. 20. Same as 

ZUZIMS. SeeREPHAIM. 
Zauoah, I., II. Two towns in Judah, 

Josh. 15. 34, 56; Neh. 8. 3; 11. 80. 

in. Son of Jekuthiel, 1 Chr. 4. 18. 

Prob. a descendant of PHARAOH 

5. 
ZAPHNATH-PAANEAH. 
Zaphou, a city of Gad, Josh. 13. 27. 
Zara, Mat. 1. 3, an ancestor of our 

Lord. Same as Zarah. 
Zarah, a son of Judah, Gen. 38. 30 ; 

40. 12. Also called Zerah, Nu. 26. 

20 ; Josh. 7. 1, 18, 24. 
Znreah,Neh. 11. 29. Same as ZO- 

RAH and ZOREAH. 
Zareathitcs, inhabitants of Zareah 

or Zorah, 1 Chr. 2. 53. 
Zared, a stream, Nu. 21. 12. Same 

as Zered. 
ZAREFHATH. 



1074 



INDEX. 



Zaretan, a city, Josh. 3. 16. Same 
as ZARTHAN. 

Zareth - shahar, a city allotted to 
Reuben, Josh. 13. 19, Not identi- 
fied. 

Zarhites, a family of Judah, Nu. 26. 
20 ; Josh. T. IT ; 1 Chr. 27. 11, 13. 

Zartanah, a place, 1 Ki. 4. 12. Pos- 
sibly same as ZARTHAN. 

ZARTHAN. 

Zatthu, associate with Nehemiah, 
Neh. 10. 14. 

Zattu, children of, Ezra 2. 8 ; Neh. 
7.13. 

Zavau, one of the descendants of 
Seir, 1 Chr. 1. 42. Same as Zaavau. 

Zaza, a descendant of Judah, 1 Chr. 
2.33. 

Zeal : godly, Nu. 25. 11 ; 2 Chr. 31. 
21 ; Ec. 9. 10 ; Gal. 4. 18 ; Ju. 3. ; 
Re. 3. 19. Improper, Mat. 10. 35 ; 
Lu. 9. 55 ; 21. 16 ; Jno. 16. 2 ; Ro. 
10.2; Phi. 3. 6. 

ZEALOTS. 

Zebadiah, L,n.,III. Three Benja- 
mites, 1 Chr. 8. 15, 17 ; 12. 7. IV., 
V. Two Levites, 1 Chr. 26. 2 ; 2 Chr. 
17. 8. VI. Son of Asahel, 1 Chr. 27. 
7. Vn. A ruler of the house of 
Judah, 2 Chr. 19. 11. VIII. One 
who joined Ezra on his way to 
Jerusa]era,Ezra8. 8. IX. A priest, 
Ezra 10. 20. 

Zebah, a king of Midian, Judg. 8. 5- 
21 ; Ps. 83. 11. See ZALMUNNA. 

Zebaim, children of, Ezra 2. 57 ; Neh. 

7. 59. See Pochereth. 
Zebedee, father of JAMES I., Mat. 

4. 21, etc. 

Zebina, son of Nebo, Ezra 10. 43. 

Zeboiim, Gen. 14. 2, 8, a form of Ze- 
boira. 

Zeboim, I. One of the five CITIES 
OP THE PLAIN, Gen. 10. 19. II. 
A ravine, 1 Sa. 13, 18. See MICH- 
MASH. IIL A town, site un- 
known, Ne'h. 11. 34. 

Zebudah, mother of Jehoiakim, 2 
Ki. -23. 36. 

Zebul, governor of Shechem, Judg. 
9. 28-41. 

Zebuloiute, a descendant of Zebu- 
Ion, Judg. 12. 11, 12. Same as 
Zebuluuite. 

ZEBULUN. 

Zebulunites, descendants of Zebu- 
luii, Nu. 26. 27. 

ZECHARIAH, I. A prophet. Zech- 
ariah, 11. A Reubenite, 1 Chr. 5. 7. 
IIL A Kohathite, 1 Chr. 24. 25. IV. 
A Merarite, 1 Chr. 26. 11. V. A 
Manassite, 1 Chr. 27. 21. VI. A 
descendautof Asaph, 2Chr. 20. 14. 
V.L A priest, Neh. 12. 35, 41. VIIL 
Graudfatherof Hezekiah, 2Chr.29. 
1. Same as Zachariah, 2 Ki. 18. 2. 
IX. Son of the high-priest Jehoi- 
ada, 2 Chr. 24. 20. Same as Zacha- 
rias I. X. A son of King Jehosh- 
aphat, 2 Chr. 21. 2. XL A witness 
for Isaiah, Is. 8. 1, 2. Several oth- 
ers of this name are also mention- 
ed, 1 Chr. 9. 21, 37 ; 15. 18, 24 ; 26. 
11 ; 2 Chr. 17. 7 ; 26. 5; 29. 13 ; 34. 
12 ; Ezra 8. 3, 11, 16 ; 10. 26 ; Neh. 

8. 4 ; 11. 4, 5, 12 ; 12. 16, 35, 41. 
Zedad, a place, Nu. 34. 8; Eze. 47. 

15. 

ZEDEKIAH, L Last king of Judah. 
Zedekiah, II. Son of Josiah, 2 Ki. 
24. 17 ; Jer. 37. 1. III. A false proph- 
et put to death by Nebuchadnez- 
zar, Jer. 29. 21, 22. IV, A prince, 
Jer. 36. 12, 

Zeeb, I. A prince of Midian, Judg. 7. 
25: 8. 3. II. A wine-press, Judg. 
7.25, 

Zelah, a town, Josh. 18. 28 ; 2 Sa. 21. 
14. 

Zelek, an Ammonite, 2 Sa. 23. 37 ; 1 
Chr. 11.39. 

Zelophehad, a descendant of Ma- 



nasseh, Nu. 26. 33; 27. 1, 7; Josh, 

17. 3 ; 1 Chr. 7. 15. 
Zelotes, a surname of SIMON, Lu. 6. 

15. 
Zelzah, a place, 1 Sa. 10. 2. 
Zeinaraim, I. A town. Josh. 18. 22. 

IL A hill, 2 Chr. 13. 4. 
ZEMARITES. 

Zemira, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 7. 8, 
Zenan, a city, Josh. 15. 37. Same as 

Zaanan. 
Zenas, a Christian, Ti. 3. 13. 
Zendavesta. See ZOROASTRIAN 

RELIGION. 
ZEPHANIAH, I. A prophet. Zeph- 

aniah, II. A priest, 2 Ki. 25. 18-21 ; 

Jer. 21. 1 ; 29. 25-29 ; 37. 3 ; 52. 24- 

27. IIL A Levite, 1 Chr. 6, 36. IV. 

A person, Zee. 6. 10, 14. 
Zephath, a Cauaauitish city, Judg. 

1.17. SeeHORMAH. 
Zephathah, a valley, 2 Chr, 14. 10. 

See Asa-mareshah. 
Zephi, Zepho, duke of Edom, Gen. 

36.11,15; lChr.L36. 
Zephoii, son of Gad, Nu. 26.15, Also 

called Ziphiou, Gen. 46. 16. 
Zephonites, descendants of Zephon, 

Nu. 26. 15. 
Zer, a city of Naphtali, Josh. 19. 35. 
ZERAH,L Aking. Zerah.ILAson 

of Judah, 1 Chr. 2. 6. See Zarah. 

III. A son of Simeon, Nu, 26. 13 ; 

1 Chr. 4. 24. Also called Zohar, 
Gen, 46. 10. IV. A Levite, 1 Chr. 
6. 21, 41. V. An Ethiopian king, 

2 Chr. 14.9-15. 

Zerahiah, L A priest, 1 Chr. 6. 6, 51 ; 

Ezra 7. 4. II. Father of Elihoenai, 

Ezra 8. 4. 
Zered, a stream east of the Dead 

Sea, De. 2. 18, 14, Also called Za- 

red, Nu, 21. 12. 
ZEREDA, 

Zeredathah, 2 Chr. 4. 17, See ZAR- 
THAN, 
Zererath, Judg, 7. 32, Same as ZAR- 
THAN, 
Zeresh, wife of Haman, Est. 5. 10, 14 ; 

6.13. 
Zereth, a descendant of Judah, 1 

Chr. 4. 7. 
Zeri, 1 Chr. 25. 3. Same as Izri. 
Zeror, a Benjamite, 1 Sa, 9. 1. 
Zeruah, mother of Jeroboam, 1 Ki, 

11. 26. 
ZERUBBABEL. 
ZERUIAH. 

Zetham, a Levite, 1 Chr. 23. 8 ; 26. 22. 
Zethan, a Benjamite chieftain, 1 

Chr. 7, 10. 
Zethar, chamberlain to Ahasuerus, 

Est, 1, 10. 
Zia, a Gadite, 1 Chr, 5, 13. 
Ziba, a servant of the house of Saul, 

2 Sa. 16, 1^. See MEPHIBO- 

SHETH II. 
Zibeou, son of Seir, Gen. 36. 2, 14, 

20, 24, 29 ; 1 Chr. 1. 38, 46. 
Zibia, a Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 9. 
Zibiah, mother of Joash, 2 Ki. 12. 1 ; 

2 Chr. 24. 1. 
Zichri, I. A Levite, incorrectly given 

as Zithri in Ex. 6. 21. IL, III., 

IV., V. Four Benjamites, 1 Chr. 

8. 19, 23, 27 ; Neh. 11. 9. VI., VIL 

Two Levites, 1 Chr. 9. 15 ; 26. 25. 

VIIL A Reubenite, 1 Chr. 27. 16. 

IX. Father of one of Jehosha- 

phat's captains, 2 Chr, 17. 16, X. 

Father of Elishaphat, 2 Chr. 23. 1. 

XL An Ephraimite, 2 Chr. 28. 7. 

XIL A priest, Neh. 12. 17. 
Ziddim, a city of Naphtali, Josh. 

19. 35. 
Zidkijah, one who sealed the cove- 
nant, Neh. 10. 6. 
Zidon. See SIDON. 
Zidonians, inhabitants of SIDON. 
Zif. See MONTH. 
Ziha, children of, Ezra 2. 43; Neh. 

7.46. 

THE END. 



ZIKLAG. 

Zillah, a wife of Lamech, Gen. 4. 19, 

22, 23. 
Zilpah,the handmaid of Leah, Gen. 

29. 24 ; 30. 9, 10, 12 ; 35. 26 ; 37. 2 ; 

46. 18. 
Zilthai, I. A Benjamite, 1 Chr. 8. 20. 

IL A Manassite captain, 1 Chr. 12. 

20. 
Zimmah, three Gershonite Levites, 

1 Chr. 6. 20, 42 ; 2 Chr. 29. 12. 
Zimran, eldest sou of Keturah, Gen. 

25. 2 ; 1 Chr. 1. 32. See ZIMRI. 
ZIMRI, I. A king of It^rael. 11. An 

unknown king. Zimri, IIL Sou 

of Salu, slain by Phinehas, Nu. 25. 

14. IV. One of the five sons of 

Zerah, 1 Chr. 2. 6. V. Son of Je- 

hoadah, 1 Chr, 8. 36 ; 9, 42, 
ZIN, wilderness of. 
Ziua, a Gershonite Levite, 1 Chr. 23. 

10. Prob. corrupted from Ziza, 
ZION (MOUNT). 
Zior, a city of Judah, Josh. 15. 54. 
ZIPH, I. two cities. Ziph, II. A de- 
scendant of Jutlah, 1 Chr. 4. 16. 
Ziphah, a descendant of Judah, 1 

Chr. 4. 16. 
Ziphims, inhabitants of Ziph, Ps. 54 

{title). 
Ziphiou, a son of Gad, Gen. 46. 16. 

Called Zephon in Nu. 26. 15. 
Ziphites, inhabitants of Ziph, 1 Sa. 

23.19; 26.1. 
Ziphron, a city in the north of Pal- 

Zippor, father of Balak, Nu. 22. 2, 4, 

10, 16 ; 23. 18 ; Josh. 24. 9 ; 11. 25. 
ZIPPORAH. 
Zithri, a Levite, Ex. 6. 22 ; in verse 

21 it should be Zichri. 
Ziz, a pass, 2 Chr. 20. 16. See JE- 

HOSHAPHAT, 
Ziza, I. A Simeonite, 1 Chr. 4. 37. IL 

Sou of Rehoboara, 2 Chr. 11. 20. 
Zizah, a Levite, 1 Chr, 23, 11. Called 

Zina in verse 10. 
ZOAN. 
ZOAR. 

ZOBA, ZOBAH. 

Zobebah,amanof Judah, 1 Chr, 4. 8. 
Zohar, I. Father of Ephrou the Hit- 

tite, Gen. 23. 8 ; 25. 9. II. Son of 

Simeon, Gen, 46, 10; Ex. 6. 15. 

Also called Zerah, Nu. 26. 13 ; 1 

Chr. 4. 24. 
Zoheleth, a stone byEn-rogel, 1 Ki. 

L9. 
Zoheth, a man of Judah, 1 Chr. 4. 20. 
Zophah, an Asherite, 1 Chr. 7. 35, 36. 
Zophai, a Levite, 1 Chr. 6. 26. Also 

called Zuph in verse 35. 
Zophar, a friend of Job, called the 

Naamathite, Job 2. 11 ; 11. 1 ; 20. 

1 ; 42. 9. 
ZOPHIM. 

ZORAH, ZOREAH. 
Zorathites, 1 Chr. 4. 2, a family of 

Judah, possibly inhabitants of 

ZORAH. 
Zoreah, Josh, 15. 33. See ZORAH, 
Zorites, 1 Chr. 2, 54, Prob. inhabit- 
ants of ZORAH, 
Zoroaster. See ZOROASTRIAN 

RELIGION. 
ZOROASTRIAN RELIGION, 
Zorobabel, Mat. 1, 12, 13 ; Lu, 3. 27. 

Same as ZERUBBABEL, 
Zuar, a man of Issachar, Nu, 1. 8 ; 2, 

5 ; 7. 18, 23 ; 10. 15. 
Zuph, I. Land of, 1 Sa. 9. 5. IL An 

ancestor of Samuel, 1 Sa. 1. 1 ; 1 

Chr. 6. 35. 
Zur, I. A Midianitish king or chief, 

slain by the Israelites, Nu. 25. 15; 

31. 8 ; Josh. 13. 21. IL A Benja- 
mite, 1 Chr. 8. 30 ; 9. 36. 
Zuriel, a Levite, Nu. 3. 35. 
Zurishaddai, father of Shelumiel 

prince of Simeon, Nu. 1. 6 ; 2. 12 ; 

7. 37, 41 ; 10. 19. 
ZUZIMS. 



VALUABLE & INTEEESTING WOKKS 

FOR PUBLIC AND PRIVATE LIBRARIES, 
Published by HAEPEE & BEOTHEES, New Yoek. 

t^Fora full List of Books suitable for Libraries, see Haepkb & BROTuirus' Tea he- 
List and Catalogue, which may be had grattiitously on application to the 
Publishers personallif, or by letter enclosing Six Cents in Postage Stamps. 

m- Habpeii & Bkotheks luill send any of the following works by mail, postaqe pre- 
paid, to any part of the United States, on receipt of the price. 

FLAMMARION'S ATMOSPHERE. The Atmosphere. Translated from the French 
of CAMn.i.E FLAMMAP.EON. Edited by Jamk/glaisueb. F.rS, SiSerintendent 
of the Maguetical and Meteorological Department of the Royal o£e7vatorv 
Green«'ich. With 10 Chromo-Lithographs and 86 Woodcuts. Svo; Clothf $6 00 

HUDSON'S HISTORY OF JOURNALISM. Journalism in the llmt^fl 9totP« fm,., 
1690 to 1872. By Fbedebiok Hudson. Crown 8vo, Clo?h, $1 00 ' 

^^^fn^h.^^^'^^^^^^'^^T^^^^^^S. Sub-Tropical Rambles in the Land of the 
Aphanapteryx. By Nicolas Pike, U. S. Consul, Port Louis MamttiS? Pro 
fusely Ilhistrated from the Author's own Sketches; contSg Xo Maos ^nd 
Valuable Meteorological Charts. Crown Svo, Cloth, $3 50?^ ^ ° 

'^^^^Pv^tS? OXFORD METHODISTS. The Oxford Methodists: Memoirs of the 
Rev. Messrs. Clayton, Ingham, Gambold, Hervey, and Brou.^hton with Biofn-mh 
ical Notices of others. By the Rev. L. Tvebman Authoi of « L^nd Times^of 
the Rev. John Wesley," &c. Crown 8vo, Cloth, $2 50. 

^^S'^^liKt^ht^^ ?l ^^^^;. ^T^« ?^^"^^ °f Travels and Discoveries on 
uie J^ast bule of the Dead Sea and the Jordan. By H.B. Tbisteam MA T T T) 
F R.S Master of the Greatham Hospital, and Hon. Canon of™ u^fifm'wth'^ 
Chap er on the Persian Palace of Mashita, by Jas. Feuguson, F RS With Man 
and Illustrations. Crown Svo, Cloth, $2 50. 'Gu«on, r.it.s. With Map 

SANTO DOMINGO, Past and Present; with a Glance at Hayti. By Samuel Ha7at,ti 
Maps and Illustrations. Crown Svo, Cloth, $3 50. ^ oamuel Mazaed. 

SMILES'S HUGUENOTS AFTER THE REVOCATION. The Huguenots in France 
after the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes: with a Visit to frConntTv of ?he 
Vaudois. By Sa-viuel Smiles, Author of " The Huguenots: their Tttlements 
-T??P^'Avf''i^^5'''^"'' in England and Ireland.'' ''Self-Help'" «'ChSter'' 
"Life of the Stepheusons," &c. Crown Svo, Cloth, $2 00. '-udiacier, 

HERVEY'S CHRISTIAN RHETORIC. A S^ystem of Christian Rhetoric for the 
tW of ^pf ?'^'' '^"^O^lier Speakers. By Geoeoe Wi^eeeb Hebye? M-A lu- 
thor of Rhetoric of Conversation," &c. Svo, Cloth, $3 50 ' ' 

Cook, recently deceased. Svo, Cloth, nearly 800 pa-es, $6 00 ' ^'*'''^^'^°' ^^^ 

PRIMEJS I GO A-FISHING. I Go a-Fishing. By W.^C. Peime. Crown Svo, Cloth. 

ANNUAL RECORD OF SCIENCE AND INDUSTRY FOR 1873 Edited bv Prof 
Spenoee F.Baied, of the Smithsonian Institution, with the AssStance of Fr^i 
Zfj J^'" «f Science. 12mo, over 800 pp., Cloth, $2 00 (Unfform wiSh the Z-" 
nual Record of Science and Industry for 1871 and 1872. 12mo, Cloth $2 00 ) 

tiated with Map, Plans, and numerous Woodcuts. Crown Svo. Cloth $3 50 

^■^nf^?!,^ ¥S^ AND DEATH OF JOHN OF BARNEVELD. Life' and Death 
of John of Barneveld, Advocate of Holland. With a View of the Prhna?v CantS 

l^ith'J'T'' The'Ris^o'f TS''"'^ ^rtX ^'^'T-;.' ^y J««- LoTHEoP^Mil^'fD.a 
1 J » 2 IJ}.^ -^^^^ °^ ^^^ Dutch Republic," "Historv of the TTnitPrl iVpfh^,- 
lands," &c. With Illustrations. In Two Volumes Svof Cloth $7 00 ^''^''" 



2 Harper 6n Brothers' Valuable and Interesting Works. 

POETS OF THE NINETEENTH CENTURY. The Poets of the Nineteenth Cen- 
tury. Selected and Edited by the Kev. Robert Aeis Willmott. With English 
and American Additions, arranged by Evekt A. Duyckinck, Editor of "Cyclo- 
paedia of American Literature." Comprising Selections from the Greatest Au- 
thors of the Age. Superbly Illustrated with 141 Engravings from Designs by 
the most Eminent Artists. In elegant small 4to form, printed on Superfine 
Tinted Paper, richly bound in extra Cloth, Beveled, Gilt Edges, $5 00 ; Half Calf, 
$5 50 ; Full Turkey Morocco, $9 00. 

THE REVISION OF THE ENGLISH VERSION OP THE NEW TESTAMENT. 
With an Introduction by the Rev. P. Sohaff, D.D. 618 pp., Crown 8vo, Cloth, 

This work embraces in one volume : 
I. ON A FRESH REVISION OF THE ENGLISH NEW TESTAMENT. 
By J. B. LiGHTFooT, D.D., Canon of St. Paul's, and Hulsean Professor of 
Divinity, Cambridge. Second Edition, Revised. 196 pp. 
11. ON THE AUTHORIZED VERSION OF THE NEW TESTAMENT in 
Connection with some Recent Proposals for its RevisioE. By Richakd 
Chenevix Tkench, D.D., Archbishop of Dublin. 194 pp. 
III. CONSIDERATIONS ON THE REVISION OF THE ENGLISH VERSION 
OF THE NEW TESTAMENT. By J. C. Ellicott, D.D., Bishop of Glou- 
cester and Bristol. 178 pp. 

NORDHOFF'S CALIFORNIA. California: For Health, Pleasure, and Residence 
A Book for Travelers and Settlers. Illustrated. 8vo, Paper, $2 00 ; Cloth, $2 50.' 

MOTLEY'S DUTCH REPUBLIC. The Rise of the Dutch Republic. By John Lo'- 
TUROP Motley, LL.D., D.C.L. With a Portrait of William of Orange. 3 vols., 
8vo, Cloth, $10 50. 

MOTLEY'S UNITED NETHERLAND'S, History of the United Netherlands: from 
the Death of William the Silent to the Twelve Years' Truce— 1609. With a full 
View of the English-Dutch Struggle against Spain, and of the Origin and De- 
struction of the Spanish Armada. By John Loturop Motley, LL.D., D.C.L. 
Portraits. 4 vols., Svo, Cloth, $14 00. 

NAPOLEON'S LIFE OF C^SAR. The History of Julius Csesar. By His late Im- 
perial Majesty Napoleon III. Two Volumes ready. Library Edition, Svo, Cloth, 
$3 50 per vol. 
Maps to Vols. 1. and II. sold separately. Price $1 50 each, net. 

HAYDN'S DICTIONARY OF DATES, relating to all Ages and Nations. ForUni- 
versal Reference. Edited by Benjamin Vincent, Assistant Secretary and Keeper 
of the Library of the Royal Institution of Great Britain ; and Revised for the Use 
of American Readers. Svo, Cloth, $5 00 ; Sheep, $6 00. 

MACGREGOR'S ROB ROY ON THE JORDAN. The Rob Boy on the Jordan, 
Nile, Red Sea, and Gennesareth, &c. A Canoe Cruise in Palestine and Egypt, 
and the Waters of Damascus. By J. Macgregor, M.A. With Maps and Illus- 
trations. Crown Svo, Cloth, $2 50. 

WALLACE'S MALAY ARCHIPELAGO. The Malay Archipelago : the Land of the 
Orang-Utan and the Bird of Paradise. A Narrative of Travel, 1854-1862. With 
Studies of Man and Nature. By Alfred Rubsel Wallace. With Ten Maps 
and Fifty-one Elegant Illustrations. Crown Svo, Cloth, $2 50. 

WHYMPER'S ALASKA. Travel and Adventure in the Territory of Alaska, for- 
merly Russian America — now Ceded to the United States — and in various other 
parts of the North Pacific. By Frederick Whymper. With Map and Illustra- 
tions. Crown Svo, Cloth, $2 50. 

ORTON'S ANDES AND THE AMAZON. The Andes and the Amazon ; or, Across 
the Continent of South America. By James Orton, M.A., Professor of Natural 
History in Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, N. Y., and Corresponding Member of 
the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. With a New Map of Equatorial 
America and numerous Illustrations. Crown Svo, Cloth, $2 00. 

WINCHELL'S SKETCHES OF CREATION. Sketches of Creation : a Popular 
View of some of the Grand Conclusions of the Sciences in reference to the His- 
tory of Matter and of Life. Together with a Statement of the Intimations of 
Science respecting the Primordial Condition and the Ultimate Destiny of the 
Earth and the Solar System. By Alexander Wtnouell, LL.D., Professor of 
Geology, Zoology, and Botany in the University of Michigan, and Director of the 
State Geological Survey. With Illustrations. 12mo, Cloth, $2 00. 

WHITE'S MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW. The Massacre of St. Bartholo- 
mew : Preceded by a History of the Religious Wars in the Reign of Charles IX. 
By Henry White, M.A. With Illustrations. Svo, Cloth, $1 75, 

RECLUS'S THE EARTH. The Earth : a Descriptive History of the Phenomena 
and Life of the Globe. By Slisi&e Reolus. Translated by the late B. B. Wood- 
ward, and Edited by Henry Woodward. With 234 Maps and Illustrations, and 
23 Page Maps printed iu Colors. Svo, Cloth, $5 00. 

RECLUS'S OCEAN. The Ocean, Atmosphere, and Life. Being the Second Series 
of a Descriptive History of the Life of the Globe. By IElis^k Rkclus. Pro- 
fusely Illustrated with 250 Maps or Figures, and 27 Maps printed in Colors. 
Svo, Cloth, $6 00. 



Harper 6^ Brothers' Valuable and Interesting Works. 3 

LOSSING'S "FIELD -BOOK OF THE REVOLUTION. Pictorial Field-Book of the 
Revolution; or, Illustrations, by Pen and Pencil, of the History, Biography, 
Scenery, Relics, and Traditions of the War for Independence. By Benson J. 
LoesiNG. 2 vols., Svo, Cloth, $14 00; Sheep, $15 00; Half Calf, $18 00; Full 
Turkey Morocco, $22 00. 

LOSSING'S FIELD-BOOK OF THE WAR OF 1812. Pictorial Field-Book of thf 
War of 1812; or. Illustrations, by Pen and Pencil, of the History, Biography, 
Scenery, Relics, and Traditions of the Last War for American Independence. By 
Benson J. Lossing. With several hundred Engravings on Wood, by Lossing and 
Barritt, chiefly from Original Sketches by the Author. 1088 pages, 8vo, Cloth, 
$7 00; Sheep, $8 50; Half Calf, $10 00. 

ALFORD'S GREEK TESTAMENT. The Greek Testament : with a critically revised 
Text ; a Digest of Various Readings ; Marginal References to Verbal and Idio- 
matic Usage ; Prolegomena ; and a Critical and Exegetical Commentary. For 
the Use of Theological Students and Ministers. By Henry Alfokd, D.D., Dean 
of Canterbury. Vol. I., containing the Four Gospels. 944 pages, Svo, Cloth, 
$6 00 ; Sheep, $6 50. 

ABBOTT'S FREDERICK THE GREAT. The History of Frederick the Second, 
called Frederick the Great. By John S. C. Abbott. Elegantly Illustrated. Svo, 
Cloth, $5 00. 

ABBOTT'S HISTORY OF THE FRENCH REVOLUTION. The Frencli Revolu. 
tion of 1789, as viewed in the Light of Republican Institutions. By John S. C. Ab- 
bott. With 100 Engravings. Svo, Cloth, $5 00. 

ABBOTT'S NAPOLEON BONAPARTE. The History of Napoleon Bonaparte. By 
John S. C. Abbott. With Maps, Woodcuts, and Portraits on Steel. 2 vols., 
Svo, Cloth, $10 00. 

ABBOTT'S NAPOLEON AT ST. HELENA ; or, Interesting Anecdotes and Remark- 
able Conversations of the Emperor during the Five and a Half Years of his 
Captivity. Collected from the Memorials of Las Casas, O'Meara, Montholon, 
Antommarchi, and others. By John S. C. Abbott. With Illustrations. Svo, 
Cloth, $5 00. 

ADDISON'S COMPLETE WORKS. The Works of Joseph Addison, embracing the 
whole of the "Spectator." Complete in 3 vols., Svo, Cloth, $6 00. 

ALCOCK'S JAPAN. The Capital of the Tycoon : a Narrative of a Three Years' 
Residence in Japan. By Sir Rutherford Aloock, K.C.B., Her Majesty's Envoy 
Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary in Japan. With Maps and Engravings. 
2 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $3 59. 

ALISON'S HISTORY OF EUROPE. First Series : From the Commencement of 
the French Revolution, in 1789, to the Restoration of the Bourbons, in J815. [In 
addition to the Notes on Chapter LXXVI., which correct the errors of the 
original work concerning the United States, a copious Analytical Index has beea 
appended to this American edition.] Second Series : From the Fall of Napoleon, 
in 1815, to the Accession of Louis Napoleon, in 1852. 8 vols., Svo, Cloth, $16 00. 

BALDWIN'S PRE-HISTORIC NATIONS. Pre-Historic Nations ; or. Inquiries con- 
cerning some of the Great Peoples and Civilizations of Antiquity, and their 
Probable Relation to a still Older Civilization of the Ethiopians or Cushites of 
Arabia. By John D. Baldwin, Member of the American Oriental Society. 
12mo, Cloth, $1 75. 

PARTH'S NORTH AND CENTRAL AFRICA. Travels and Discoveries in North 
and Central Africa: being a Journal of an Expedition undertaken under the 
Auspices of H. B. M.'s Government, in the Years 1849-1855, By Henry Bakth, 
Ph.D., D.O.L. Illustrated. 3 vols.,, Svo, Cloth, $12 00. 

HENRY WARD BEECHER'S SERMONS. Sermons by Henet Ward Beeohee, 
Plymouth Church, Brooklyn. Selected from Published and Unpublished Dis- 
courses, and Revised by their Author. With Steel Portrait. Complete in 2 vols., 
Svo, Cloth, $5 00. 

LYMAN BEECHER'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY, &o. ' Autobiography, Correspondence, 
&c., of Lyman Beecher, D.D. Edited by his Son, Charles Beeoher. With Three 
Steel Portraits, and Engravings on Wood. In 2 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $5 00. 

BOSWELL'S JOHNSON. The Life of Samuel Johnson. LL.D. Including a Journey 
to the Hebrides. By Jaaies Boswell, Esq. A New Edition, with numerous 
Additions and Notes. By John Wilson Crokee, LL.D., P.R.S. Portrait of 

Boswell. 2 vols., Svo, Cloth, $4 00. 

SARA COLERIDGE'S MEMOIR AND LETTERS. Memoir and Letters of Sara 
Coleridge. Edited by her Daughter. With Two Portraits on Steel. Crown Svo, 
Cloth, $2 50. 

SHAKSPEARE. The Dramatic Works of William Shakspeare, with the Corrections 
and Illustrations of Dr. Jounson G. Steevens, and others. Revised by Isaac 
Reed. Eugraviugs. 6 vols., Royal 12mo, Cloth, $9 00. 



4 Harper &» Brothers^ Valuable and Interesting Works, 

DRAPER'S CIVIL WAR. History of the American Civil War. By Joun W. Dba- 
PEK, M.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Physiology in the University of 
New York. In Three Vols. 8vo, Cloth, $3 50 per vol. 

DRAPER'S INTELLECTUAL DEVELOPMENT OF EUROPE. A History of the 
Intellectual Development of Europe. By Joun W. Draper, M.D., LL.D., Profess- 
or of Chemistry and Physiology in the University of New York. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00. 

DRAPER'S AMERICAN CIVIL POLICY. Thoughts on the Future Civil Policy of 
America. By John W. Draper, M.D., LL.D., Professor of Chemistry and Physiol- 
ogy in the University of New York. Crown 8vo, Cloth, $2 50. 

DU CHAILLU'S AFRICA. Explorations and Adventures in Equatorial Africa with 
Accounts of the Manners and Customs of the People, and of the Chase of the Go- 
rilla, the Crocodile, Leopard, Elephant, Hippopotamus, and other Animals. Bj 
Paul B. Du Chaillu. Numerous Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $6 00. 

BELLOWS'S OLD WORLD. The Old World in its New Face : Impressions of Eu- 
rope in 1867-1868. By Henry W. Bellows. 2 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $3 50. 

BROD HEAD'S HISTORY OF NEW YORK. History of the State of New Y'ork. 
By John Romeyn Brodhead. 1609-1691. 2 vols. 8vo, Cloth, $3 00 per vol. 

BROUGHAM'S AUTOBIOGRAPHY. Life and Times of Henry, Lord Brougham. 
Written by Himself. In Three Volumes. 12mo, Cloth, $2 00 per vol. 

BULWER'S PROSE WORKS. Miscellaneous Prose Works of Edward Bulwer. 
Lord Lytton. 2 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $3 50. 

BULWER'S HORACE. The Odes and Epodes of Horace. A Metrical Translation 
into English. With Introduction and Commentaries. By Lord Lytton. With 
Latin Text from the Editions of Orelli, Macleane, and Yonge. 12mo, Cloth, $1 75. 

BULWER'S KING ARTHUR. A Poem. By Earl Lytton. New Edition. 12mo, 
Cloth, $1 75. 

BURNS'S LIFE AND WORKS. The Life and Works of Robert Burns. Edited 
by Robert Chambers. 4 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $6 00. 

REINDEER, DOGS, AND SNOW-SHOES. A Journal of Siberian Travel and Ex- 
plorations made iu the Years 1865-67. By Richard J. Bush, late of the Russo- 
American Telegraph Expedition. Illustrated. Crown 8vo, Cloth, $3 00. 

CARLYLE'S FREDERICK THE GREAT. History of Priedrich II., called Frederick 
the Great. By Thomas Carlyle. Portraits, Maps, Plans, &c. 6 vols., 12rao, 
Cloth, $12 00. 

CIARLYLE'S FRENCH REVOLUTION. History of the French Revolution. Newly 
Revised by the Author, with Index, &c. 2 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $3 50. 

CARLYLE'S OLIVER CROMWELL. Letters and Speeches of Oliver CromwelL 
With Elucidations and Connecting Narrative. 2 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $3 50. 

CHALMERS'S POSTHUMOUS WORKS. The Posthumous Works of Dr. Chalmers. 
Edited by his Son-in-Law, Rev. William Hanna, LL.D. Complete in 9 vols., 
12mo, Cloth, $13 50. 

COLERIDGE'S COMPLETE WORKS. The Complete Works of Samuel Taylor 
Coleridge. With an Introductory Essay upon his Philosophical and Theological 
Opinions. Edited by Professor Suedd. Complete in Seven Vols. With a fine 
Portrait. Small 8vo, Cloth, $10 50. 

DOOLITTLE'S CHINA. Social Life of the Chinese : with some Account of their Re- 
ligious, Governmental, Educational, and Business Customs and Opinions. With 
special but not exclusive Reference to Fnhchau. By Rev. Jcstds Doolittle, 
Fourteen Years Member of the Fuhchau Mission of the American Board. Illus- 
trated with more than 150 characteristic Engravings on Wood. 2 vols., 12mo, 
Cloth, $5 00. 

GIBBON'S ROME. History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. By Ed- 
ward Gibbon. With Notes by Rev. H. H. Milman and M. Guizot. A new cheap 
Edition. To which is added a complete Index of the whole Work, and a Portrait 
of the Author. 6 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $9 00. 

HAZEN'S SCHOOL AND ARMY IN GERMANY AND FRANCE. The School 
and the Army in Germany and France, with a Diary of Siege Life at Versailles. 
By Brevet Mnjor-General W. B. Hazen, U.S.A., Colonel Sixth Infantry. Crown 
Svo, Cloth, $-2 50. 

TYERMAN'S WESLEY. The Life and Times of the Rev. John Wesley, M.A., 
Founder of the Methodists. By the Rev. Luke Tyerman, Author of "The Life 
of Rev. Samuel Wesley." Portraits. 3 vols.. Crown Svo, Cloth, $7 50. 

VAMBfiRY'S CENTRAL ASIA. Travels in Central Asia. Being the Account of a 
Journey from Teheran across the Turkoman Desert, on the Eastern Shore of the 
Caspian, to Khiva, Bokhara, and Samarcand, performed in the Year 1863. By 
Akminius VA.MitEKY, Member of the Hungarian Academy of Pesth, by whom he 
•was sent on this Scientific Mission. With Map and Woodcuts, Svo, Cloth, $4 60. 



Harper &> Brothers' Valuable and Interesting Works. 5 

THOMSON'S LAND AND THE BOOK. The Laud and the Book; or, Biblical 
Illustrations drawn from the Manners and Customs, the Scenes and the Scenery 
of the Holy Land. By W. M. Thomson, D.D., Twenty-five Years a Missionary 
of the A. B. C. F. M. in Syria and Palestine. With two elaborate Maps of Pales- 
tine, an accurate Plan of Jerusalem, and several hundred Engravings, represent!? 
the Scenery, Topography, and Productions of the Holy Land, and the Costumes', 
Manners, and Habits of the People. 2 large 12mo vols., Cloth, $5 00. 

DAVIS'S CAKTHAGE. Carthage and her Remains : being an Account of the Exc* 
vations and Researches on the Site of the Phcenician Metropolis in Africa and other 
adjacent Places. Conducted under the Auspices of Her Majesty's Government. 
Bv Dr. Davis, F.R.G.S. Profusely Illustrated with Maps, Woodcuts, Chromo- 
Lithographs, &c, 8vo, Cloth, $4 00. 

EDGE WORTH'S (Miss) NOVELS. With Engravings. 10 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $15 GO. 

GROTE'S HISTORY OF GREECE. 12 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $18 00. 

HELPS'S SPANISH CONQUEST. The Spanish Conquest in America, and its Rela- 
tion to the History of Slavery and to the Goverument of Colonies. By Aethue 
Helps. 4 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $6 00. 

HALE'S (Mes.) WOMAN'S RECORD. Woman's Record; or,'Biographical Sketches 
of all Distinguished Women, from the Creation to the Present Time. Arranged 
in Four Eras, with Selections from Female Writers of each Era. By Mrs. Saeah 
JosEniA Hale. Illustrated with more than 200 Portraits. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00. 

HALL'S ARCTIC RESEARCHES. Arctic Researches and Life among the Esqui 
maux: being the Narrative of an Expedition in Search of Sir John Franklin, in 
the Years ISOO, 1861, and 1862. By Charles Feancis Hall. With Maps and 100 
Illustrations. The Illustrations are from Original Drawings by Charles Parsons, 
Henry L. Stephens, Solomon Eytlnge, W. S. L. Jewett, and Granville Perkius, 
after Sketches by Captain Hall. 8vo, Cloth, $5 00. 

HALLAM'S CONSTITUTIONAL HISTORY OF ENGLAND, from the Accession of 
Henry VIL to the Death of George II. 8vo, Cloth, $2 00. 

HALLAM'S LITERATURE. Introduction to the Literature of Europe during the 
Fifteenth, Sixteenth, and Seventeenth Centuries. By Heney Hallam. 2 vols., 
8vo, Cloth, $4 00. 

HALLAM'S MIDDLE AGES. State of Europe during the Middle Ages. By Henry 
Hallam. 8vo, Cloth, $2 00. 

HILDRETH'S history OP THE UNITED STATES. Fiest Seeies : Pi'om the 
First Settlement of the Country to the Adoption of the Federal Constitution. 
Secomti Seeies : From the Adoption of the Federal Constitution to the End of 
the Sixteenth Congress. 6 vols., 8vo, Cloth, $18 00. 

HUME'S HISTORY OP ENGLAND. History of England, from the Invasion of Ju- 
lius Csesar to the Abdication of James II., 16S8. By David Hume. A new Edi- 
tion, with the Author's last Corrections and Improvements. To which is Prefix- 
ed a short Account of his Life, written by Himself. With a Portrait of the Au- 
thor. 6 vols., 12mo, Cloth, $9 00. 

JAY'S WORKS. Complete Works of Rev. William Jay : comprising his Sermons, 
Family Discourses, Morning and Evening Exercises for every Day in the Year, 
Family Prayers, &c. Author's enlarged Edition, revised. 3 vols., 8vo, Cloth, 
$6 00. 

JEFFERSON'S DOMESTIC LIFE. The Domestic Life of Thomas Jefferson : com- 
piled from Family Letters and Reminiscences by his Great-Granddaughter, 
Saeah N. Randolph. With Illustrations. Crown 8vo, Illuminated Cloth, Bev- 
eled Edges, $2 50. 

JOHNSON'S COMPLETE WORKS. The Works of Samuel Johnson, LL.D. With 
an Essay on his Life and Genius, by Akthtje Mxtrphy, Esq. Portrait of Johnson. 

2 vols., 8vo, Cloth, $4 00. 

KINGLAKE'S CRIMEAN WAR. The Invasion of the Crimea, and an Account of 
its Progress down to 'Cci Death of Lord Raglan. By Alexandee William King- 
lake. With Maps and Plans. Two Vols, ready. 12mo, Cloth, $2 00 per vol. 

EINGSLEY'S WEST INDIES. At Last: A Christmas in the West Indies. By 
Chaeles Kingbley. Illustrated. 12mo, Cloth, $1 50. 

SPEKE'S AFRICA. Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile. By Captain 
John Hanning Speke, Captain H.M. Indian Army, Fellow and Gold Medalist of 
the Royal Geographical Society, Hon. Corresponding Member and Gold Medalist 
of the French Geographical Society, &c. With Maps and Portraits and numerous 
Illustrations, chiefly from Drawings by Captain Grant. 8vo, Cloth, uniform with 
Livingstone, Barth, Burton, &c., $4 00. 

STRICKLAND'S (Miss) QUEENS OF SCOTLAND. Lives of the Quaens of Scot- 
land and English Princesses connected with the Regal Succession jf Great Brit- 
ain. By Agnes Striokland. 8 vols., 12flio, Cloth, $12 00. 



(5 Harper &> Brothers' Valuable and Interesting Works. 

KEUMMACHER'S DAVID, KING OF ISRAEL. David, the King of Israel: a Por- 
trait drawu from Bible History and the Book of Psalms. By Feedeeiok William 
Keummaoiiee, D.D., Author of "Elijah the Tishbite," &c. Translated under the 
express Sanction of the Author by the Rev. M. G. Easton, M.A. With a Letter 
from Dr. Krummacher to his American Readers, and a Portrait. 12mo, Cloth, 
$175. 

LAMB'S COMPLETE WORKS. The Works of Charles Lamb. Comprising his Let- 
ters, Poems, Essays of Elia, Essays upon Shakspeare, Hogarth, &c., and a Sketch 
of his Life, with the Pinal Memorials, by T. Noon Talfoued. Portrait. 2 vols.. 
12mo, Cloth, $3 00. 

LIVINGSTONE'S SOUTH AFRICA. Missionary Travels and Researches in South 
Africa; including a Sketch of Sixteen Years' Residence in the Interior of Africa, 
and a Journey from the Cape of Good Hope to Loando on the Wpst Coast ; thenc« 
across the Continent, down the River Zambesi, to the Eastern Ocean. By David 
Livingstone, LL.D., D.C.L. With Portrait, Maps by Arrowsmith, and numerous 
Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, $4 50. 

LIVINGSTONES' ZAMBESL Narrative of an Expedition to the Zambesi and its 
Tributaries, and of the Discovery of the Lakes Shirwa and Nyassa. 1858-1864. 
By David and Chaeles Livingstone. With Map and Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, 
$5 00. 

M'CLINTOCK & STRONG'S CYCLOPEDIA. Cyclopaedia of Biblical, Theological, 
and Ecclesiastical Literature. Prepared by the Rev. John M'Clintock, D.D., 
and James Strong, S.T.D. 5 vols, now ready. Royal 8vo. Price per vol.. Cloth, 
$5 00 ; Sheep, $6 00 ; Half Morocco, $8 00. 

MARCY'S ARMY LIFE ON THE BORDER. Thirty Years of Army Life on the 
Border. Comprising Descriptions of the Indian Nomads of the Plains ; Explo- 
rations of New Territory ; a Trip across the Rocky Mountains in the Winter ; 
Descriptions of the Habits of Different Animals found in the West, and the Meth- 
ods of Hunting them ; with Incidents in the Life of Different Frontier Men, &c., 
&c. By Brevet Brigadier-General R. B. Maecy, U.S.A., Author of " The Prairie 
Traveller," With numerous Illustrations. 8vo, Cloth, Beveled Edges, $3 00. 

MACAULAY'S HISTORY OF ENGLAND. The History of England from the Ac- 
cession of James II. By Thomas Babington Maoatjlay. With an Original Por- 
trait of the Author. 5 vols., 8vo, Cloth, $10 00 ; 12mo, Cloth, $7 50. 

MOSHEIM'S ECCLESIASTICAL HISTORY, Ancient and Modern ; in which the 
Rise, Progress, and Variation of Church Power are considered in their Connec- 
tion with the State of Learning and Philosophy, and the Political History of Eu- 
rope during that Period. Translated, with Notes, &c., by A. Maclatne, D.D. 
A new Edition, continued to 1826, by C. Coote, LL.D. 2 vols., 8vo, Cloth, $4 00. 

NEVIUS'S CHINA. China and the Chinese: a General Description of the Country 
and its Inhabitants; its Civilization and Form of Government; its Religious and 
Social Institutions ; its Intercourse with other Nations ; and its Present Condition 
and Prospects. By the Rev. John L. Nevius, Ten Years a Missionary in China. 
With a Map and Illustrations. 12mo, Cloth, $1 75. 

ITHE DESERT OF THE EXODUS. Journeys on Foot in the Wilderness of the 
Forty Years' Wanderings ; undertaken in connection with the Ordnance Survey 
of Sinai and the Palestine Exploration Fund. By E. H. Palmee, M.A., Lord 
Almoner's Professor of Arabic, and Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge. 
With Maps and numerous Illustrations from Photographs and Drawings taken 
ou the spot bv the Sinai Survey Expedition and G. F. Tyrwhitt Drake. Crown 
Svo, Cloth, SS'OO. 

OLIPHANT'S CHINA AND JAPAN. Narrative of the Earl of Elgin's Mission to 
China and Japan, in the Years 1857, '58, '59. By Latjeence Oliphant, Priyate 
Secretary to Lora Elgin. Illustrations. Svo, Cloth, $3 50. 

OLIPHANT'S (Mes.) LIFE OF EDWARD IRVING. The Life of Edward Irving, 
Minister of the National Scotch Church, London. Illustrated by his Journals and 
Correspondence. By Mrs. Oliphant. Portrait. Svo, Cloth, $3 50. 

feAWLINSON'S MANUAL OF ANCIENT HISTORY. A Manual of Ancient His- 
tory, from the Earliest Times to the Fall of the Western Empire. Comi)nsing 
the History of Chaldsea, Assyria, Media, Babylonia, Lydia, Phoenicia, Syria, Ju- 
il£ea, Egvpt, Carthage, Persia, Greece, Macedonia, Parthia, and Rome. By 
Geoegb Rawlinson, M.A., Camden Professor of Ancient History in the Univer- 
sity of Oxford. 12mo, Cloth, $2 50. 

/,'MILES'S LIFE OF THE STEPHENSONS. The Life of George Stephenson, and 
of his Son, Robert Stephenson ; comprising, also, a History of the Invention and 
Introduction of the Railway Locomotive. By Samuel Smiles, Author of "Self- 
Help," &c. With Steel Portraits and numerous Illustrations. Svo, Cloth, $3 00. 

f*lIILES'S HISTORY OF THE HUGUENOTS. The Huguenots: their Settlements, 
Churches, and Industries in England and Ireland. By Samuel Smiles. With aji 
Appendix relating to the Huguenots in America. Crown 8vo, Cloth, $2 00. 



6 









^7^^^'^w^ 



' -iV-*'' "!■ "" '' ■^^:i': <''^'i:f':W^i\: 



NriV/ V;wv 



®®^^:ile-^' 



i^&^Ik^^ 



^mu^^.'i^uu. 



'Vi^m 



vu^y 


















^XF:?W?W>^ 



'^tfM 



ivyyj/ 



mm. 



I^l^^l^^i^'i^^^fit^^ 






I'V^I**' 



:Vi ; .mV^ 



^^w. y/ 



J^.WW:W 



^r^iL^ll. 



^; 



'M^mW^^ 



^t«i 



^0^ >^^^!^ \^'^JMWf^ ' ^ ' ^'" ^ ' 



^^■&/ 




-'VW.aO'W'N 









